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La cultura del Reino Unido está influenciada por la historia de sus naciones combinadas ; su vida religiosa históricamente cristiana , su interacción con las culturas de Europa , las culturas individuales de Inglaterra , Gales y Escocia y el impacto del Imperio Británico . La cultura del Reino Unido también puede denominarse coloquialmente cultura británica. Aunque la cultura británica es una entidad distinta, las culturas individuales de Inglaterra , Escocia , Gales e Irlanda del Norte son diversas. Ha habido diversos grados de superposición y distinción entre estas cuatro culturas. [1]
La literatura británica es particularmente estimada. La novela moderna se desarrolló en Gran Bretaña, y dramaturgos, poetas y autores se encuentran entre sus figuras culturales más destacadas. [2] Gran Bretaña también ha hecho contribuciones notables a la música , el cine , el arte , la arquitectura y la televisión . El Reino Unido también es el hogar de la Iglesia de Inglaterra , la iglesia estatal e iglesia madre de la Comunión Anglicana , la tercera denominación cristiana más grande. Gran Bretaña contiene algunas de las universidades más antiguas del mundo, ha hecho muchas contribuciones a la filosofía , la ciencia , la tecnología y la medicina , y es el lugar de nacimiento de muchos científicos e inventos destacados . La Revolución Industrial comenzó en el Reino Unido y tuvo un profundo efecto en las condiciones socioeconómicas y culturales de todo el mundo.
La cultura británica ha sido influenciada por la migración histórica y moderna, las invasiones históricas de Gran Bretaña y el Imperio Británico. Como resultado del Imperio Británico, se puede observar una influencia británica significativa en el idioma, la ley, la cultura y las instituciones de sus antiguas colonias, la mayoría de las cuales son miembros de la Mancomunidad de Naciones . Un subconjunto de estos estados forman la anglosfera y se encuentran entre los aliados más cercanos de Gran Bretaña. [3] [4] Las colonias y dominios británicos influyeron a su vez en la cultura británica, particularmente en la cocina británica . [5]
El deporte es una parte importante de la cultura británica, y numerosos deportes se originaron en su forma moderna y organizada en el país, incluyendo el cricket , el fútbol , el boxeo , el tenis y el rugby . [6] El Reino Unido ha sido descrito como una "superpotencia cultural", [7] [8] y Londres ha sido descrita como una capital cultural mundial. [9] [10] Una encuesta de opinión global para la BBC vio al Reino Unido clasificado como la tercera nación más positivamente vista en el mundo (detrás de Alemania y Canadá) en 2013 y 2014. [11] [12]
A lo largo de su historia, la cultura de Gran Bretaña ha estado formada principalmente por las tradiciones nativas de Inglaterra, Escocia y Gales. En cuanto a las influencias culturales, antes de la expansión del Imperio Británico , la isla había recibido la influencia más notable de la cultura francesa (a través de los normandos ), la cultura escandinava (a través de los vikingos ) y la cultura italiana (a través de los romanos ).
La llegada de tribus celtas y germánicas influyó en el desarrollo temprano de Gran Bretaña. [13] [14] Los pueblos celtas introdujeron lenguas, tradiciones y estructuras sociales únicas. Posteriormente, las migraciones de tribus germánicas, como los anglosajones , influyeron aún más en el paisaje cultural de Gran Bretaña. La antigua ocupación romana de Gran Bretaña , que duró casi 400 años, también impactó en la identidad lingüística y cultural de Gran Bretaña. [15]
Tras la expansión del Imperio Británico, Inglaterra, Escocia y Gales absorbieron a diferentes pueblos de todo el mundo y, después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Gran Bretaña desarrolló un paisaje cultural más diverso a través de mayores niveles de inmigración. Además, tras la caída del Muro de Berlín en 1989 y la ampliación de la UE en 2004 y 2007, el Reino Unido experimentó un aumento significativo de la inmigración procedente de Europa del Este . Hoy en día, el Reino Unido tiene una población inmigrante considerable y abarca las culturas de los británicos de diversos orígenes, siendo los de ascendencia del sur de Asia , Europa continental , África y el Caribe los más frecuentes. [16]
El inglés, que se habló por primera vez en la Inglaterra medieval temprana , es el idioma oficial de facto del Reino Unido y se estima que lo habla de forma monolingüe el 95 % de la población británica . [17] [a] El gobierno británico reconoce otros siete idiomas en virtud de la Carta Europea de Lenguas Regionales o Minoritarias : galés , gaélico escocés , escocés , córnico , irlandés , escocés del Ulster y lengua de signos británica .
En Gales, todos los alumnos de las escuelas estatales deben recibir enseñanza en galés o estudiarlo como lengua adicional hasta los 16 años, y la Ley de la lengua galesa de 1993 y la Ley del Gobierno de Gales de 1998 establecen que los idiomas galés e inglés deben recibir el mismo trato en el sector público, en la medida en que sea razonable y factible. El irlandés y el escocés del Ulster disfrutan de un uso limitado junto con el inglés en Irlanda del Norte, principalmente en traducciones encargadas públicamente. La Ley de la lengua gaélica (Escocia) , aprobada por el Parlamento escocés en 2005, reconoció al gaélico como lengua oficial de Escocia y exigió la creación de un plan nacional para el gaélico que proporcionara una dirección estratégica para el desarrollo de la lengua gaélica. [b] El idioma córnico es un idioma revivido que se extinguió como primera lengua en Cornualles a finales del siglo XVIII.
Los dialectos y acentos regionales varían mucho entre los cuatro países del Reino Unido , así como dentro de los propios países. Esto es en parte el resultado de la larga historia de inmigración al Reino Unido, por ejemplo, los dialectos del inglés del norte contienen muchas palabras con raíces nórdicas antiguas. [18] El inglés escocés , el inglés galés y el hiberno-irlandés son variedades de inglés distintas tanto del inglés como de las lenguas nativas de esos países. La pronunciación recibida es el acento inglés estándar en Inglaterra y Gales, mientras que en Escocia el inglés estándar escocés es un dialecto distinto. Aunque estos acentos tienen un alto prestigio social , desde la década de 1960 se ha afianzado en la educación una mayor permisividad hacia las variedades regionales del inglés. [19]
A menudo se observa la gran variedad de acentos británicos, y las regiones cercanas a menudo tienen dialectos y acentos muy distintos; por ejemplo, hay grandes diferencias entre Scouse y Mancunian a pesar de que Liverpool y Manchester están a solo 35 millas (56 km) de distancia. [20] [21] El inglés dialectal se encuentra a menudo en la literatura, por ejemplo, la novela Cumbres borrascosas de Emily Brontë contiene dialecto de Yorkshire. [22]
El Reino Unido heredó las tradiciones literarias de Inglaterra, Escocia y Gales, entre las que se incluyen la literatura artúrica y sus orígenes galeses, la literatura inglesa antigua con influencia nórdica , las obras de los autores ingleses Geoffrey Chaucer y William Shakespeare , y obras escocesas como The Brus de John Barbour . [23]
El período de principios del siglo XVIII de la literatura británica se conoce como la Era Augusta e incluyó el desarrollo de la novela. Robinson Crusoe [25] (1719) y Moll Flanders (1722) [26] [27] de Daniel Defoe a menudo se consideran las primeras novelas inglesas. Junto a estas obras, la poesía también floreció, con ejemplos notables como The Rape of the Lock (1712) de Alexander Pope , un poema heroico burlón que satirizaba las costumbres sociales de la época. [28] Sin embargo, el desarrollo de la novela tuvo lugar en un contexto literario más amplio que incluyó el surgimiento de las sátiras en prosa, que alcanzaron un punto culminante con Los viajes de Gulliver (1729) del escritor angloirlandés Jonathan Swift , [29] y obras extranjeras anteriores como el español Don Quijote . [30] Otras novelas de Jonathan Swift incluyen A Tale of a Tub (1704), An Argument Against Abolishing Christianity (1712) y A Modest Proposal (1729). [29] Con la publicación de estos libros, ganó fama literaria y formó amistades de por vida con Alexander Pope, John Gay y John Arbuthnot , quien, con Swift, creó el Martinus Scriblerus Club en 1713. Otras novelas realizadas en este momento son: Tom Jones (1749), de Henry Fielding ; Pamela, o la virtud recompensada (1740), de Samuel Richardson ; Laurence Sterne - La vida y opiniones de Tristram Shandy, caballero (1759-1767). Pamela o la virtud recompensada, es aclamada como una de las primeras novelas verdaderas en la literatura inglesa. La vida y opiniones de Tristram Shandy, caballero es una novela experimental.
También vinculado al período augusteo está el A Dictionary of the English Language de Samuel Johnson . Publicado en 1755, fue considerado como el diccionario británico preeminente hasta la finalización del Oxford English Dictionary 150 años después. Cada palabra definida en detalle, con descripciones de sus diversos usos y numerosas citas literarias como ilustraciones. Este fue el primer diccionario de su tipo, que contiene 40.000 palabras y casi 114.000 citas empaquetadas con el toque personal de Johnson. [31] [32] Es uno de los diccionarios más influyentes , o entre los más autorizados, en la historia de la lengua inglesa y se considera un logro monumental en lexicografía . Un grupo de libreros de Londres contrató a Johnson para que escribiera un diccionario por la suma de 1.500 guineas (1.575 libras esterlinas), equivalente a unas 310.000 libras esterlinas en 2024. [33] Johnson tardó siete años en completar la obra, aunque había afirmado que podría terminarla en tres. El Diccionario de Johnson tuvo una cálida recepción, ya que fue el primer diccionario que se podía leer con placer. Las definiciones llenas de ingenio y profundidad de pensamiento respaldadas por pasajes de poetas y filósofos amados, significaban que un lector podía contentarse con pasar una tarde estudiando sus páginas. La elección de estructura y formato de Johnson sin duda ha dado forma a los futuros diccionarios y léxicos ingleses y al papel que desempeñan en el desarrollo del lenguaje.
Richard Steele , otro autor famoso conocido por sus comedias y panfletos durante el Período Augusto, comenzó su carrera literaria con The Christian Hero (1701), un panfleto moral que fue criticado debido a su estilo de vida personal, seguido por la exitosa comedia The Funeral más tarde ese año. En 1703, escribió The Lying Lover , una comedia sentimental temprana que fracasó en el escenario. En 1705, colaboró con Joseph Addison en The Tender Husband y contribuyó con el prólogo de The Mistake de John Vanbrugh . El mayor avance de Steele llegó en 1709 con la creación de The Tatler , una publicación periódica trisemanal en la que escribió la mayoría de los ensayos bajo el seudónimo de Isaac Bickerstaff , con el objetivo de exponer los vicios sociales y promover la simplicidad. A pesar de su éxito, The Tatler fue cerrado en 1711 debido a la presión política, lo que llevó a Steele y Addison a cofundar The Spectator en 1711 y The Guardian en 1713, consolidando el papel de Steele como una figura destacada en el periodismo británico temprano. [34]
El período romántico estuvo marcado por un renacimiento de la poesía y un enfoque en la emoción, la naturaleza y el individualismo, en respuesta al creciente racionalismo de la Ilustración. Esta era dio lugar a muchas obras literarias que exploraron la tensión entre la razón y la imaginación. Las Baladas líricas de William Wordsworth y Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1798) [35] se consideran una colección histórica, que enfatiza la belleza de la naturaleza y la primacía de la emoción, y marca el inicio oficial del Movimiento Romántico . Frankenstein de Mary Shelley (1818), una de las primeras novelas de ciencia ficción, profundiza en temas de creación, responsabilidad y las consecuencias de la ambición científica desenfrenada, enmarcadas dentro de las convenciones góticas. Orgullo y prejuicio de Jane Austen (1813) ofreció una brillante sátira social, criticando las estructuras de clase y los rituales de cortejo de la Inglaterra de la Regencia , y sigue siendo una de las novelas más queridas de la literatura británica . Don Juan (1819-1824) de Lord Byron es un poema épico satírico que detalla las aventuras del legendario amante, mostrando el ingenio, la ironía y la irreverencia de Byron hacia las normas sociales.
La novela Waverley (1814) de Sir Walter Scott , considerada ampliamente la primera novela histórica, recrea vívidamente la rebelión jacobita de 1745, consolidando el lugar de Scott como una figura importante en la literatura británica. Las Canciones de inocencia y de experiencia (1794) de William Blake combinan arte y poesía para explorar temas de inocencia, experiencia y corrupción social, brindando una visión única del espíritu romántico. Prometeo liberado (1820) de Percy Bysshe Shelley, un drama lírico, explora temas de rebelión, tiranía y libertad humana, y se considera una de sus obras más radicales e imaginativas. Robert Burns , el famoso poeta escocés, reavivó el interés en la literatura escocesa con obras como Auld Lang Syne , que celebraba la tradición vernácula. Por último, Vindicación de los derechos de la mujer (1792) de Mary Wollstonecraft se erige como una de las primeras y más influyentes obras de la filosofía feminista, abogando por la educación de las mujeres y la igualdad de derechos en una sociedad dominada por los hombres.
Aunque se asocia principalmente con la era victoriana , Alicia en el país de las maravillas (1865) de Lewis Carroll surgió de la última parte de esta tradición romántica más amplia, mezclando fantasía imaginativa con juegos de palabras lúdicos. Esta novela caprichosa sigue el viaje de la joven Alicia a través de un mundo onírico poblado por personajes peculiares, explorando temas de lógica, absurdo e identidad. Alicia en el país de las maravillas sigue siendo una obra pionera de sinsentidos literarios, cautivando a los lectores con su narrativa inventiva y su exploración surrealista de los límites entre la realidad y la imaginación.
La era georgiana tardía y la era victoriana vieron un renovado enfoque en la novela. Un tema clave de estas novelas fue el comentario social. Al principio del período, Jane Austen satirizó el estilo de vida de la alta burguesía y la nobleza, mientras que las novelas posteriores de Charles Dickens a menudo usaban el humor y las observaciones agudas para criticar la pobreza y la estratificación social. Una de sus novelas, Oliver Twist describe la época victoriana y las sórdidas vidas de los criminales y expone el trato cruel de los numerosos huérfanos en Londres . Otra novela de Charles Dickens, Grandes esperanzas (1861), es una novela de formación que sigue la vida de Pip , un huérfano que navega por la ambición, el amor y el crecimiento personal mientras critica la movilidad social y las divisiones de clase. Jane Eyre (1847) de Charlotte Brontë combina el romance gótico con el comentario social, centrándose en la búsqueda de independencia de una mujer joven contra las rígidas estructuras de la sociedad victoriana . Las tres hermanas Brontë y George Eliot comentaron sobre el norte de Inglaterra y las Midlands respectivamente, aunque las cuatro mujeres escribieron bajo seudónimos masculinos durante su vida, en parte para desviar las críticas antifeministas. Sin embargo, las autoras abiertamente femeninas lograron un éxito considerable en el período, como los poemas predominantemente religiosos de Elizabeth Barrett Browning y Christina Rossetti . Middlemarch (1871-1872) de George Eliot , a menudo considerada como una de las mejores novelas inglesas, explora temas de política, matrimonio y ambición en el escenario de una ciudad inglesa de provincia.
En Norte y Sur (1854-1855), Elizabeth Gaskell contrasta el norte industrial con el sur agrícola, y aborda cuestiones como el conflicto de clases, la industrialización y los roles de género. Tess de los d'Urberville (1891), de Thomas Hardy , ofrece una crítica trágica del trato que la sociedad victoriana daba a las mujeres, la sexualidad y la clase, mientras que El retrato de Dorian Gray (1890), de Oscar Wilde, examina temas de esteticismo, moralidad y vanidad en una narrativa gótica en la que el retrato del protagonista envejece a medida que su alma se corrompe. En El extraño caso del Dr. Jekyll y Mr. Hyde (1886), de Robert Louis Stevenson , la novela corta se adentra en temas de dualidad, identidad y moralidad a través de la doble personalidad de su protagonista. Las aventuras de Sherlock Holmes (1892) de Arthur Conan Doyle , un conjunto de relatos cortos que popularizaron el género policiaco e introdujeron a uno de los personajes más emblemáticos de la literatura: Sherlock Holmes.
La literatura de Rudyard Kipling ejemplifica la influencia del Imperio Británico en la literatura británica a través de sus obras que a menudo reflejan el espíritu del imperialismo y el colonialismo . Sus novelas El libro de la selva , que se considera una pieza clásica de la literatura, y El hombre que pudo ser rey están ambientadas en la India británica y muestran el impacto cultural y político del dominio británico en la región. Su poema If— captura de manera famosa el concepto de "labio superior rígido", un ideal británico de estoicismo y autodisciplina. Además, La carga del hombre blanco transmite una perspectiva supremacista blanca e imperialista, alentando la dominación colonial de pueblos no europeos bajo el disfraz de una misión civilizadora. Las obras de Kipling, aunque celebradas por sus cualidades literarias, siguen siendo controvertidas por sus temas imperialistas.
La Primera Guerra Mundial dio origen a poetas y escritores de guerra británicos como Wilfred Owen , Siegfried Sassoon y Rupert Brooke , quienes escribieron (a menudo paradójicamente ) sobre sus expectativas de guerra y sus experiencias en las trincheras . Inicialmente idealista y patriótico en tono, a medida que avanzaba la guerra, el tono del movimiento se volvió cada vez más sombrío y pacifista. [37] El comienzo del siglo XX también vio el Renacimiento celta estimular una nueva apreciación de la literatura tradicional irlandesa , mientras que el Renacimiento escocés trajo el modernismo a la literatura escocesa , así como un interés en nuevas formas en las literaturas del gaélico escocés y el escocés. La novela inglesa se desarrolló en el siglo XX en una variedad mucho mayor y sigue siendo hoy la forma literaria inglesa dominante.
