La historia de la pintura se remonta a los artefactos y obras de arte creados por artistas prehistóricos y abarca todas las culturas. Representa una tradición continua, aunque periódicamente interrumpida, desde la Antigüedad. A través de culturas, continentes y milenios, la historia de la pintura consiste en un río continuo de creatividad que continúa hasta el siglo XXI. [1] Hasta principios del siglo XX se basó principalmente en motivos figurativos , religiosos y clásicos , momento a partir del cual ganaron popularidad los enfoques más puramente abstractos y conceptuales .
Los avances en la pintura oriental son históricamente paralelos a los de la pintura occidental , en general, unos siglos antes. [2] El arte africano , el arte judío , el arte islámico , el arte indonesio , el arte indio , [3] el arte chino y el arte japonés [4] tuvieron cada uno una influencia significativa en el arte occidental, y viceversa. [5]
Inicialmente, la pintura oriental y occidental, que tenía un propósito utilitario y luego se convirtió en un mecenazgo imperial, privado, cívico y religioso, encontró más tarde audiencias en la aristocracia y la clase media. Desde la era moderna, la Edad Media hasta el Renacimiento, los pintores trabajaron para la iglesia y una aristocracia adinerada. [6] A partir de la era barroca , los artistas recibieron encargos privados de una clase media más educada y próspera. [7] Finalmente, en Occidente, la idea del " arte por el arte " [8] comenzó a encontrar expresión en la obra de los pintores románticos como Francisco de Goya , John Constable y JMW Turner . [9] El siglo XIX vio el surgimiento de la galería de arte comercial , que proporcionó mecenazgo en el siglo XX. [10]
Las pinturas rupestres más antiguas conocidas tienen aproximadamente 40.000 años de antigüedad y se encuentran tanto en la región franco-cantábrica en Europa occidental como en las cuevas del distrito de Maros ( Sulawesi , Indonesia ). El tipo más antiguo de pinturas rupestres son plantillas hechas a mano y formas geométricas simples; los ejemplos indiscutibles más antiguos de pinturas rupestres figurativas son algo más jóvenes, cerca de 35.000 años de antigüedad. [11] En noviembre de 2018, los científicos informaron del descubrimiento de la pintura de arte figurativo más antigua conocida en ese momento, de más de 40.000 (quizás hasta 52.000) años de antigüedad, de un animal desconocido, en la cueva de Lubang Jeriji Saléh en la isla indonesia de Borneo ( Kalimantan ). [12] [13] Sin embargo, en diciembre de 2019, se estimó que unas pinturas rupestres figurativas que representan la caza de cerdos en el karst de Maros-Pangkep en Sulawesi eran incluso más antiguas, de al menos 43.900 años. Se señaló que el hallazgo era "el registro pictórico más antiguo de narración de historias y la obra de arte figurativa más antigua del mundo". [14] [15] Y más recientemente, en 2021, se ha informado del arte rupestre de un cerdo encontrado en una isla de Indonesia, y que data de hace más de 45.500 años. [16] Hay ejemplos de pinturas rupestres en todo el mundo: en Indonesia, Francia, India, España, África del Sur , China, Australia, etc.
Se han hecho diversas conjeturas sobre el significado que estas pinturas tenían para las personas que las realizaron. Es posible que los artistas prehistóricos pintaran animales para “atrapar” su alma o espíritu y así cazarlos más fácilmente, o que las pinturas representaran una visión animista y un homenaje a la naturaleza circundante . Puede que fueran el resultado de una necesidad básica de expresión innata al ser humano, o que tuvieran como finalidad la transmisión de información práctica.
En el Paleolítico , la representación de humanos en las pinturas rupestres era poco frecuente. En su mayoría, se pintaban animales, no solo animales que se utilizaban como alimento sino también animales que representaban fuerza como el rinoceronte o los grandes félidos , como en la cueva de Chauvet. A veces se dibujaban signos como puntos. Las representaciones humanas raras incluyen huellas de manos y plantillas, y figuras que representan híbridos humanos/animales . La cueva de Chauvet en los departamentos de Ardèche de Francia contiene las pinturas rupestres conservadas más importantes de la era paleolítica, pintadas alrededor del 31.000 a. C. Las pinturas rupestres de Altamira en España se realizaron entre el 14.000 y el 12.000 a. C. y muestran, entre otros, bisontes . La sala de los toros en Lascaux , Dordoña, Francia, es una de las pinturas rupestres más conocidas y data de aproximadamente entre el 15.000 y el 10.000 a. C.
Si las pinturas tienen algún significado, sigue siendo desconocido. Las cuevas no estaban en una zona habitada, por lo que pueden haber sido utilizadas para rituales estacionales. Los animales están acompañados de signos que sugieren un posible uso mágico. Los símbolos en forma de flecha de Lascaux a veces se interpretan como utilizados como calendarios o almanaques , pero la evidencia sigue siendo inconcluyente. [18] La obra más importante de la era mesolítica fueron los guerreros en marcha , una pintura rupestre en Cingle de la Mola, Castellón , España, que data de aproximadamente 7000 a 4000 a. C. La técnica utilizada probablemente fue escupir o soplar los pigmentos sobre la roca. Las pinturas son bastante naturalistas, aunque estilizadas. Las figuras no son tridimensionales, aunque se superponen.
Las primeras pinturas indias conocidas fueron las pinturas rupestres de tiempos prehistóricos , los petroglifos que se encuentran en lugares como los refugios rocosos de Bhimbetka , y algunos de ellos son más antiguos que el 5500 a. C. Estas obras continuaron y después de varios milenios, en el siglo VII, los pilares tallados de Ajanta , en el estado de Maharashtra, presentan un excelente ejemplo de pinturas indias. Los colores, en su mayoría diversos tonos de rojo y naranja, se derivaban de minerales.
La historia de la pintura oriental incluye una amplia gama de influencias de diversas culturas y religiones. Los desarrollos en la pintura oriental son históricamente paralelos a los de la pintura occidental , en general unos pocos siglos antes. [2] El arte africano , el arte judío , el arte islámico , el arte indonesio , el arte indio , [19] el arte chino , el arte coreano y el arte japonés [4] tuvieron cada uno una influencia significativa en el arte occidental y viceversa. [5]
La pintura china es una de las tradiciones artísticas continuas más antiguas del mundo. Las primeras pinturas no eran figurativas sino ornamentales; consistían en patrones o diseños en lugar de imágenes. La cerámica primitiva estaba pintada con espirales, zigzags, puntos o animales. Fue solo durante el período de los Reinos Combatientes (403-221 a. C.) que los artistas comenzaron a representar el mundo que los rodeaba. La pintura japonesa es una de las artes japonesas más antiguas y refinadas , y abarca una amplia variedad de géneros y estilos. La historia de la pintura japonesa es una larga historia de síntesis y competencia entre la estética japonesa nativa y la adaptación de ideas importadas. La pintura coreana, como forma independiente, comenzó alrededor del 108 a. C., alrededor de la caída de Gojoseon , lo que la convierte en una de las más antiguas del mundo. Las obras de arte de ese período de tiempo evolucionaron hacia los diversos estilos que caracterizaron el período de los Tres Reinos de Corea , en particular las pinturas y frescos que adornan las tumbas de la realeza de Goguryeo . Durante el período de los Tres Reinos y durante la dinastía Goryeo , la pintura coreana se caracterizó principalmente por una combinación de paisajes de estilo coreano, rasgos faciales, temas centrados en el budismo y un énfasis en la observación celestial que fue facilitado por el rápido desarrollo de la astronomía coreana.
China, Japón y Corea tienen una fuerte tradición en pintura, que también está muy ligada al arte de la caligrafía y el grabado (tanto que comúnmente se lo considera pintura). La pintura tradicional del Lejano Oriente se caracteriza por técnicas basadas en agua, menos realismo, temas "elegantes" y estilizados, un enfoque gráfico para la representación, la importancia del espacio blanco (o espacio negativo ) y una preferencia por el paisaje (en lugar de la figura humana) como tema. Más allá de la tinta y el color sobre seda o rollos de papel, el oro sobre laca también era un medio común en las obras de arte pintadas del este de Asia. Aunque la seda era un medio algo caro para pintar en el pasado, la invención del papel durante el siglo I d. C. por el eunuco de la corte Han Cai Lun proporcionó no solo un medio barato y extendido para escribir, sino también un medio barato y extendido para pintar (haciéndolo más accesible al público).
Las ideologías del confucianismo , el taoísmo y el budismo desempeñaron papeles importantes en el arte del este de Asia. Pintores medievales de la dinastía Song como Lin Tinggui y su Luohan Laundering [20] (alojado en la Smithsonian Freer Gallery of Art ) del siglo XII son excelentes ejemplos de ideas budistas fusionadas en obras de arte clásicas chinas. En esta última pintura sobre seda (imagen y descripción proporcionadas en el enlace), los Luohan budistas calvos están representados en un entorno práctico de lavado de ropa junto a un río. Sin embargo, la pintura en sí es visualmente impresionante, con los Luohan retratados en ricos detalles y colores brillantes y opacos en contraste con un entorno boscoso brumoso, marrón y anodino. Además, las copas de los árboles están envueltas en una niebla arremolinada, proporcionando el "espacio negativo" común mencionado anteriormente en el arte del este de Asia.
En el japonismo , los postimpresionistas de finales del siglo XIX, como Van Gogh y Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec , y los tonalistas como James McNeill Whistler , admiraron a los artistas japoneses del ukiyo-e de principios del siglo XIX, como Hokusai (1760-1849) e Hiroshige (1797-1858), y fueron influenciados por ellos.
