Hubo un realineamiento y consolidación del poder económico y político, como la continua movilización masiva de los mercados de capital a través del neoliberalismo , la globalización y el fin de la Guerra Fría . Las culturas de red se mejoraron con la proliferación de nuevos medios como Internet y una nueva capacidad para autopublicar páginas web y hacer conexiones sobre temas profesionales, políticos y de pasatiempos. La brecha digital fue inmediata, con acceso limitado a quienes podían permitírselo y sabían cómo operar una computadora. Internet proporcionó anonimato a las personas escépticas del gobierno. Los medios de comunicación tradicionales siguieron funcionando bien. Sin embargo, los usuarios de Internet en general eran optimistas sobre sus beneficios, en particular el futuro del comercio electrónico . Los portales web , una página de inicio de marcadores curada, eran tan populares como las búsquedas a través de rastreadores web . La burbuja puntocom de 1997-2000 trajo riqueza a algunos empresarios antes de su colapso a principios de la década de 2000 .
La ONU condenó inmediatamente la acción y envió una fuerza de coalición liderada por Estados Unidos al Golfo Pérsico . Los bombardeos aéreos de Irak comenzaron en enero de 1991 y un mes después, las fuerzas de la ONU expulsaron al ejército iraquí de Kuwait en cuatro días.
La Primera Guerra de Chechenia (1994-1996) fue un conflicto entre la Federación Rusa y la República Chechena de Ichkeria . Después de la campaña inicial de 1994-1995, que culminó en la devastadora Batalla de Grozni , las fuerzas federales rusas intentaron tomar el control de la zona montañosa de Chechenia. A pesar de la abrumadora cantidad de personal, armamento y apoyo aéreo de Rusia , fueron repelidos por las guerrillas chechenas y las incursiones en las llanuras. La desmoralización generalizada resultante de las fuerzas federales rusas y la oposición universal [ cita requerida ] del público ruso al conflicto llevaron al gobierno de Boris Yeltsin a declarar un alto el fuego en 1996 y firmar un tratado de paz un año después.
La Segunda Guerra Chechena (1999-2009) fue iniciada por la Federación Rusa en respuesta a la invasión de Daguestán en 1999 y los atentados con bombas en apartamentos rusos , que se atribuyeron a los chechenos. En esta campaña militar, las fuerzas rusas recuperaron en gran medida la región separatista de Chechenia [ cita requerida ] y el resultado de la Primera Guerra Chechena –en la que la región obtuvo la independencia de facto como la República Chechena de Ichkeria– fue esencialmente inverso.
La guerra entre Eritrea y Etiopía (1998-2000) comenzó con la invasión de Etiopía por parte de Eritrea debido a una disputa territorial. [7] El conflicto resultó en decenas de miles de muertes en ambos bandos [8] y un acuerdo de paz en diciembre de 2000. [9]
La Guerra de Kargil (1999) comenzó en mayo, cuando Pakistán envió tropas de forma encubierta para ocupar picos estratégicos en Cachemira . Un mes después, la Guerra de Kargil con la India resultó en un fiasco político para el primer ministro paquistaní Nawaz Sharif , seguido de una retirada militar paquistaní a la Línea de Control . El incidente condujo a un golpe militar paquistaní en octubre, en el que Sharif fue derrocado por el jefe del ejército Pervez Musharraf . Este conflicto sigue siendo la única guerra librada entre las dos potencias nucleares declaradas.
Los combates finales en las guerras croata y bosnia terminaron en 1995 con el éxito de las ofensivas militares croatas contra las fuerzas serbias. Esto llevó al éxodo masivo de serbios de Croacia, a pérdidas serbias a manos de las fuerzas croatas y bosnias y a la firma del Acuerdo de Dayton , que dividió internamente Bosnia y Herzegovina en una República Srpska y una Federación bosnio-croata .
La Guerra de Kosovo (1998-1999) fue una guerra entre separatistas albaneses y fuerzas militares yugoslavas y paramilitares serbias en Kosovo . Ese conflicto comenzó en 1996 y se intensificó en 1998, con informes cada vez mayores de atrocidades.
En 1999, la OTAN , liderada por Estados Unidos, lanzó ataques aéreos contra Yugoslavia (que entonces estaba compuesta únicamente por Serbia y Montenegro ) para presionar al gobierno yugoslavo a que pusiera fin a sus operaciones militares contra los separatistas albaneses en Kosovo . La intervención carecía de la aprobación de la ONU, pero la OTAN la justificó basándose en acusaciones de crímenes de guerra cometidos por fuerzas militares yugoslavas que trabajaban junto a grupos paramilitares serbios nacionalistas. Finalmente, después de meses de bombardeos, Yugoslavia cedió a las demandas de la OTAN y las fuerzas de la OTAN (más tarde fuerzas de paz de la ONU) ocuparon Kosovo.
La Guerra Civil Etíope (1991) fue un conflicto interno que duró más de veinte años y cuyo final coincidió con la formación de un gobierno de coalición integrado por varias facciones.
La guerra civil argelina (1991-2002) fue causada por un grupo de oficiales de alto rango del ejército que cancelaron las primeras elecciones multipartidistas en Argelia . [10]
El genocidio de Ruanda (1994) se produjo entre el 6 de abril y mediados de julio de 1994, cuando cientos de miles de tutsis y hutus moderados fueron asesinados por el gobierno dominado por los hutus en el marco de la ideología del poder hutu . Durante aproximadamente 100 días, entre 500.000 [11] y 1.000.000 [12] de personas fueron asesinadas. Las Naciones Unidas y los principales Estados fueron objeto de críticas por no haber logrado detener el genocidio.
El levantamiento zapatista (1994) ocurrió cuando un gran número de indígenas zapatistas de México formaron el Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional e iniciaron un conflicto armado con el gobierno mexicano para protestar contra el TLCAN . El levantamiento duró 12 días, atrajo la atención mundial hacia los zapatistas y continuó durante el resto de la década de 1990.
El atentado de Manchester de 1996 (1996) – el 15 de junio de 1996, el IRA hizo estallar una bomba en Manchester , Inglaterra. La bomba, colocada en una furgoneta en Corporation Street, en el centro de la ciudad, tenía como objetivo la infraestructura y la economía de la ciudad y causó daños generalizados, estimados por las aseguradoras en 700 millones de libras esterlinas (1.000 millones de libras esterlinas en 2011 [update]). Doscientas doce personas resultaron heridas, pero no hubo víctimas mortales.
Las tensiones étnicas y la violencia en la ex Yugoslavia durante la década de 1990 crearon un mayor sentido de identidad étnica entre las naciones de los países recientemente independizados y un marcado aumento de la popularidad del nacionalismo.
Nelson Mandela fue elegido presidente de Sudáfrica en 1994, convirtiéndose en el primer presidente elegido democráticamente en la historia sudafricana y poniendo fin a un largo legado de gobierno blanco del apartheid en el país. [15]
La política canadiense cambió radicalmente en las elecciones federales de 1993 con el colapso del Partido Conservador Progresista de Canadá . Un partido político importante en Canadá desde 1867, el partido pasó de controlar el gobierno a quedarse con solo dos escaños. El Nuevo Partido Democrático también colapsó, y sus escaños disminuyeron de 44 a 9. El Partido Liberal de Canadá fue el único partido político genuinamente "nacional" que quedó en pie. Los partidos con base regional, como el Bloc Québécois con base en Quebec y el Partido Reformista de Canadá con base casi en su totalidad en el oeste de Canadá , pasaron de ser insignificantes políticamente a ser partidos políticos importantes.
Tras el colapso del acuerdo constitucional del lago Meech en 1990, la provincia de Quebec en Canadá experimentó una renovada ola de separatismo por parte de los nacionalistas quebequenses francófonos , que buscaban que Quebec se convirtiera en un país independiente y forzaron un referéndum sobre la cuestión de la independencia en 1995.