La escena literaria británica contemporánea está marcada por premios como el Booker Prize , creado en 1969, y festivales como el Welsh Hay Festival , celebrado desde 1988. El destacado estatus de la literatura infantil en el Reino Unido quedó demostrado en la ceremonia inaugural de los Juegos Olímpicos de Londres 2012 , que contenía una secuencia dedicada a personajes literarios infantiles destacados. [38] En 2003 la BBC llevó a cabo una encuesta británica titulada The Big Read con el fin de encontrar la «novela más querida de la nación», con obras de los novelistas ingleses J. R. R. Tolkien , Jane Austen , Philip Pullman , Douglas Adams y J. K. Rowling conformando los cinco primeros puestos de la lista. [39] Más del 75% del público británico lee al menos un libro al año. [40] El Reino Unido también se encuentra entre los mayores editores de libros. En 2017 [update], seis empresas del Reino Unido se encuentran entre las editoriales de libros más grandes del mundo en términos de ingresos: Bloomsbury , Cambridge University Press , Informa , Oxford University Press , Pearson y RELX Group . [41]
Desde su formación en 1707, el Reino Unido ha tenido una vibrante tradición teatral, gran parte de ella heredada de Inglaterra, Escocia y Gales. La Unión de las Coronas coincidió con el declive de la comedia intelectual y provocadora de la Restauración en favor de la comedia sentimental , la tragedia doméstica como El mercader de Londres (1731) de George Lillo, y con un interés abrumador en la ópera italiana. El entretenimiento popular se volvió más importante en este período que nunca antes, con el burlesque de feria y las formas mixtas que son los antepasados del music hall inglés . Estas formas florecieron a expensas de otras formas de drama inglés, que entraron en un largo período de decadencia. En Escocia ocurrió lo contrario, con el surgimiento de obras específicamente escocesas, incluyendo Douglas de John Home y las obras de Walter Scott , que incluían obras originales, así como adaptaciones de sus novelas de Waverley . A fines del siglo XIX, el teatro inglés resurgió con la llegada de los irlandeses George Bernard Shaw y Oscar Wilde , quienes influyeron en el drama doméstico inglés y lo revitalizaron. Sus contemporáneos Gilbert y Sullivan tuvieron un impacto similar en el teatro musical con sus óperas cómicas . El Shakespeare Memorial Theatre se inauguró en Stratford upon Avon, el lugar de nacimiento de Shakespeare , en 1879, y Herbert Beerbohm Tree fundó una Academia de Arte Dramático en el Teatro de Su Majestad en 1904. [42]
El comienzo del siglo XX estuvo dominado por obras de salón producidas por artistas como Noël Coward , que luego fueron desafiadas por el realismo de la cocina y el drama absurdista influenciado por el irlandés Samuel Beckett en los años 1950 y 1960. Por el contrario, en 1952 se vio el estreno de La ratonera de Agatha Christie , un misterio de asesinato de salón que ha tenido más de 25.000 representaciones y es el espectáculo de más larga duración del West End . [43] Al mismo tiempo, el teatro de artes escénicas Sadler's Wells , bajo la dirección de Lilian Baylis , nutrió el talento que condujo al desarrollo de una compañía de ópera, que se convirtió en la English National Opera (ENO); una compañía de teatro, que evolucionó hasta convertirse en el National Theatre; y una compañía de ballet, que finalmente se convirtió en el English Royal Ballet . Por otra parte, la Royal Shakespeare Company se fundó en 1959 en Stratford-upon-Avon , y continúa representando principalmente obras de Shakespeare.
El teatro británico contemporáneo se centra en el West End , el principal distrito teatral de Londres. El Theatre Royal, en Drury Lane, en la ciudad de Westminster , data de 1663, lo que lo convierte en el teatro más antiguo de Londres; sin embargo, el Theatre Royal en el Bristol Old Vic es el teatro más antiguo en funcionamiento continuo en el mundo de habla inglesa, inaugurado en 1768. [44] Los musicales de Andrew Lloyd Webber han dominado el West End desde finales del siglo XX, lo que lo llevó a ser apodado "el compositor de mayor éxito comercial de la historia". [45] En 2006 se creó un Teatro Nacional de Escocia .
La música barroca británica estuvo muy influida por las modas continentales. Un ejemplo de ello es George Frideric Handel , un ciudadano británico naturalizado nacido en Alemania cuya música coral marcó el gusto británico durante los dos siglos siguientes. Sus óperas también ayudaron a Gran Bretaña a desafiar a Italia como centro de producción operística. La música clásica atrajo mucha atención a partir de 1784 con la formación del Festival Trienal de Música de Birmingham , que fue el festival de música clásica de mayor duración de su tipo hasta los conciertos finales en 1912. Más allá de esto, el establecimiento de la Sociedad Filarmónica de Londres en 1813, la Real Academia de Música en 1822 y la Academia Irlandesa de Música en 1848 ayudaron a la profesionalización de la música clásica británica y al mecenazgo de compositores.
La Sociedad Filarmónica fue un firme defensor del alemán Felix Mendelssohn , un compositor romántico temprano que también influyó fuertemente en la música británica. En Irlanda, John Field inventó el nocturno y puede haber sido una influencia para Chopin y Liszt. Un desarrollo notable de mediados a fines del siglo XIX fue el resurgimiento de la ópera en idioma inglés y el establecimiento de varias orquestas prominentes, incluida la Royal Liverpool Philharmonic en 1840, Hallé con sede en Manchester en 1858, la Scottish Orchestra en 1891 y la City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra en 1920. La tendencia más notable en la música clásica a principios del siglo fue la tendencia nacionalista que se desarrolló. Esto se vio inicialmente en obras como The Masque at Kenilworth , que reconstruyó una mascarada isabelina, pero luego tomó un giro pastoral bajo la influencia del resurgimiento del folk británico . Ejemplos de este período son English Folk Song Suite de Ralph Vaughan Williams y Scottish Rhapsodies de Sir Alexander Mackenzie .
La música clásica moderna y contemporánea adopta diversas formas. Compositores como Benjamin Britten desarrollaron estilos idiosincrásicos y vanguardistas, mientras que compositores como William Walton produjeron música ceremonial y patriótica más convencional. El Reino Unido cuenta ahora con varias orquestas importantes, entre ellas la Orquesta Sinfónica de la BBC y la Filarmónica , mientras que la creación de la Ópera del Norte en 1977 pretendió restablecer el equilibrio de las instituciones operísticas alejadas de Londres. Hay varios festivales clásicos, como el de Aldeburgh y el de Glydebourne , mientras que los Proms de la BBC son un evento anual importante en el calendario clásico.
La música comercial popular en Gran Bretaña se remonta al menos hasta la balada del siglo XVII , y también abarca la música de bandas de metales y el music hall . La música popular en el sentido moderno comenzó a surgir en la década de 1950, cuando los estilos estadounidenses de jazz y rock and roll se hicieron populares. El resurgimiento del skiffle fue un intento temprano de crear una forma británica de música estadounidense, pero fue el surgimiento del rock and roll británico a principios de la década de 1960 lo que estableció una industria de música popular británica viable. Géneros como el beat y el blues británico fueron reexportados a Estados Unidos por bandas como los Beatles y los Rolling Stones , en un movimiento que llegó a llamarse la Invasión Británica . La década de 1960 vio el desarrollo del heavy metal en Birmingham y el área más amplia. El desarrollo del blues rock ayudó a diferenciar la música rock y pop, lo que llevó al surgimiento de varios subgéneros del rock en la década de 1970. El glam rock era un género particularmente británico que enfatizaba los trajes extravagantes, mientras que el final de la década vio el auge de las bandas de punk , new wave y post-punk . La influencia de la inmigración también se pudo ver en la creciente prominencia de la música del mundo , en particular la música jamaiquina .
La década de 1980 fue una década exitosa para el pop británico, ya que se presenció una segunda invasión británica y la nueva tecnología permitió la formación de géneros como el synth pop . El jazz vio un resurgimiento cuando los músicos británicos negros crearon nuevas fusiones como el acid jazz . El indie rock fue una reacción a la saturación percibida de la industria musical por el pop, ejemplificada por el dominio de Stock Aitken Waterman en las listas de éxitos. Esto continuó en la década de 1990, cuando las bandas de chicos , los grupos exclusivamente femeninos y mixtos dominaron las listas de sencillos, mientras que la escena de Madchester ayudó a impulsar el rock alternativo y el britpop al mainstream. El soul británico vio un auge que continuó en la década de 2000, incluido el éxito mundial de Adele . La música dance también vio innovación, con el surgimiento de géneros como el dubstep y el new rave .
A diferencia de los géneros clásicos y pop comparativamente homogéneos, cada nación del Reino Unido ha conservado una tradición distinta de música folclórica. La música folclórica tradicional de Inglaterra ha contribuido a varios géneros, como las canciones marineras , las jigas , las hornpipes y la música de baile . Tiene sus propias variaciones distintivas y peculiaridades regionales, mientras que el baile Morris musical es una danza folclórica inglesa que se sabe que existió al menos desde mediados del siglo XV. [47]
Las gaitas han sido durante mucho tiempo un símbolo nacional de Escocia, y la Great Highland Bagpipe es ampliamente reconocida. Las baladas populares inglesas y escocesas son baladas de las Islas Británicas desde el período medieval tardío hasta el siglo XIX, que muestran una gran variedad regional, en particular tradiciones locales como las baladas fronterizas , que incluyen la particularmente influyente Ballad of Chevy Chase . Los grupos folclóricos británicos, como Fairport Convention , se han inspirado en gran medida en estas baladas.
De manera similar, mientras que el himno nacional " God Save the King " y otras canciones patrióticas como " Rule, Britannia! " representan al Reino Unido, cada uno de los cuatro países individuales del Reino Unido tiene sus propios himnos patrióticos. Por ejemplo, Jerusalem , Flower of Scotland , Land of My Fathers y Danny Boy pertenecen exclusivamente a Inglaterra, Escocia, Gales e Irlanda del Norte respectivamente. Estas canciones se usan a menudo en eventos deportivos donde cada nación compite individualmente.
Gran Bretaña ha tenido una importante industria cinematográfica durante más de un siglo. Si bien muchas películas se centran en la cultura británica, el cine británico también se caracteriza por su interacción y competencia con el cine estadounidense y de Europa continental .
El Reino Unido fue el lugar de la película en movimiento más antigua que se conserva, Roundhay Garden Scene (1888), que fue filmada en Roundhay , Leeds por el inventor francés Louis Le Prince , mientras que la primera película británica, Incident at Clovelly Cottage, se filmó en 1895. [48] La primera película en color del mundo fue filmada por Edward Raymond Turner en 1902. [49] La producción cinematográfica británica sufrió en la década de 1920 ante la competencia de las importaciones estadounidenses y un requisito legal para que los cines mostraran una cuota establecida de películas británicas, lo que alentó producciones de baja calidad y bajo costo para satisfacer esta demanda. Esto había cambiado en la década de 1940, cuando el gobierno alentó que se hicieran menos películas de mayor calidad . Esta era también vio el ascenso de Alfred Hitchcock , quien pronto se mudó a los EE. UU. y se convirtió en uno de los directores más influyentes del siglo XX. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , la Crown Film Unit estableció una reputación por los documentales, mientras que Powell y Pressburger comenzaron su influyente e innovadora colaboración.
El período de posguerra fue un punto culminante particular para el cine británico, produciendo El tercer hombre y Breve encuentro , que el British Film Institute considera la mejor y la segunda mejor película británica respectivamente. Hamlet de Laurence Olivier de 1948 fue la primera película británica en ganar el Premio de la Academia a la Mejor Película . La década de 1950 se centró en temas nacionales populares como comedias, incluida la perdurable serie Carry On , y epopeyas de la Segunda Guerra Mundial como The Dam Busters . A finales de la década, Hammer Films aprovechó las leyes de censura relajadas para comenzar su serie de exitosas películas de terror. A principios de la década de 1960, se desarrolló el estilo de la Nueva Ola británica , influenciado por su contraparte francesa, que buscaba representar un estrato más amplio de la sociedad de una manera realista. La década de 1960 también vio un renovado interés financiero estadounidense en el cine británico, que se manifestó particularmente en el desarrollo de epopeyas históricas , como las ganadoras de la Mejor Película Lawrence de Arabia y Un hombre para la eternidad ; thrillers de espías , incluidas las primeras películas de la franquicia de James Bond ; y películas basadas en la escena del swing londinense .
En la década de 1970, el apoyo estadounidense se retiró y el cine británico se redujo, aunque se produjeron producciones de importancia cultural como la película de terror The Wicker Man y las comedias de Monty Python . La década también vio la influencia de la Commonwealth en el cine británico, ya que Pressure y A Private Enterprise se consideran las primeras películas británicas negras y asiáticas , respectivamente. Carros de fuego, de 1981 , y Gandhi , de 1982 , ganaron el Oscar a la mejor película; esta última ganó ocho premios, lo que provocó un resurgimiento de las películas de época. En 1982 también se creó Channel 4 , que tenía el cometido de promover películas para audiencias minoritarias. Se produjeron películas con temas raciales y LGBT, mientras que la participación de Channel 4 vio a estrellas de televisión pasarse al cine.
La inversión estadounidense volvió a aumentar en la década de 1990, y el éxito de Cuatro bodas y un funeral hizo que las comedias románticas aumentaran en popularidad. Merchant Ivory Productions , impulsada por el éxito de los Oscar de las películas de época de la década anterior, continuó produciendo películas en la misma línea. Los estudios estadounidenses también comenzaron a basar la producción de películas de Hollywood en el Reino Unido, alentados por incentivos fiscales. Trainspotting de 1996 generó un mayor interés en el cine regional, particularmente escocés. Si bien las películas financiadas por Estados Unidos continuaron su influencia en la década de 2010, las coproducciones europeas nacionales también recibieron elogios. The Queen fue una producción británico-francesa por la que Helen Mirren ganó Mejor Actriz, mientras que el Consejo de Cine del Reino Unido financió El discurso del rey , que ganó Mejor Película en 2011. El cine británico asiático ha ganado protagonismo desde 1999, cuando East is East fue un éxito generalizado con un bajo presupuesto.
El Reino Unido ha estado a la vanguardia de los avances en el ámbito del cine, la radio y la televisión. Históricamente, la radiodifusión en el Reino Unido ha estado dominada por la British Broadcasting Corporation (conocida comúnmente como BBC ), financiada por los contribuyentes pero gestionada de forma independiente, aunque otras emisoras de radio y televisión independientes ( ITV , Channel 4 , Five ) y emisoras por satélite (especialmente BSkyB , que tiene más de 10 millones de suscriptores) han adquirido mayor importancia en los últimos años. La BBC y los otros tres canales de televisión principales son emisoras de servicio público que, como parte de su licencia que les permite operar, emiten una variedad de programación de interés minoritario. La BBC y Channel 4 son de propiedad estatal, aunque operan de forma independiente.
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Lanzada en 1955, ITV es la cadena de televisión comercial más antigua del Reino Unido. [50] El evocador anuncio de televisión de pan Hovis de 1973 del director Ridley Scott capturó la imaginación del público. Filmado en Gold Hill, Shaftesbury en Dorset, el anuncio de Scott fue votado como el anuncio de televisión favorito del Reino Unido de todos los tiempos en 2006. [51] Otros anuncios británicos notables incluyen el anuncio de cara de British Airways de 1989 , el anuncio de noitulovE de 2005 para Guinness , el anuncio de Gorilla de 2007 de chocolate Cadbury con un gorila tocando la batería con la canción de Phil Collins " In the Air Tonight " sonando de fondo, y un anuncio de 2013 para la barra de chocolate Galaxy con una imagen generada por computadora de Audrey Hepburn . Los anuncios navideños se proyectan desde principios de noviembre en el Reino Unido, con campañas que incluyen el anuncio navideño de John Lewis para la cadena de grandes almacenes.
Los torneos internacionales de fútbol, como la Copa del Mundo , son históricamente los eventos deportivos más vistos entre el público, mientras que Match of the Day es el programa de fútbol semanal más popular. La final de la Copa Mundial de la FIFA de 1966 y el funeral de la princesa Diana son los dos eventos televisivos más vistos en la historia del Reino Unido. [52] La sátira ha sido una característica destacada de la comedia británica durante siglos. El auge de la sátira británica de la década de 1960, que consistió en escritores e intérpretes como Peter Cook , Dudley Moore , Alan Bennett , David Frost y Jonathan Miller , ha influido mucho en la televisión británica, incluida la serie de comedia de sketches Monty Python's Flying Circus creada en 1969 por Monty Python . Considerado como la figura principal del auge de la sátira, Peter Cook ocupó el puesto número uno en la encuesta Comedians' Comedian . [53] El espectáculo de marionetas Spitting Image fue una sátira de la familia real , la política, el entretenimiento, el deporte y la cultura británica de la década de 1980 hasta mediados de la década de 1990.
Have I Got News for You y Mock the Week son los dos programas de panel satírico de mayor duración. La sátira también aparece con fuerza en laserie de videojuegos Grand Theft Auto , que se ha clasificado entre las exportaciones más exitosas de Gran Bretaña. [54] La payasada y el doble sentido de Benny Hill también alcanzaron índices de audiencia muy altos en la televisión británica, al igual que el humor físico de Mr. Bean . Los dúos de comedia populares en televisión incluyen The Two Ronnies y Morecambe and Wise , y ambos programas presentan sketches memorables. Jeeves and Wooster fue protagonizado por Hugh Laurie como Bertie Wooster , un joven caballero aireado, despreocupado, tonto y ocioso y Stephen Fry como Jeeves , su valet tranquilo, bien informado y talentoso. Creado y protagonizado por Rik Mayall como Richie y Adrian Edmondson como Eddie, Bottom presenta a dos compañeros de piso crudos y pervertidos sin trabajo y con poco dinero, que se destaca por su humor caótico, nihilista y su comedia violenta. [55] Steve Coogan creó el personaje de Alan Partridge , un presentador de televisión inepto y sin tacto que a menudo insulta a sus invitados y cuyo inflado sentido de celebridad lo lleva a una autopromoción desvergonzada. Da Ali G Show fue protagonizado por Sacha Baron Cohen como un falso impostor callejero, Ali G, del oeste de Londres, que realizaría entrevistas reales con personas desprevenidas, muchas de las cuales son celebridades, durante las cuales se les hacen preguntas absurdas y ridículas.
El animador Nick Park creó los personajes de Wallace y Gromit en el estudio de animación Aardman Animations en Bristol. Aparecen en A Grand Day Out (1989), The Wrong Trousers (1993) y A Close Shave (1995), que tienen calificaciones 100% positivas en el sitio de agregación Rotten Tomatoes, mientras que A Matter of Loaf and Death fue el programa de televisión más visto en el Reino Unido en 2008. Aardman también produce el programa infantil Shaun the Sheep . Uno de los programas infantiles más populares originarios del Reino Unido es Thomas & Friends (basado en los libros de The Railway Series de Wilbert Awdry ), que se ha convertido en la propiedad preescolar con licencia número uno en el mundo. [56] Otros programas infantiles populares incluyen Postman Pat , Fireman Sam , Teletubbies , Bob the Builder y Peppa Pig.
Blue Peter, que se emitió por primera vez en 1958, es famoso por sus creaciones de arte y artesanía . El programa ha sido un elemento básico para generaciones de niños británicos. Los programas de televisión de acción en vivo populares incluyen The Borrowers (basado en los libros de Mary Norton sobre personas pequeñas), The Adventures of Black Beauty , The Famous Five (basado en los libros de Enid Blyton ), The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (basado en la novela de CS Lewis ) y Pride and Prejudice (protagonizada por Colin Firth como el Sr. Darcy ). El actor David Jason ha prestado su voz a varios personajes populares en la animación infantil, incluido The Wind in the Willows (basado en el libro infantil de Kenneth Grahame ), Danger Mouse y Count Duckula . Otros programas infantiles incluyen Where's Wally? (una serie basada en los libros del autor Martin Handford donde los lectores tienen el desafío de encontrar a Wally, que está escondido en el grupo), Dennis the Menace y Gnasher , mientras que Thunderbirds y Terrahawks de Gerry y Sylvia Anderson han sido elogiados por crear Supermarionation . [57]
El programa The Snowman ( que debutó en 1982 y presenta la canción festiva " Walking in the Air ") se proyecta anualmente en Navidad. Se emite en la BBC y el Reino Unido tiene dos telemaratones benéficas de alto perfil: Children in Need , que se celebra anualmente en noviembre, y Comic Relief , que se alterna con Sports Relief , cada marzo. La edición de 2011 de Comic Relief vio la primera aparición del sketch Carpool Karaoke de James Corden cuando condujo por Londres cantando canciones con George Michael . Los programas británicos dominan la lista de los programas de televisión más vistos en el Reino Unido, con los dramas de cocina , Coronation Street de ITV y EastEnders de la BBC , ambos a menudo ocupando un lugar alto en la lista de calificaciones compilada por BARB . [52] Las principales telenovelas cuentan con un pub , y estos pubs se han convertido en nombres familiares en todo el Reino Unido. El pub The Rovers Return es el de Coronation Street , el Queen Vic (abreviatura de Queen Victoria ) es el de EastEnders y el Woolpack el de Emmerdale de ITV . El hecho de que el pub sea un escenario destacado en las tres principales telenovelas de televisión refleja el papel que tienen los pubs como punto focal de la comunidad en muchas ciudades y pueblos de todo el Reino Unido. Los programas de espionaje y detectives han sido durante mucho tiempo un elemento básico de la televisión británica, como la serie de los años 60 The Avengers con la espía aventurera e icono cultural (y feminista) Emma Peel .