Los primeros ejemplos supervivientes de obras de arte pintadas chinas datan del periodo de los Reinos Combatientes (481-221 a. C.), con pinturas sobre seda o murales de tumbas sobre roca, ladrillo o piedra. A menudo tenían un formato estilizado simplista y patrones geométricos más o menos rudimentarios. A menudo representaban criaturas mitológicas, escenas domésticas, escenas laborales o escenas palaciegas llenas de funcionarios de la corte. Las obras de arte durante este periodo y la posterior dinastía Qin (221-207 a. C.) y la dinastía Han (202 a. C. - 220 d. C.) no se hacían como un medio en sí mismo o para una expresión personal superior; más bien, se creaban obras de arte para simbolizar y honrar ritos funerarios, representaciones de deidades mitológicas o espíritus de antepasados, etc. Se podían encontrar pinturas sobre seda de funcionarios de la corte y escenas domésticas durante la dinastía Han, junto con escenas de hombres cazando a caballo o participando en un desfile militar. También había pintura sobre obras de arte tridimensionales como figurillas y estatuas, como los colores originales pintados que cubrían las estatuas de soldados y caballos del Ejército de Terracota . Durante el clima social y cultural de la antigua dinastía Jin del Este (316 - 420 d. C.) con sede en Nanjing en el sur, la pintura se convirtió en uno de los pasatiempos oficiales de los funcionarios burocráticos y aristócratas enseñados por Confucio ( junto con la música tocada con la cítara guqin , la escritura de caligrafía fantasiosa y la escritura y recitación de poesía). La pintura se convirtió en una forma común de autoexpresión artística, y durante este período los pintores de la corte o entre los circuitos sociales de élite eran juzgados y clasificados por sus pares.
El establecimiento de la pintura clásica de paisajes china se atribuye en gran medida al artista de la dinastía Jin del Este Gu Kaizhi (344-406 d. C.), uno de los artistas más famosos de la historia china. Al igual que las escenas de pergaminos alargados de Kaizhi, los artistas chinos de la dinastía Tang (618-907 d. C.) como Wu Daozi pintaron obras de arte vívidas y muy detalladas en largos rollos de mano horizontales (que fueron muy populares durante la dinastía Tang), como sus Ochenta y siete personas celestiales . Las obras de arte pintadas durante el período Tang se referían a los efectos de un entorno paisajístico idealizado, con escasa cantidad de objetos, personas o cantidad de actividad, así como de naturaleza monocromática (ejemplo: los murales de la tumba del príncipe Yide en el mausoleo de Qianling). También hubo figuras como el pintor de principios de la era Tang Zhan Ziqian , que pintó magníficas pinturas de paisajes que se adelantaron mucho a su época en la representación del realismo. Sin embargo, el arte del paisaje no alcanzó un mayor nivel de madurez y realismo en general hasta el período de las Cinco Dinastías y los Diez Reinos (907-960 d. C.). Durante este tiempo, hubo pintores de paisajes excepcionales como Dong Yuan (consulte este artículo para ver un ejemplo de su obra de arte), y aquellos que pintaron representaciones más vívidas y realistas de escenas domésticas, como Gu Hongzhong y sus Deleites nocturnos de Han Xizai .
Durante la dinastía Song (960-1279 d. C.), no solo se mejoró el arte del paisaje, sino que la pintura de retratos se volvió más estandarizada y sofisticada que antes (por ejemplo, véase el emperador Huizong de Song ), y alcanzó su madurez clásica durante la dinastía Ming (1368-1644 d. C.). Durante finales del siglo XIII y la primera mitad del siglo XIV, a los chinos bajo la dinastía Yuan controlada por los mongoles no se les permitió ingresar a puestos superiores de gobierno (reservados para los mongoles u otros grupos étnicos de Asia Central), y el examen imperial cesó por el momento. Muchos chinos educados en Confucio que ahora carecían de profesión recurrieron a las artes de la pintura y el teatro, ya que el período Yuan se convirtió en una de las eras más vibrantes y abundantes para el arte chino. Un ejemplo de ello sería Qian Xuan (1235-1305 d. C.), que era un funcionario de la dinastía Song, pero por patriotismo, se negó a servir a la corte Yuan y se dedicó a la pintura. Ejemplos de arte magnífico de este período incluyen los ricos y detallados murales pintados del Palacio Yongle, [22] [23] o "Palacio de la Longevidad de Dachunyang", de 1262 d. C., un sitio del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO . Dentro del palacio, las pinturas cubren un área de más de 1000 metros cuadrados, y tienen temas principalmente taoístas. Fue durante la dinastía Song que los pintores también se reunían en clubes sociales o reuniones para discutir su arte o el arte de otros, cuyo elogio a menudo condujo a persuasiones para comerciar y vender obras de arte preciosas. Sin embargo, también hubo muchos críticos duros del arte de otros, mostrando la diferencia de estilo y gusto entre los diferentes pintores. En 1088 d. C., el científico y estadista polímata Shen Kuo escribió una vez sobre la obra de arte de un tal Li Cheng , a quien criticó de la siguiente manera:
... Luego estaba Li Cheng, quien cuando pintaba pabellones y cabañas entre montañas, edificios de varios pisos, pagodas y similares, siempre solía pintar los aleros como vistos desde abajo. Su idea era que "uno debe mirar hacia arriba desde abajo, tal como un hombre de pie en un terreno llano y mirando hacia arriba a los aleros de una pagoda puede ver sus vigas y sus vigas voladizas del alero". Todo esto es erróneo. En general, la forma correcta de pintar un paisaje es ver lo pequeño desde el punto de vista de lo grande... tal como uno mira las montañas artificiales en los jardines (mientras camina por ellos). Si uno aplica (el método de Li) a la pintura de montañas reales, mirándolas desde abajo, solo puede ver un perfil a la vez, y no la riqueza de sus múltiples laderas y perfiles, por no hablar de todo lo que está sucediendo en los valles y cañones , y en los callejones y patios con sus viviendas y casas. Si nos situamos al este de una montaña, sus partes occidentales estarían en el límite de la lejanía, y viceversa. ¿Seguramente no se podría decir que se trata de una pintura lograda? El señor Li no comprendía el principio de "ver lo pequeño desde el punto de vista de lo grande". Sin duda, era maravilloso a la hora de reducir con precisión alturas y distancias, pero ¿debería uno conceder tanta importancia a los ángulos y esquinas de los edificios? [24]
Aunque a menudo se prefería un alto nivel de estilización, atractivo místico y elegancia surrealista al realismo (como en el estilo shan shui ), a partir de la dinastía Song medieval hubo muchos pintores chinos de entonces y después que representaron escenas de la naturaleza que eran vívidamente reales. Los artistas posteriores de la dinastía Ming seguirían este énfasis de la dinastía Song por los detalles intrincados y el realismo en los objetos de la naturaleza, especialmente en representaciones de animales (como patos, cisnes, gorriones, tigres, etc.) entre parches de flores de colores brillantes y matorrales de maleza y madera (un buen ejemplo sería la pintura anónima de la dinastía Ming Pájaros y flores de ciruelo , [25] alojada en la Galería Freer del Museo Smithsonian en Washington, DC). Hubo muchos artistas de renombre de la dinastía Ming; Qiu Ying es un excelente ejemplo de un pintor de la era Ming (famoso incluso en su época), que utiliza en sus obras escenas domésticas, escenas palaciegas y escenas naturales de valles fluviales y montañas escarpadas envueltas en niebla y nubes arremolinadas. Durante la dinastía Ming también hubo diferentes escuelas de arte rivales asociadas con la pintura, como la escuela Wu y la escuela Zhe .
La pintura clásica china continuó hasta principios de la dinastía Qing moderna , con pinturas de retratos muy realistas como las que se ven en la dinastía Ming tardía de principios del siglo XVII. Los retratos del emperador Kangxi , el emperador Yongzheng y el emperador Qianlong son excelentes ejemplos de pintura de retratos realista china. Durante el período del reinado de Qianlong y el siglo XIX, los estilos de pintura barrocos europeos tuvieron una influencia notable en las pinturas de retratos chinos, especialmente con efectos visuales pintados de iluminación y sombras. Del mismo modo, las pinturas del este de Asia y otras obras de arte (como la porcelana y la laca) fueron muy apreciadas en Europa desde el contacto inicial en el siglo XVI.
Las técnicas occidentales de pintura al óleo comenzaron a introducirse en China en el siglo XIX y se hicieron habituales entre los artistas y estudiantes de arte chinos a principios del siglo XX, coincidiendo con el creciente compromiso de China con Occidente. Artistas como Li Tiefu , Hong Yi , Xu Beihong , Yan Wenliang , Lin Fengmian , Fang Ganmin y Pang Yuliang viajaron al extranjero, sobre todo a París y Tokio, para aprender arte occidental. A través de ellos, movimientos artísticos como el impresionismo , el cubismo , el fauvismo y el postimpresionismo crecieron y prosperaron en China, pero solo se detuvieron con la Segunda Guerra Mundial y el nacimiento de la República Popular China, cuando los estilos artísticos modernistas se consideraron incompatibles con los ideales políticos imperantes y el realismo era la única forma artística aceptable. No obstante, el legado del estrecho compromiso con el arte occidental a principios del siglo XX perduró. Las pinturas al óleo sobrevivieron como un medio importante en las escenas artísticas chinas; las pinturas tradicionales chinas con tinta también cambiaron como resultado.
La pintura japonesa (絵画) es una de las artes japonesas más antiguas y refinadas, que abarca una amplia variedad de géneros y estilos. Al igual que las artes japonesas en general, la pintura japonesa se desarrolló a través de una larga historia de síntesis y competencia entre la estética japonesa nativa y la adaptación de ideas importadas. Ukiyo-e , o "imágenes del mundo flotante", es un género de xilografías (o " xilografías ") y pinturas japonesas producidas entre los siglos XVII y XX, que presentan motivos de paisajes, teatro y distritos cortesanos. Es el principal género artístico de la xilografía japonesa . El grabado japonés, especialmente del período Edo , ejerció una enorme influencia en la pintura francesa durante el siglo XIX. Mientras que en el siglo XIX, los pintores japoneses desarrollaron una nueva técnica de pintura llamada yōga que tomó prestado en gran medida de las técnicas y materiales de pintura occidentales, entre estos artistas notables se incluyen Harada Naojirō , Fujishima Takeji y Kuroda Seiki .