El referéndum de 1995 sobre la soberanía de Quebec se celebró en la provincia de Quebec, predominantemente francófona en Canadá, un país de mayoría anglófona . De haber sido aceptado, Quebec se habría convertido en un país independiente con una asociación económica con Canadá. Los votantes de Quebec rechazaron la propuesta por un estrecho margen.
Jean-Bertrand Aristide , ex sacerdote haitiano, se convirtió en el primer presidente de Haití elegido democráticamente en 1990. Partidario de la teología de la liberación, Aristide fue designado para una parroquia católica romana en Puerto Príncipe en 1982, tras completar sus estudios para convertirse en sacerdote de la orden salesiana. Posteriormente, Aristide se vio obligado a exiliarse en la República Centroafricana y Sudáfrica, y regresó a Haití después de varios años.
El presidente de los Estados Unidos, Bill Clinton, fue una figura política dominante en los asuntos internacionales durante la década de 1990, conocido principalmente por sus intentos de negociar la paz en el Medio Oriente y poner fin a las guerras en curso en la ex Yugoslavia, su promoción de la acción internacional para disminuir el cambio climático creado por el hombre y su respaldo al avance del libre comercio en las Américas.
Escándalo Lewinsky – El presidente estadounidense Bill Clinton se vio envuelto en un escándalo mediático frenético que involucraba relaciones inapropiadas con la becaria de la Casa Blanca Monica Lewinsky , que se anunció por primera vez el 21 de enero de 1998. Después de que la Cámara de Representantes de los Estados Unidos destituyera a Bill Clinton el 19 de diciembre de 1998, por perjurio bajo juramento, y tras una investigación del fiscal federal Kenneth Starr , el Senado absolvió a Clinton de todos los cargos el 12 de febrero de 1999. Cumplió el resto de su segundo mandato.
En 1990, la guerra civil libanesa llegó a su fin y comenzó el retorno a la normalidad política en el Líbano . Con la paz entre todas las facciones del Líbano, comenzó la reconstrucción del país y de su capital, Beirut .
Revolución nepalí de 1990 , un movimiento multipartidista contra el gobierno unipartidista del Panchayat en Nepal. Condujo al fin de la monarquía absoluta en Nepal y a la restauración de la democracia.
Las fuerzas militares israelíes se retiraron de estos territorios palestinos en cumplimiento del acuerdo, que marcó el final de la Primera Intifada (un período de violencia entre militantes árabes palestinos y fuerzas armadas israelíes de 1987 a 1993).
La Autoridad Nacional Palestina fue creada en 1994 tras los Acuerdos de Oslo, otorgando al pueblo árabe palestino autonomía oficial sobre la Franja de Gaza y Cisjordania, aunque no la independencia oficial de Israel.
El 4 de noviembre de 1995, el primer ministro israelí, Yitzhak Rabin, fue asesinado por un extremista de derecha que se oponía a la firma de los Acuerdos de Oslo .
En julio de 1994, el líder norcoreano Kim Il Sung murió, tras haber gobernado el país desde su fundación en 1948. Su hijo Kim Jong Il , que lo sucedió, tomó el mando de una nación al borde del colapso económico total. La hambruna había causado un número significativo de muertes a fines de la década de 1990, y Corea del Norte se ganó la reputación de ser un importante centro de lavado de dinero, falsificación y proliferación de armas. La capacidad del país para producir y vender armas nucleares se convirtió en una preocupación importante en la comunidad internacional.
En 1990, la Liga Nacional para la Democracia de Birmania de Aung San Suu Kyi obtuvo la mayoría de los escaños en las primeras elecciones libres celebradas en 30 años, pero el SPDC se negó a ceder el poder, lo que dio inicio a una lucha pacífica que comenzó en los años 90 y se prolongó durante varias décadas, impulsada principalmente por Aung San Suu Kyi y sus partidarios para exigir el fin del régimen militar.
El presidente indonesio Suharto dimitió tras gobernar el país durante 32 años (1966-1998), tras los disturbios que estallaron en varias ciudades de Indonesia. Su dimisión marcó el inicio de la era de las reformas .
La mejora de las relaciones entre los países de la OTAN y los antiguos miembros del Pacto de Varsovia condujo al fin de la Guerra Fría , tanto en Europa como en otras partes del mundo.
Reunificación alemana : el 3 de octubre de 1990, Alemania Oriental y Occidental se reunificaron como resultado del colapso de la Unión Soviética y la caída del Muro de Berlín . Después de reintegrar su estructura económica y los gobiernos provinciales, Alemania se concentró en la modernización del Este, anteriormente comunista. Las personas criadas en la Alemania Oriental socialista se integraron con las que vivían en la Alemania Occidental capitalista.
Margaret Thatcher , que había sido Primera Ministra del Reino Unido desde 1979, dimitió como Primera Ministra el 22 de noviembre de 1990 tras ser desafiada por Michael Heseltine para el liderazgo del Partido Conservador . Esto se debió a la oposición generalizada a la introducción del controvertido Impuesto Comunitario y al hecho de que sus aliados clave, como Nigel Lawson y Geoffrey Howe, dimitieron por las cuestiones profundamente sensibles del Tratado de Maastricht y la resistencia de Margaret Thatcher a que Gran Bretaña se uniera al Mecanismo Europeo de Tipos de Cambio . Menos de dos años después, en el infame Miércoles Negro de septiembre de 1992, la libra esterlina se estrelló fuera del sistema después de que la libra cayera por debajo del tipo de cambio acordado con el marco alemán .
John Major reemplazó a Margaret Thatcher como Primer Ministro en 1990.
La perestroika (reestructuración) de la Unión Soviética desestabilizó a la Unión Soviética, lo que llevó a que los demagogos nacionalistas y separatistas ganaran popularidad. Boris Yeltsin , entonces presidente del Soviet Supremo de Rusia , renunció al Partido Comunista y se convirtió en el líder de la oposición contra Mijaíl Gorbachov . El Partido Comunista perdió su estatus como fuerza gobernante del país y fue prohibido después de un intento de golpe de Estado por parte de los comunistas de línea dura que intentaron revertir los efectos de las políticas de Gorbachov. La contrarrevolución de Yeltsin resultó victoriosa y el 25 de diciembre de 1991, Gorbachov renunció a la presidencia, lo que llevó a la disolución de la Unión Soviética . Yeltsin se convirtió en presidente del sucesor de la Unión Soviética, la Federación Rusa, y presidió un período de agitación política, crisis económica y anarquía social. El 31 de diciembre de 1999, Yeltsin renunció, dejando a Vladímir Putin como presidente interino.
La Declaración de Downing Street , firmada el 15 de diciembre de 1993 por el Primer Ministro del Reino Unido , John Major, y el Taoiseach de Irlanda, Albert Reynolds en la oficina del Primer Ministro británico en 10 Downing Street , afirmó que (1) el derecho del pueblo de Irlanda a la autodeterminación , y (2) que Irlanda del Norte sería transferida a la República de Irlanda desde el Reino Unido solo si una mayoría de su población estaba a favor de tal movimiento. Incluía, como parte de la perspectiva de la llamada "dimensión irlandesa", el principio de consentimiento de que el pueblo de la isla de Irlanda tenía el derecho exclusivo de resolver los problemas entre el Norte y el Sur por consentimiento mutuo. [16] [17] Esta última declaración, que más tarde se convertiría en uno de los puntos del Acuerdo de Viernes Santo , [18] fue clave para producir un cambio positivo de actitud por parte de los republicanos hacia un acuerdo negociado. La declaración conjunta también comprometió a los gobiernos a buscar una solución constitucional pacífica y prometió que los partidos vinculados con los paramilitares (como el Sinn Féin ) podrían participar en las conversaciones siempre que abandonaran la violencia. [19]
El IRA acordó una tregua en 1994. Esto marcó el comienzo del fin de 25 años de violencia entre el IRA y el Reino Unido y el inicio de las negociaciones políticas.