El Reino Unido tiene una gran cantidad de estaciones de radio nacionales y locales que cubren una gran variedad de programación. Las estaciones más escuchadas son las cinco principales estaciones de radio nacionales de la BBC . BBC Radio 1 , una nueva estación de música dirigida al grupo de edad de 16 a 24 años. BBC Radio 2 , una variada estación de música popular y chat dirigida a adultos, es consistentemente la más alta en los ratings. BBC Radio 4 , una variada estación de entrevistas, es conocida por su producción de noticias, actualidad , drama y comedia , así como The Archers , su telenovela de larga duración, y otros programas únicos, incluido Desert Island Discs (1942-presente), un programa de entrevistas en el que un invitado famoso (llamado " náufrago ") elige ocho piezas de música, un libro y un artículo de lujo que llevaría consigo a una isla desierta. Actualmente presentado por Lauren Laverne , es el programa de radio musical de mayor duración en la historia británica.
La idea de un mensaje navideño fue concebida por uno de los fundadores de la BBC. Pronunciado anualmente por el monarca, se emitió por primera vez en BBC Radio en 1932. Un mensaje navideño alternativo se emitió por primera vez en Channel 4 en 1993. Emitido entre 1951 y 1960, la comedia radiofónica The Goon Show , protagonizada por Peter Sellers , Spike Milligan y Harry Secombe , mezclaba tramas ridículas con humor surrealista, juegos de palabras, frases pegadizas y una variedad de efectos de sonido extraños. El programa ha ejercido una influencia considerable en la comedia y la cultura británicas. Como estrella de cine, Sellers en particular se convirtió en influyente para los actores de cine al usar diferentes acentos y disfraces y asumir múltiples roles en la misma película. El comediante Marty Feldman co-creó el aclamado programa de comedia de BBC Radio Round the Horne en 1965. La comedia de radio de larga duración Just a Minute se emitió por primera vez en BBC Radio 4 en 1967. Los panelistas deben hablar durante sesenta segundos sobre un tema determinado, "sin vacilaciones, repeticiones o desviaciones". Los invitados a lo largo de los años han incluido a Stephen Fry , Eddie Izzard y Sue Perkins . Emitida por primera vez en BBC Radio 4 en 1978, la serie de radio de comedia de ciencia ficción The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy fue innovadora en su uso de música y efectos de sonido. La BBC, como emisora de servicio público , también gestiona estaciones minoritarias como BBC Asian Network , BBC Radio 1Xtra y BBC Radio 6 Music , y estaciones locales en todo el país. La estación de música rock Absolute Radio y la estación de deportes Talksport , se encuentran entre las estaciones de radio comerciales más grandes del Reino Unido. [58]
La libertad de prensa se estableció en Gran Bretaña en 1695. [59] Los periódicos nacionales populares incluyen The Times , Financial Times , The Guardian , The Daily Telegraph y The Independent .
Fundado por el editor John Walter en 1785, The Times es el primer periódico que ha llevado ese nombre, prestándoselo a numerosos otros periódicos de todo el mundo, y es el creador de la ampliamente utilizada tipografía Times Roman , creada por Victor Lardent y encargada por Stanley Morison en 1931. [60] El magnate de los periódicos y la publicación Alfred Harmsworth jugó un papel importante en "dar forma a la prensa moderna" -Harmsworth introdujo o aprovechó "contenidos amplios, explotación de los ingresos publicitarios para subsidiar los precios, marketing agresivo, mercados regionales subordinados, independencia del control del partido"- y fue llamado "la figura más grande que jamás haya caminado por Fleet Street ". [61] The Economist fue fundado por James Wilson en 1843, y el diario Financial Times fue fundado en 1888. Al fundar The Gentleman's Magazine en 1731, Edward Cave acuñó el término " revista " para una publicación periódica, y fue el primer editor en diseñar con éxito una publicación de amplio alcance. [62] Fundada por Thomas Gibson Bowles , Vanity Fair presentó caricaturas de personajes famosos por los que es más conocida hoy en día. [63]
Pionero de la publicación infantil, John Newbery hizo de la literatura infantil una parte sostenible y rentable del mercado literario. [64] La historia de Little Goody Two-Shoes fue publicada por Newbery en 1765. [64] Fundada por Sir Allen Lane en 1935, Penguin Books revolucionó el mundo editorial en la década de 1930 a través de sus libros de bolsillo económicos , llevando ficción y no ficción de alta calidad en libros de bolsillo al mercado masivo. [65] Fundada en 1940, Puffin Books es el sello editorial infantil de Penguin Books. La historia del espantapájaros de Barbara Euphan Todd , Worzel Gummidge , fue el primer libro de cuentos de Puffin en 1941. [66]
El Libro Guinness de los Récords fue una creación de Sir Hugh Beaver . El 10 de noviembre de 1951, se vio envuelto en una discusión sobre cuál era el ave de caza más rápida de Europa y se dio cuenta de que era imposible confirmarlo en libros de referencia. Beaver sabía que debía haber muchas otras preguntas debatidas en todo el mundo, pero no había ningún libro con el que resolver las discusiones sobre los récords. Se dio cuenta de que un libro que proporcionara las respuestas a este tipo de preguntas podría resultar exitoso. Su idea se hizo realidad cuando un conocido de sus amigos de la Universidad recomendados, Norris y Ross McWhirter , a quienes luego se les encargó recopilar lo que se convirtió en El Libro Guinness de los Récords en agosto de 1954. [67] La trilogía de romance erótico de EL James Cincuenta sombras de Grey , Cincuenta sombras más oscuras y Cincuenta sombras liberadas , ha vendido más de 125 millones de copias en todo el mundo y estableció el récord en el Reino Unido como el libro de bolsillo más vendido. [68]
Las leyes de derechos de autor se originaron en Gran Bretaña con el Estatuto de Ana (también conocido como la Ley de Derechos de Autor de 1709), que delineaba los derechos individuales del artista. Se articula un derecho a beneficiarse económicamente de la obra, y las sentencias judiciales y la legislación han reconocido un derecho a controlar la obra, como por ejemplo garantizar que se preserve su integridad. [69] El Estatuto de Ana otorgó a los editores derechos por un período fijo, después del cual expiraban los derechos de autor. [70]
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Desde la creación del Reino Unido, la escuela de pintura inglesa se destaca principalmente por los retratos y paisajes, y también por los retratos en paisajes. Entre los artistas de este período se encuentran Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792), George Stubbs (1724-1806) y Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788).
El satírico pictórico William Hogarth fue pionero del arte secuencial occidental, y las ilustraciones políticas en este estilo a menudo se conocen como "hogartianas". Siguiendo el trabajo de Hogarth, las caricaturas políticas se desarrollaron en Inglaterra en la última parte del siglo XVIII bajo la dirección de James Gillray . Considerado como uno de los dos caricaturistas más influyentes (el otro es Hogarth), Gillray ha sido considerado el padre de la caricatura política, con su obra satírica llamando a rendir cuentas al rey (Jorge III), a los primeros ministros y a los generales. [72]
El final del siglo XVIII y el comienzo del siglo XIX fue quizás el período más radical en el arte británico, produciendo a William Blake (1757-1827), John Constable (1776-1837) y JMW Turner (1775-1851), tres de los artistas británicos más influyentes, cada uno de los cuales tiene espacios dedicados asignados para su trabajo en la Tate Britain . [73] El Premio Turner (creado en 1984) , que lleva el nombre de Turner, es un premio anual otorgado a un artista visual británico menor de 50 años.
La Hermandad Prerrafaelita (PRB) alcanzó una influencia considerable después de su fundación en 1848 con pinturas que se concentraban en temas religiosos, literarios y de género ejecutados en un estilo colorido y minuciosamente detallado. Los artistas de la PRB incluyeron a John Everett Millais , Dante Gabriel Rossetti y posteriormente Edward Burne-Jones . También se asoció con ella el diseñador William Morris , cuyos esfuerzos por hacer que los objetos hermosos fueran asequibles (o incluso gratuitos) para todos llevaron a que sus diseños de papel tapiz y azulejos definieran en cierta medida la estética victoriana e instigaran el movimiento Arts and Crafts .
Entre los artistas visuales del Reino Unido en el siglo XX se incluyen Lucian Freud , Francis Bacon , David Hockney , Bridget Riley y los artistas pop Richard Hamilton y Peter Blake . También se destacó entre los artistas del siglo XX Henry Moore , considerado la voz de la escultura británica y del modernismo británico en general. Sir Jacob Epstein fue un pionero de la escultura moderna. En 1958, el artista Gerald Holtom diseñó el logotipo de protesta de la Campaña Británica para el Desarme Nuclear (CND), el movimiento por la paz en el Reino Unido, que se convirtió en un símbolo universal de la paz . [74] Como reacción al expresionismo abstracto , el arte pop surgió en Inglaterra a fines de la década de 1950. La década de 1990 vio a los Jóvenes Artistas Británicos , Damien Hirst y Tracey Emin .
La subasta revivió en la Inglaterra de los siglos XVII y XVIII cuando las subastas a vela comenzaron a usarse para la venta de bienes y arrendamientos, algunos de los cuales fueron registrados en el diario de Samuel Pepys en 1660. [76] Con sede en King Street, Londres, Christie's , la casa de subastas más grande del mundo, fue fundada en 1766 por el subastador James Christie en Londres. Conocido por sus retratos y pinturas de figuras densamente empastadas, Lucian Freud fue ampliamente considerado el artista británico preeminente de su tiempo. Freud fue representado en la pintura al óleo de 1969 de Francis Bacon, Tres estudios de Lucian Freud , que se vendió por $ 142,4 millones en noviembre de 2013, el precio más alto alcanzado en una subasta hasta ese momento. [77]
Randolph Caldecott , Walter Crane , Kate Greenaway , John Tenniel , Aubrey Beardsley , Roger Hargreaves , Arthur Rackham , John Leech , George Cruikshank y Beatrix Potter fueron notables ilustradores de libros. Los carteles han jugado un papel importante en la cultura británica. Diseñado por Alfred Leete en 1914 como cartel de reclutamiento para el ejército británico, " Lord Kitchener Wants You " es el cartel de reclutamiento británico más famoso jamás producido y una imagen icónica y duradera de la Primera Guerra Mundial. [78] Producido por el gobierno británico en 1939 para la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el cartel motivacional Keep Calm and Carry On ahora se considera "no solo como una destilación de un momento crucial en la britanidad, sino también como un mensaje inspirador del pasado al presente en un momento de crisis". [79]
A finales de la década de 1960, el diseñador gráfico británico Storm Thorgerson cofundó el grupo de arte gráfico Hipgnosis , que ha diseñado muchas portadas icónicas de sencillos y álbumes para bandas de rock. Sus obras fueron notables por sus elementos surrealistas , siendo quizás la más famosa la portada de The Dark Side of the Moon de Pink Floyd . [80] Diseñada y fotografiada por Brian Duffy , la portada del álbum Aladdin Sane presenta un rayo en su rostro, que se considera una de las imágenes más icónicas de David Bowie. La obra de arte política subversiva de Banksy (seudónimo del artista de graffiti inglés cuya identidad está oculta) se puede encontrar en calles, paredes y edificios del Reino Unido y el resto del mundo. [81] Las instituciones de arte incluyen el Royal College of Art , la Royal Society of Arts , el New English Art Club , la Slade School of Art , la Royal Academy y la Tate Gallery (fundada como la National Gallery of British Art).
En 2006, 37 años después de su primer vuelo de prueba, el Concorde fue nombrado ganador del Great British Design Quest organizado por la BBC y el Design Museum . Se emitieron un total de 212.000 votos y el Concorde superó a otros íconos del diseño británico como el Mini , el Minifalda , el Jaguar E-Type , el Metro de Londres y el Supermarine Spitfire . [82] El Spitfire apareció en la película de suspenso y acción Dunkerque de Christopher Nolan de 2017 .
Sir Morien Morgan dirigió la investigación sobre el transporte supersónico en 1948 que culminó con el avión de pasajeros Concorde. [83] En noviembre de 1956 se convirtió en presidente del recién formado Comité de Aviones de Transporte Supersónico que financió la investigación sobre el transporte supersónico en varias empresas de aviación británicas durante la década de 1950. A fines de la década de 1950, el comité había iniciado el proceso de selección de diseños específicos para el desarrollo y, después de la fusión forzada de la mayoría de las empresas de aviación en 1960, seleccionó el Bristol Tipo 223 , diseñado por Archibald Russell , como base para un diseño transatlántico. [83]
La estatuilla de los Brit Awards para los premios anuales de música de la BPI , que representa a Britannia , la personificación femenina de Gran Bretaña, es rediseñada regularmente por algunos de los diseñadores, estilistas y artistas británicos más conocidos, entre ellos Dame Vivienne Westwood , Damien Hirst , Tracey Emin , Sir Peter Blake , Zaha Hadid y Sir Anish Kapoor . [84]
Los grandes festivales de música al aire libre en verano y otoño son populares, como Glastonbury (el festival más grande del mundo), V Festival , Reading y Leeds Festivals . El Reino Unido estuvo a la vanguardia del movimiento rave ilegal y gratuito desde finales de la década de 1980, que condujo a una cultura paneuropea de teknivals reflejada en el movimiento de festivales gratuitos británicos y el estilo de vida viajero asociado. [85] La casa de ópera más importante de Inglaterra es la Royal Opera House en Covent Gardens . [86] The Proms , una temporada de conciertos de música clásica orquestal que se celebra en el Royal Albert Hall , es un importante evento cultural que se celebra anualmente. [86] El Royal Ballet es una de las compañías de ballet clásico más importantes del mundo, su reputación se basa en dos figuras prominentes de la danza del siglo XX, la primera bailarina Margot Fonteyn y el coreógrafo Frederick Ashton . La danza irlandesa es popular en Irlanda del Norte y entre la diáspora irlandesa en todo el Reino Unido; sus trajes presentan patrones tomados del Libro de Kells medieval . [87]
Un elemento básico de la cultura costera británica, la pareja pendenciera Punch y Judy hizo su primera aparición registrada en Covent Garden, Londres en 1662. [88] Los diversos episodios de Punch y Judy se realizan en el espíritu de la comedia escandalosa, a menudo provocando risas de sorpresa, y están dominados por la payasada anárquica del Sr. Punch. [89] Considerados como íconos culturales británicos, aparecieron en un período significativo en la historia británica, y Glyn Edwards declaró: "[Pulcinella] fue particularmente bien recibido por el público británico de la Restauración, hambriento de diversión después de años de puritanismo . Pronto cambiamos el nombre de Punch, lo transformamos de marioneta a títere de mano, y se convirtió, realmente, en un espíritu de Gran Bretaña: un inconformista subversivo que desafía la autoridad, una especie de títere equivalente a nuestras caricaturas políticas". [88]
El circo es una forma tradicional de entretenimiento en el Reino Unido. El Circo de Chipperfield se remonta a más de 300 años en Gran Bretaña, lo que lo convierte en una de las dinastías circenses familiares más antiguas. Philip Astley es considerado el padre del circo moderno . [90] Después de su invención de la pista de circo en 1768, el Anfiteatro de Astley abrió en Londres en 1773. [90] Como maestro ecuestre, Astley tenía una habilidad para la equitación de trucos, y cuando agregó acróbatas, equilibristas , malabaristas , perros bailarines y un payaso para llenar el tiempo entre sus propias demostraciones, nació el circo moderno. [90] El Circo Real Hughes fue popular en Londres en la década de 1780. El Circo Real de Pablo Fanque , uno de los circos más populares de la Inglaterra victoriana, presentó a William Kite , que inspiró a John Lennon a escribir " Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite! " en el álbum de The Beatles Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band . Joseph Grimaldi , creador del maquillaje de payaso de cara blanca , es considerado el padre del payaso moderno. [91]
El Festival Fringe de Edimburgo es el festival de arte más grande del mundo . Establecido en 1947, se lleva a cabo en la capital de Escocia durante tres semanas cada agosto junto con varios otros festivales de arte y cultura. El Fringe atrae principalmente eventos de las artes escénicas , particularmente teatro y comedia, aunque también se incluyen danza y música. El Carnaval de Notting Hill es un evento anual que se lleva a cabo en las calles de Notting Hill , Londres desde 1966. [92] Liderado por la comunidad afrocaribeña británica , el carnaval ha atraído a alrededor de un millón de personas, lo que lo convierte en el festival callejero más grande de Gran Bretaña y uno de los más grandes del mundo. [92] También es de destacar el amplio impacto de la cultura irlandesa para el Día de San Patricio. El desfile más grande del Día de San Patricio se lleva a cabo en Digbeth , Birmingham , donde hay una fuerte comunidad irlandesa.