La pintura coreana, como forma independiente, comenzó alrededor del año 108 a. C., en torno a la caída de Gojoseon , lo que la convierte en una de las más antiguas del mundo. Las obras de arte de ese período de tiempo evolucionaron hacia los diversos estilos que caracterizaron el período de los Tres Reinos de Corea , en particular las pinturas y frescos que adornan las tumbas de la realeza de Goguryeo . Durante el período de los Tres Reinos y durante la dinastía Goryeo , la pintura coreana se caracterizó principalmente por una combinación de paisajes de estilo coreano, rasgos faciales, temas centrados en el budismo y un énfasis en la observación celestial que se vio facilitado por el rápido desarrollo de la astronomía coreana. No fue hasta la dinastía Joseon que los temas confucianos comenzaron a arraigarse en las pinturas coreanas, utilizados en armonía con aspectos indígenas.
La historia de la pintura coreana se ha caracterizado por el uso de obras monocromáticas con pinceladas negras, a menudo sobre papel morera o seda. Este estilo es evidente en el "Min-Hwa", o arte popular colorido, las pinturas de tumbas y las artes rituales y festivas, que incorporaban un uso extensivo del color.
Históricamente, las pinturas indias giraban en torno a las deidades religiosas y los reyes. El arte indio es un término colectivo para varias escuelas de arte diferentes que existieron en el subcontinente indio . Las pinturas variaban desde los grandes frescos de Ajanta hasta las intrincadas pinturas en miniatura de Mughal y las obras adornadas con metal de la escuela Tanjore . Las pinturas de Gandhar - Taxila están influenciadas por las obras persas de Occidente. El estilo de pintura oriental se desarrolló principalmente en torno a la escuela de arte de Nalanda . Las obras están inspiradas principalmente en varias escenas de la mitología india .
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Las primeras pinturas indias fueron las pinturas rupestres de tiempos prehistóricos , los petroglifos que se encuentran en lugares como los refugios rocosos de Bhimbetka , y algunos de ellos son más antiguos que el 5500 a. C. Estas obras continuaron y después de varios milenios, en el siglo VII, los pilares tallados de Ajanta , en el estado de Maharashtra, presentan un excelente ejemplo de pinturas indias, y los colores, en su mayoría diversos tonos de rojo y naranja, se derivaron de minerales.
Las cuevas de Ajanta en Maharashtra, India, son monumentos excavados en la roca que datan del siglo II a. C. y contienen pinturas y esculturas consideradas obras maestras tanto del arte religioso budista [27] como del arte pictórico universal. [28]
La pintura Madhubani es un estilo de pintura india que se practica en la región de Mithila, en el estado de Bihar, India. Los orígenes de la pintura Madhubani se remontan a la antigüedad.
La pintura mogol es un estilo particular de pintura india , generalmente confinada a ilustraciones en libros y realizada en miniaturas, y que surgió, se desarrolló y tomó forma durante el período del Imperio mogol (siglos XVI-XIX).
La pintura rajput evolucionó y floreció durante el siglo XVIII, en las cortes reales de Rajputana , India. Cada reino rajput desarrolló un estilo distinto, pero con ciertas características comunes. Las pinturas rajput representan una serie de temas, eventos de epopeyas como el Ramayana y el Mahabharata, la vida de Krishna, hermosos paisajes y seres humanos. Las miniaturas eran el medio preferido de la pintura rajput, pero varios manuscritos también contienen pinturas rajput, e incluso se realizaron pinturas en las paredes de los palacios, cámaras interiores de los fuertes, havelis, particularmente, los havelis de Shekhawait.
Los colores se extraían de determinados minerales, fuentes vegetales, caracoles e incluso se obtenían procesando piedras preciosas, oro y plata. La preparación de los colores deseados era un proceso largo, que a veces llevaba semanas. Los pinceles utilizados eran muy finos.
La pintura de Tanjore es una forma importante de pintura clásica del sur de la India originaria de la ciudad de Tanjore en Tamil Nadu. La forma de arte se remonta a principios del siglo IX, un período dominado por los gobernantes Chola , que fomentaron el arte y la literatura. Estas pinturas son conocidas por su elegancia, colores intensos y atención al detalle. Los temas de la mayoría de estas pinturas son dioses y diosas hindúes y escenas de la mitología hindú . En los tiempos modernos, estas pinturas se han convertido en un recuerdo muy buscado durante las ocasiones festivas en el sur de la India.
El proceso de realización de una pintura de Tanjore implica muchas etapas. La primera etapa implica la realización del boceto preliminar de la imagen sobre la base. La base consiste en una tela pegada sobre una base de madera. Luego se mezcla polvo de tiza u óxido de zinc con adhesivo soluble en agua y se aplica sobre la base. Para hacer que la base sea más suave, a veces se utiliza un abrasivo suave . Después de realizado el dibujo, se realiza la decoración de las joyas y las prendas de la imagen con piedras semipreciosas. También se utilizan cordones o hilos para decorar las joyas. Sobre esto, se pegan las láminas de oro. Finalmente, se utilizan tintes para agregar colores a las figuras de las pinturas.
Durante el gobierno británico en la India, la corona descubrió que Madrás contaba con algunas de las mentes artísticas más talentosas e intelectuales del mundo. Como los británicos también habían establecido un gran asentamiento en Madrás y sus alrededores, se eligió Georgetown para establecer un instituto que satisficiera las expectativas artísticas de la familia real en Londres. Esto se conoció como la Escuela de Arte de Madrás . Al principio, se contrató a artistas tradicionales para producir exquisitas variedades de muebles, trabajos en metal y curiosidades, y su trabajo se enviaba a los palacios reales de la Reina.
A diferencia de la Escuela de Bengala, donde “copiar” es la norma de enseñanza, la Escuela de Madrás prospera gracias a la “creación” de nuevos estilos, argumentos y tendencias.
La escuela de arte de Bengala fue un estilo artístico influyente que floreció en la India durante el Raj británico a principios del siglo XX. Se asoció con el nacionalismo indio, pero también fue promovida y apoyada por muchos administradores artísticos británicos.
La Escuela de Bengala surgió como un movimiento vanguardista y nacionalista que reaccionaba contra los estilos de arte académico promovidos previamente en la India, tanto por artistas indios como Raja Ravi Varma como en las escuelas de arte británicas. Tras la influencia generalizada de las ideas espirituales indias en Occidente, el profesor de arte británico Ernest Binfield Havel intentó reformar los métodos de enseñanza en la Escuela de Arte de Calcuta alentando a los estudiantes a imitar miniaturas mogoles . Esto causó una inmensa controversia, que llevó a una huelga de estudiantes y quejas de la prensa local, incluso de los nacionalistas que lo consideraban un movimiento retrógrado. Havel fue apoyado por el artista Abanindranath Tagore , sobrino del poeta Rabindranath Tagore . Tagore pintó una serie de obras influenciadas por el arte mogol, un estilo que él y Havel creían que expresaba las cualidades espirituales distintivas de la India, en oposición al "materialismo" de Occidente. La pintura más conocida de Tagore, Bharat Mata (Madre India), representa a una joven con cuatro brazos, al estilo de las deidades hindúes, que sostiene objetos simbólicos de las aspiraciones nacionales de la India. Tagore intentó más tarde establecer vínculos con artistas japoneses como parte de una aspiración a construir un modelo de arte panasiático .
La influencia de la Escuela de Bengala en la India disminuyó con la difusión de las ideas modernistas en la década de 1920. En el período posterior a la independencia, los artistas indios mostraron una mayor adaptabilidad, ya que tomaron prestado libremente de los estilos europeos y los fusionaron libremente con los motivos indios para crear nuevas formas de arte. Mientras que artistas como Francis Newton Souza y Tyeb Mehta fueron más occidentales en su enfoque, hubo otros como Ganesh Pyne y Maqbool Fida Husain que desarrollaron estilos de trabajo completamente autóctonos. Hoy, después del proceso de liberalización del mercado en la India, los artistas están experimentando una mayor exposición a la escena artística internacional, lo que los está ayudando a surgir con formas de arte más nuevas que hasta entonces no se veían en la India. Jitish Kallat había saltado a la fama a fines de la década de 1990 con sus pinturas que eran modernas y estaban más allá del alcance de la definición genérica. Sin embargo, mientras los artistas de la India en el nuevo siglo están probando nuevos estilos, temas y metáforas, no habría sido posible obtener un reconocimiento tan rápido sin la ayuda de las casas comerciales que ahora están ingresando al campo del arte como nunca antes lo habían hecho.
Amrita Sher-Gil fue una pintora india, a veces conocida como la Frida Kahlo de la India , [29] y hoy considerada una importante pintora de la India del siglo XX, cuyo legado está a la par del de los maestros del Renacimiento de Bengala ; [30] [31] también es la pintora "más cara" de la India. [32]
En la actualidad, se encuentra entre los Nueve Maestros , cuyo trabajo fue declarado tesoro artístico por el Servicio Arqueológico de la India , en 1976 y 1979, [33] y más de 100 de sus pinturas se exhiben ahora en la Galería Nacional de Arte Moderno , Nueva Delhi. [34]
Durante la era colonial, las influencias occidentales comenzaron a tener un impacto en el arte indio. Algunos artistas desarrollaron un estilo que utilizaba ideas occidentales de composición, perspectiva y realismo para ilustrar temas indios. Otros, como Jamini Roy , se inspiraron conscientemente en el arte popular.