Entre los asesinatos, asesinatos selectivos e intentos de asesinato más destacados se incluyen los siguientes:
Desastres
Desastres naturales
En la década de 1990 se produjo una tendencia a la frecuencia y la devastación de los desastres naturales, que batieron muchos récords anteriores. Aunque las Naciones Unidas designaron la década de 1990 como Decenio Internacional para la Reducción de los Desastres Naturales como parte de su programa para prevenir las pérdidas debidas a los desastres, estos continuaron causando daños por un valor récord de 608.000 millones de dólares, más que en las últimas cuatro décadas juntas. [38]
Julio de 1995 – Ola de calor en el Medio Oeste de Estados Unidos – Una ola de calor sin precedentes azota el Medio Oeste de Estados Unidos durante la mayor parte del mes. Las temperaturas alcanzan un máximo de 41 °C (106 °F) y se mantienen por encima de los 34 °C (94 °F) por la tarde durante 5 días seguidos. Al menos 739 personas murieron solo en Chicago.
El huracán Iniki azotó la isla de Kauai en las islas hawaianas el 11 de septiembre de 1992, convirtiéndose en uno de los huracanes más costosos registrados en el Pacífico oriental.
En diciembre de 1999, lluvias torrenciales e inundaciones repentinas mataron a decenas de miles de venezolanos que vivían en el estado de Vargas en un desastre natural conocido como la tragedia de Vargas .
Desastres no naturales
Derrame de petróleo de la Guerra del Golfo : Como resultado de las acciones adoptadas durante la Guerra del Golfo en 1991 por el ejército iraquí, el derrame de petróleo causó daños considerables a la vida silvestre en el Golfo Pérsico, especialmente en áreas que rodean Kuwait e Irak.
4 de octubre de 1992: El vuelo 1862 de El Al , un avión de carga Boeing 747 que se dirigía a Tel Aviv , sufrió una separación física de los dos motores del ala derecha (n.º 3 y n.º 4) justo después de despegar de Schiphol y se estrelló contra un edificio de apartamentos en el barrio de Bijlmer de Ámsterdam mientras intentaba regresar al aeropuerto. Murieron un total de 43 personas, incluida la tripulación del avión, compuesta por tres personas, y un "pasajero sin cargo". Varias personas más resultaron heridas.
17 de julio de 1996: el vuelo 800 de Trans World Airlines , un Boeing 747-131, explotó y se estrelló en el Océano Atlántico cerca de East Moriches, Nueva York, matando a 230 personas.
Muchos países, instituciones, empresas y organizaciones prosperaron durante la década de 1990. Los países de altos ingresos, como Estados Unidos, Canadá, Australia, Nueva Zelanda, Japón, Singapur, Hong Kong, Taiwán, Corea del Sur y Europa occidental, experimentaron un crecimiento económico sostenido durante gran parte de la década durante la Gran Moderación . Sin embargo, en la ex Unión Soviética , el PIB disminuyó a medida que sus economías se reestructuraban para producir los bienes que necesitaban y se produjo cierta fuga de capitales .
La inflación en Estados Unidos se moderó, comenzando en 1990 en un 5,39%, cayendo a un mínimo de 1,55% en 1998 y aumentando ligeramente a 2,19% en 1999. [39]
El G20 o Grupo de los Veinte se formó el 26 de septiembre de 1999.
América del norte
Esta década se considera una época de gran prosperidad en Estados Unidos y Canadá, en gran medida debido a la inesperada llegada de Internet y a la explosión de las industrias tecnológicas . Las economías de Estados Unidos y Canadá experimentaron su período más largo de expansión económica en tiempos de paz, a partir de 1991. Los ingresos personales se duplicaron a partir de la recesión de 1990 y hubo una mayor productividad en general. La Bolsa de Valores de Nueva York se mantuvo por encima de la marca de 10.500 entre 1999 y 2001.
Después del auge del mercado de valores de Estados Unidos en 1992 , Alan Greenspan acuñó la frase " exuberancia irracional ", una referencia al entusiasmo excesivo de los inversores que caracterizaba las transacciones de ese período, y advirtió sobre la sobrevaluación de los activos y del mercado de valores en general.
La crisis financiera golpea a los países del este y sudeste asiático entre 1997 y 1998 después de un largo período de desarrollo económico fenomenal, que continúa en 1999. Esta crisis comienza a sentirse a finales de la década.
En Japón , después de tres décadas de crecimiento económico que lo colocaron en el segundo lugar entre las economías del mundo, el país experimentó una recesión económica después de 1993. La recesión continuó hasta principios de la primera década del siglo XXI, poniendo fin a la prosperidad aparentemente ilimitada que el país había disfrutado anteriormente.
En 1990, las reformas del líder soviético Mijail Gorbachov estaban causando una importante inflación y caos económico. Un intento de golpe de Estado por parte de los intransigentes en agosto de 1991 fracasó, marcando el fin efectivo de la Unión Soviética. Todas sus repúblicas constituyentes declararon su independencia en 1991, y Gorbachov renunció a su cargo en Navidad. Después de 73 años, la Unión Soviética había dejado de existir. La nueva Federación Rusa estaba dirigida por Boris Yeltsin , y enfrentaría graves dificultades económicas. Los oligarcas tomaron el control de los sectores energético e industrial de Rusia, reduciendo a casi la mitad del país a la pobreza. Con un índice de aprobación del 3%, Yeltsin tuvo que comprar el apoyo de los oligarcas para ganar la reelección en 1996. La agitación económica y la devaluación del rublo continuaron, y con problemas cardíacos y de alcohol , Yeltsin renunció a su cargo el último día de 1999, entregando el poder a Vladimir Putin .
La crisis financiera rusa de la década de 1990 provocó una hiperinflación masiva y provocó la intervención económica del Fondo Monetario Internacional y los países occidentales para ayudar a la economía de Rusia a recuperarse.
El primer restaurante McDonald's abrió sus puertas en Moscú en 1990 con la presencia del entonces presidente del Soviet Supremo de la RSFS de Rusia y futuro presidente ruso, Boris Yeltsin, lo que simbolizó la transición de Rusia hacia una economía capitalista de libre mercado y un movimiento hacia la adopción de elementos de la cultura occidental .
Después de la recesión de principios de los años 1990 , el Reino Unido e Irlanda experimentaron un rápido crecimiento económico y una caída del desempleo que se prolongó durante toda la década. El crecimiento económico continuaría hasta la Gran Recesión , que marcó el período ininterrumpido de crecimiento económico más largo de la historia.
El mercado común latinoamericano, el Mercosur , fue creado en 1991. Los orígenes del Mercosur están vinculados a las discusiones para la constitución de un mercado económico regional para América Latina, que se remontan al tratado que estableció la Asociación Latinoamericana de Libre Comercio en 1960, a la que sucedió la Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración en la década de 1980.
Ciencia y tecnología
Tecnología
La década de 1990 fue una década revolucionaria para la tecnología digital . Entre 1990 y 1997, la posesión de PC en los hogares de los EE. UU. aumentó del 15% al 35%. [42] Los teléfonos celulares de principios de la década de 1990 y anteriores eran muy grandes, carecían de funciones adicionales y solo los usaba un pequeño porcentaje de la población, incluso de las naciones avanzadas. Solo unos pocos millones de personas usaban servicios en línea en 1990, y la World Wide Web , que tendría un impacto significativo en la tecnología durante muchas décadas, recién se había inventado. El primer navegador web se puso en línea en 1993. [43] Para 2001, más del 50% de algunos países occidentales tenían acceso a Internet y más del 25% tenían acceso a teléfonos celulares.
Electrónica y comunicaciones
El 6 de agosto de 1991, el CERN , una organización paneuropea para la investigación de partículas, dio a conocer el nuevo proyecto World Wide Web. [44] Aunque las aplicaciones y directrices básicas que hacen posible Internet ya existían desde hacía casi dos décadas, la red no adquirió una cara pública hasta los años 1990.
Impulsadas por la adopción masiva, las especificaciones de las computadoras personales de consumo aumentaron drásticamente durante la década de 1990, desde los Turbo XT de 12 MHz con 512 KB de RAM en 1990, [45] a los procesadores de clase 80486 de 25-66 MHz al comienzo de la popularización de la World Wide Web a mediados de la década, [46] a CPU de más de 1 GHz con cerca de un gigabyte de RAM en 2000.