La pantomima (a menudo denominada "panto") es una producción teatral de comedia musical británica , diseñada para el entretenimiento familiar. Se realiza en teatros de todo el Reino Unido durante la temporada de Navidad y Año Nuevo. El arte se originó en el siglo XVIII con John Weaver , un maestro de danza y coreógrafo del Theatre Royal, Drury Lane en Londres. [93] En la Inglaterra del siglo XIX adquirió su forma actual, que incluye canciones, comedia slapstick y baile, empleando actores de género cruzado, combinando humor de actualidad con una historia basada libremente en un cuento de hadas conocido. [93] Es una forma participativa de teatro, en la que el público canta partes de la música y grita frases a los intérpretes, como "Está detrás de ti". [94]
Las líneas argumentales y los guiones de las pantomimas casi siempre se basan en cuentos infantiles tradicionales: algunas de las historias británicas populares que aparecen incluyen Jack y las habichuelas mágicas , Peter Pan , Babes in the Wood , Ricitos de oro y los tres osos y Dick Whittington y su gato . Las líneas argumentales casi siempre se adaptan para lograr un efecto cómico o satírico, y los personajes y situaciones de otras historias a menudo se interpolan en la trama. Por ejemplo, Jack y las habichuelas mágicas pueden incluir referencias a rimas infantiles inglesas que involucran personajes llamados "Jack", como Jack y Jill . Las personas famosas aparecen regularmente en las pantomimas, como Ian McKellen . [95] McKellen también ha aparecido en marchas del orgullo gay, siendo el Orgullo de Manchester uno de los 15 desfiles anuales del orgullo gay en el Reino Unido; el más grande en Brighton atrae a más de 300.000 personas. [96]
El music hall es un tipo de espectáculo teatral británico popular desde principios de la era victoriana hasta mediados del siglo XX. Precursor de los espectáculos de variedades de la actualidad, el music hall incluía una mezcla de canciones populares, comedia, actos especiales y espectáculos de variedades. Las canciones de music hall incluyen « I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am », « Hokey cokey », « I Do Like To be Beside the Seaside » y « The Laughing Policeman ». Entre los artistas británicos que perfeccionaron sus habilidades en pantomimas y sketches de music hall se encuentran Charlie Chaplin , Stan Laurel , George Formby , Gracie Fields , Dan Leno , Gertrude Lawrence , Marie Lloyd y Harry Champion . [98] El comediante y empresario teatral británico de music hall Fred Karno desarrolló una forma de comedia de sketches sin diálogo en la década de 1890, y Chaplin y Laurel fueron notables comediantes de music hall que trabajaron para él. [98] Laurel afirmó: "Fred Karno no le enseñó a Charlie [Chaplin] y a mí todo lo que sabemos sobre la comedia. Sólo nos enseñó la mayor parte". [99] El productor de cine Hal Roach afirmó: "Fred Karno no es sólo un genio, es el hombre que originó la comedia slapstick . Nosotros en Hollywood le debemos mucho". [100] Ejemplos de espectáculos de variedades que evolucionaron a partir del music hall incluyen el Royal Variety Performance (interpretado por primera vez en 1912), que se emitió en la radio de la BBC desde la década de 1920, y luego en televisión desde la década de 1950. Anualmente se celebra en diciembre (a menudo en el London Palladium ) y se realiza frente a miembros de la Familia Real Británica , muchos actos famosos se han presentado en el Royal Variety Show a lo largo del siglo, y desde 2007 un acto del espectáculo ha sido seleccionado por el público británico a través del programa de talentos de televisión de ITV Britain's Got Talent .
La arquitectura del Reino Unido incluye muchas características que anteceden a la creación del Reino Unido en 1707, desde lugares tan antiguos como Skara Brae y Stonehenge hasta el Anillo del Gigante , Avebury y las ruinas romanas . En la mayoría de las ciudades y pueblos, la iglesia parroquial es una indicación de la edad del asentamiento. Muchos castillos permanecen del período medieval , como el castillo de Windsor (el castillo ocupado más antiguo de Europa), [102] el castillo de Stirling (uno de los más grandes e importantes de Escocia), el castillo de Bodiam (un castillo con foso ) y el castillo de Warwick . Durante los dos siglos posteriores a la conquista normanda de Inglaterra de 1066 y la construcción de la Torre de Londres , se construyeron castillos como el castillo de Caernarfon en Gales y el castillo de Carrickfergus en Irlanda.
La arquitectura gótica inglesa floreció desde el siglo XII hasta principios del siglo XVI, y entre los ejemplos famosos se incluyen la Abadía de Westminster , el lugar tradicional de coronación del monarca británico , que también tiene una larga tradición como sede de bodas reales ; y fue el lugar del funeral de la Princesa Diana , [104] la Catedral de Canterbury , una de las estructuras cristianas más antiguas y famosas de Inglaterra; la Catedral de Salisbury , que tiene la torre de iglesia más alta del Reino Unido; y la Catedral de Winchester , que tiene la nave más larga y la mayor longitud total de cualquier catedral gótica de Europa. [105] La arquitectura Tudor es el desarrollo final de la arquitectura medieval en Inglaterra, durante el período Tudor (1485-1603). En el Reino Unido, un edificio catalogado es un edificio u otra estructura oficialmente designada como de especial importancia arquitectónica, histórica o cultural. Alrededor de medio millón de edificios en el Reino Unido tienen el estatus de "catalogado".
En la década de 1680, Sir George Downing construyó Downing Street , y su dirección más famosa, 10 Downing Street , se convirtió en la residencia del Primer Ministro en 1730. [106] Uno de los arquitectos ingleses más conocidos que trabajaban en la época de la fundación del Reino Unido fue Sir Christopher Wren . Fue contratado para diseñar y reconstruir muchas de las antiguas iglesias en ruinas de Londres tras el Gran Incendio de Londres . Su obra maestra, la Catedral de San Pablo , se completó en los primeros años del Reino Unido. [107] El Palacio de Buckingham , la residencia londinense del monarca británico, se construyó en 1705. Tanto la Catedral de San Pablo como el Palacio de Buckingham utilizan piedra de Portland , una piedra caliza del período Jurásico extraída en la Costa Jurásica de Portland , Dorset, que es famosa por su uso en la arquitectura británica y mundial. [108]
A principios del siglo XVIII se introdujo la arquitectura barroca , muy popular en Europa, y en esa época se construyó el Palacio de Blenheim . Sin embargo, el barroco fue rápidamente reemplazado por el regreso de la forma palladiana. La arquitectura georgiana del siglo XVIII fue una forma evolucionada del palladianismo. Muchos edificios actuales, como la Abadía de Woburn y Kedleston Hall, son de este estilo. Entre los muchos arquitectos de esta forma de arquitectura y sus sucesores, neoclásicos y románticos , se encontraban Robert Adam , Sir William Chambers y James Wyatt .
La casa señorial aristocrática continuó la tradición de las primeras grandes mansiones elegantes sin fortificar, como la Montacute House isabelina y la Hatfield House . Muchas de estas casas son el escenario de dramas de época británicos, como Downton Abbey . Durante los siglos XVIII y XIX, en los escalones más altos de la sociedad británica, la casa de campo inglesa era un lugar para relajarse y cazar en el campo. Muchas casas señoriales se han abierto al público: Knebworth House , ahora un lugar importante para conciertos de rock y pop al aire libre ( la última actuación en vivo de Freddie Mercury con Queen tuvo lugar en Knebworth el 9 de agosto de 1986), [109] Alton Towers , el parque temático más popular del Reino Unido, y Longleat , el primer parque de safari del mundo fuera de África.
A principios del siglo XIX, el neogótico romántico comenzó en Inglaterra como reacción a la simetría del palladianismo. Ejemplos notables de arquitectura neogótica son las Casas del Parlamento y la Abadía de Fonthill . A mediados del siglo XIX, como resultado de las nuevas tecnologías, se pudo incorporar acero como componente de construcción: uno de los mayores exponentes de esto fue Joseph Paxton , arquitecto del Crystal Palace . Paxton también construyó casas como Mentmore Towers , en los estilos renacentistas retrospectivos todavía populares . En esta era de prosperidad y desarrollo, la arquitectura británica adoptó muchos métodos nuevos de construcción, pero arquitectos como August Pugin se aseguraron de que se mantuvieran los estilos tradicionales.
Tras la construcción del primer muelle costero del mundo en julio de 1814 en Ryde , Isla de Wight , frente a la costa sur de Inglaterra, el muelle se puso de moda en los balnearios del Reino Unido durante la época victoriana, alcanzando su apogeo en la década de 1860 con la construcción de 22. [110] El muelle costero, que proporciona una pasarela hacia el mar, está considerado como una de las mejores arquitecturas victorianas y es un símbolo icónico de las vacaciones costeras británicas. [110] En 1914, había más de 100 muelles en las costas del Reino Unido. [110] Hoy en día hay 55 muelles costeros en el Reino Unido . [110] El Puente de la Torre (a media milla del Puente de Londres ) se inauguró en 1895.
A principios del siglo XX, una nueva forma de diseño, las artes y oficios , se hizo popular; la forma arquitectónica de este estilo, que había evolucionado a partir de los diseños del siglo XIX de arquitectos como George Devey , fue defendida por Edwin Lutyens . Las artes y oficios en arquitectura se caracterizan por una forma informal y no simétrica, a menudo con ventanas con parteluces o celosías , múltiples frontones y chimeneas altas. Este estilo continuó evolucionando hasta la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Después de esa guerra, la reconstrucción pasó por una variedad de fases, pero estuvo muy influenciada por el modernismo , especialmente desde fines de la década de 1950 hasta principios de la de 1970. Muchas reurbanizaciones sombrías del centro de la ciudad, criticadas por presentar "plazas azotadas por el viento" hostiles y revestidas de concreto, fueron el fruto de este interés, al igual que muchos edificios públicos igualmente sombríos, como la Galería Hayward .
En la actualidad, se están reconstruyendo muchos centros urbanos de inspiración modernista: el centro de Bracknell es un ejemplo. Sin embargo, en los años inmediatamente posteriores a la guerra se construyeron muchos miles (quizás cientos de miles) de casas municipales en estilo vernáculo, lo que dio a la gente de clase trabajadora su primera experiencia de jardines privados y saneamiento interior . Muchas ciudades también cuentan con estatuas o esculturas dedicadas a nativos famosos. El modernismo sigue siendo una fuerza significativa en la arquitectura británica, aunque su influencia se siente predominantemente en los edificios comerciales. Los dos defensores más destacados son Lord Rogers de Riverside y Norman Foster . Los edificios londinenses más conocidos de Rogers son probablemente el Lloyd's Building y el Millennium Dome , mientras que Foster creó el " Gherkin " y el City Hall . El artista ganador del premio Turner Sir Anish Kapoor es un aclamado escultor británico contemporáneo. Un diseño notable es su escultura ArcelorMittal Orbit en el Parque Olímpico de Londres.
Descrita por The Guardian como la "Reina de la curva", Zaha Hadid liberó la geometría arquitectónica con la creación de formas fluidas y amplias de gran expresividad con múltiples puntos de perspectiva y geometría fragmentada que evocan el caos y el flujo de la vida moderna. [112] Pionera del parametricismo y un icono del neofuturismo , con una personalidad formidable, su aclamada obra y sus formas innovadoras incluyen el centro acuático de los Juegos Olímpicos de Londres 2012. [112] En 2010 y 2011 recibió el Premio Stirling , el premio de arquitectura más prestigioso del Reino Unido, y en 2015 se convirtió en la primera mujer en recibir la Medalla de Oro Real del Real Instituto de Arquitectos Británicos . Completado en 2012, el Shard London Bridge es el edificio más alto del Reino Unido. Otros grandes rascacielos en construcción en Londres incluyen 22 Bishopsgate y Heron Tower . El arquitecto modernista Nicholas Grimshaw diseñó el Proyecto Edén en Cornualles, que es el invernadero más grande del mundo. [113]
Los cómics británicos de principios del siglo XX evolucionaron típicamente a partir de los penny dreadfuls ilustrados de la era victoriana (con Sweeney Todd , Dick Turpin y Varney el vampiro ). Una creciente cultura de consumo y una mayor capacidad para viajar por todo el Reino Unido gracias a la invención del ferrocarril ( en 1825 ) crearon tanto un mercado para la literatura popular barata como la capacidad de que circulara a gran escala. Creados en la década de 1830, The Guardian describió los penny dreadfuls como "la primera muestra de cultura popular producida en masa para los jóvenes en Gran Bretaña". [114] Al introducir características familiares en la ficción de vampiros , Varney es la primera historia que hace referencia a dientes afilados para un vampiro . [115] Después de que se publicaran los cómics para adultos (el más notable fue Half Holiday (1880) de Ally Sloper , que fue considerada la primera figura regular de los cómics), [116] surgieron más cómics británicos juveniles, siendo los dos más populares The Beano y The Dandy , publicados por DC Thomson (con sede en Dundee , Escocia) en la década de 1930. En 1950, la circulación semanal de ambos alcanzó los dos millones. [117] Al explicar la popularidad de los cómics durante este período, Anita O'Brien, curadora directora del Museo de la Historieta de Londres, afirma: "Cuando se inventaron cómics como Beano y Dandy en la década de 1930 (y en realidad hasta las décadas de 1950 y 1960), estos cómics eran casi el único entretenimiento disponible para los niños". [117]
In 1954 Tiger comics introduced Roy of the Rovers, the hugely popular football based strip recounting the life of Roy Race and the team he played for, Melchester Rovers. The stock media phrase "real 'Roy of the Rovers' stuff" is often used by football writers, commentators and fans when describing displays of great skill, or surprising results that go against the odds, in reference to the dramatic storylines that were the strip's trademark. Other comic books, graphic novels, and sequential art of various genres also flourished. These included fantasy and science fiction like Eagle, Valiant, Warrior, and 2000 AD. Other popular titles were war comics inspired by British military history like Commando, War Picture Library, and The Victor.[118][119]
Created by Emma Orczy in 1903, the Scarlet Pimpernel is the alter ego of Sir Percy Blakeney, a wealthy English fop who transforms into a formidable swordsman and a quick-thinking escape artist, establishing the "hero with a secret identity" into popular culture.[120] The Scarlet Pimpernel first appeared on stage (1903) and then in novel (1905), and became very popular with the British public.[121] He exhibits characteristics that became standard superhero conventions in comic books, including the penchant for disguise, use of a signature weapon (sword), ability to out-think and outwit his adversaries, and a calling card (he leaves behind a scarlet pimpernel at his interventions).[121] Drawing attention to his alter ego Blakeney he hides behind his public face as a meek, slow thinking foppish playboy, and he establishes a network of supporters, The League of the Scarlet Pimpernel, that aid his endeavours.[121]
In the 1980s, a resurgence of British writers and artists gained prominence in mainstream comic books, which was dubbed the "British Invasion" in comic book history. These writers and artists brought with them their own mature themes and philosophy such as anarchy, controversy and politics common in British media, but were never before seen in American comics. These elements would pave the way for mature and "darker and edgier" comic books that would jump start the Modern Age of Comics.[122] Writers included Alan Moore, famous for his V for Vendetta, From Hell, Watchmen, Marvelman, and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen;[123] Watchmen was described as "paving the way for a current cultural obsession" in comics;[124] Neil Gaiman and his critically acclaimed and best-selling The Sandman mythos and Books of Magic; Warren Ellis creator of Transmetropolitan and Planetary; and others such as Alan Grant, Grant Morrison, Dave Gibbons, Alan Davis, and Mark Millar who created Wanted and Kick-Ass.
Prominent comic book artists include Steve Dillon, Simon Bisley, Dave McKean, Glen Fabry, John Ridgway and Sean Phillips. The comic book series Hellblazer, set in Britain and starring the Liverpudlian magician John Constantine, paved the way for British writers such as Jamie Delano, Mike Carey and Denise Mina.[125]
Much of the folklore of the United Kingdom pre-dates the 18th century. Though some of the characters and stories are present throughout all of the UK, most belong to specific countries or regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales of Offa of Angeln and Weyland Smith, others date from after the Norman invasion of England, such as Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham.[126] Richard the Lionheart, Christian leader of the Third Crusade, came to be seen as a contemporary and supporter of Robin Hood. A plaque features Richard marrying Robin and Maid Marian outside Nottingham Castle.[127]
During the High Middle Ages tales originated from Brythonic traditions, notably the Arthurian legend.[128] Deriving from Welsh source; King Arthur, Excalibur and Merlin, while the Jersey poet Wace introduced the Knights of the Round Table. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.
The Loch Ness Monster is a cryptid that is reputed to inhabit Loch Ness in the Scottish Highlands. The legendary monster has been affectionately referred to by the nickname "Nessie" since the 1950s. The leprechaun figures large in Irish folklore. A mischievous fairy-type creature in emerald green clothing who when not playing tricks spends all its time busily making shoes, the leprechaun is said to have a pot of gold hidden at the end of the rainbow, and if ever captured by a human it has the magical power to grant three wishes in exchange for release. In mythology, English fairy tales such as Jack and the Beanstalk and Jack the Giant Killer helped form the modern perception of giants as stupid and violent, while the dwarf Tom Thumb is a traditional hero in English folklore.
English fairy tale Goldilocks and the Three Bears is one of the most popular fairy tales in the English language.[129] Some folk figures are based on semi- or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries: Lady Godiva, for instance, was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry; the heroic English figure Hereward the Wake resisted the Norman invasion; Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park, and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch.[130] The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character.
Published in 1724, A General History of the Pyrates by Captain Charles Johnson provided the standard account of the lives of many pirates in the Golden Age.[131] It influenced pirate literature of Scottish novelists Robert Louis Stevenson (Treasure Island) and J. M. Barrie.[131] Many famous English pirates from the Golden Age hailed from the West Country in south west England—the stereotypical West Country "pirate accent" was popularised by West Country native Robert Newton's portrayal of Stevenson's Long John Silver in film.[132] The concept of "walking the plank" was popularised by Barrie's Peter Pan, where Captain Hook's pirates helped define the archetype.[133] Davy Jones' Locker, where sailors or ships' remains are consigned to the bottom of the sea, is first recorded by Daniel Defoe in 1726.[134] Johnson's 1724 book gave a mythical status to famous English pirates such as Blackbeard and Calico Jack—Jack's Jolly Roger flag design features a skull with crossed swords.[135]
The Gremlin is part of Royal Air Force folklore dating from the 1920s, with "gremlin" being RAF slang for a mischievous creature that sabotages aircraft, meddling in the plane's equipment.[137] Legendary figures from 19th-century London whose tales have been romanticised include Sweeney Todd, the murderous barber of Fleet Street (accompanied with Mrs. Lovett who sells pies made from Todd's victims), and serial killer Jack the Ripper. On 5 November, people in Britain celebrate Guy Fawkes Night by making bonfires and lighting fireworks in commemoration of the foiling of Guy Fawkes' Gunpowder Plot, which became an annual event after the Observance of 5th November Act 1605 was passed.[138] Guy Fawkes masks are an emblem for anti-establishment protest groups.[139]
Halloween is a traditional and much celebrated holiday in Scotland and Ireland on the night of 31 October.[140] The name "Halloween" is first attested in the 16th century as a Scottish shortening of the fuller All-Hallows-Even,[141] and according to some historians has its roots in the Gaelic festival Samhain, when the Gaels believed the border between this world and the otherworld became thin, and the dead would revisit the mortal world.[142] In 1780, Dumfries poet John Mayne makes note of pranks at Halloween; "What fearfu' pranks ensue!", as well as the supernatural associated with the night, "Bogies" (ghosts).[143] Robert Burns' 1785 poem "Halloween" is recited by Scots at Halloween, and Burns was influenced by Mayne's composition.[143]
In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include guising — children disguised in costume going from door to door requesting food or coins – which had become common practice by the late 19th century;[144][145] (the Halloween masks, worn by children, are known as "false faces" in Ireland.[146]) turnips hollowed out and carved with faces to make lanterns,[147] and holding parties where games such as apple bobbing are played.[148] Agatha Christie's mystery novel Hallowe'en Party is about a girl who is drowned in an apple-bobbing tub. Other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and having firework displays.[149] Further contemporary imagery of Halloween is derived from Gothic and horror literature (notably Shelley's Frankenstein and Stoker's Dracula), and classic horror films (such as Hammer Horrors). Mass transatlantic Irish and Scottish migration in the 19th century popularised Halloween in North America.[150]
Witchcraft has featured in the British Isles for millennia. The use of a crystal ball to foretell the future is attributed to the druids. In medieval folklore King Arthur's magician, the wizard Merlin, carried around a crystal ball for the same purpose. John Dee, consultant to Elizabeth I, frequently used a crystal ball to communicate with the angels.[151] Probably the most famous depiction of witchcraft in literature is in Shakespeare's 1606 play Macbeth, featuring the three witches and their cauldron. The ghost of Anne Boleyn is a frequently reported ghost sighting in the UK. Differing accounts include seeing her ghost ride up to Blickling Hall in a coach drawn by a headless horseman, with her own head on her lap.[152]
Neopagan witchcraft began in England in the early 20th century with notable figures such as Aleister Crowley and the father of Wicca Gerald Gardner, before expanding westward in the 1960s.[153] Settling down near the New Forest in Hampshire, Gardner joined an occult group through which he claimed to have encountered the New Forest coven into which he was initiated in 1939.[153] Believing the coven to be a survival of the pre-Christian Witch-Cult, he decided to revive the faith, supplementing the coven's rituals with ideas borrowed from ceremonial magic and the writings of Crowley to form the Gardnerian tradition of Wicca.[153] Moving to London in 1945, following the repeal of the Witchcraft Act of 1736 Gardner became intent on propagating Wicca, attracting media attention and writing Witchcraft Today (1954) and The Meaning of Witchcraft (1959). Crowley (the founder of Thelema) was described as "the most notorious occultist magician of the 20th century", and he remains an influential figure over Western esotericism and the counter-culture.[154] His motto of "Do What Thou Wilt" is inscribed on the vinyl of Led Zeppelin's album Led Zeppelin III, and he is the subject of Ozzy Osbourne's single "Mr Crowley".[155]
Each country has its own body responsible for heritage matters.