En 1947, cuando se produjo la independencia, varias escuelas de arte de la India ofrecían acceso a técnicas e ideas modernas. Se establecieron galerías para exhibir a estos artistas. El arte indio moderno suele mostrar la influencia de los estilos occidentales, pero a menudo se inspira en temas e imágenes indios. Los artistas más importantes están empezando a ganar reconocimiento internacional, inicialmente entre la diáspora india, pero también entre el público no indio.
El Grupo de Artistas Progresistas , creado poco después de que la India se independizara en 1947, tenía como objetivo establecer nuevas formas de expresión de la India en la era poscolonial. Los fundadores fueron seis artistas eminentes: KH Ara , SK Bakre , HA Gade , MF Husain , SH Raza y FN Souza . Aunque el grupo se disolvió en 1956, tuvo una profunda influencia en el cambio del idioma del arte indio. Casi todos los artistas más importantes de la India en la década de 1950 estaban asociados con el grupo. Algunos de los que son bien conocidos hoy en día son Bal Chabda, Manishi Dey , Mukul Dey , VS Gaitonde , Ram Kumar , Tyeb Mehta y Akbar Padamsee . Otros pintores famosos como Jahar Dasgupta , Prokash Karmakar, John Wilkins , Narayanan Ramachandran y Bijon Choudhuri enriquecieron la cultura artística de la India. Se han convertido en iconos del arte indio moderno. Los historiadores del arte como el profesor Rai Anand Krishna también han hecho referencia a las obras de artistas modernos que reflejan el espíritu indio. Geeta Vadhera ha sido aclamada por plasmar en lienzo temas espirituales indios complejos como el pensamiento sufí, los Upanishads y el Bhagwad Geeta.
El arte indio recibió un impulso con la liberalización económica del país desde principios de los años 90. Artistas de diversos campos comenzaron a traer estilos variados de trabajo. En la India posliberal, muchos artistas se han establecido en el mercado internacional del arte, como el pintor abstracto Natvar Bhavsar , el artista figurativo Devajyoti Ray y el escultor Anish Kapoor, cuyas gigantescas obras de arte posminimalistas han llamado la atención por su gran tamaño. También se han abierto muchas casas de arte y galerías en Estados Unidos y Europa para exhibir obras de arte indias.
Las pinturas rupestres más antiguas conocidas tienen más de 44.000–50.000 años de antigüedad y se encontraron en las cuevas del distrito de Maros ( Sulawesi , Indonesia). El tipo más antiguo de pinturas rupestres son plantillas hechas a mano y formas geométricas simples; los ejemplos indiscutibles más antiguos de pinturas rupestres figurativas son algo más recientes, cerca de 35.000 años de antigüedad. [11]
El descubrimiento de la pintura de arte figurativo más antigua conocida hasta entonces, de más de 40.000 (quizás hasta 52.000) años de antigüedad, de un animal desconocido, en la cueva de Lubang Jeriji Saléh en la isla indonesia de Borneo . Sin embargo, en diciembre de 2019, se estimó que las pinturas rupestres figurativas que representan la caza de cerdos en el karst de Maros-Pangkep en Sulawesi eran incluso más antiguas, de al menos 43.900 años de antigüedad. El hallazgo se señaló como "el registro pictórico más antiguo de narración de historias y la obra de arte figurativa más antigua del mundo". [14] [15]
Otros ejemplos de pinturas indonesias son el arte decorativo keniano, basado en motivos naturales endémicos como helechos y cálaos, que se encuentran decorando las paredes de las casas comunales kenianas. Otro arte tradicional notable son las tallas geométricas de madera de Toraja. Las pinturas balinesas son inicialmente las imágenes narrativas para representar escenas de leyendas balinesas y escrituras religiosas. Las pinturas balinesas clásicas a menudo decoran los manuscritos lontar y también los techos de los pabellones de los templos . Entre los pintores indonesios modernos notables de la tradición europea se incluyen Raden Saleh , Jan Toorop , Basuki Abdullah y Abdullah Suriosubroto, sus temas exploran la pintura de paisajes y retratos.
La pintura filipina en su conjunto puede considerarse una amalgama de muchas influencias culturales, aunque tiende a ser más occidental en su forma actual con raíces orientales.
La pintura filipina temprana se puede encontrar en diseños de engobe rojo (arcilla mezclada con agua) adornados en la cerámica ritual de Filipinas, como el tarro Manunggul . Se han encontrado evidencias de la fabricación de cerámica filipina que datan de 6000 a. C. en la cueva Sanga-sanga, Sulu y la cueva Laurente, Cagayán. Hacia el 5000 a. C., la fabricación de cerámica se practicaba en todo el país. Los primeros filipinos comenzaron a hacer cerámica antes que sus vecinos camboyanos y aproximadamente al mismo tiempo que los tailandeses como parte de lo que parece ser un desarrollo generalizado de la tecnología de la cerámica de la Edad de Hielo. Otras evidencias de pintura se manifiestan en la tradición del tatuaje de los primeros filipinos, en particular los visayos, a quienes los exploradores españoles se refirieron como Pintados o la "gente pintada". [35] Decoraban sus cuerpos con varias pigmentaciones de colores con diseños que hacían referencia a la flora y la fauna y los cuerpos celestes. Algunas de las pinturas más elaboradas realizadas por los primeros filipinos que sobreviven hasta nuestros días se manifiestan entre las artes y la arquitectura de los Maranao, quienes son bien conocidos por los dragones Nāga y los Sarimanok tallados y pintados en el hermoso Panolong de su Torogan o Casa del Rey.
Los filipinos comenzaron a crear pinturas de tradición europea durante el período español del siglo XVII. [36] Las primeras de estas pinturas fueron frescos de iglesias e imágenes religiosas de fuentes bíblicas, así como grabados, esculturas y litografías que presentaban íconos cristianos y la nobleza europea. La mayoría de las pinturas y esculturas entre los siglos XIX y XX fueron una mezcla de obras de arte religiosas, políticas y paisajísticas, con cualidades de dulzura, oscuridad y luz. Los primeros pintores modernistas como Damián Domingo se asociaron con pinturas religiosas y seculares. El arte de Juan Luna y Félix Hidalgo mostró una tendencia hacia la declaración política. Artistas como Fernando Amorsolo utilizaron el posmodernismo para producir pinturas que ilustraran la cultura, la naturaleza y la armonía filipinas. Otros artistas como Fernando Zóbel utilizaron la realidad y la abstracción en su trabajo.
El antiguo Egipto , una civilización con tradiciones muy fuertes de arquitectura y escultura (ambas pintadas originalmente en colores brillantes) también tenía muchas pinturas murales en templos y edificios, e ilustraciones pintadas en manuscritos de papiro . La pintura mural egipcia y la pintura decorativa son a menudo gráficas, a veces más simbólicas que realistas. La pintura egipcia representa figuras en contornos atrevidos y siluetas planas , en las que la simetría es una característica constante. La pintura egipcia tiene una estrecha conexión con su lenguaje escrito, llamado jeroglíficos egipcios . Los símbolos pintados se encuentran entre las primeras formas de lenguaje escrito. Los egipcios también pintaban sobre lino , del cual sobreviven hoy en día. Las pinturas del antiguo Egipto sobrevivieron debido al clima extremadamente seco. Los antiguos egipcios crearon pinturas para hacer del más allá un lugar agradable. Los temas incluían el viaje a través del más allá o sus deidades protectoras presentando al difunto a los dioses del inframundo. Algunos ejemplos de tales pinturas son pinturas de los dioses y diosas Ra , Horus , Anubis , Nut , Osiris e Isis . Algunas pinturas de tumbas muestran actividades que el difunto realizaba cuando estaba vivo y que deseaba seguir haciendo por la eternidad. En el Imperio Nuevo y más tarde, el Libro de los Muertos se enterraba junto con la persona sepultada. Se consideraba importante como introducción a la otra vida.
Al norte de Egipto se encontraba la civilización minoica centrada en la isla de Creta . Las pinturas murales que se encuentran en el palacio de Cnosos son similares a las de los egipcios, pero de estilo mucho más libre. La Grecia micénica , que comenzó alrededor del 1600 a. C., produjo un arte similar al de la Creta minoica. El arte griego antiguo durante la Edad Oscura griega se volvió mucho menos complejo, pero la renovación de la civilización griega en todo el Mediterráneo durante la Grecia arcaica trajo consigo nuevas formas de arte griego con el estilo orientalizante .
La antigua Grecia tenía pintores, escultores (aunque ambos esfuerzos se consideraban un mero trabajo manual en ese momento) y arquitectos hábiles. El Partenón es un ejemplo de su arquitectura que ha perdurado hasta nuestros días. La escultura griega de mármol a menudo se describe como la forma más alta del arte clásico . La pintura sobre cerámica de la Antigua Grecia y la cerámica ofrece una visión particularmente informativa de la forma en que funcionaba la sociedad en la Antigua Grecia. La pintura de vasos de figuras negras y la pintura de vasos de figuras rojas ofrecen muchos ejemplos sobrevivientes de lo que era la pintura griega. Algunos pintores griegos famosos en paneles de madera que se mencionan en los textos son Apeles , Zeuxis y Parrasio , sin embargo, sobreviven pocos ejemplos de pintura sobre panel de la Antigua Grecia, en su mayoría solo descripciones escritas por sus contemporáneos o romanos posteriores. Zeuxis vivió entre el 5 y el 6 a. C. y se dice que fue el primero en usar sfumato . Según Plinio el Viejo , el realismo de sus pinturas era tal que los pájaros intentaron comerse las uvas pintadas. Apeles es descrito como el más grande pintor de la Antigüedad por su perfecta técnica en el dibujo, brillante colorido y modelado.