El Y2K sembró el temor en Estados Unidos y, finalmente, en el mundo entero durante la segunda mitad de la década, particularmente en 1999, ante la posibilidad de que se produjeran averías masivas en los ordenadores el 1 de enero de 2000. Como resultado, mucha gente hizo acopio de suministros por temor a un desastre mundial. Tras un esfuerzo considerable por parte de los ingenieros de software para actualizar los sistemas, no se produjo ninguna avería cuando los relojes marcaron el año 2000.
Las empresas comienzan a crear sitios web de comercio electrónico ; las empresas que sólo se dedican al comercio electrónico, como Amazon.com , eBay , AOL y Yahoo !, crecen rápidamente.
La introducción de antenas parabólicas más pequeñas y asequibles y el estándar DVB-S a mediados de la década de 1990 ampliaron los servicios de televisión por satélite que transmitían hasta 500 canales de televisión.
El primer reproductor de MP3, el MPMan , se lanzó a finales de la primavera de 1998. Venía con 32 MB de memoria flash ampliable a 64 MB. A mediados de la década de 2000, el reproductor de MP3 superaría en popularidad al reproductor de CD.
El ciclo de noticias de 24 horas se hizo popular junto con el estallido de la Guerra del Golfo entre finales de 1990 y principios de 1991, y se consolidó con la cobertura de CNN de Tormenta del Desierto y Escudo del Desierto . Aunque CNN había estado transmitiendo noticias de 24 horas desde 1980, no fue hasta la Guerra del Golfo que el público en general se dio cuenta, y otros imitaron el enfoque de noticias ininterrumpidas de CNN. [47]
Los reproductores de CD portátiles , introducidos a fines de la década de 1980, se volvieron muy populares e impactaron profundamente en la industria de la música y la cultura juvenil durante la década de 1990.
Macintosh System 7 was released in 1991. For much of the decade, Apple would struggle to develop a next-generation graphical operating system, starting with Copland and culminating in its December 1996 buyout of NeXT and the 1999 release of Mac OS X Server 1.0.
The opening of the Channel Tunnel between France and the United Kingdom saw the commencement by the three national railway companies of Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom, respectively SNCB/NMBS, SNCF and British Rail of the joint Eurostar service.
On 14 November 1994 Eurostar services began between Waterloo International station in London, Gare du Nord in Paris and Brussels South in Brussels.[48][49][50]In 1995 Eurostar was achieving an average end-to-end speed of 171.5 km/h (106.6 mph) between London and Paris.[51]On 8 January 1996 Eurostar launched services from a second railway station in the UK when Ashford International was opened.[52] Journey times between London and Brussels were reduced by the opening of the High Speed 1 line on 14 December 1997.
Automobiles
The 1990s began with a recession that dampened car sales. General Motors suffered huge losses because of an inefficient structure, stale designs, and poor quality. Sales improved with the economy by the mid-1990s, but GM's US market share gradually declined to less than 40% (from a peak of 50% in the 1970s). While the new Saturn division fared well, Oldsmobile fell sharply, and attempts to remake the division as a European-style luxury car were unsuccessful.
Cars in the 1990s had a rounder, more streamlined shape than those from the 1970s and 1980s; this style would continue early into the 2000s and to a lesser extent later on.
Chrysler ran into financial troubles as it entered the 1990s. Like GM, the Chrysler too had a stale model lineup (except for the best-selling minivans) that were largely based on the aging K-car platform. In 1992, chairman Lee Iacocca retired, and the company began a remarkable revival, introducing the new LH platform and "Cab-Forward" styling, along with a highly successful redesign of the full-sized Dodge Ram in 1994. Chrysler's minivans continued to dominate the market despite increasing competition. In 1998, Daimler-Benz (the parent company of Mercedes-Benz) merged with Chrysler. The following year, it was decided to retire Plymouth, which had been on a long decline since the 1970s. Ford continued to fare well in the 1990s, with the second and third generations of the Ford Taurus being named the best-selling car in the United States from 1992 to 1996. However, the Taurus would be outsold and dethroned by the Toyota Camry starting in 1997, which became the best-selling car in the United States for the rest of the decade and into the 2000s. Ford also introduced the Ford Explorer, with the first model being sold in 1991. Ford's Explorer became the best-selling SUV on the market, outselling both the Chevy Blazer and Jeep Cherokee.
Japanese cars continued to be highly successful during the decade. The Honda Accord vied with the Taurus most years for being the best-selling car in the United States during the early decade. Although launched in 1989, the luxury brands Lexus and Infiniti began car sales of 1990 model year vehicles and saw great success. Lexus would go on to outsell Mercedes-Benz and BMW in the United States by 1991 and outsell Cadillac and Lincoln by the end of the decade. SUVs and trucks became hugely popular during the economic boom in the decade's second half. Many manufacturers that had never built a truck before started selling SUVs. Fabrication during the 1990s became gradually rounder and ovoid, the Ford Taurus and Mercury Sable being some of the more extreme examples. Safety features such as airbags and shoulder belts became mandatory equipment on new cars.
In the United Kingdom, the first cloned mammal, Dolly the sheep was confirmed by the Roslin Institute, and was reported by global media on 26 February 1997. Dolly would trigger a raging controversy on cloning, and bioethical concerns regarding possible human cloning continue to this day.[53]
DNA identification of individuals finds wide application in criminal law. Brazil, United States, United Kingdom, Russia and The Netherlands established their own national DNA database.
Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990 and revolutionized astronomy. Unfortunately, a flaw in its main mirror caused it to produce fuzzy, distorted images. This was corrected by a Space Shuttle repair mission in 1993.
Protease inhibitors introduced, allowing HAART therapy against HIV; drastically reduces AIDS mortality.
NASA's spacecraft Pathfinder lands on Mars and deploys a small roving vehicle, Sojourner, which analyzes the planet's geology and atmosphere.
The Hale–Bopp comet swings past the Sun for the first time in 4,200 years in April 1997.
The Galileo probe orbits Jupiter, studying the planet and its moons extensively.
Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (formally designated D/1993 F2, nicknamed String of Pearls for its appearance) was a comet that broke apart and collided with Jupiter in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects.
The 1990s represented continuing social liberalization in most countries, coupled with an increase in the influence of capitalism, which would continue until the Great Recession of the late 2000s/early 2010s.
Youth culture in the 1990s responded to this by embracing both environmentalism and entrepreneurship. Fashion of the Western world reflected this by often turning highly individualistic and/or counter-cultural, which was influenced by Generation X and early millennials: tattoos and body piercings gained popularity, and "retro" styles, inspired by fashions of the 1960s and 1970s, were also prevalent. Some young people became increasingly involved in extreme sports and outdoor activities that combined embracing athletics with the appreciation of nature.
In 1990 the World Health Organization removed homosexuality from its list of diseases.[54] Increasing acceptance of openly homosexual people occurred in the western world, slowly starting in the early 1990s,[55]Biphobia towards bisexual men became somewhat fashionable amongst heterosexual women and gay men, while lesbians and bisexual women complained of being commodified by publishing and film industries to cater to heterosexual men.
Following the murder of actress Rebecca Schaeffer by a stalker, America's first anti-stalking laws, including California Penal Code 646.9 were passed in 1990. California also passed the first cyberstalking law in 1999 (§646.9 of the California Penal Code).
Transdisciplinarity in academia. The 1st World Congress of Transdisciplinarity, Convento da Arrabida, was in Portugal, November 1994.
Child abduction warnings on emergency broadcasting systems, such as Amber Alerts became standard in such cases.
The prevention of the destruction of the tropical rainforests of the world is a major environmental cause that first came into wide public concern in the early 1990s and has continued and accelerated in its prominence.