English Heritage is the government body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty has a contrasting role. Seventeen of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites are in England. Some of the best known of these include Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Westminster, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, and Studley Royal Park. The northernmost point of the Roman Empire, Hadrian's Wall, is the largest Roman artefact anywhere: it runs a total of 73 miles in northern England.[156]
Historic Environment Scotland is the executive agency of the Scottish Government, responsible for historic monuments in Scotland, such as Stirling Castle. The Old and New Town of Edinburgh is a notable Scottish World Heritage site. Balmoral Castle is the main Scottish residence of the British monarch. The Wallace Monument in Stirling contains artifacts believed to have belonged to Sir William Wallace, including the Wallace Sword. The Rob Roy Way, named after Scottish folk hero and outlaw Rob Roy MacGregor, is a long-distance footpath that runs for 92 miles. A statue of Robert the Bruce and a large monument and visitor centre (operated by the National Trust for Scotland) is located in Bannockburn near the site of the Battle of Bannockburn.[157]
Many of Wales' great castles, such as the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd and other monuments, are under the care of Cadw, the historic environment service of the Welsh Government. Welsh actor Sir Anthony Hopkins donated millions to the preservation of Snowdonia National Park. The five most frequently visited Welsh castles are Caernarfon Castle, Conwy Castle, Caerphilly Castle, Harlech Castle and Beaumaris Castle. The Northern Ireland Environment Agency promotes and conserves the natural and built environment in Northern Ireland, and the Giant's Causeway on the north-east coast is one of the natural World Heritage sites. Tintagel Castle is a popular tourist destination in Cornwall, with the castle associated with the legend of King Arthur since the 12th century. There are 15 National Parks, including the Lake District in England, Snowdonia in Wales, and Loch Lomond and The Trossachs National Park in Scotland
The British Museum in London with its collection of more than seven million objects,[158] is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world, and sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. On display since 1802, the Rosetta Stone is the most viewed attraction. The Natural History Museum, London was established by Richard Owen (who coined the term "dinosaur") to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits.[159] The National Museums of Scotland bring together national collections in Scotland. Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales comprises eight museums in Wales. National Museums Northern Ireland has four museums in Northern Ireland including the Ulster Museum.
The Titanic Belfast museum, a visitor attraction in the Titanic Quarter, east Belfast, Northern Ireland on the regenerated site of the shipyard where Titanic was built, was opened to the public in 2012.[160] The architecture is a tribute to Titanic itself, with the external facades a nod to the enormous hull of the ocean liner.
The first Madame Tussauds wax museum opened in London in 1835, and today displays waxworks of famous people from various fields, including royalty (Princess Diana), historical figures (Henry VIII), sport (David Beckham), music (Freddie Mercury), literature (Charles Dickens), politics (Winston Churchill), television (Gordon Ramsay), and cinema (Michael Caine) among others.[161]
The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize.[162] The National Galleries of Scotland are the five national galleries of Scotland and two partner galleries. The National Museum of Art, Wales, opened in 2011.[163]
The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books.[164] The library has two of the four remaining copies of the original Magna Carta (the other two copies are held in Lincoln Castle and Salisbury Cathedral) and has a room devoted solely to them. The British Library Sound Archive has over six million recordings (many from the BBC Sound Archive, including Winston Churchill's wartime speeches.)
The National Library of Scotland in Edinburgh holds 7 million books, 14 million printed items (such as the last letter written by Mary, Queen of Scots) and over 2 million maps.[165] The National Library of Wales is the national legal deposit library of Wales, and holds over 6.5 million books, portraits, maps and photographic images in Wales.[166]
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Blue plaques are the oldest historical marker scheme in the world.[167] The scheme was proposed by politician William Ewart in 1863 and was initiated in 1866 by the Society of Arts. Since 1986 it has been run by English Heritage.[167]
The first plaque was unveiled in 1867 to commemorate Lord Byron at his birthplace, 24 Holles Street, Cavendish Square, London. Events commemorated by plaques include John Logie Baird's first demonstration of television at 22 Frith Street, Westminster, W1, London, the first sub 4-minute mile run by Roger Bannister on 6 May 1954 at Oxford University's Iffley Road Track, and a sweet shop in Llandaff, Cardiff that commemorates the mischief by a young Roald Dahl who put a mouse in the gobstoppers jar.[168]
From the time of the Scientific Revolution, England and Scotland, and thereafter the United Kingdom, have been prominent in world scientific and technological development. The Royal Society serves as the national academy for sciences, with members drawn from different institutions and disciplines. Formed in 1660, it is one of the oldest learned societies still in existence.[169]
Sir Isaac Newton's publication of the Principia Mathematica ushered in what is recognisable as modern physics. The first edition of 1687 and the second edition of 1713 framed the scientific context of the foundation of the United Kingdom. He realised that the same force is responsible for movements of celestial and terrestrial bodies, namely gravity. He is the father of classical mechanics, formulated as his three laws and as the co-inventor (with Gottfried Leibniz) of differential calculus. He also created the binomial theorem, worked extensively on optics, and created a law of cooling.
Figures from the UK have contributed to the development of most major branches of science. John Napier introduced logarithms in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations. Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell unified the electric and magnetic forces in what are now known as Maxwell's equations. Following his publication of A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1865, Maxwell predicted the existence of radio waves in 1867.[171] James Joule worked on thermodynamics and is often credited with the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy.
Naturalist Charles Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species and discovered the principle of evolution by natural selection. James Hutton, founder of modern geology, worked on the age of the Earth (deep time) which forms a key element of Darwin's theory. Other important geologists include Charles Lyell, author of Principles of Geology, who also coined the term Pleistocene, and Adam Sedgwick, who proposed (and coined) the name of the Cambrian Period.[172] William Thomson (Baron Kelvin) drew important conclusions in the field of thermodynamics and invented the Kelvin scale of absolute zero. Paul Dirac was one of the pioneers of quantum mechanics. Botanist Robert Brown discovered the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid (Brownian motion). John Stewart Bell created Bell's Theorem. Harold Kroto discovered buckminsterfullerene.
Other 19th- and early 20th-century British pioneers in their field include Joseph Lister (antiseptic surgery), Edward Jenner (vaccination), Richard Owen (palaeontology, coined the term Dinosaur), Florence Nightingale (nursing), Sir George Cayley (aerodynamics), William Fox Talbot (photography), and Howard Carter (modern archaeology, discovered Tutankhamun).
Scholarly descriptions of dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th-century England. Between 1815 and 1824, William Buckland discovered fossils of Megalosaurus and became the first person to describe a dinosaur in a scientific journal. The second dinosaur genus to be identified, Iguanodon, was discovered in 1822 by Mary Ann Mantell. In 1832, Gideon Mantell discovered fossils of a third dinosaur, Hylaeosaurus. Owen recognised that the remains of the three new species that had been found so far shared a number of distinctive features. He decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group, dinosaurs.[173]
John Harrison invented the marine chronometer, a key piece in solving the problem of accurately establishing longitude at sea, thus revolutionising and extending the possibility of safe long-distance sea travel.[174] The most celebrated British explorers include James Cook, Walter Raleigh, Sir Francis Drake, Henry Hudson, George Vancouver, Sir John Franklin, David Livingstone, Captain John Smith, Robert Falcon Scott, Lawrence Oates and Ernest Shackleton. The aquarium craze began in Victorian England when Philip Henry Gosse created and stocked the first public aquarium at London Zoo in 1853, and coined the term "aquarium" when he published The Aquarium: An Unveiling of the Wonders of the Deep Sea in 1854.[175] Robert FitzRoy pioneered weather forecasting: the first daily weather forecasts were published in The Times in 1861.[176]
A crucial advance in the development of the flush toilet was the S-trap invented by Alexander Cumming in 1775 – it uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer.[177] In 1824 Charles Macintosh invented the waterproof raincoat; the Mackintosh (mac) is named after him.[177] William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1824.[178] The first commercial electrical telegraph was co-invented by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone. They patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system, and it was first successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 between Euston and Camden Town in London.[179]
Postal reformer Sir Rowland Hill is regarded as the creator of the modern postal service and the inventor of the postage stamp (Penny Black) — with his solution of pre-payment facilitating the safe, speedy and cheap transfer of letters.[180] Hill's colleague Sir Henry Cole introduced the world's first commercial Christmas card in 1843.[181] In 1851 Sir George Airy established the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, as the location of the prime meridian where longitude is defined to be 0° (one of the two lines that divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres). George Boole authored The Laws of Thought which contains Boolean algebra. Forming the mathematical foundations of computing, Boolean logic laid the foundations for the information age.
Historically, many of the UK's greatest scientists have been based at either Oxford or Cambridge University, with laboratories such as the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge and the Clarendon Laboratory in Oxford becoming famous in their own right. In modern times, other institutions such as the Red Brick and New Universities are catching up with Oxbridge. For instance, Lancaster University has a global reputation for work in low temperature physics.
Technologically, the UK is also amongst the world's leaders. Historically, it was at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, with innovations especially in textiles, the steam engine, railroads, machine tools and civil engineering. Famous British engineers and inventors from this period include James Watt, Robert Stephenson, Richard Arkwright, Henry Maudslay and the 'father of Railways' George Stephenson. Maudslay's most influential invention was the screw-cutting lathe, a machine which created uniformity in screws and allowed for the application of interchangeable parts (a prerequisite for mass production): it was a revolutionary development necessary for the Industrial Revolution. The UK has the oldest railway networks in the world, with the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opened in 1825, the first public railway to use steam locomotives. Opened in 1863, London Underground is the world's first underground railway.[183] Running along the East Coast Main Line between Edinburgh and London, the Flying Scotsman has been ranked the world's most famous steam locomotive.[184]
Engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, another major figure of the Industrial Revolution, was placed second in a 2002 BBC nationwide poll to determine the "100 Greatest Britons".[185] He created the Great Western Railway, as well as famous steamships including the SS Great Britain, the first propeller-driven ocean-going iron ship, and SS Great Eastern which laid the first lasting transatlantic telegraph cable. Josiah Wedgwood pioneered the industrialisation of pottery manufacture.[186] In 1820, Scottish road builder John McAdam invented "macadamisation" for building roads with a smooth hard surface. In 1901, Edgar Purnell Hooley added tar to the mix and named it Tarmac (short for tarmacadam).[187]
Probably the greatest driver behind the modern use of concrete was Smeaton's Tower built by John Smeaton in the 1750s. The third Eddystone Lighthouse (the world's first open ocean lighthouse), Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete. Scotsman Robert Stevenson constructed the Bell Rock Lighthouse in the early 1800s. Situated 11 miles off east Scotland, it is the world's oldest surviving sea-washed lighthouse. Portland cement, the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, was developed in England in the 19th century. It was coined by Joseph Aspdin in 1824 (he named it after Portland stone), and further developed by his son William Aspdin in the 1840s.
The UK has produced some of the most famous ships in the world: Harland and Wolff in Belfast built the RMS Titanic as well as her sister ships RMS Olympic and RMS Britannic; in Clydebank John Brown and Company built the RMS Queen Mary, RMS Queen Elizabeth and SS Queen Elizabeth 2; ships built in England include the Mary Rose (King Henry VIII's warship), the Golden Hind (Sir Francis Drake's ship for the circumnavigation of the globe between 1577 and 1580), HMS Victory (Lord Nelson's flagship at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805), and HMS Beagle (ship used in Charles Darwin's five-year voyage). Other important British ships include HMS Endeavour (James Cook's ship in his first voyage of discovery), HMS Challenger (first global marine research expedition: the Challenger expedition), and Discovery (carried Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton in the Discovery Expedition, their first successful journey to the Antarctic). The Royal Navy troopship HMS Birkenhead is known for the first appearance of the "women and children first" protocol.[188]
Since then, the UK has continued this tradition of technical creativity. Alan Turing (leading role in the creation of the modern computer), Scottish inventor Alexander Graham Bell (the first practical telephone), John Logie Baird (world's first working television system, first electronic colour television), Frank Whittle (co-invented the jet engine) — powered by Whittle's turbojet engines, the Gloster Meteor was the first British jet fighter and the Allies' only jet aircraft to achieve combat operations during World War II, Charles Babbage (devised the idea of the computer), Alexander Fleming (discovered penicillin). The UK remains one of the leading providers of technological innovations, providing inventions as diverse as the World Wide Web by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, and Viagra by British scientists at Pfizer's Sandwich, Kent. Sir Alec Jeffreys pioneered DNA fingerprinting. Pioneers of fertility treatment Patrick Steptoe and Robert Edwards, achieved conception through IVF (world's first "test tube baby") in 1978.[189]
The prototype tank was constructed at William Foster & Co. in Lincoln in 1915, with leading roles played by Major Walter Gordon Wilson who designed the gearbox and developed practical tracks and by William Tritton whose company built it.[191] This was a prototype of the Mark I tank, the first tank used in combat in September 1916 during WWI.[191] The First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, was credited by Prime Minister David Lloyd George as being the driving force behind their production. Allan Beckett designed the 'Whale' floating roadway, crucial to the success of the Mulberry harbour used in the invasion of Normandy in WWII. In 1918, HMS Argus became the world's first aircraft carrier capable of launching and recovering naval aircraft, and in WWII, HMS Ark Royal was involved in the first aerial and U-boat kills of the war, as well as the crippling of the German battleship the Bismarck in May 1941. In 1932, Cambridge engineer Francis Thomas Bacon invented the alkaline fuel cell which is used to generate power for space capsules and satellites.[192]
Introduced in 1952, the de Havilland Comet was the world's first commercial jet airliner.[193] Operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation (which merged with other British operators to form today's British Airways), on 2 May 1952 the flight registered G-ALYS took off with fare-paying passengers and inaugurated scheduled service from London to Johannesburg.[193]
In 1952, OXO (or Noughts and Crosses), created by computer scientist Alexander S. Douglas, is regarded as a contender for the first video game.[194] In OXO, the computer player could play perfect games of noughts and crosses against a human opponent.[194] In the 1960s, John Shepherd-Barron invented the cash machine (ATM) and James Goodfellow invented Personal identification number (PIN) technology, and on 27 June 1967, the first cash machine was established outside a branch of Barclays Bank in Enfield, north London. Dolly the sheep, the first mammal successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell (by scientists at Roslin Institute in Edinburgh), became a celebrity in the 1990s.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain due to the social, economic and political changes in the country during the previous centuries. The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688 following the Glorious Revolution, in contrast to other European countries where absolute monarchy remained the typical form of government, can be said to be a factor in favouring Britain as the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution.[196] Aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain.[197] Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain also contributed, with the country's extensive coast lines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation. Britain also had high quality coal.
Historian Jeremy Black states, "an unprecedented explosion of new ideas, and new technological inventions, transformed our use of energy, creating an increasingly industrial and urbanised country. Roads, railways and canals were built. Great cities appeared. Scores of factories and mills sprang up. Our landscape would never be the same again. It was a revolution that transformed not only the country, but the world itself."[196]
Pottery manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood was one of the most successful entrepreneurs of the Industrial Revolution. Meeting the demands of the consumer revolution and growth in wealth of the middle classes that helped drive the Industrial Revolution in Britain, Wedgwood created goods such as soft-paste porcelain tableware (bone china), which was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.[196] Credited as a pioneer of modern marketing, Wedgwood pioneered direct mail, money back guarantees, travelling salesmen, carrying pattern boxes for display, self-service, free delivery, buy one get one free, and illustrated catalogues.[198] Other important figures in marketing and advertising in the 18th and 19th centuries were Thomas Chippendale, the London cabinet-maker who in 1754 produced the "first comprehensive trade catalogue of its kind",[199] and Thomas J. Barratt, who became the first brand manager of a company (Pears soap) in 1865. In 1882, English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry was recruited by Barratt to become the poster-girl for Pears (which included putting her "signature" on the advertisements), as she became the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.[200]
Described as "natural capitalists" by the BBC, dynasties of Quakers were successful in business matters, and they contributed the Industrial Revolution in Britain. This included ironmaking by Abraham Darby I and his family; banking, including Lloyds Bank (founded by Sampson Lloyd), Barclays Bank, Backhouse's Bank and Gurney's Bank; life assurance (Friends Provident); pharmaceuticals (Allen & Hanburys); the big three British chocolate companies (Cadbury, Fry's and Rowntree); biscuit manufacturing (Huntley & Palmers); match manufacture (Bryant and May) and shoe manufacturing (Clarks). With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of James Watt's steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.[201] In 1861, Welsh entrepreneur Pryce Pryce-Jones formed the first mail order business, an idea which would change the nature of retail. Selling Welsh flannel, he created mail order catalogues, with customers able order by mail for the first time, and the goods were delivered by railway.[202]
The UK has had a long history of car making. Some of the best known British brands are Rolls-Royce, Bentley, Aston Martin, McLaren, Jaguar, Land Rover, MG, and the Mini. Rolls-Royce was founded by Charles Stewart Rolls and Sir Frederick Henry Royce in 1906. In addition to the company's reputation for superior engineering quality in its cars, Rolls-Royce Limited was known for manufacturing the high-powered "R" engines, including the iconic Rolls-Royce Merlin aero engine which was used for many World War II aircraft.[203] Bentley Motors Limited was founded by W. O. Bentley in 1919 in Cricklewood, North London, and, like Rolls-Royce, is regarded as a British luxury automobile icon. Aston Martin was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford, and became associated with luxury grand touring cars in the 1950s and 1960s, and with the fictional British spy James Bond. Jaguar was founded in 1922. The Jaguar E-Type sports car was released in 1961; Enzo Ferrari called it "the most beautiful car ever made".[204] Jaguar has, in recent years, manufactured cars for the British Prime Minister. The company also holds royal warrants from Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Charles. The Land Rover launched in 1948 and specialises in four-wheel-drive. Many models have been developed for the Ministry of Defence (MoD). The Mini was released by the British Motor Corporation in 1959 and became a 1960s cultural icon. The performance versions, the Mini Cooper, was a successful rally car. The distinctive two-door Mini was designed for BMC by Sir Alec Issigonis. It has been named Britain's favourite car in a poll.[205]
Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for more than 1,400 years.[206] Anglican churches remain the largest faith group in each country of the UK except Scotland, where Anglicanism is a small minority. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland is the national church in Scotland.[207] Following this is Roman Catholicism and religions including Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Buddhism. Today British Jews number around 300,000; the UK has the fifth largest Jewish community worldwide.[208]
William Tyndale's 1520s translation of the Bible was the first to be printed in English, and was a model for subsequent English translations, notably the King James Version in 1611. The Book of Common Prayer of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English, and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language.