El arte romano estuvo influenciado por Grecia y en parte puede considerarse descendiente de la pintura griega antigua. Sin embargo, la pintura romana tiene características únicas importantes. Las pinturas romanas sobrevivientes incluyen pinturas murales y frescos , muchas de las villas de Campania , en el sur de Italia, en sitios como Pompeya y Herculano . Dicha pintura se puede agrupar en cuatro "estilos" o períodos principales [37] y puede contener los primeros ejemplos de trampantojo , pseudoperspectiva y paisaje puro. [38] Casi los únicos retratos pintados que sobreviven del mundo antiguo son una gran cantidad de retratos de ataúd en forma de busto encontrados en el cementerio de la Antigüedad Tardía de Al-Fayum . Aunque no fueron del mejor período ni de la más alta calidad, son impresionantes en sí mismos y dan una idea de la calidad que debe haber tenido la mejor obra antigua. También sobreviven una cantidad muy pequeña de miniaturas de libros ilustrados de la Antigüedad Tardía, y una cantidad bastante mayor de copias de ellos del período medieval temprano.
El ascenso del cristianismo impartió un espíritu y un objetivo diferentes a los estilos de pintura. El arte bizantino , una vez que su estilo se estableció en el siglo VI, puso gran énfasis en conservar la iconografía y el estilo tradicionales, y evolucionó gradualmente durante los mil años del Imperio bizantino y las tradiciones vivas de la pintura de iconos ortodoxa griega y rusa . La pintura bizantina tiene un sentimiento hierático y los iconos fueron y todavía son vistos como una representación de la revelación divina. Hubo muchos frescos , pero han sobrevivido menos de estos que los mosaicos . El arte bizantino ha sido comparado con la abstracción contemporánea , en su planitud y representaciones altamente estilizadas de figuras y paisajes. Algunos períodos del arte bizantino, especialmente el llamado arte macedonio de alrededor del siglo X, son más flexibles en su enfoque. Los frescos del Renacimiento Paleólogo de principios del siglo XIV sobreviven en la Iglesia de Chora en Estambul.
En la Europa post-católica antigua, el primer estilo artístico distintivo que surgió y que incluía la pintura fue el arte insular de las Islas Británicas, donde los únicos ejemplos supervivientes son miniaturas en manuscritos iluminados como el Libro de Kells . [39] Estos son más famosos por su decoración abstracta, aunque también se representaban figuras y, a veces, escenas, especialmente en los retratos de los evangelistas . El arte carolingio y otoniano también sobrevive principalmente en manuscritos, aunque quedan algunas pinturas murales y hay más documentadas. El arte de este período combina influencias insulares y "bárbaras" con una fuerte influencia bizantina y una aspiración a recuperar la monumentalidad y el aplomo clásicos.
Las paredes de las iglesias románicas y góticas estaban decoradas con frescos y esculturas, y muchos de los pocos murales que quedan tienen una gran intensidad y combinan la energía decorativa del arte insular con una nueva monumentalidad en el tratamiento de las figuras. De este período se conservan muchas más miniaturas en manuscritos iluminados que muestran las mismas características, que continúan en el período gótico .
La pintura sobre tabla se hace más común durante el periodo románico , bajo la fuerte influencia de los iconos bizantinos. Hacia mediados del siglo XIII, el arte medieval y la pintura gótica se vuelven más realistas, con los inicios del interés por la representación del volumen y la perspectiva en Italia con Cimabue y luego su alumno Giotto . A partir de Giotto, el tratamiento de la composición por parte de los mejores pintores también se volvió mucho más libre e innovador. Se les considera los dos grandes maestros medievales de la pintura en la cultura occidental. Cimabue, dentro de la tradición bizantina, utilizó un enfoque más realista y dramático para su arte. Su alumno, Giotto, llevó estas innovaciones a un nivel superior que a su vez sentó las bases de la tradición de la pintura occidental. Ambos artistas fueron pioneros en el movimiento hacia el naturalismo.
Las iglesias se construyeron con cada vez más ventanas y el uso de vidrieras de colores se convirtió en un elemento básico en la decoración. Uno de los ejemplos más famosos de esto se encuentra en la catedral de Notre Dame de París . En el siglo XIV, las sociedades occidentales eran más ricas y cultas y los pintores encontraron nuevos mecenas en la nobleza e incluso en la burguesía . Los manuscritos iluminados adquirieron un nuevo carácter y las mujeres de la corte esbeltas y elegantemente vestidas aparecieron en sus paisajes. Este estilo pronto se conoció como estilo internacional y las pinturas al temple sobre tabla y los retablos ganaron importancia.
The Renaissance (French for 'rebirth'), a cultural movement roughly spanning the 14th through the mid-17th century, heralded the study of classical sources, as well as advances in science which profoundly influenced European intellectual and artistic life. In the Low Countries, especially in modern day Flanders, a new way of painting was established in the beginning of the 15th century. In the footsteps of the developments made in the illumination of manuscripts, especially by the Limbourg Brothers, artists became fascinated by the tangible in the visible world and began representing objects in an extremely naturalistic way.[40] The adoption of oil painting whose invention was traditionally, but erroneously, credited to Jan van Eyck, made possible a new verisimilitude in depicting this naturalism. The medium of oil paint was already present in the work of Melchior Broederlam, but painters like Jan van Eyck and Robert Campin brought its use to new heights and employed it to represent the naturalism they were aiming for. With this new medium the painters of this period were capable of creating richer colors with a deep intense tonality. The illusion of glowing light with a porcelain-like finish characterized Early Netherlandish painting and was a major difference to the matte surface of tempera paint used in Italy.[40] Unlike the Italians, whose work drew heavily from the art of Ancient Greece and Rome, the northerners retained a stylistic residue of the sculpture and illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages (especially its naturalism). The most important artist of this time was Jan van Eyck, whose work ranks among the finest made by artists who are now known as Early Netherlandish painters or Flemish Primitives (since most artists were active in cities in modern day Flanders). The first painter of this period was the Master of Flémalle, nowadays identified as Robert Campin, whose work follows the art of the International Gothic. Another important painter of this period was Rogier van der Weyden, whose compositions stressed human emotion and drama, demonstrated for instance in his Descent from the Cross, which ranks among the most famous works of the 15th century and was the most influential Netherlandish painting of Christ's crucifixion. Other important artists from this period are Hugo van der Goes (whose work was highly influential in Italy), Dieric Bouts (who was among the first northern painters to demonstrate the use of a single vanishing point),[40] Petrus Christus, Hans Memling and Gerard David.
In Italy, the art of Classical antiquity inspired a style of painting that emphasized the ideal. Artists such as Paolo Uccello, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Piero della Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raphael took painting to a higher level through the use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of an unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques. A somewhat more naturalistic style emerged in Venice. Painters of the Venetian school, such as Giovanni Bellini, Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, and Veronese, were less concerned with precision in their drawing than with the richness of color and unity of effect that could be achieved by a more spontaneous approach to painting.
Flemish, Dutch and German painters of the Renaissance such as Hans Holbein the Younger, Albrecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach, Matthias Grünewald, Hieronymus Bosch, and Pieter Bruegel represent a different approach from their Italian colleagues, one that is more realistic and less idealized. Genre painting became a popular idiom amongst the Northern painters like Pieter Bruegel.
The French tradition of International Gothic, will develop a new style by integrating the strong chromatic tones of Gothic with the Italian perspective and volumes of the Quattrocento, as well as the naturalistic innovations of the Flemish primitives, called the École de Tours. Its main representatives are Jean Fouquet, Barthélemy d'Eyck from the Netherlands, Jean and François Clouet, Jean Perreal, Nicolas Froment and the École de Fontainebleau.
Renaissance painting reflects the revolution of ideas and science (astronomy, geography) that occurred in this period, the Reformation, and the invention of the printing press. Dürer, considered one of the greatest of printmakers, states that painters are not mere artisans but thinkers as well. With the development of easel painting in the Renaissance, painting gained independence from architecture. Easel paintings—movable pictures which could be hung easily on walls—became a popular alternative to paintings fixed to furniture, walls or other structures. Following centuries dominated by religious imagery, secular subject matter slowly returned to Western painting. Artists included visions of the world around them, or the products of their own imaginations in their paintings. Those who could afford the expense could become patrons and commission portraits of themselves or their family.
The High Renaissance gave rise to a stylized art known as Mannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterized art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional intensity of El Greco. Restless and unstable compositions, often extreme or disjunctive effects of perspective, and stylized poses are characteristic of Italian Mannerists such as Tintoretto, Pontormo, and Bronzino, and appeared later in the work of Northern Mannerists such as Hendrick Goltzius, Bartholomeus Spranger, and Joachim Wtewael.
Baroque painting is associated with the Baroque cultural movement, a movement often identified with Absolutism and the Counter Reformation or Catholic Revival;[41][42] the existence of important Baroque painting in non-absolutist and Protestant states also, however, underscores its popularity, as the style spread throughout Western Europe.[43]
Baroque painting is characterized by great drama, rich, deep color, and intense light and dark shadows. Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance. During the period beginning around 1600 and continuing throughout the 17th century, painting is characterized as Baroque. Among the greatest painters of the Baroque are Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Rubens, Velázquez, Poussin, and Johannes Vermeer. Caravaggio is an heir of the humanist painting of the High Renaissance. His realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting. Baroque painting often dramatizes scenes using light effects; this can be seen in works by Rembrandt, Vermeer, Le Nain, La Tour, and Jusepe de Ribera.
In Italy, the Baroque style is epitomized by religious and mythological paintings in the Grand Manner by artists such as the Carracci, Guido Reni, and Luca Giordano. Illusionistic church ceiling frescoes by Pietro da Cortona seemed to open to the sky. A much quieter type of Baroque emerged in the Dutch Republic, where easel paintings of everyday subjects were popular with middle-class collectors, and many painters became specialists in genre, others in landscape or seascape or still life. Vermeer, Gerard ter Borch, and Pieter de Hooch brought great technical refinement to the painting of domestic scenes, as did Willem Claesz. Heda to still life. In contrast, Rembrandt excelled in painting every type of subject, and developed an individual painterly style in which the chiaroscuro and dark backgrounds derived from Caravaggio and the Utrecht Caravaggists lose their theatrical quality.