The Chernobyl disaster had significant impact on public opinion at the end of the 1980s, and the fallout was still causing cancer deaths well into the 1990s and possibly even into the 21st century.[56] Well into the 1990s, several environmental NGOs helped improve environmental awareness among public opinion and governments. The most famous of these organizations during this decade was Greenpeace, which did not hesitate to lead illegal actions in the name of environmental preservation. These organizations also drew attention to the large deforestation of the Amazon rainforest during the period.
Global warming as an aspect of climate change also became a major concern, and the creation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) after the Earth Summit helped coordinate efforts to reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere. From 1995, the UNFCCC held annual summits on climate change, leading to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in December 1997, a binding agreement signed by several developed countries.[57]
The 1989 EPA total ban on asbestos was overturned in 1991.[58]
In 1996, (Anderson, et al. v. Pacific Gas & Electric, file BCV 00300) alleged contamination of drinking water with hexavalent chromium and the case was settled for (US) $333 million, a new record for a direct-action lawsuit.
Record numbers of women are elected to high office in the United States in 1992, the "Year of the Woman".
Violence against women takes centre stage as an essential issue internationally. The Violence Against Women Act was passed in the United States, which greatly affected the world community through the United Nations. The law's author, Joe Biden, UN Ambassador and Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, and Hillary Clinton (see below) have become vocal advocates of action against violence against women.
More nations than ever before are led by elected women Presidents and Prime Ministers. Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's 1988 victory in Pakistan makes great strides for women leaders in Muslim states. In Turkey, Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister in 1993.
In popular culture, British pop group the Spice Girls also played a part in the feminist movement, boosting popularity with their slogan "Girl Power!", while country music superstar Shania Twain declared female supremacy in her 1995 hit song "Any Man of Mine."
Baby boomers
Marketing campaigns aimed at young adults in wealthy English-Speaking Countries were informed by unscientific theories about selling to so-called Generation X and Baby boomers. Few people embraced the labels Generation X and Baby Boomer as self-descriptors. Films with characters depicting the Generation X stereotype included Slacker, The Brady Bunch Movie and Austin Powers.
Substance abuse
In Western countries, Fashion and Music magazines embrace heroin chic.
Peak in numbers of heroin overdose deaths.
An estimated fifty percent of deaths of 15–54 in post-Soviet Russia are blamed on alcohol abuse.[59]
More restrictions on tobacco advertising in some countries.
Pakistan's government passed laws to end caste based slavery:
- 1992 Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act.
- 1995 Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Rules.
Civil rights
Saudi Arabia: Women to drive movement. 6 November 1990, 47 Saudi women in Riyadh protested Saudi government's ban on women drivers.
United States: 1992 Rosa Parks: My Story, the autobiography of Rosa Parks is published.
Additional significant events
Worldwide New Year's Eve celebrations on 31 December 1999, welcoming the year 2000.
In Paris, Diana, Princess of Wales and her fiancé, Dodi Al-Fayed, were killed in a car accident in August 1997, when their chauffeured, hired Mercedes-Benz S-Class crashed in the Pont de l'Alma tunnel. The chauffeur, Henri Paul, died at the scene, as did Al-Fayed. Diana and an Al-Fayed bodyguard, Trevor Rees-Jones, survived the accident. The Princess of Wales died at a Paris hospital hours later. The bodyguard, Rees-Jones, is the sole survivor of the now infamous accident.[60]
The birth of the "Second Republic" in Italy, with the Mani Pulite investigations of 1994.
The Channel Tunnel across the English Channel opens in 1994, connecting France and England. As of 2022[update] it is the third-longest rail tunnel in the world, but with the undersea section of 37.9 km (23.5 mi) being the longest undersea tunnel in the world.
The resignation of President Boris Yeltsin on 31 December 1999 resulted in Prime Minister Vladimir Putin's succession to the position.
With help from clinical fertility drugs, an Iowa mother, Bobbie McCaughey, gave birth to the first surviving septuplets in 1997. There followed a media frenzy and widespread support for the family.
Debate on assisted suicide, highly publicized by Michigan doctor Jack Kevorkian, surfaces when Kevorkian is charged with multiple counts of homicide of his terminally ill patients through the decade.
Beer keg registration becomes a popular public policy in the United States.
The 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' purported discovery of the Americas in 1992 was popularly observed in the United States, despite controversy and protests against the victimization of Native Americans by Columbus' expeditions. The holiday was labeled by some as racist, in view of Native American experiences of colonialism, slavery, genocide, and cultural destruction.
Matthew Shepard is murdered near the University of Wyoming, purportedly for being gay. This sparks intense national and international media attention and outrage. Shepard becomes a major symbol in the LGBT rights movement and the fight against homophobia. Claims of crystal methamphetamine related "meth rage" as a contributing factor in the crime surfaced in 2013.[62]
Shanda Sharer was murdered on 11 January 1992. She was lured away from her house and held captive by a group of teenage girls. She was tortured for hours and burned alive. She died from smoke inhalation. Those found guilty and sentenced to prison were Melinda Loveless, Laurie Tackett, Hope Rippey, and Toni Lawrence. According to Loveless, she was jealous of her former partner Amanda Heavrin's relationship with Shanda Sharer.[citation needed]
Karla Homolka was arrested with her husband, Paul Bernardo, in 1993. Both sexually tortured and killed their victims. Their first victim was Karla's 15-year-old sister, Tammy Homolka. The second and third victims were Leslie Mahaffy and Kristen French. Karla told the investigators that she reluctantly did what Paul told her to do because he was abusive, and was given a plea deal. She was sentenced to 12 years in prison (10 years for Mahaffy and French, and two years for Tammy). Later, investigators discovered the crime videotapes, proving that Karla was a willing participant. But by that time the deal had already been made. In 1995, Paul was sentenced to life in prison. Karla was released from prison in 2005.
Polly Klaas (3 January 1981 – October 1993) was kidnapped by Richard Allen Davis from her home during a slumber party. She was later strangled to death. After her death, her father, Marc Klaas, established the KlaasKids Foundation.
Jonbenet Ramsey (6 August 1990 – 25 December 1996) was a child beauty pageant contestant who was missing and found dead in her Boulder, Colorado, home. The crime terrified the nation and the world. Her parents were initially considered to be suspects in her death but were cleared in 2003 when DNA from her clothes was tested. To this day, her murderer has not been found and brought to justice.
Lorena Bobbitt was charged with malicious wounding for severing her husband John Bobbitt's penis after she was repeatedly sexually assaulted by Bobbitt, for which he was charged. Both parties were acquitted of their respective crimes. The story was notable because of the use of Microsurgery to re-attach the man's penis.
Wanda Holloway was convicted of solicitation of capital murder when she attempted to hire a hitman to kill the mother of her daughter's junior high school cheerleading rival.
Scandal rocked the sport of figure skating when skater Nancy Kerrigan was attacked during practice by an assailant hired by Jeff Gillooly, former husband of skater Tonya Harding. The attack was carried out in an attempt to injure Kerrigan's leg to the point of her being unable to compete in the upcoming 1994 Winter Olympics, thereby securing Harding a better spot to win a gold medal.
1992 Los Angeles riots – resulted in 53 deaths and 5,500 property fires in a 100-square-mile (260 km2) riot zone. The riots were a result of the state court acquittal of three white and one Hispanic L.A. police officer by an all-white jury in a police brutality case involving motorist Rodney King. In 1993, all four officers were convicted in a federal civil rights case.
Asia
Massive immigration wave of Jews from the Commonwealth of Independent States to Israel – With the end of the Soviet Union, Israel faced a mass influx of Russian Jews, many of whom had high expectations the country was unable to meet. Israel also came under an Iraqi missile attack during the Gulf War but acquiesced to US pressure not to retaliate militarily, which could have disrupted the US-Arab alliance. The US and Netherlands then rushed anti-missile batteries to Israel to defend the country against missile attacks.
The Spratly Islands issue became one of the most controversial islands in Southeast Asia.
The closing Mass of the X World Youth Day 1995 was held in Rizal Park on 15 January 1995, attended by more than 5 million people. This is the record gathering of the Roman Catholic Church.