In 17th-century England, the Puritans condemned the celebration of Christmas.[209] In contrast, the Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglicans and Puritans."[210] The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously orientated form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I in the English Civil War, Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.[211]
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities; and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans.[209] The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and notes old English Christmas traditions: dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing.[212] The Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban.
Following the Restoration, Poor Robins Almanack contained the lines:
The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details Christmas observance and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.[214]
In the early 19th century, writers imagined Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol that helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment.[215][216] Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centred festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation."[217] Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, termed "Carol Philosophy",[218] Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.[219] A prominent phrase from the tale, "Merry Christmas", was popularised following its publication.[220] The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with "Bah! Humbug!" dismissive of the festive spirit.[216] Tiny Tim says "God bless us, every one!" which he offers as a blessing at Christmas dinner. Dickens repeats the phrase at the end of the story; symbolic of Scrooge's change of heart.
The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships", "Hark the Herald Angels Sing" and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen". In 1843 the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Henry Cole, leading to the exchange of festive greeting cards among the public. The movement coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.[221]
In the UK, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century, following the personal union with the Kingdom of Hanover, by Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, wife of King George III. In 1832, the future Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it.[222] After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, a hugely influential image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848, after which the custom became more widespread throughout Britain.[223]
While 2001 census information suggests that over 75% of British citizens consider themselves to belong to a religion, Gallup reports that only 10% of British citizens regularly attend religious services.[224] A 2004 YouGov poll found that 44% of British citizens believe in God, while 35% do not.[225] Christmas and Easter are national public holidays in the UK.[226] First broadcast over the Easter period in 1977, the two-part Jesus of Nazareth television miniseries, starring Robert Powell as Jesus, was watched by over 21 million viewers in the UK. In 1844 Sir George Williams founded YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) in London. The oldest and largest youth charity in the world, its aim is to support young people to belong, contribute and thrive in their communities.[227] The Salvation Army is a Christian charity founded by William Booth and his wife Catherine in London's East End in 1865. It seeks to bring salvation to the poor, destitute and hungry.[228]
The UK has a parliamentary government based on the Westminster system that has been emulated around the world – a legacy of the British Empire. The Parliament of the United Kingdom that meets in the Houses of Parliament has two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed House of Lords, and any Bill passed requires Royal Assent to become law. It is the ultimate legislative authority in the United Kingdom: the devolved parliaments and assemblies in Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales are not sovereign bodies and could be abolished by the UK Parliament, despite each being established following public approval as expressed in a referendum.[229]
The UK's two major political parties are the Labour Party and the Conservative Party, who between them won 568 out of 650 seats in the House of Commons at the most recent general election. Currently, the third biggest party in terms of seats in the Commons is the Scottish National Party (SNP). At the most recent election, the SNP won 48 out of the 59 Scottish constituencies. The Liberal Democrats, or Lib Dems, were the fourth largest, at 11 seats. One seat was won by the Green Party. The remaining seats were won by regional parties, namely Plaid Cymru (Wales), the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, the Social Democratic and Labour Party, Democratic Unionist Party, and Sinn Féin (Northern Ireland).
A prominent part of British political culture, Prime Minister's Questions – often referred to as "PMQs" – is held every Wednesday at noon when the House of Commons is sitting. The Prime Minister spends around half an hour responding to questions from Members of Parliament (MPs). In questioning the policies of government ministers, MP Amber Rudd states "PMQs is central to our democracy."[230] Due to the drama of the sessions, PMQs is among the best-known parliamentary business in the country. It is broadcast live on BBC News, Sky News and BBC Parliament television channels, as well as streamed online by many news outlets via numerous services, such as Twitch or YouTube.
The United Kingdom has an uncodified constitution, the Constitution of the United Kingdom, consisting mostly of a collection of disparate written sources, including statutes, judge-made case law, and international treaties. As there is no technical difference between ordinary statutes and constitutional law, the British Parliament can perform constitutional reform simply by passing Acts of Parliament and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments cannot change.[231]
British constitutional documents include Magna Carta (foundation of the "great writ" Habeas corpus — safeguarding individual freedom against arbitrary state action), the Bill of Rights 1689 (one provision granting freedom of speech in Parliament), Petition of Right, Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. A separate but similar document, the Claim of Right Act, applies in Scotland. Jurist Albert Venn Dicey wrote that the British Habeas Corpus Acts "declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty".[232] An advocate of the "unwritten constitution", Dicey stated English rights were embedded in the general English common law of personal liberty, and "the institutions and manners of the nation".[233]
According to 2016 figures from the Ministry of Justice, there is a 35% chance of people in England and Wales being summoned for jury duty over the course of their lifetime. In Scotland the percentage is higher due to Scotland having a lower population as well having juries made up of fifteen people as opposed to twelve in England and Wales.[234]
The 17th-century English patriot John Hampden was a leading parliamentarian involved in challenging the authority of Charles I when he refused to be taxed for ship money in 1637, and was one of the Five Members whose attempted unconstitutional arrest by the King in the House of Commons in 1642 sparked the English Civil War. The wars established the constitutional rights of parliament, a concept legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution in 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689. Since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting.[236] Hampden is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch.[236]
Other important British political figures include Sir Edward Coke, 17th-century jurist; the legal directive that nobody may enter a home, which in the 17th-century would typically have been male owned, unless by the owners invitation or consent, was established as common law in Coke's Institutes of the Lawes of England. "For a man's house is his castle, et domus sua cuique est tutissimum refugium [and each man's home is his safest refuge]." It is the origin of the famous dictum, "an Englishman's home is his castle".[237] Sir William Blackstone, 18th-century jurist, judge and politician best known for his Commentaries on the Laws of England, containing his formulation: "It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer", a principle that government and the courts must err on the side of innocence,[238] Emmeline Pankhurst, leading suffragette which helped win women the right to vote, William Wilberforce, leading parliamentary abolitionist. An influential thinker in the history of liberalism, 19th century philosopher, political economist and politician John Stuart Mill justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social control. A member of the Liberal Party, he was also the first Member of Parliament to call for women's suffrage.[239]
Robert Walpole is generally regarded as the first British Prime Minister (1721–1742). Twice Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, founded the Conservative party (which was expanded by Benjamin Disraeli), and created the modern police force.[240] Margaret Thatcher was the first female British Prime Minister (1979–1990). She became known as the "Iron Lady", a term coined by a Soviet journalist for her uncompromising politics and leadership style. In 1938, Neville Chamberlain believed he had secured "Peace for our time" with Germany, a year before WWII broke out.
English poet William Cowper wrote in 1785, "We have no slaves at home – Then why abroad? Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs receive our air, that moment they are free, They touch our country, and their shackles fall. That's noble, and bespeaks a nation proud. And jealous of the blessing. Spread it then, And let it circulate through every vein."[241] Thomas Clarkson described fellow British abolitionist Josiah Wedgwood's 1787 anti-slavery medallion, "Am I Not A Man And A Brother?", as "promoting the cause of justice, humanity and freedom".[242] Following the Slave Trade Act 1807, Britain pressed other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties,[243] and in 1839 the world's oldest international human rights organisation, Anti-Slavery International, was formed in London, which worked to outlaw slavery abroad; Wilberforce's abolitionist colleague Thomas Clarkson was the organisation's first key speaker.[244] The 1965 suspension of the death penalty for murder had been introduced to Parliament as a private member's bill by Sydney Silverman MP.[245] The world's largest human rights organisation, Amnesty International, was founded by Peter Benenson in London in 1961.[246]
The British honours system is a means of rewarding individuals' personal bravery, achievement or service to the United Kingdom. Candidates are identified by public or private bodies or by government departments or are nominated by members of the public. Nominations are reviewed by honours committees, made up of government officials and private citizens from different fields, who meet twice a year to discuss the candidates and make recommendations for appropriate honours to be awarded by the King.[247]
Historically a knighthood was conferred upon mounted warriors. By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior. An example of warrior chivalry in medieval literature is Sir Gawain (King Arthur's nephew and a Knight of the Round Table) in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th century). Since the early modern period, the title of knight is purely honorific, usually bestowed by a monarch, often for non-military service to the country. The modern female equivalent in the UK is damehood. The ceremony often takes place at Buckingham Palace, and family members are invited to attend.[248]
A few examples of knights are Sir Nicholas Winton: for "services to humanity, in saving Jewish children from Nazi occupied Czechoslovakia",[249] Sir Elton John: for "services to music and charitable services", Sir Ridley Scott: for "services to the British film industry",[250] and Sir Richard Branson: for "services to entrepreneurship".[251] Examples of dames are: actress Dame Julie Andrews and singer Dame Shirley Bassey: both for "services to the performing arts", actress Dame Joan Collins: for "services to charity", and Dame Agatha Christie: for "contribution to literature".[252]
The suffix "shire" is attached to most of the names of English, Scottish and Welsh counties. Shire is a term for a division of land first used in England during the Anglo-Saxon period. Examples in England are Cheshire, Hampshire, Nottinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Staffordshire, Worcestershire and Yorkshire; in Scotland, Aberdeenshire, Perthshire, Inverness-shire and Stirlingshire; and in Wales, Carmarthenshire, Flintshire and Pembrokeshire. This suffix tends not to be found in the names of counties that were pre-existing divisions. Essex, Kent, and Sussex, for example, have never borne a -shire, as each represents a former Anglo-Saxon kingdom. Similarly Cornwall was a British kingdom before it became an English county. The term "shire" is also not used in the names of the six traditional counties of Northern Ireland.
Use of the British imperial system of measure, particularly among the public, is widespread in the United Kingdom and is in many cases permitted by the law.[253] Human height and weight, long distances and speed are measured in imperial units by the vast majority of Brits.[254] A Brit would normally give their weight as "12 and a half stone" rather than 80 kilograms, though younger people increasingly use kilograms rather than stone.[255][254] Body height is usually given in feet and inches.[253] Younger generations tend to use more metric units of measurement, creating a generational gap, for example in short distances and item weight.[254] Although the majority of Brits now use degrees Celsius to measure temperature, the use of Fahrenheit persists in older generations.[254] Distances shown on road signs must be in miles and yards, while miles per hour appear on speed limit signs and car speedometers.[256]
Britain has been transitioning to metric since 1965, when the UK Government announced financial support for metrication with a target of 10 years.[257] When the UK joined the European Economic Community in 1973, the UK re-affirmed its commitment to metrication,[257] but in 2007, the European Commission abandoned completely the deadline for full metrication in the UK.[258]
By custom and law, traffic in Britain drives on the left. Research shows that countries driving on the left have a lower collision rate than those that drive on the right, and it has been suggested that this is partly because the predominantly better-performing right eye is used to monitor oncoming traffic and the driver's wing mirror.[259] The name of the zebra crossing is attributed to British MP and subsequent Prime Minister, James Callaghan, who in 1948 visited the Transport Research Laboratory which was working on a new idea for safe pedestrian crossings. On being shown a design he is said to have remarked that it resembled a zebra.[260] Located in Birmingham, the Gravelly Hill Interchange's colloquial name "Spaghetti Junction" was coined by journalists from the Birmingham Evening Mail on 1 June 1965. In 1971, the Green Cross Code was introduced to teach children safer road crossing habits. From 1987, Mungo Jerry's song "In the Summertime" featured in drink driving adverts. The building of roundabouts (circular junctions) grew rapidly in the 1960s; there are now more than 10,000 in the UK[261] The Cat's eye retroreflective safety device used in road marking was invented by Percy Shaw in 1933.
British cuisine is the specific set of cooking traditions and practices associated with the United Kingdom. Historically, British cuisine meant "unfussy dishes made with quality local ingredients, matched with simple sauces to accentuate flavour, rather than disguise it".[262] International recognition of British cuisine was historically limited to the full breakfast and the Christmas dinner.[263] However, Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for indigenous Celts. Anglo-Saxon England developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe. The Norman conquest introduced exotic spices into Great Britain in the Middle Ages.[263] The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of India's food tradition of "strong, penetrating spices and herbs".[263]
Each country within the United Kingdom has its own specialities. Traditional examples of English cuisine include the Sunday roast; featuring a roasted joint, usually roast beef (a signature English national dish dating back to the 1731 ballad "The Roast Beef of Old England"), lamb or chicken, served with assorted boiled vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy. The full English breakfast consists of bacon, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, baked beans, fried mushrooms, sausages and eggs. Black pudding and hash browns are often also included. It is usually served with tea or coffee. The Ulster version – Ulster fry – includes soda farl and potato bread, with the BBC's Simon Majumdar calling it the UK's best full breakfast.[264]
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Fish and chips are also regarded as a national institution: Winston Churchill called them "the good companions", John Lennon smothered them in tomato ketchup, while George Orwell referred to them as a "chief comfort" of the working class.[265] The meal was created in 1860 in the East End of London by a Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, who came up with the idea of combining fried fish with chips.[265] A blue plaque at Oldham's Tommyfield Market marks the 1860s origin of the fish and chip shop and fast food industries.[266] Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, shepherd's pie, cottage pie, Cornish pasty and pork pie.
A quintessential British custom, afternoon tea, is a small meal typically eaten between 4 pm and 6 pm. The most popular drink in Britain, tea became more widely drunk due to Catherine of Braganza. It is traditionally accompanied with biscuits, sandwiches, scones, cakes or pastries (such as Battenberg cake, fruit cake or Victoria sponge). In his 1946 essay "A Nice Cup of Tea", author George Orwell wrote: "Tea is one of the mainstays of civilisation in this country."[267] McVitie's are the best selling biscuit brand in the UK, and the most popular biscuits to "dunk" in tea, with McVitie's chocolate digestives, rich tea and hobnobs ranked the nation's top three favourite biscuits.[268] Other popular British biscuits include bourbons, custard creams, Jammie Dodgers, ginger nuts and shortbread.[268] The first documented figure-shaped biscuits (gingerbread man) was at the court of Elizabeth I in the 16th century.[269]
The first English recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Eales's Receipts in London in 1718, and arguably the earliest reference to an edible ice cream cone, appears in Charles Elmé Francatelli's 1846 The Modern Cook.[270]The 18th-century English aristocrat John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich is best known for his links to the modern concept of the sandwich which was named after him. When he ordered his valet to bring him meat tucked between two pieces of bread, others began to order "the same as Sandwich!".[271] In the city of Leeds in 1767, Joseph Priestley made his "happiest" discovery when he invented carbonated water (also known as soda water), the major and defining component of most soft drinks.[272] Carbonated lemonade was available in British refreshment stalls in 1833, with R. White's Lemonade sold in 1845. By 1887 they sold a wide variety of soft drink flavours. Irn-Bru is the best-selling soft drink in Scotland. Invented by a Newcastle pharmacist in 1927, Lucozade is the No. 1 sports drink in the UK.
Sausages are commonly eaten as bangers and mash, in sausage rolls or as toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well-known stew. Popular cheeses include Cheddar and Wensleydale. Sweet British dishes include scones, apple pie, mince pies, spotted dick, Eccles cakes, pancakes, sponge cake, trifle, jelly, custard, sticky toffee pudding, Tunnock's teacake, and Jaffa cakes; the best-selling cake in the UK. Marmalade is a popular British spread for toast or sandwich: a spread famous for its association with Paddington Bear, a beloved bear in British culture that featured in the critically acclaimed films Paddington (2014) and Paddington 2 (2017).[273]
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Home baking has always been a significant part of British home cooking. Influential cookbooks include The Experienced English Housekeeper (1769), Modern Cookery for Private Families (1845) by food author Eliza Acton that introduced the now-universal practice of listing ingredients and giving suggested cooking times for each recipe, and Isabella Beeton's Book of Household Management (1861). Home-made cakes and jams are part of the traditional English village fête. Filmed in bunting-draped marquees in scenic gardens, the success of the 2010s television show The Great British Bake Off (which was inspired by the village fête) is credited with spurring a renewed interest in home baking, with supermarkets and department stores in the UK reporting sharp rises in sales of baking ingredients and accessories. A popular cake to bake, Victoria sponge (named after Queen Victoria who enjoyed a slice with her tea), was created following the discovery of baking powder by English food manufacturer Alfred Bird in 1843, which enabled the sponge to rise higher in cakes.[274]
The hot cross bun is a popular British sweet bun traditionally eaten on Good Friday, but are now eaten all year round.[275] Treacle tart was created after the invention of golden syrup by chemists working for Abram Lyle in 1885. With its logo and green-and-gold packaging having remained almost unchanged since then, Lyle's Golden Syrup was listed by Guinness World Records as having the world's oldest branding and packaging.[276] Scottish cuisine includes Arbroath smokie and haggis; Northern Irish cuisine features the Ulster fry and the pastie and Welsh cuisine is noted for Welsh rarebit (often using Worcestershire sauce) and cawl. Brown sauce is a traditional British condiment, with its best known variety HP Sauce (named after and featuring an image of the Houses of Parliament on the label) a popular spread on chicken and bacon sandwiches. The Scottish Aberdeen Angus is a popular native beef breed, accounting for almost 20% of the UK beef industry.[277] Cavendish bananas were cultivated by Sir Joseph Paxton in the greenhouses of Chatsworth House, Derbyshire in 1836.[278] Named after William Cavendish, they make up the vast majority of bananas consumed in the western world.[278]
The pub is an important aspect of British culture, and is often the focal point of local communities. Referred to as their "local" by regulars, pubs are typically chosen for their proximity to home or work, the availability of a particular beer or ale or a good selection, good food, a social atmosphere, the presence of friends and acquaintances, and the availability of pub games such as darts or snooker. Pubs will often screen sports events, such as English Premier League and Scottish Premier League games (or for international tournaments, the FIFA World Cup). The pub quiz was established in the UK in the 1970s.