During the 18th century, Rococo followed as a lighter extension of Baroque, often frivolous and erotic. Rococo developed first in the decorative arts and interior design in France. Louis XV's succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and François Boucher. Rococo still maintained the Baroque taste for complex forms and intricate patterns, but by this point, it had begun to integrate a variety of diverse characteristics, including a taste for Oriental designs and asymmetric compositions.
The Rococo style spread with French artists and engraved publications. It was readily received in the Catholic parts of Germany, Bohemia, and Austria, where it was merged with the lively German Baroque traditions. German Rococo was applied with enthusiasm to churches and palaces, particularly in the south, while Frederician Rococo developed in the Kingdom of Prussia.
The French masters Watteau, Boucher and Fragonard represent the style, as do Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin who was considered by some as the best French painter of the 18th century – the Anti-Rococo. Portraiture was an important component of painting in all countries, but especially in England, where the leaders were William Hogarth, in a blunt realist style, and Francis Hayman, Angelica Kauffman (who was Swiss), Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds in more flattering styles influenced by Anthony van Dyck. In France during the Rococo era Jean-Baptiste Greuze (the favorite painter of Denis Diderot),[44] excelled in portraits and history paintings, and Maurice Quentin de La Tour and Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun were highly accomplished portrait painters. La Tour specialized in pastel painting, which became a popular medium during this period.
William Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty (1753) that the undulating lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature (unlike the straight line or the circle in Classicism). The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality and degeneracy of the art. Blondel decried the "ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants" in contemporary interiors.[45]
By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists like Jacques-Louis David.
After Rococo there arose in the late 18th century, in architecture, and then in painting severe neo-classicism, best represented by such artists as David and his heir Ingres. Ingres' work already contains much of the sensuality, but none of the spontaneity, that was to characterize Romanticism. This movement turned its attention toward landscape and nature as well as the human figure and the supremacy of natural order above mankind's will. There is opposition to Enlightenment ideals, as humanity is seen being at the whim of nature's chaos. The idea that human beings are not above the forces of Nature is in contradiction to Ancient Greek and Renaissance ideals where mankind was above all things and owned his fate. This thinking led romantic artists to depict the sublime, ruined churches, shipwrecks, massacres and madness.
By the mid-19th-century painters became liberated from the demands of their patronage to only depict scenes from religion, mythology, portraiture or history. The idea "art for art's sake" began to find expression in the work of painters like Francisco de Goya, John Constable, and J.M.W. Turner. Romantic painters saw landscape painting as an important genre to express the vanity of mankind in opposition to the grandeur of nature. Until then, landscape painting wasn't considered the most important genre for painters (like portraiture or history painting). But painters like J.M.W. Turner and Caspar David Friedrich managed to elevate landscape painting to an eminence rivalling history painting. Some of the major painters of this period are Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Géricault, J. M. W. Turner, Caspar David Friedrich and John Constable. Francisco de Goya's late work demonstrates the Romantic interest in the irrational, while the work of Arnold Böcklin evokes mystery and the paintings of Aesthetic movement artist James McNeill Whistler evoke both sophistication and decadence. In the United States the Romantic tradition of landscape painting was known as the Hudson River School:[46] exponents include Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, Albert Bierstadt, Thomas Moran, and John Frederick Kensett. Luminism was a movement in American landscape painting related to the Hudson River School.
The leading Barbizon School painter Camille Corot painted in both a romantic and a realistic vein; his work prefigures Impressionism, as does the paintings of Eugène Boudin who was one of the first French landscape painters to paint outdoors. Boudin was also an important influence on the young Claude Monet, whom in 1857 he introduced to Plein air painting. A major force in the turn towards Realism at mid-century was Gustave Courbet. In the latter third of the century Impressionists like Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, Berthe Morisot, Mary Cassatt, and Edgar Degas worked in a more direct approach than had previously been exhibited publicly. They eschewed allegory and narrative in favor of individualized responses to the modern world, sometimes painted with little or no preparatory study, relying on deftness of drawing and a highly chromatic pallette. Manet, Degas, Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt concentrated primarily on the human subject. Both Manet and Degas reinterpreted classical figurative canons within contemporary situations; in Manet's case the re-imaginings met with hostile public reception. Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt turned to domestic life for inspiration, with Renoir focusing on the female nude. Monet, Pissarro, and Sisley used the landscape as their primary motif, the transience of light and weather playing a major role in their work. While Sisley most closely adhered to the original principals of the Impressionist perception of the landscape, Monet sought challenges in increasingly chromatic and changeable conditions, culminating in his series of monumental works of Water Lilies painted in Giverny.
Pissarro adopted some of the experiments of Post-Impressionism. Slightly younger Post-Impressionists like Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, and Georges Seurat, along with Paul Cézanne led art to the edge of modernism; for Gauguin Impressionism gave way to a personal symbolism; Seurat transformed Impressionism's broken color into a scientific optical study, structured on frieze-like compositions; Van Gogh's turbulent method of paint application, coupled with a sonorous use of color, predicted Expressionism and Fauvism, and Cézanne, desiring to unite classical composition with a revolutionary abstraction of natural forms, would come to be seen as a precursor of 20th-century art. The spell of Impressionism was felt throughout the world, including in the United States, where it became integral to the painting of American Impressionists such as Childe Hassam, John Twachtman, and Theodore Robinson; and in Australia where painters of the Heidelberg School such as Arthur Streeton, Frederick McCubbin and Charles Conder painted en plein air and were particularly interested in the Australian landscape and light. It also exerted influence on painters who were not primarily Impressionistic in theory, like the portrait and landscape painter John Singer Sargent. At the same time in America at the turn of the 20th century there existed a native and nearly insular realism, as richly embodied in the figurative work of Thomas Eakins, the Ashcan School, and the landscapes and seascapes of Winslow Homer, all of whose paintings were deeply invested in the solidity of natural forms. The visionary landscape, a motive largely dependent on the ambiguity of the nocturne, found its advocates in Albert Pinkham Ryder and Ralph Albert Blakelock.
In the late 19th century there also were several, rather dissimilar, groups of Symbolist painters whose works resonated with younger artists of the 20th century, especially with the Fauvists and the Surrealists. Among them were Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Henri Fantin-Latour, Arnold Böcklin, Edvard Munch, Félicien Rops, and Jan Toorop, and Gustav Klimt amongst others including the Russian Symbolists like Mikhail Vrubel.
Symbolist painters mined mythology and dream imagery for a visual language of the soul, seeking evocative paintings that brought to mind a static world of silence. The symbols used in Symbolism are not the familiar emblems of mainstream iconography but intensely personal, private, obscure and ambiguous references. More a philosophy than an actual style of art, the Symbolist painters influenced the contemporary Art Nouveau movement and Les Nabis. In their exploration of dreamlike subjects, symbolist painters are found across centuries and cultures, as they are still today; Bernard Delvaille has described René Magritte's surrealism as "Symbolism plus Freud".[47]
The heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone.
The heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. Henri Matisse's second version of The Dance signifies a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting.[48] It reflects Matisse's incipient fascination with primitive art: the intense warm colors against the cool blue-green background and the rhythmical succession of dancing nudes convey the feelings of emotional liberation and hedonism. Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone. With the painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon 1907, Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his own new Cubist inventions. analytic Cubism was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter.
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Les Fauves (French for The Wild Beasts) were early-20th-century painters, experimenting with freedom of expression through color. The name was given, humorously and not as a compliment, to the group by art critic Louis Vauxcelles. Fauvism was a short-lived and loose grouping of early-20th-century artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities, and the imaginative use of deep color over the representational values. Fauvists made the subject of the painting easy to read, exaggerated perspectives and an interesting prescient prediction of the Fauves was expressed in 1888 by Paul Gauguin to Paul Sérusier,
How do you see these trees? They are yellow. So, put in yellow; this shadow, rather blue, paint it with pure ultramarine; these red leaves? Put in vermilion.
The leaders of the movement were Henri Matisse and André Derain – friendly rivals of a sort, each with his own followers. Ultimately Matisse became the yang to Picasso's yin in the 20th century. Fauvist painters included Albert Marquet, Charles Camoin, Maurice de Vlaminck, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, the Dutch painter Kees van Dongen, and Picasso's partner in Cubism, Georges Braque amongst others.[49]
Fauvism, as a movement, had no concrete theories, and was short lived, beginning in 1905 and ending in 1907, they only had three exhibitions. Matisse was seen as the leader of the movement, due to his seniority in age and prior self-establishment in the academic art world. His 1905 portrait of Mme. Matisse The Green Line, (above), caused a sensation in Paris when it was first exhibited. He said he wanted to create art to delight; art as a decoration was his purpose and it can be said that his use of bright colors tries to maintain serenity of composition. In 1906 at the suggestion of his dealer Ambroise Vollard, André Derain went to London and produced a series of paintings like Charing Cross Bridge, London (above) in the Fauvist style, paraphrasing the famous series by the Impressionist painter Claude Monet. Masters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard continued developing their narrative styles independent of any movement throughout the 20th century.
By 1907 Fauvism no longer was a shocking new movement, soon it was replaced by Cubism on the critics' radar screen as the latest new development in Contemporary Art of the time. In 1907 Appolinaire, commenting about Matisse in an article published in La Falange, said, "We are not here in the presence of an extravagant or an extremist undertaking: Matisse's art is eminently reasonable."[50]Analytic cubism was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter.