The Dreamcast (Sega's final video game console) launched in Japan in 1998, and launched in North America and Europe the following year. The system saw the release of games like Sonic Adventure and Soulcalibur.
Technological advancements like the internet, personal computers, and the World Wide Web were popular in the 1990s. The Y2K bug in the late 1990s affected popular culture. Y2K was a computer bug occurring when computers switched from the years 1999 to 2000, some computers reset to 1900.
Crystal Pepsi was a popular drink in the 1990s, which was re-released for a limited run in the summer of 2016. Drinks like Surge released in 1997 and were also popular in the 1990s.
In the 1990s videotapes were used for personal home video recordings and recording television airings. VHS tapes could be put in devices such as VCRs, which were popular in the decade.
Pokémon Red, Blue, and Yellow released in the late 1990s, which launched the globally popular Pokémon franchise, pictured above the GameBoy cartridges.
In the 1990s girl groups such as TLC (pictured), Destiny's Child, and The Spice Girls gained popularity. These bands are among the highest selling girl groups of all time.
Film
Live-action films
Dogme 95 became an important European artistic motion picture movement by the decade's end. Also in 1998, Titanic by director James Cameron (released in late 1997) became the highest-grossing film of all time, grossing over $1.8 billion worldwide. It would hold this record for over a decade until 2010 when James Cameron's Avatar (released in December 2009), took the title.[64]
In 1994, former Disney employee Jeffrey Katzenberg founded DreamWorks SKG, which would produce its first two animated films: The Prince of Egypt and Antz which were both aimed more at adults than children and were both critically and commercially successful. Toy Story, the first full-length CGI movie, made by Pixar, was released in 1995 and revolutionized animated films. In 1998, with the release of DreamWorks's Antz and Pixar's A Bug's Life, the rivalry between DreamWorks and Pixar began between the studios due to the similarities between both films.
The 25 highest-grossing films of the decade are:[85]
Music
Music artists and genres
Whitney Houston (left), Celine Dion (center) and Mariah Carey (right) were three of the highest-selling and popular female musical artists of the decade.
Rappers Salt-n-Pepa continued to have hit songs until 1994. Dr. Dre's 1992 album The Chronic provided a template for modern gangsta rap, and gave rise to other emerging artists of the genre, including Snoop Dogg.[94] Due to the success of Death Row Records and Tupac Shakur, West Coast gangsta rap commercially dominated hip hop during the early-to-mid 1990s, along with Bad Boy Records and the Notorious B.I.G. on the East Coast.[95] Hip hop became the best-selling music genre by the mid-1990s.[96][97]
In the 1990s, country music became a worldwide phenomenon thanks to Billy Ray Cyrus, Shania Twain and Garth Brooks.[98][99][100] The latter enjoyed one of the most successful careers in popular music history, breaking records for both sales and concert attendance throughout the decade. The RIAA has certified his recordings at a combined (128× platinum), denoting roughly 113 million United States shipments.[101]
Also, British R&B artists Sade (active since 1982), Des'Ree and Mark Morrison became quite popular during this decade.
Music from around the world
Blur (left) and Oasis (right) became some of the most internationally popular Britpop bands of the decade.
In the United Kingdom, the alternative rock Britpop genre emerged as part of the more general Cool Britannia culture, with Pulp (already founded in 1978), Blur (active since 1988), Ocean Colour Scene (since 1989), Suede (existing since 1989 with hiatus), the Verve (1990–1993), Oasis (formed in 1991), Elastica (1992–2001), Ash (since 1992), Supergrass (1993–2022 with hiatus) and Kula Shaker (since 1995) serving as popular examples of this emergence.
The impact of boy band pop sensation Take That, founded in 1990, lead to the formation of other boy bands in the UK and Ireland, such as East 17 in 1991 and the Irish boy band Boyzone in 1993. Female pop icons Spice Girls took the world by storm since 1994, becoming the most commercially successful British group since the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and Led Zeppelin.[102][103] Their global success brought about a widespread scene of teen pop acts around the world[104][105] such as All Saints, Backstreet Boys (both formed in 1993) as well as American acts as Hanson (from 1992), NSYNC (1995–2002, reunited 2003), Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera who came to prominence into the new millennium.[106]
Controversy surrounded the Prodigy with the release of the track "Smack My Bitch Up". The National Organization for Women (NOW) claimed that the track was "advocating violence against women" due to the song's lyrics, which are themselves sampled from Ultramagnetic MCs' "Give the Drummer Some". The music video (directed by Jonas Åkerlund) featured a first-person POV of someone going clubbing, indulging in drugs and alcohol, getting into fist fights, abusing women and picking up a prostitute. At the end of the video, the camera pans over to a mirror, revealing the subject to be a woman.
Deaths of artists
1991 also saw the death of Queen frontman Freddie Mercury from AIDS-related pneumonia. Next to this Kurt Cobain, Selena, Eazy-E, Tupac Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G. were the most publicized music-related deaths of the decade, in 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1997 respectively. Richey Edwards of Manic Street Preachers was publicized in the media in 1991 following an incident involving Steve Lamacq backstage after a live show, in which Edwards carved '4 Real' into his arm. Edwards' disappearance in 1995 was highly publicized. He is still missing but was presumed dead in 2008.
1993 saw the debut of the medical–mystery drama, Diagnosis Murder, a comeback vehicle for Dick Van Dyke, who guest-starred on an episode of its parent series, Jake and the Fatman, where the show got off to a rocky start and became one of television's long-running mysteries, that lasted until its cancellation in 2001. It was one of a number of shows that made CBS popular with a distinctly older audience than its competitors, with a lineup consisting mainly of murder mysteries, westerns and religious dramas, such as Walker, Texas Ranger, Touched by an Angel, Murder, She Wrote and Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman.
Medical dramas started to return to television in the 1990s after the end of St. Elsewhere in 1988. In 1994, ER, which originally starred Anthony Edwards, Noah Wyle and George Clooney, was instantly a domestic and international success, lasting until 2009 and spawning similar series to compete against it, such as the more soap opera-esque Grey's Anatomy (2005–present), and the short lived Medicine Ball (1995). It was one of the many successful shows during that period (as well as sitcoms such as Seinfeld and Friends) which made NBC the most-watched channel in the United States. This show launched the career of George Clooney. That same year, Chicago Hope, that starred Héctor Elizondo, Mandy Patinkin and Adam Arkin, was also a popular series for CBS, lasting between 1994 and 2000.
Crime drama and police detective shows returned to the spotlight after soap operas died down. After the successful debuts of Law & Order, NYPD Blue,Homicide: Life on the Street, Fox debuted New York Undercover, which starred Malik Yoba and Micheal DeLorenzo, is notable for featuring two people of color in the main roles. Nash Bridges, a comeback vehicle for Don Johnson, lasting six seasons (1996–2001), dealt with escapist entertainment instead of tackling social issues.[107]
Beverly Hills, 90210 ran on Fox from 1990 to 2000. It established the teen soap genre, paving the way for Dawson's Creek, Felicity, Party of Five, and other shows airing later in the decade, and into the 2000s. The show was then remade and renamed simply 90210 and premiered in 2008. Beverly Hills, 90210, and its spin-off Melrose Place also became a popular TV show throughout the 1990s. Baywatch became the most-watched TV show in history [citation needed] and influenced pop culture.
Sex and the City's portrayal of relationships and sexuality caused controversy and acclaim, leading to a new generation of sexually progressive television shows in the 2000s, such as Queer as Folk and The L Word.
Other television shows and genres
Fantasy and science fiction shows were popular on television, with NBC airing SeaQuest DSV beginning in 1993, which made Jonathan Brandis a popular teen idol, but was cancelled after three seasons. The 1990s saw a multitude of Star Trek content: in 1993, following the success of Star Trek: The Next Generation, Paramount released the follow-up shows Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1993–1999) and Star Trek: Voyager (1995–2001). Touched By an Angel, broadcast by CBS in 1994, was intended as the comeback vehicle of Della Reese, and also launched the career of Roma Downey. It wasn't an immediate success and was cancelled, but was revived the following year due to a fan letter-writing campaign, and ran for eight more seasons. At the end of the decade, the fantasy drama series Charmed gained a cult following and helped popularize the WB.