Initially created to draw in pre-literate drinkers,[280] in 1393, Richard II introduced a law that pubs had to display a sign outdoors to make them easily visible for passing ale tasters who would assess the quality of ale sold.[281] Most pubs still have decorated signs hanging over their doors. The owner or tenant (licensee) is known as the pub landlord or publican, while barmaids are a common feature in pubs. Alcoholic drinks served in pubs include wines and English beers such as bitter, mild, stout and brown ale. Whisky originated in Ireland and Scotland in the Middle Ages: Irish whiskey and Scotch whisky.[282]
On Christmas Day, goose was previously served at dinner; however since appearing on Christmas tables in England in the late 16th century, the turkey has become more popular, with Christmas pudding served for dessert.[283] The 16th-century English navigator William Strickland is credited with introducing the turkey into England, and 16th-century farmer Thomas Tusser noted that by 1573 turkeys were common in the English Christmas dinner.[284] This custom gave rise to the humorous English idiom, "like turkeys voting for Christmas".[285] The turkey is sometimes accompanied with roast beef or ham, and is served with stuffing, gravy, roast potatoes, mashed potatoes and vegetables. Invented in London in the 1840s, Christmas crackers are an integral part of Christmas celebrations, often pulled before or after dinner, or at parties.[286]
Chinese restaurants and takeaways (in addition to Indian) are among the most popular ethnic food in the UK.[287] Chinese takeaways are a common sight in towns throughout the UK, and many serve a pseudo-Chinese cuisine based on western tastes (such as chicken fried rice, chips and curry sauce).[288]
The earliest recipe for the crisp ("potato chip") is in English food writer William Kitchiner's 1822 cookbook The Cook's Oracle.[289] In 1920, Frank Smith of The Smiths Potato Crisps Company Ltd packaged a twist of salt with his crisps in greaseproof paper bags, which were sold around London.[290] Crisps remained otherwise unseasoned until an important scientific development in the 1950s. After Archer Martin and Richard Synge (while working in Leeds) received a Nobel Prize for the invention of partition chromatography in 1952, food scientists began to develop flavours via a gas chromatograph, a device that allowed scientists to understand chemical compounds behind complex flavours such as cheese.[291] In 1954, Irish crisps company Tayto produced the first seasoned crisps: Cheese & Onion.[292] Golden Wonder (Smiths' main competitor in Britain) produced their Cheese & Onion version, and Smith's countered with Salt & Vinegar (tested first by their north-east England subsidiary Tudor) which launched nationally in 1967, starting a two-decade-long flavour war.[293][294] The crisp market in the UK is led by Walkers (who introduced their own flavours in 1954), holding 56% of the market share.
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The Quakers, founded by George Fox in 1650s England and described by the BBC as "natural capitalists", had a virtual monopoly in the British chocolate industry for much of the 19th and 20th centuries, led by Cadbury of Birmingham, Fry's of Bristol and Rowntree's and Terry's of York.[295] Fry's produced the first chocolate bar in 1847, which was then mass-produced as Fry's Chocolate Cream in 1866.[296] The chocolate bars Cadbury Dairy Milk, Galaxy and Kit Kat, are the three best selling bars in the UK.[297] Cadbury Creme Eggs are the best selling confectionery item between New Year's Day and Easter in the UK, with annual sales in excess of 200 million. Sponsored by Cadbury, the annual children's Easter egg hunt takes place in over 250 locations in the UK. Created in Doncaster, Yorkshire, Butterscotch boiled sweets is one of the town's best known exports. Created in Lancashire, Jelly Babies are among the British public's favourite sweets. After Eights are a popular after dinner mint. A stick of rock (a hard cylindrical stick-shaped boiled sugar) is a traditional British seaside sweet, commonly sold at seaside resorts throughout the UK such as Brighton, Portrush and Blackpool. A "99 Flake" (commonly called a "99") which consists of ice cream in a cone with a Cadbury Flake inserted in it, is a hugely popular British dessert.[298]
Most of the major sports have separate administrative structures and national teams for each of the countries of the United Kingdom. Though each country is also represented individually at the Commonwealth Games, there is a single 'Team GB' (for Great Britain) that represents the UK at the Olympic Games. With the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in late 19th-century Victorian Britain, in 2012, IOC President Jacques Rogge stated; "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognized as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum".[300][301]
Both in participation and viewing, the most popular sport in the UK is association football.[302] The sport's origin can be traced to English public school football games. The rules were first drafted in England in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley, and the UK has the oldest football clubs in the world.[303] England is recognised as the birthplace of club football by FIFA, with Sheffield F.C., founded in 1857, the world's oldest football club.[304] The home nations all have separate national teams and domestic competitions, most notably England's Premier League and FA Cup, and the Scottish Premiership and Scottish Cup. The top three Welsh football clubs feature in the English league system. The first international football match was between Scotland and England in 1872.[305] Referred to as the "home of football" by FIFA, England hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament.[306] The British television audience for the 1966 World Cup final peaked at 32.30 million viewers, making it the most watched television event ever in the UK.[52]
The four home nations have produced some of the greatest players in the game's history, including, from England, Bobby Moore and Gordon Banks; from Northern Ireland, George Best and Pat Jennings; from Scotland, Kenny Dalglish and Jimmy Johnstone; and from Wales, Ian Rush and Ryan Giggs. The first recipient of the Ballon d'Or, Stanley Matthews was knighted while still a player. The English Premier League (formed in 1992 by member clubs of the old Football League First Division) is the most-watched football league in the world,[307] and its biggest clubs include Manchester United, Liverpool, Arsenal, Chelsea, Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City. Scotland's Celtic and Rangers also have a global fanbase. Leicester City's 2016 Premier League title win is regarded among the greatest sporting upsets ever.
The best-placed teams in the domestic leagues of England and Scotland qualify for Europe's premier competition, the UEFA Champions League (European Cup). Previous winners from the UK are Liverpool, Manchester United, Nottingham Forest, Celtic, Chelsea and Aston Villa. The UEFA Champions League Anthem, written by Tony Britten and based on Handel's Zadok the Priest, is played before each game.[308] Henry Lyte's Christian hymn "Abide with Me" is sung prior to kick-off at every FA Cup Final, a tradition since 1927.
The practice of "jumpers for goalposts" alludes to street/park football in the UK where jumpers would be placed on the ground and used as goalposts. This practice was referenced by singer Ed Sheeran in his DVD Jumpers for Goalposts: Live at Wembley Stadium as a nod to playing concerts at Wembley Stadium, the home of English football. Early references to dribbling come from accounts of medieval football games in England. Geoffrey Chaucer offered an allusion to such ball skills in 14th-century England. In The Knight's Tale (from the Canterbury Tales) he uses the following line: "rolleth under foot as doth a ball".[309]
Football in Britain is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of football chants, which are one of the last remaining sources of an oral folk song tradition in the UK.[310] Chants include "You're Not Singing Any More" (or its variant "We Can See You Sneaking Out!"), sung by jubilant fans towards the opposition fans who have gone silent (or left early).[311] Many teams in the UK have their own club anthem or have a song closely associated with them, for example "You'll Never Walk Alone" by Liverpool-based rock band Gerry and the Pacemakers, and "Local Hero" by Dire Straits frontman and Newcastle United fan Mark Knopfler, is played before the start of every Liverpool and Newcastle home game.[312]
Throughout the UK, meat pies (as well as burgers and chips) is a traditional hot food eaten at football games either before kick-off or during half time. The purchase of a football programme (a pre-match magazine produced by the home team that gives details on that day's game, including player profiles, recent form, interviews etc.) is also part of the 'ritual' of attending a football match in the UK. The Football Association dropped its ban on floodlights in 1950, and night games attracted increasingly large crowds of fans–some of them unruly—as well as large television audiences. Architects built bigger stadia, and "their cantilevered constructions dwarfing mean streets, supplanted the cathedral as a symbol of the city's identity and aspirations".[313]
The modern game of golf originated in Scotland, with the Fife town of St Andrews known internationally as the "home of golf".[314] and to many golfers the Old Course, an ancient links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage.[315] In 1764, the standard 18 hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes.[316] Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records.[317] The oldest known rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 in Leith.[318]
The oldest golf tournament in the world, and the first major championship in golf, The Open Championship, first took place in Ayrshire, Scotland in 1860, and today it is played on the weekend of the third Friday in July.[319] Golf's first superstar Harry Vardon, a member of the fabled Great Triumvirate who were pioneers of the modern game, won the Open a record six times. Since the 2010s, three Northern Irish golfers have had major success; Graeme McDowell, Darren Clarke and four time major winner Rory McIlroy.[320] The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy.[321] Sir Nick Faldo is the most successful British Ryder Cup player.
In 1845, rugby union was created when the first rules were written by pupils at Rugby School, Warwickshire.[322] A former pupil of the school William Webb Ellis, is often fabled with the invention of running with the ball in hand in 1823. The first rugby international took place on 27 March 1871, played between England and Scotland.[323] By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had teams, and in 1883 the first international competition the annual Home Nations Championship took place. In 1888, the Home Nations combined to form what is today called the British and Irish Lions, who now tour every four years to face a Southern Hemisphere team. The Wales team of the 1970s, which included a backline consisting of Gareth Edwards, J. P. R. Williams and Phil Bennett who were known for their feints, sidesteps and attacking running rugby, are regarded as one of the greatest teams in the game – all three players were involved in The greatest try ever scored in 1973. Jonny Wilkinson scored the winning drop goal for England in the last minute of extra time in the 2003 Rugby World Cup Final. The major domestic club competitions are the Premiership in England and the Celtic League in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and (since 2010) Italy. Of Cornish origin, the chant "Oggy Oggy Oggy, Oi Oi Oi!" is associated with rugby union (and its personalised variant with football); it inspired the "Maggie Maggie Maggie, Out Out Out!" chant by opponents of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s. In 1895, rugby league was created in Huddersfield, West Riding of Yorkshire, as the result of a split with the other Rugby code. The Super League is the sports top-level club competition in Britain, and the sport is especially popular in towns in the northern English counties of Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumbria. The Challenge Cup is the major rugby league cup competition.
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The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England in the 1860s, and after its creation, tennis spread throughout the upper-class English-speaking population, before spreading around the world.[325] Major Walter Clopton Wingfield is credited as being a pioneer of the game.[326] The world's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon championships, first occurred in 1877, and today the event takes place over two weeks in late June and early July.[327] Created in the Tudor period in the court of Henry VIII, the English dessert Strawberries and cream is synonymous with the British summer, and is famously consumed at Wimbledon. The tournament itself has a major place in the British cultural calendar. The eight-time Slam winner and Britain's most successful player Fred Perry is one of only seven men in history to have won all four Grand Slam events, which included three Wimbledons.[328] Virginia Wade won three Grand Slams, the most famous of which was Wimbledon in 1977, the year of the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II (the Queen attended Wimbledon for the first time since 1962 to watch the final). The 2013 and 2016 Wimbledon champion, Scotland's Andy Murray, is Britain's most recent male Grand Slam winner. In 2021, Emma Raducanu became the most recent British female Grand Slam winner.
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The 'Queensberry rules', the code of general rules in boxing, was named after John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry in 1867, that formed the basis of modern boxing.[329] Britain's first heavyweight world champion Bob Fitzsimmons made boxing history as the sport's first three-division world champion. The 1980s saw the emergence of heavyweight Frank Bruno who would become hugely popular with the British public. In the 1990s, Chris Eubank, Nigel Benn, Steve Collins and Michael Watson had a series of fights against each other in the super-middleweight division, drawing audiences of up to 20 million in the UK. Eubank's eccentric personality made him one of the most recognisable celebrities in the UK along with the cocky "Prince" Naseem Hamed. The Nigel Benn vs. Gerald McClellan fight in 1995 drew 13 million. Other big draw fighters in the UK included Lennox Lewis, Joe Calzaghe and Ricky Hatton.
The modern game of cricket was created in England in the 1830s when round arm bowling was legalised, followed by the historical legalisation of overarm bowling in 1864.[330] In 1876–77, England took part in the first-ever Test match against Australia. Influential to the development of the sport, W. G. Grace is regarded as one of the greatest cricket players, devising most of the techniques of modern batting.[331] His fame endures; Monty Python and the Holy Grail uses his image as "the face of God" during the sequence in which God sends the knights out on their quest for the grail. The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to The Ashes in 1882 that has remained Test cricket's most famous contest, and takes place every two years to high television viewing figures. The County Championship is the domestic competition in England and Wales. England have hosted the Cricket World Cup five times, and are the reigning champions, having won in 2019.
Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the Thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing. Horse racing was popular with the aristocrats and royalty of British society, earning it the title "Sport of Kings".[332] Named after Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby, The Derby was first run in 1780. The race serves as the middle leg of the Triple Crown, preceded by the 2000 Guineas and followed by the St Leger. The name "Derby" has since become synonymous with great races all over the world, and as such has been borrowed many times in races abroad.[333]
The National Hunt horse race the Grand National, is held annually at Aintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, attracting casual observers, and three-time winner Red Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history. Red Rum is the best-known racehorse in the UK, named by 45% of Britons, with Black Beauty (from Anna Sewell's novel) in second with 33%.[334]
Bolton company J.W. Foster and Sons's pioneering running spikes appear in the book, Golden Kicks: The Shoes that changed Sport.[335] They were made famous by 1924 100 m Olympic champion Harold Abrahams who would be immortalised in Chariots of Fire, the British Oscar winning film.[335] Foster's grandsons formed the sportswear company Reebok in Bolton.[335]
The 1950 British Grand Prix was the first Formula One World Championship race. Britain has produced some of the greatest drivers in Formula One, including Stirling Moss, Jim Clark (twice F1 champion), Graham Hill (only driver to have won the Triple Crown), John Surtees (only world champion in two and four wheels), Jackie Stewart (three-time F1 champion), James Hunt, Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time), Jenson Button and Lewis Hamilton (seven-time champion). The British Grand Prix is held at Silverstone every July. Also, the United Kingdom is home to some of the most prestigious teams in Formula One, including McLaren and Williams. It is also home to the headquarters of six of the ten current F1 teams, including current champions Mercedes, four-time champions Red Bull Racing, Alpine and Aston Martin.
Other major sporting events in the UK include the London Marathon, and The Boat Race on the River Thames. The most successful male rower in Olympic history, Steve Redgrave won gold medals at five consecutive Olympic Games. Cycling is a popular physical activity in the UK. In 1888, inventor Frank Bowden founded the Raleigh Bicycle Company, and by 1913, Raleigh was the biggest bicycle manufacturing company in the world. The Raleigh Chopper was named in the list of British design icons. In 1965 Tom Simpson became the first British world road race champion, and in 2012 Bradley Wiggins became the first British Tour de France winner. Chris Froome has subsequently won the Tour de France four times (2013, 2015, 2016 and 2017). Welsh cyclist Geraint Thomas won in 2018. Sprint specialist Mark Cavendish has won thirty Tour de France stages, putting him second on the all-time list.
In Ice Dance, many of the compulsory moves were developed by dancers from the UK in the 1930s.[337] At the 1984 Winter Olympics, Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean won ice dancing gold with the highest-ever score for a single programme. The pair received perfect 6.0 scores from every judge for artistic impression, and twelve 6.0s and six 5.9s overall.
At the 1988 Winter Olympics, ski jumper Eddie "The Eagle" Edwards gained fame as an underdog. Eddie was portrayed by Taron Egerton in the 2016 biographical sports comedy-drama film Eddie the Eagle.
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A great number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including association football, golf, tennis, boxing, rugby league, rugby union, cricket, field hockey, snooker, darts, billiards, squash, curling and badminton, all of which are popular in Britain. Another sport invented in the UK was baseball,[338] and its early form rounders is popular among children in Britain.[339] Snooker and darts are popular indoor games: Stephen Hendry is the seven time world snooker champion, Phil Taylor is the 16 time world darts champion. Snooker player Alex Higgins (nicknamed The Hurricane) and darts player Eric Bristow (nicknamed The Crafty Cockney) are credited with popularising each sport.
Bodybuilder Reg Park was Mr Britain in 1946 and became Mr Universe in 1951, 1958 and 1965.[340] Gaelic football is very popular in Northern Ireland, with many teams from the north winning the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship since the early 2000s. William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games, and in 1994, then IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games".[341]
Participation in women's team sport (in addition to profile in the media) has seen a rapid increase in recent years. Popular women's team sports include Netball Superleague formed in 2005, the FA WSL (women's football) formed in 2010 (Kelly Smith is seen as a leading figure in the game), Women's Six Nations Championship in rugby union, and Women's Cricket Super League.
The Highland games are held throughout the year in Scotland as a way of celebrating Scottish and Celtic culture and heritage, especially that of the Scottish Highlands, with more than 60 games taking place across the country every year. Each December, the BBC Sports Personality of the Year is announced, an award given to the best British sportsperson of the year, as voted for by the British public. The public also votes for the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year, presented to a non-British sportsperson considered to have made the most substantial contribution to a sport each year which has also captured the imagination of the British public. Recipients have included Pelé (after winning his third World Cup in 1970), Muhammad Ali (after regaining the heavyweight title in 1974), Jonah Lomu (for his performances at the 1995 Rugby World Cup), Ronaldo (for his comeback in winning the 2002 World Cup), and Roger Federer (for his record eighth Wimbledon in 2017).[342]
Each of the four countries of the UK has a publicly funded health care system referred to as the National Health Service (NHS). The terms "National Health Service" or "NHS" are also used to refer to the four systems collectively. All of the services were founded in 1948, based on legislation passed by the Labour Government that had been elected in 1945 with a manifesto commitment to implement the Beveridge Report recommendation to create "comprehensive health and rehabilitation services for prevention and cure of disease".[343]
The NHS was born out of a long-held ideal that good healthcare should be available to all, regardless of wealth. At its launch by the then minister of health, Aneurin Bevan, on 5 July 1948, it had at its heart three core principles: That it meet the needs of everyone, that it be free at the point of delivery, and that it be based on clinical need, not ability to pay.[344] The NHS had a prominent slot during the 2012 London Summer Olympics opening ceremony directed by Danny Boyle, being described as "the institution which more than any other unites our nation", according to the programme.[345] Cancer Research UK, Alzheimer's Research UK and Together for Short Lives are among hundreds of health charities in the UK.
Florence Nightingale laid the foundation of modern nursing with the establishment of her nursing school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. It was the first secular nursing school in the world, now part of King's College London. Nightingale wrote Notes on Nursing in 1859. The book served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools.[346] The Nightingale Pledge is taken by many new nurses in the US (but not the UK), and the annual International Nurses Day (12 May) is celebrated around the world on her birthday. Her social reforms improved healthcare for all sections of society in the UK and around the world.[347]
In the UK, about 40% of the population own a pet. The top pets in the UK for 2018 and 2019 are:[349]
However, the population of pets in the UK declined from 71 million in 2013 (a significant peak) to 51 million in 2018.[350] This decline has seen some reversal as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic; an article published in May 2021 stated that a total of 3.2 million households in the UK had acquired a pet since the start of the pandemic, according to the Pet Food Manufacturers' Association.[351]
Founded in 1824, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) is the oldest and largest animal welfare organisation in the world.[352]
The British Shorthair cat is the most popular pedigreed breed in its native country, as registered by the UK's Governing Council of the Cat Fancy (GCCF). The breed's broad cheeks and relatively calm temperament make it a frequent media star. The cat's profile reads: "When gracelessness is observed, the British Shorthair is duly embarrassed, quickly recovering with a 'Cheshire cat smile'".[353] There are almost one million horses and ponies in the UK, with popular native breeds including Clydesdale horse (used as drum horses by the British Household Cavalry), Thoroughbred (used in horse racing), Cleveland Bay (pull carriages in royal processions), Highland pony and Shetland pony.