During the years between 1910 and the end of World War I and after the heyday of cubism, several movements emerged in Paris. Giorgio de Chirico moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his brother Andrea (the poet and painter known as Alberto Savinio). Through his brother he met Pierre Laprade a member of the jury at the Salon d'Automne, where he exhibited three of his dreamlike works: Enigma of the Oracle, Enigma of an Afternoon and Self-Portrait. During 1913 he exhibited his work at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d'Automne, his work was noticed by Pablo Picasso and Guillaume Apollinaire and several others. His compelling and mysterious paintings are considered instrumental to the early beginnings of Surrealism. During the first half of the 20th century in Europe masters like Georges Braque, André Derain, and Giorgio de Chirico continued painting independent of any movement.
In the first two decades of the 20th century and after Cubism, several other important movements emerged; futurism (Balla), abstract art (Kandinsky), Der Blaue Reiter), Bauhaus, (Kandinsky) and (Klee), Orphism, (Robert Delaunay and František Kupka), Synchromism (Morgan Russell), De Stijl (Mondrian), Suprematism (Malevich), Constructivism (Tatlin), Dadaism (Duchamp, Picabia, Arp) and Surrealism (De Chirico, André Breton, Miró, Magritte, Dalí, Ernst). Modern painting influenced all the visual arts, from Modernist architecture and design, to avant-garde film, theatre and modern dance and became an experimental laboratory for the expression of visual experience, from photography and concrete poetry to advertising art and fashion. Van Gogh's painting exerted great influence upon 20th-century Expressionism, as can be seen in the work of the Fauves, Die Brücke (a group led by German painter Ernst Kirchner), and the Expressionism of Edvard Munch, Egon Schiele, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani, Chaïm Soutine and others..
Wassily Kandinsky a Russian painter, printmaker and art theorist, one of the most famous 20th-century artists is generally considered the first important painter of modern abstract art. As an early Modernist, in search of new modes of visual expression, and spiritual expression, he theorized as did contemporary occultists and theosophists, that pure visual abstraction had corollary vibrations with sound and music. They posited that pure abstraction could express pure spirituality. His earliest abstractions were generally titled as the example in the (above gallery) Composition VII, making connection to the work of the composers of music. Kandinsky included many of his theories about abstract art in his book Concerning the Spiritual in Art. Robert Delaunay was a French artist who is associated with Orphism, (reminiscent of a link between pure abstraction and cubism). His later works were more abstract, reminiscent of Paul Klee. His key contributions to abstract painting refer to his bold use of color, and a clear love of experimentation of both depth and tone. At the invitation of Wassily Kandinsky, Delaunay and his wife the artist Sonia Delaunay, joined The Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter), a Munich-based group of abstract artists, in 1911, and his art took a turn to the abstract.[51]
Other major pioneers of early abstraction include Russian painter Kasimir Malevich, who after the Russian Revolution in 1917, and after pressure from the Stalinist regime in 1924 returned to painting imagery and Peasants and Workers in the field, and Swiss painter Paul Klee whose masterful color experiments made him an important pioneer of abstract painting at the Bauhaus. Still other important pioneers of abstract painting include the Swedish artist Hilma af Klint, Czech painter František Kupka as well as American artists Stanton Macdonald-Wright and Morgan Russell who, in 1912, founded Synchromism, an art movement that closely resembles Orphism.
Expressionism and Symbolism are broad rubrics that involve several important and related movements in 20th-century painting that dominated much of the avant-garde art being made in Western, Eastern and Northern Europe. Expressionist works were painted largely between World War I and World War II, mostly in France, Germany, Norway, Russia, Belgium, and Austria. Expressionist artists are related to both Surrealism and Symbolism and are each uniquely and somewhat eccentrically personal. Fauvism, Die Brücke, and Der Blaue Reiter are three of the best known groups of Expressionist and Symbolist painters.
Artists as interesting and diverse as Marc Chagall, whose painting I and the Village, (above) tells an autobiographical story that examines the relationship between the artist and his origins, with a lexicon of artistic Symbolism. Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, Edvard Munch, Emil Nolde, Chaïm Soutine, James Ensor, Oskar Kokoschka, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Max Beckmann, Franz Marc, Käthe Schmidt Kollwitz, Georges Rouault, Amedeo Modigliani and some of the Americans abroad like Marsden Hartley, and Stuart Davis, were considered influential expressionist painters. Although Alberto Giacometti is primarily thought of as an intense Surrealist sculptor, he made intense expressionist paintings as well.
Piet Mondrian's art was also related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In 1908 he became interested in the theosophical movement launched by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky in the late 19th century. Blavatsky believed that it was possible to attain a knowledge of nature more profound than that provided by empirical means, and much of Mondrian's work for the rest of his life was inspired by his search for that spiritual knowledge.
De Stijl also known as neoplasticism, was a Dutch artistic movement founded in 1917. The term De Stijl is used to refer to a body of work from 1917 to 1931 founded in the Netherlands.[52][53]
De Stijl is also the name of a journal that was published by the Dutch painter, designer, writer, and critic Theo van Doesburg propagating the group's theories. Next to van Doesburg, the group's principal members were the painters Piet Mondrian, Vilmos Huszár, and Bart van der Leck, and the architects Gerrit Rietveld, Robert van 't Hoff, and J. J. P. Oud. The artistic philosophy that formed a basis for the group's work is known as neoplasticism – the new plastic art (or Nieuwe Beelding in Dutch).
Proponents of De Stijl sought to express a new utopian ideal of spiritual harmony and order. They advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form and colour; they simplified visual compositions to the vertical and horizontal directions, and used only primary colors along with black and white. Indeed, according to the Tate Gallery's online article on neoplasticism, Mondrian himself sets forth these delimitations in his essay "Neo-Plasticism in Pictorial Art". He writes, "... this new plastic idea will ignore the particulars of appearance, that is to say, natural form and colour. On the contrary, it should find its expression in the abstraction of form and colour, that is to say, in the straight line and the clearly defined primary colour." The Tate article further summarizes that this art allows "only primary colours and non-colours, only squares and rectangles, only straight and horizontal or vertical line."[54] The Guggenheim Museum's online article on De Stijl summarizes these traits in similar terms: "It [De Stijl] was posited on the fundamental principle of the geometry of the straight line, the square, and the rectangle, combined with a strong asymmetricality; the predominant use of pure primary colors with black and white; and the relationship between positive and negative elements in an arrangement of non-objective forms and lines."[55]
De Stijl movement was influenced by Cubist painting as well as by the mysticism and the ideas about "ideal" geometric forms (such as the "perfect straight line") in the neoplatonic philosophy of mathematician M. H. J. Schoenmaekers. The works of De Stijl would influence the Bauhaus style and the international style of architecture as well as clothing and interior design. However, it did not follow the general guidelines of an "ism" (Cubism, Futurism, Surrealism), nor did it adhere to the principles of art schools like Bauhaus; it was a collective project, a joint enterprise.
Marcel Duchamp, came to international prominence in the wake of his notorious success at the New York City Armory Show in 1913, (soon after he denounced artmaking for chess). After Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase became the international cause celebre at the 1913 Armory show in New York he created The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even, Large Glass. The Large Glass pushed the art of painting to radical new limits being part painting, part collage, part construction. Duchamp became closely associated with the Dada movement that began in neutral Zürich, Switzerland, during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1920. The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature (poetry, art manifestoes, art theory), theatre, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti war politic through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works. Francis Picabia, Man Ray, Kurt Schwitters, Tristan Tzara, Hans Richter, Jean Arp, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, along with Duchamp and many others are associated with the Dadaist movement. Duchamp and several Dadaists are also associated with Surrealism, the movement that dominated European painting in the 1920s and 1930s.
In 1924 André Breton published the Surrealist Manifesto. The Surrealist movement in painting became synonymous with the avant-garde and which featured artists whose works varied from the abstract to the super-realist. With works on paper like Machine Turn Quickly, (above) Francis Picabia continued his involvement in the Dada movement through 1919 in Zürich and Paris, before breaking away from it after developing an interest in Surrealist art. Yves Tanguy, René Magritte and Salvador Dalí are particularly known for their realistic depictions of dream imagery and fantastic manifestations of the imagination. Joan Miró's The Tilled Field of 1923–1924 verges on abstraction, this early painting of a complex of objects and figures, and arrangements of sexually active characters; was Miró's first Surrealist masterpiece.[56] Miró's The Tilled Field also contains several parallels to Bosch's Garden of Earthly Delights: similar flocks of birds; pools from which living creatures emerge; and oversize disembodied ears all echo the Dutch master's work that Miró saw as a young painter in The Prado. The more abstract Joan Miró, Jean Arp, André Masson, and Max Ernst were very influential, especially in the United States during the 1940s. Throughout the 1930s, Surrealism continued to become more visible to the public at large. A Surrealist group developed in Britain and, according to Breton, their 1936 London International Surrealist Exhibition was a high water mark of the period and became the model for international exhibitions. Surrealist groups in Japan, and especially in Latin America, the Caribbean and in Mexico produced innovative and original works.
Dalí and Magritte created some of the most widely recognized images of the movement. The 1928/1929 painting This Is Not A Pipe, by Magritte is the subject of a Michel Foucault 1973 book, This is not a Pipe (English edition, 1991), that discusses the painting and its paradox. Dalí joined the group in 1929, and participated in the rapid establishment of the visual style between 1930 and 1935.
Surrealism as a visual movement had found a method: to expose psychological truth by stripping ordinary objects of their normal significance, in order to create a compelling image that was beyond ordinary formal organization, and perception, sometimes evoking empathy from the viewer, sometimes laughter and sometimes outrage and bewilderment.
1931 marked a year when several Surrealist painters produced works which marked turning points in their stylistic evolution: in one example, liquid shapes become the trademark of Dalí, particularly in his The Persistence of Memory, which features the image of watches that sag as if they are melting. Evocations of time and its compelling mystery and absurdity.[57]
The characteristics of this style – a combination of the depictive, the abstract, and the psychological – came to stand for the alienation which many people felt in the modernist period, combined with the sense of reaching more deeply into the psyche, to be "made whole with one's individuality."