In 1993, one of the last westerns to air on television was Walker, Texas Ranger, a crime drama starring Chuck Norris as the title character. Running for nine seasons, the show tackled a wide variety of subjects and was one of few shows to feature an actor performing karate stunts at that time.
The 1990s saw the debut of live-action children's programs such as the educational Bill Nye the Science Guy and Blue's Clues as well as the superhero show Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, the latter becoming a pop culture phenomenon along with a line of action figures and other toys by Japanese toy manufacturer Bandai. This can also be said for the British pre-school series Teletubbies, which was a massive hit loved by very young children. It also saw long time running shows such as Barney & Friends and the continuation of Sesame Street, both of which would continue in the following decades and so.
During the mid-1990s, two of the biggest professional wrestling companies: World Championship Wrestling and World Wrestling Federation were in a ratings battle that was called the Monday Night War (1995–2001). Each company fought to draw more viewers to their respective Monday night wrestling show. The "War" ended in 2001 when WWE bought WCW. In November 2001, there was a Winner Takes All match with both companies in a Pay-Per-View called Survivor Series. WWF won the match, putting an end to WCW.
The late 1990s also saw the evolution of a new TV genre: primetime game shows, popularized by the quiz show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, hosted originally by Chris Tarrant on ITV in the United Kingdom and Regis Philbin on ABC in the United States, as well as other first-run game shows aired in prime time on the newly launched Game Show Network.
Animated shows
An animated sitcom, The Simpsons, premiered on Fox in December 1989 and became a domestic and international success in the 1990s. The show has since aired more than 600 episodes and has become an institution of pop culture. In addition, it has spawned the adult-oriented animated sitcom genre, inspiring more adult-oriented animated shows such as Beavis and Butt-Head (1993–1997), Daria (1997–2001), along with South Park and Family Guy, the latter two of which began in 1997 and 1999, respectively, and continue to air new episodes through the 2000s and into the 2020s.
Cartoons produced in the 1990s are sometimes referred to as the "Renaissance Age of Animation" for cartoons in general, particularly for American animated children's programs. Disney Channel, Nickelodeon (owned by Viacom, now Paramount Global) and Cartoon Network (owned by Warner Bros. Discovery) would dominate the animated television industry. These three channels are considered the "Big Three", of children's entertainment, even today, but especially during the 1990s.
Earth and jewel tones, as well as an array of minimalist style and design influences, characterize the 1990s, a stark contrast to the camp and bombast seen in the brightly colored fashion and design trends of the 1980s.
The Rachel, Jennifer Aniston's hairstyle on the hit TV show Friends, became a cultural phenomenon, with millions of women copying it worldwide.
The model 1300 Wonderbra style has a resurgence of popularity in Europe in 1992, which kicks off an international media sensation, the 1994 return of "The Wonderbra" brand, and a spike in the push-up, plunge bras around the world.
Slap bracelets were a popular fad among children, preteens, and teenagers in the early 1990s and were available in a wide variety of patterns and colors. Also popular among children were light-up sneakers, jelly shoes, and shoelace hair clips.
The Grunge hype at the beginning of the decade popularized flannel shirts among both genders during the 1990s.
Heroin chic appeared sporadically across film, fashion models and grunge music, but gave way by end of the US recession and the emergence of internet "geek" culture (a sassy tech-literate style centered on web searching and drinking coffee).
Grunge- and hip-hop-inspired anti-fashion saw an expansion of the slouchy, casual styles of past decades, mostly seen in baggy and distressed jeans, cargo shorts and pants, baseball caps (often worn backward), chunky sneakers, oversized sweatshirts, and loose-fitting tees with grandiloquentgraphics and logos.
Svelte fashion was also popular from the beginning of the 1990s and into the 2000s, as the new millennium began. The rivalry of sloppy grunge fashion versus more expensive clothing made for fitter bodies was a repeat of the rock versus disco rivalry of a decade ago. Nineties fashion became darker, slinkier, and more futuristic-looking clothing in the late 1990s, with Keanu Reeves in The Matrix as a style icon.
Tamagotchi and Furby were popular iconic toys among children around the world in the 1990s, also in the 2000s
Pogs was a popular street game among children around the world during the decade
Grunge-style fashion became a trend in the 1990s, modeled here by teen actor Jonathan Brandis
Boots like Timberlands and Dr. Martens became popular. Hiking, motorcyclist and safety boots were all part of the general trend towards grunge fashion in footwear
The console wars, primarily between Sega (Mega Drive, marketed as the Sega Genesis in North America, introduced in 1988) and Nintendo (Super NES, introduced in 1990), sees the entrance of Sony with the PlayStation in 1994, which becomes the first successful CD-based console (as opposed to cartridges). By the end of the decade, Sega's hold on the market becomes tenuous after the end of the Saturn in 1999 and the Dreamcast in 2002.
Arcade games rapidly decreased in popularity, mainly due to the dominance of handheld and home consoles.[108]
Sony's PlayStation becomes the top-selling video game console and changes the standard media storage type from cartridges to compact discs (CDs) in home consoles. Crash Bandicoot is released on 9 September 1996, becoming one of the most successful platforming series for the Sony PlayStation. Spyro The Dragon, released on 9 September 1998, also became a successful platforming series. Tomb Raider's Lara Croft became a video game sex symbol, becoming one of the most recognizable figures in the entertainment industry throughout the late 1990s.
Resident Evil is released in 1996 and Resident Evil 2. Both games became the most highly acclaimed survival-horror series on the PlayStation at the time it was released. It is credited with defining the survival horror genre and with returning zombies to popular culture, leading to a renewed interest in zombie films by the 2000s.
Video game genres
3D graphics become the standard by the decade's end. Although FPS games had long since seen the transition to full 3D, other genres began to copy this trend by the end of the decade. The most notable first shooter games in the 1990s are GoldenEye 007 and Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six.
The violent nature of fighting games like Capcom's Street Fighter II, Sega's Virtua Fighter, and Midway's Mortal Kombat prompted the video game industry to accept a game rating system. Hundreds of knockoffs are widely popular in the mid-to-late 1990s. Doom (1993) bursts onto the world scene, and instantly popularizes the FPS genre. Half-Life (1998) builds upon this, using gameplay without levels and an immersive first-person perspective. Half-Life became one of the most popular FPS games in history.
The real-time strategy (RTS) genre is introduced in 1992 with the release of Dune II. Warcraft: Orcs & Humans (1994) popularizing the genre, and Command & Conquer and Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness in 1995, setting up the first major real-time strategy competition and popularizing multiplayer capabilities in RTS games. StarCraft in 1998 becomes the second best-selling computer game of all time. It remains among the most popular multiplayer RTS games today, especially in South Korea. [citation needed]Homeworld in 1999 becomes the first successful 3D RTS game. The rise of the RTS genre is often credited with the fall of the turn-based strategy (TBS) genre, popularized with Civilization in 1991. Final Fantasy was introduced (in North America) in 1990 for the NES and remains among the most popular video game franchises, with many new titles to date and more in development, plus numerous spin-offs, sequels, films and related titles. Final Fantasy VII, released in 1997, especially popularized the series.
The game Tomb Raider, launched in 1996, became particularly popular during the decade and as a result Lara Croft's character eventually became a cultural icon in the video game industry
Private LAN parties were at the peak of their popularity in the late 1990s and early 2000s when broadband Internet access was unavailable or too expensive for most people
Internet
Prominent websites launched during the decade include IMDb (1993), eBay (1995), Amazon (1994), GeoCities (1994), Netscape (1994), Yahoo! (1995), AltaVista (1995), AIM (1997), ICQ (1996), Hotmail (1996), Google (1998), Napster (1999). The pioneering peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing internet service Napster, which launched in Fall 1999, was the first peer-to-peer software to become massively popular. While at the time it was possible to share files in other ways via the Internet (such as IRC and USENET), Napster was the first software to focus exclusively on sharing MP3 files for music. Napster was eventually forced to shut down in July 2001 after legal disputes over copyright infringement and digital piracy, though it would eventually be relaunched as a music streaming service in 2016.