The UK's indigenous dog breeds include the Bulldog, Jack Russell Terrier, Golden Retriever, Yorkshire Terrier, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel, Airedale Terrier, Beagle, Border Collie, Staffordshire Bull Terrier, English Cocker Spaniel, Scottish Terrier, Welsh Corgi, Bullmastiff, Greyhound, English Springer Spaniel and Old English Sheepdog.
The Kennel Club, with its headquarters in London, is the oldest kennel club in the world, and acts as a lobby group on issues involving dogs in the UK. Its main objectives are to promote the general improvement of dogs and responsible dog ownership.[354] Held since 1891, Crufts is an annual dog show in the UK. The event takes place over four days in early March. In 1928, the very first winner of Best in Show at Crufts was Primley Sceptre, a greyhound.
As a multi-national state, the UK has no single national costume. However, different countries within the United Kingdom have national costumes or at least are associated with styles of dress. Scotland has the kilt and Tam o'shanter, and tartan clothing – its pattern consisting of criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours – is a notable aspect of Gaelic culture.[355] A traditional Welsh costume with Welsh hat is worn by some women during Eisteddfodau. In England, the topic of a national costume has been in debate, since no officially recognized clothing is anointed "national". However, the closest to an English national costume can be the smock or smock-frock in the Midlands and Southern England and the maud in Northern England. English Country Clothing is also very popular among rural folk, flat caps and brogue shoes also forming part of the country clothing.[356]
Certain military uniforms such as the Beefeater or the Queen's Guard are considered to be symbolic of Englishness. Morris dancers or the costumes for the traditional English May dance are sometimes cited as examples of traditional English costume, but are only worn by participants in those events. Designed in 1849 by the London hat-makers Thomas and William Bowler, the Bowler hat is arguably the most iconic stereotyped view of an Englishman (complete with Bowler and rolled umbrella), and was commonly associated with City of London businessmen. Traced back to the north of England in the 14th century, the flat cap is associated with the working classes in the UK.[356] The flat cap has seen a 21st-century resurgence in popularity, possibly influenced by various British public figures wearing them, including David Beckham, Harry Styles and Guy Ritchie, with clothing sellers Marks & Spencer reporting that flat cap sales significantly increased in the 2010s.[358] In 1856 William Henry Perkin discovered the first synthetic dye (Mauveine – a purple colour), which was suitable as a dye of silk and other textiles, helping to revolutionise the world of fashion.[359]
Burberry is most famous for creating the trench coat: they were worn by British soldiers in the trenches in World War I.[360] Among various British youth subcultures, Dr. Martens boots (often referred to as DMs) have been the choice of footwear: in the 1960s skinheads started to wear them, and they later became popular among scooter riders, punks, and some new wave musicians. Male mods adopted a sophisticated look that included tailor-made suits, thin ties, button-down collar shirts, Chelsea boots and Clarks desert boots.[361]
British sensibilities have played an influential role in world clothing since the 18th century. Particularly during the Victorian era, British fashions defined acceptable dress for men of business. Key figures such as the future Edward VII, Edward VIII, and Beau Brummell, created the modern suit and cemented its dominance. Brummell is credited with introducing and establishing as fashion the modern man's suit, worn with a tie.[362] The use of a coloured and patterned tie (a common feature in British school uniforms) indicating the wearer's membership in a club, regiment, school, professional association etc. stems from the 1880 oarsmen of Exeter College, Oxford, who tied the bands of their straw hats around their necks.[363] The Wellington boot (first worn by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington) became a staple for outdoor wear.
The tradition of a white wedding is commonly credited to Queen Victoria's choice to wear a white wedding dress at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840, at a time when white was associated with purity and conspicuous consumption (because it was difficult to keep clean, and thus could not be worn by servants or labourers), and when it was the colour required of girls being presented to the royal court.[364][365] The 1981 wedding dress of Lady Diana Spencer became one of the most famous dresses in the world, and was considered one of the most closely guarded secrets in fashion history.[366]
London, as one of the world's four fashion capitals, is host to the London Fashion Week – one of the 'Big Four' fashion weeks.[367] Organised by the British Fashion Council, the event takes place twice each year, in February and September. The current venue for most of the "on-schedule" events is Somerset House in central London, where a large marquee in the central courtyard hosts a series of catwalk shows by top designers and fashion houses, while an exhibition, housed within Somerset House itself, showcases over 150 designers. However, many "off-schedule" events, such as On|Off and Vauxhall Fashion Scout, are organised independently and take place at other venues in central London.
British designers whose collections have been showcased at the fashion week include Vivienne Westwood, Alexander McQueen, John Galliano and Stella McCartney. British models who have featured at the event include Kate Moss, Naomi Campbell, Jade Jagger, David Gandy, Cara Delevingne and Rosie Huntington-Whiteley. For almost two decades, Princess Diana was a fashion icon whose style was emulated by women around the world.[368]
Fashion designer Mary Quant was at the heart of the "Swinging London" scene of the 1960s, and her work culminated in the creation of the miniskirt and hot pants.[369] Quant named the miniskirt after her favourite make of car, the Mini.[370] The Swinging London fashion scene has featured in films, and was spoofed in the Austin Powers comedy series.[371] The English fashion designer Charles Frederick Worth is widely considered the father of Haute couture.[372]
The United Kingdom as a whole has a number of national symbols, as do its constituent nations. The Union Flag is the national flag of the United Kingdom. The first flag combined the cross of St George with the saltire of Saint Andrew to represent the Union of the Crowns in 1707. St Patrick's saltire was added when the Kingdom of Ireland was unified with Great Britain in 1801, and retained to represent Northern Ireland after partition in 1927.[373] Wales has never been represented on the Union Flag, as in 1707 it was part of the Kingdom of England. Similarly, the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom only represents England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. England occupies the first and fourth quarters of the arms except in Scotland, when its arms take precedence. Britannia is the national personification of the UK, while John Bull is a personification used in satirical contexts, and the national animals are the lion and the bulldog.
The UK does not have a floral emblem, but each nation does. The Tudor rose represents England, a thistle Scotland, the flax flower and shamrock Northern Ireland, and the leek and daffodil Wales. The rose, shamrock and thistle are engrafted on the same stem on the coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Another major floral symbol is the remembrance poppy, which has been worn in Britain since 1921 to commemorate soldiers who have died in war. In the weeks leading up to Remembrance Sunday they are distributed by The Royal British Legion in return for donations to their "Poppy Appeal", which supports all current and former British military personnel.
A familiar sight throughout the UK, the red telephone box and Royal Mail red post box are considered British cultural icons. Designed by Sir Giles Gilbert in 1924, the red telephone box features a prominent crown representing the British government. The post pillar box was introduced in the 1850s during the reign of Queen Victoria following Sir Rowland Hill's postal reforms in the 1830s where the reduction in postal rates with the invention of the postage stamp (Penny Black) made sending post an affordable means of personal communication.[180]The red telephone box has appeared in British pop culture, such as in Adele's video "Hello", the front cover of One Direction's album Take Me Home, and the back cover of David Bowie's album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars.[374]
The world's first postcard was received by Theodore Hook from Fulham, London in 1840.[375] The first pillar boxes had the distinctive Imperial cypher of Victoria Regina. Most pillar boxes produced after 1905 are made of cast iron and are cylindrical, and have served well throughout the reigns of George V, Edward VIII, George VI and Elizabeth II.[376]
The sending and receiving of greeting cards is an established tradition in the UK, with card sending or card display in the home being an important part of British culture.[377]
Sir Henry Cole devised the concept of sending greetings cards at Christmas time.[378] Designed by John Callcott Horsley for Cole in 1843, the Christmas card accounts for almost half of the volume of greeting card sales in the UK, with over 600 million cards sold annually.[377] The robin is a common sight in gardens throughout the UK. It is relatively tame and drawn to human activities, and is frequently voted Britain's national bird in polls.[379] The robin began featuring on many Christmas cards in the mid-19th century. The association with Christmas arises from postmen in Victorian Britain who wore red jackets and were nicknamed "Robins"; the robin featured on the Christmas card is an emblem of the postman delivering the card.[380]
Sending Valentine's Day cards became hugely popular in Britain in the late 18th century, a practice which has since spread to other nations.[381] The day first became associated with romantic love within the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century, when the tradition of courtly love flourished.[382] In Chaucer's Parlement of Foules (1382) he wrote; For this was on seynt Volantynys day. When euery bryd comets there to chese his make.[382] The modern cliché Valentine's Day poem can be found in the 1784 English nursery rhyme Roses Are Red; "The rose is red, the violet's blue. 'The honey's sweet, and so are you. Thou art my love and I am thine. I drew thee to my Valentine."[383]
In 1797, a British publisher issued The Young Man's Valentine Writer which contained scores of suggested sentimental verses for the young lover unable to compose his own. In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in the UK, despite postage being expensive.[384] A reduction in postal rates (with the 1840 invention of the postage stamp, the Penny Black) increased the practice of mailing Valentines, with 400,000 sent in 1841.[385] In the UK just under half the population spend money on gifts.[386] Other popular occasions for sending greeting cards in the UK are birthdays, Mother's Day, Easter and Father's Day.[378]
Each country of the United Kingdom has a separate education system. Power over education matters in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland is devolved but education in England is dealt with by the British government since there is no devolved administration for England.
Most schools came under state control in the Victorian era; a formal state school system was instituted after the Second World War. Initially, schools were categorised as infant schools, primary schools and secondary schools (split into more academic grammar schools and more vocational secondary modern schools). Under the Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s most secondary modern and grammar schools were combined to become comprehensive schools. England has many independent (fee-paying) schools, some founded hundreds of years ago; independent secondary schools are known as public schools. Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury and Rugby are four of the best-known. The nature and peculiarities of these Public schools have frequently featured in British literature. Prior to 1999,[387] corporal punishment was allowed in such schools, whilst the use of corporal punishment was outlawed in state schools in 1987.[388] Most primary and secondary schools in both the private and state sectors have compulsory school uniforms. Allowances are almost invariably made, however, to accommodate religious dress, including the Islamic hijab and Sikh bangle (kara).
Although the Minister of Education is responsible to Parliament for education, the day-to-day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of local education authorities.
England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world: the University of Cambridge, Imperial College London, the University of Oxford and University College London are all ranked in the global top 10 in the 2010 QS World University Rankings. The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.[390] The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times.[391] Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (I), upper second class (II:1), lower second class (II:2) and third (III), and unclassified (below third class).
The Northern Ireland Assembly is responsible for education in Northern Ireland. Schools are administered by five Education and Library Boards covering different geographical areas.
Scotland has a long history of universal provision of public education which, traditionally, has emphasised breadth across a range of subjects rather than depth of education in a smaller range of subjects. The majority of schools are non-denominational, but by law separate Roman Catholic schools, with an element of control by the Roman Catholic Church, are provided by the state system. Qualifications at the secondary school and post-secondary (further education) levels are provided by the Scottish Qualifications Authority and delivered through various schools, colleges and other centres. Political responsibility for education at all levels is vested in the Scottish Parliament and the Scottish Executive Education and Enterprise, Transport & Lifelong Learning Departments. State schools are owned and operated by the local authorities which act as Education Authorities, and the compulsory phase is divided into primary school and secondary school (often called high school, with the world's oldest high school being the Royal High School, Edinburgh in 1505,[392] which colonists spread to the New World owing to the high prestige enjoyed by the Scottish educational system). Schools are supported in delivering the National Guidelines and National Priorities by Learning and Teaching Scotland.
First degree courses at Scottish universities are often a year longer than elsewhere in the UK, though sometimes students can take a more advanced entrance exam and join the courses in the second year. One unique aspect is that the ancient universities of Scotland award a Master of Arts degree as the first degree in humanities. The University of Edinburgh is among the top twenty universities in the world according to the QS World University Rankings 2011. It is also among the Ancient Universities of Great Britain.
The National Assembly for Wales has responsibility for education in Wales. A significant number of students in Wales are educated either wholly or largely through the medium of the Welsh language, and lessons in the language are compulsory for all until the age of 16. There are plans to increase the provision of Welsh medium education as part of the policy of promoting a fully bilingual Wales.
Scouting is the largest co-educational youth movement in the UK.[393] Scouting began in 1907 when Robert Baden-Powell, Lieutenant General in the British Army, held the first Scout camp at Brownsea Island in Dorset, England.[394] Baden-Powell wrote the principles of Scouting in Scouting for Boys in 1908.[395] In July 2009, adventurer Bear Grylls became the youngest Chief Scout ever, aged 35. In 2010, scouting in the UK experienced its biggest growth since 1972, taking total membership to almost 500,000.[393]
The UK (England in particular) has a relatively high population density so housing tends to be more closely packed than in other countries. Thus terraced houses are widespread, dating back to the aftermath of the Great Fire of London.[396]
As the first industrialised country in the world, the UK has long been urbanised.[397] In the 20th century, suburbanisation led to a spread of semi-detached and detached housing. After the Second World War, public housing was dramatically expanded to create a large number of council estates. There are many historic country houses and stately homes in rural areas, though only a minority of these are still used as private living accommodation.
In recent times, more detached housing has started to be built. Also, city living has boomed, with city centre populations rising rapidly. Most of this population growth has been accommodated in new apartment blocks in residential schemes in many towns and cities. Demographic changes (see below) are putting great pressure on the housing market, especially in London and the South East.
Historically most people in the United Kingdom lived either in conjugal extended families or nuclear families. This reflected an economic landscape where the general populace tended to have less spending power, meaning that it was more practical to stick together rather than go their individual ways. This pattern also reflected gender roles. Men were expected to go out to work and women were expected to stay at home and look after the families.
In the 20th century the emancipation of women, the greater freedoms enjoyed by both men and women in the years following the Second World War, greater affluence and easier divorce have changed gender roles and living arrangements significantly. The general trend is a rise in single people living alone, the virtual extinction of the extended family (outside certain ethnic minority communities), and the nuclear family arguably reducing in prominence.
From the 1990s, the break-up of the traditional family unit, when combined with low interest rates and other demographic changes, has created great pressure on the housing market, in particular on accommodation for "key workers" such as nurses, other emergency service workers and teachers, who are priced out of most housing, especially in the South East. Some research indicates that in the 21st century young people are tending to continue to live in the parental home for much longer than their predecessors.[398]
When Brits were asked to rate their happiness yesterday on a scale of 1 to 10 in 2018, respondent's mean answer was 7.54 (ranked 'High') in 2018. Northern Irish respondents were ranked the happiest of the United Kingdom (with a mean of 7.74), followed by the English (with 7.54), then the Scots (with 7.52) and finally the Welsh (with 7.51).[399]
However, only 25% of women and girls between the ages of 7 and 21 claim to be very happy, which has fallen from 41% in 2009. They claimed that it was due to the pressure from exams and social media, which exerted undue amounts of stress on them. In that category, the oldest were the least happy: 27% of young women aged 17 to 21 claimed they were not happy, compared to 11% in 2009. This negatively influenced their confidence by 61%, health by 50%, relationships by 49% and studying by 39%. 69% of respondents in that age group claimed school exams were the chief stressor, 59% felt pressure from social media was making them less happy, and compared to 5 years ago, more claimed they had experienced unkind, threatening or negative reactions on social media. The proportion of the population who knew someone with mental health issues rose from 62% in 2015 to 71% in 2018. Many young women and girls feel unsafe walking alone: over half aged from 13 to 21 have experienced harassment or know someone who has, and almost half feel unsafe using public transport.[400]
The proportion of young girls considering themselves feminists has risen from 35% in 2013 to 47% in 2018. 36% of young women and girls aged 11 to 21 had spoken up about an issue that mattered to them, this rose from 28% in 2011 but only 60% felt they had been listened to. Girls have also become more interested in science, maths and technology. Girls are more likely to want to become leaders in their careers, 53% compared to 42% in 2016. Maria Miller said, "#MeToo may have left its mark in Hollywood but for women and girls around the country their ambitions to succeed are still too often met with sexism. It's important more women and girls are now speaking out about how this behaviour undermines their confidence and mental health; but this harmful, negative behaviour has to be stopped".[400]
The common naming convention throughout the United Kingdom is for everyone to have one or more given names (a forename, still often referred to as a "Christian name") usually (but not always) indicating the child's sex, and a surname ("family name").[401] A four-year study by the University of the West of England, which concluded in 2016, analysed sources dating from the 11th to the 19th centuries to explain the origins of the surnames in the British Isles.[402] The study found that over 90% of the 45,602 surnames in the dictionary are native to the British Isles; the most common in the UK are Smith, Jones, Williams, Brown, Taylor, Johnson, and Lee.[402] Since the 19th century middle names (additional forenames) have become very common and are sometimes taken from the name of a family member.
Most surnames of British origin fall into seven categories:[403]
Traditionally, Christian names were those of Biblical figures or recognised saints; however, in the Gothic Revival of the Victorian era, other Anglo Saxon and mythical names enjoyed something of a fashion among the literati. Since the 20th century, however, first names have been influenced by a much wider cultural base.
First names from the British Isles include Jennifer, a Cornish form of Guinevere (Welsh: Gwenhwyfar) from Arthurian romance, which gained recognition after George Bernard Shaw used it for the main female character in his play The Doctor's Dilemma (1906): Jennifer first entered the top 100 most commonly used names for baby girls in England and Wales in 1934.[405] The oldest written record of the name Jessica is in Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice, where it belongs to the daughter of Shylock. Jessica is the seventh most popular name for baby girls in England and Wales in 2015.[406] First appearing in 13th century England, Olivia was popularised by Shakespeare's character in the Twelfth Night (1602). Vanessa was created by Jonathan Swift in his poem Cadenus and Vanessa (1713). While it first appeared in late 16th century England, Pamela was popularised after Samuel Richardson named it as the title for his 1740 novel.
See also:
{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)Britannica was invoked but never defined (see the help page).Here you will find all the information you need about the longest running show, of any kind, in the world.
British actress Lillie Langtry became the world's first celebrity endorser when her likeness appeared on packages of Pears Soap.
What Dickens did advocate in his story was "the spirit of Christmas." Sociologist James Barnett has described it as Dickens's "Carol Philosophy," which "combined religious and secular attitudes toward to celebration into a humanitarian pattern. It excoriated individual selfishness and extolled the virtues of brotherhood, kindness, and generosity at Christmas... Dickens preached that at Christmas men should forget self and think of others, especially the poor and the unfortunate." The message was one that both religious and secular people could endorse.
the persistent British preference for imperial over metric is particularly noteworthy
1952. The Nobel Prize for Chemistry was awarded to British scientists, Richard Synge and Archer Martin, for the invention of partition chromatogrphy, which laid the foundations of gas chromatography.
This is when Smith's hit back with their own revolutionary flavour — salt and vinegar, inspired by the country's love for fish & chips.