Major League Baseball players went on strike on 12 August 1994, thus ending the season and canceling the World Series for the first time in 90 years. The players' strike ended on 29 March 1995, when players and team owners agreed.
The 1991 World Series pitted the Atlanta Braves and the Minnesota Twins, two teams who finished last place in their respective divisions, the previous season. The series would go all seven games won by the home teams, concluding dramatically with the Minnesota Twins claiming their second World Series title.
American NBA basketball player Michael Jordan became a major sports and pop culture icon, idolized by millions worldwide. He revolutionized sports marketing through deals with companies such as Gatorade, Hanes, McDonald's and Nike. His Chicago Bulls team won six NBA titles during the decade (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997 and 1998). He was also notable outside of basketball thanks to his self-portrayal in the film Space Jam with the Looney Tunes characters.
Canadian hockey star Mario Lemieux led the Pittsburgh Penguins, one of the original NHL expansion teams, to back-to-back Stanley Cup championships in 1991 and 1992.
In addition to the Pittsburgh Penguins, three other NHL expansion teams went on to earn their first Stanley Cup championships: the New Jersey Devils in 1995, the Colorado Avalanche in 1996, and the Dallas Stars in 1999.
Canadian hockey star Wayne Gretzky announced his retirement from the NHL in 1999. Upon his final game on 18 April, he held 40 regular-season records, 15 playoff records, and six All-Star records. He is the leading point-scorer in NHL history and the only NHL player to total over 200 points in one season – a feat he accomplished four times. In addition, he tallied over 100 points in 16 professional seasons, 14 of them consecutive. He played for four teams during his NHL career: the Edmonton Oilers, the Los Angeles Kings, the St. Louis Blues, and the New York Rangers.
The United States hosted the 15th staging of the 1994 FIFA World Cup. It holds the record for the largest attendance per game during the World Cup finals (even after the tournament's expansion to 32 teams and 64 matches). Additionally, this led to the creation of the MLS.
In the NFL, the San Francisco 49ers and the Washington Redskins showed promise of continuing their '80s glory by each team winning another Super Bowl at the beginning of the decade. However, it was the Dallas Cowboys who made a gradual return to dynasty status, winning three Super Bowls (1992, 1993 and 1995) in four years after a 14-year NFL championship drought. The Denver Broncos also won their first two Super Bowls after having lost four, winning consecutive championships of the 1997 and 1998 seasons.
Florida State, 1987–2000 – At the height of Bobby Bowden's dominance, the Florida State Seminoles went 152–19–1, won nine ACC championships (1992–2000), two national championships (1993 and 1999), played for three more national championships (1996, 1998, and 2000), were ranked #1 in the preseason AP poll five times (1988, 1991, 1993, 1995, and 1999), never lost the #1 AP ranking during 1999, produced 20 1st round NFL draft picks (including the 1997 offensive and defensive rookies of the year), won at least ten games every year, and never finished a season ranked lower than fourth in the AP poll. Quarterbacks Charlie Ward and Chris Weinke won Heisman Trophies.[113]
The Nebraska Cornhuskers led by head coach Tom Osborne won three national championships in college football in four years (1994, 1995, 1997)
Led by head coach Jim Tressel, The Youngstown State Penguins claimed to be the "team of the '90s" by winning four national championships (1991, 1993, 1994, 1997) in division I-AA college football[114]
Major League Baseball added four teams, Miami Marlins (as Florida Marlins), Colorado Rockies, Tampa Bay Rays (as Tampa Bay Devil Rays), and the Arizona Diamondbacks, and moved one (Milwaukee Brewers) into the National League. The Florida Marlins would win the World Series in 1997 and 2003; the Arizona Diamondbacks would win the World Series in 2001, becoming the fastest expansion team to win a major championship for any major sport; the Colorado Rockies and Tampa Bay Rays would appear in the World Series in 2007 and 2008 respectively.
In the 1996 Summer Olympics, the Women's Gymnastics team won the first team gold medal for the US in Olympic Gymnastics history.
In 1997, eight Australian Rugby League Premiership clubs defect to the News Corporation-backed Super League, before a resolution sees the two parties form the National Rugby League in 1998. The British competition is bought out by News Corporation, and renamed Super League, which it is still currently named (although it was sold by News Corporation).
Literature
Leading talk show host Oprah Winfrey became an important book influencer in 1996 when she launched the highly successful Oprah's Book Club.
The hugely successful Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling was introduced in 1997. The series, with seven main novels, would go on to become the best-selling book series in world history and adapted into a film series in 2001.
Goosebumps by R. L. Stine, the second highest-grossing book series in the world, was introduced in 1992 and remained a dominant player in children's literature throughout and after the decade. A television series released on Fox Kids alongside a film version that released in 2015.
The decline of diverse study options in university humanities schools due to economic rationalism, leading to a boom in purple prose heavily influenced by 20th century European social theory and cultural studies. In 1996 in what is known as the Sokal affair, a mathematician pranked a cultural studies by tricking them into publishing his nonsensical essay "Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity" on the basis that the journal wasn't peer-reviewed and would publish anything that seemed fashionably left-wing. In 1996 the Postmodernism Generator used a recursive transition network to imitate the postmodernist style of humanities writing.
The 1990s saw the rise of diverse musical trends, identifiable through the decade's top-selling pop songs and the continued prominence of established genres such as gangsta rap, grunge, industrial rock, and deep house. Alternative hip hop gained visibility at the start of the decade, while the public's interest in independent music surged as a counter to commercial radio payola.
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Further reading
Ash, Timothy Garton. History of the Present: Essays, Sketches, and Dispatches from Europe in the 1990s (2009) excerpts
Bender, Thomas. "'Aventurero y cauteloso': Historia de Estados Unidos en los años 1990". Journal of American History (1994): 992–1003. en JSTOR
Bentley, Nick, ed. Ficción británica de los años 1990 (Routledge, 2007).
Berman, Milton. Los años noventa en Estados Unidos (2009).
Brügger, Niels, ed, Web25: Historias de los primeros 25 años de la World Wide Web (Peter Lang, 2017).
Cornia, Giovanni Andrea, Ralph van der Hoeven y Thandika Mkandawire. La recuperación de África en los años 1990: del estancamiento y el ajuste al desarrollo humano (St. Martin's Press, 1992)
Harrison, Thomas (2011). Música de los años 90. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313379437.
O'Neill, William. Una burbuja en el tiempo: Estados Unidos durante los años de entreguerras, 1989-2001 (2009) Fragmento, historia popular
Parratt, Catriona M. "About Turns: Reflexiones sobre la historia del deporte en la década de 1990". Sport History Review (1998) 29#1 pp: 4–17.
Rubin, Robert y Jacob Weisberg. En un mundo incierto: decisiones difíciles de Wall Street a Washington (2015), historia económica.
Sierz, Aleks. Dramaturgia británica moderna: los años 1990: voces, documentos, nuevas interpretaciones (A&C Black, 2012)
Stiglitz, Joseph E. Los locos noventa: una nueva historia de la década más próspera del mundo (Norton, 2004), historia económica
Turner, Alwyn. Una sociedad sin clases: Gran Bretaña en la década de 1990 Aurum Press (2013)
van der Hoeven, Arno. "Recordando la música popular de los años 1990: música de baile y los significados culturales de la nostalgia basada en décadas". Revista internacional de estudios patrimoniales (2014) 20#3 pp: 316–330.
Yoda, Tomiko y Harry Harootunian, eds. Japón después de Japón: vida social y cultural desde la recesión de los años 90 hasta la actualidad (2006)
Enlaces externos
Medios relacionados con 1990s en Wikimedia Commons
Los 90: Tonight Tonight: un tributo a la cultura pop en YouTube