Max Ernst whose 1920 painting Murdering Airplane, studied philosophy and psychology in Bonn and was interested in the alternative realities experienced by the insane. His paintings may have been inspired by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's study of the delusions of a paranoiac, Daniel Paul Schreber. Freud identified Schreber's fantasy of becoming a woman as a castration complex. The central image of two pairs of legs refers to Schreber's hermaphroditic desires. Ernst's inscription on the back of the painting reads: The picture is curious because of its symmetry. The two sexes balance one another.[58]
During the 1920s André Masson's work was enormously influential in helping the newly arrived in Paris and young artist Joan Miró find his roots in the new Surrealist painting. Miró acknowledged in letters to his dealer Pierre Matisse the importance of Masson as an example to him in his early years in Paris.
Long after personal, political and professional tensions have fragmented the Surrealist group into thin air and ether, Magritte, Miró, Dalí and the other Surrealists continue to define a visual program in the arts. Other prominent surrealist artists include Giorgio de Chirico, Méret Oppenheim, Toyen, Grégoire Michonze, Roberto Matta, Kay Sage, Leonora Carrington, Dorothea Tanning, and Leonor Fini among others.
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Der Blaue Reiter was a German movement lasting from 1911 to 1914, fundamental to Expressionism, along with Die Brücke which was founded the previous decade in 1905 and was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905. Founding members of Die Brücke were Fritz Bleyl, Erich Heckel, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. Later members included Max Pechstein, Otto Mueller and others. The group was one of the seminal ones, which in due course had a major impact on the evolution of modern art in the 20th century and created the style of Expressionism.[59]
Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, whose psychically expressive painting of the Russian dancer Portrait of Alexander Sakharoff, 1909 is in the gallery above, Marianne von Werefkin, Lyonel Feininger and others founded the Der Blaue Reiter group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky's painting Last Judgement from an exhibition. Der Blaue Reiter lacked a central artistic manifesto, but was centered around Kandinsky and Marc. Artists Gabriele Münter and Paul Klee were also involved.
The name of the movement comes from a painting by Kandinsky created in 1903. It is also claimed that the name could have derived from Marc's enthusiasm for horses and Kandinsky's love of the colour blue. For Kandinsky, blue is the colour of spirituality: the darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal.
In the USA during the period between World War I and World War II painters tended to go to Europe for recognition. Artists like Marsden Hartley, Patrick Henry Bruce, Gerald Murphy and Stuart Davis, created reputations abroad. In New York City, Albert Pinkham Ryder and Ralph Blakelock were influential and important figures in advanced American painting between 1900 and 1920. During the 1920s photographer Alfred Stieglitz exhibited Georgia O'Keeffe, Arthur Dove, Alfred Henry Maurer, Charles Demuth, John Marin and other artists including European Masters Henri Matisse, Auguste Rodin, Henri Rousseau, Paul Cézanne, and Pablo Picasso, at his gallery the 291.
During the 1920s and the 1930s and the Great Depression, Surrealism, late Cubism, the Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, Expressionism, and modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard characterized the European art scene. In Germany Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II. While in America American Scene painting and the social realism and regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became prominent. In Latin America besides the Uruguayan painter Joaquín Torres García and Rufino Tamayo from Mexico, the muralist movement with Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, José Orozco, Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martinez Delgado and the Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo began a renaissance of the arts for the region, with a use of color and historic, and political messages. Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works also relate strongly to Surrealism and to the Magic Realism movement in literature. The psychological drama in many of Kahlo's self portraits (above) underscore the vitality and relevance of her paintings to artists in the 21st century.
American Gothic is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930. Portraying a pitchfork-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century American art. Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting, like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis' 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van Vechten's The Tattooed Countess in literature.[60] However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit.
Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, "Man at the Crossroads", in the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. When his patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Vladimir Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. The film Cradle Will Rock includes a dramatization of the controversy. Frida Kahlo (Rivera's wife's) works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Of her 143 paintings 55 are self-portraits, which frequently incorporate symbolic portrayals of her physical and psychological wounds. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition—which were often bloody and violent—with surrealist renderings. While her paintings are not overtly Christian they certainly contain elements of the macabre Mexican Christian style of religious paintings.
Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution, a violent and chaotic period in Mexican history in which various social and political factions fought for recognition and power. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. He briefly gave up painting to focus on organizing miners in Jalisco.
During the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including Pablo Picasso.[61] On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was the scene of the "Bombing of Gernika" by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Gernika survived. Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized Guernica to commemorate the horrors of the bombing.
In its final form, Guernica is an immense black and white, 3.5 metres (11 feet) tall and 7.8 metres (26 feet) wide mural painted in oil. The mural presents a scene of death, violence, brutality, suffering, and helplessness without portraying their immediate causes. The choice to paint in black and white contrasts with the intensity of the scene depicted and invokes the immediacy of a newspaper photograph.[62]Picasso painted the mural sized painting called Guernica in protest of the bombing. The painting was first exhibited in Paris in 1937, then Scandinavia, then London in 1938 and finally in 1939 at Picasso's request the painting was sent to the United States in an extended loan (for safekeeping) at MoMA. The painting went on a tour of museums throughout the USA until its final return to the Museum of Modern Art in New York City where it was exhibited for nearly thirty years. Finally in accord with Pablo Picasso's wish to give the painting to the people of Spain as a gift, it was sent to Spain in 1981.
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During the Great Depression of the 1930s, through the years of World War II American art was characterized by Social Realism and American Scene Painting in the work of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, and several others. Nighthawks (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art. It is currently in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. The scene was inspired by a diner (since demolished) in Greenwich Village, Hopper's home neighborhood in Manhattan. Hopper began painting it immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work.
The Dynamic for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazi's power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased. The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with Modernism and abstraction that many left for the Americas. Degenerate art was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany for virtually all modern art. Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely.
Degenerate Art was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in Munich in 1937, consisting of modernist artworks chaotically hung and accompanied by text labels deriding the art. Designed to inflame public opinion against modernism, the exhibition subsequently traveled to several other cities in Germany and Austria. German artist Max Beckmann and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, and others were just beginning to come of age.
Arshile Gorky's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning (above) is an example of the evolution of abstract expressionism from the context of figure painting, cubism and surrealism. Along with his friends de Kooning and John D. Graham Gorky created bio-morphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature.
The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Surrealism, Joan Miró, Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors. The figurative work of Francis Bacon, Frida Kahlo, Edward Hopper, Lucian Freud, Andrew Wyeth and others served as a kind of alternative to abstract expressionism.
Post-Second World War American painting called Abstract expressionism included artists like Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Franz Kline, Adolph Gottlieb, Mark Tobey, Barnett Newman, James Brooks, Philip Guston, Robert Motherwell, Conrad Marca-Relli, Jack Tworkov, William Baziotes, Richard Pousette-Dart, Ad Reinhardt, Hedda Sterne, Jimmy Ernst, Esteban Vicente, Bradley Walker Tomlin, and Theodoros Stamos, among others. American Abstract expressionism got its name in 1946 from the art critic Robert Coates. It is seen as combining the emotional intensity and self-denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as futurism, the Bauhaus and synthetic cubism. Abstract expressionism, action painting, and Color Field painting are synonymous with the New York School.
Technically Surrealism was an important predecessor for abstract expressionism with its emphasis on spontaneous, automatic or subconscious creation. Jackson Pollock's dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a technique that has its roots in the work of André Masson. Another important early manifestation of what came to be abstract expressionism is the work of American Northwest artist Mark Tobey, especially his "white writing" canvases, which, though generally not large in scale, anticipate the "all over" look of Pollock's drip paintings.
Additionally, Abstract expressionism has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, rather nihilistic. In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even applied to work which is not especially abstract nor expressionist. Pollock's energetic "action paintings", with their "busy" feel, are different both technically and aesthetically, to the violent and grotesque Women series of Willem de Kooning. As seen above in the gallery Woman V is one of a series of six paintings made by de Kooning between 1950 and 1953 that depict a three-quarter-length female figure. He began the first of these paintings, Woman I collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, in June 1950, repeatedly changing and painting out the image until January or February 1952, when the painting was abandoned unfinished. The art historian Meyer Schapiro saw the painting in de Kooning's studio soon afterwards and encouraged the artist to persist. De Kooning's response was to begin three other paintings on the same theme; Woman II collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, Woman III, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Woman IV, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri. During the summer of 1952, spent at East Hampton, de Kooning further explored the theme through drawings and pastels. He may have finished work on Woman I by the end of June, or possibly as late as November 1952, and probably the other three women pictures were concluded at much the same time.[63] The Woman series are decidedly figurative paintings. Another important artist is Franz Kline, as demonstrated by his painting High Street, 1950 as with Jackson Pollock and other Abstract Expressionists, was labelled an "action painter" because of his seemingly spontaneous and intense style, focusing less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but on the actual brush strokes and use of canvas.[64][65][66][67]
Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Adolph Gottlieb, and the serenely shimmering blocks of color in Mark Rothko's work (which is not what would usually be called expressionist and which Rothko denied was abstract), are classified as abstract expressionists, albeit from what Clement Greenberg termed the Color Field direction of abstract expressionism. Both Hans Hofmann and Robert Motherwell (gallery) can be comfortably described as practitioners of action painting and Color Field painting.
Abstract expressionism has many stylistic similarities to the Russian artists of the early 20th century such as Wassily Kandinsky. Although it is true that spontaneity or of the impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists works, most of these paintings involved careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it. An exception might be the drip paintings of Pollock.
Why this style gained mainstream acceptance in the 1950s is a matter of debate. American Social realism had been the mainstream in the 1930s. It had been influenced not only by the Great Depression but also by the Social Realists of Mexico such as David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera. The political climate after World War II did not long tolerate the social protests of those painters. Abstract expressionism arose during World War II and began to be showcased during the early 1940s at galleries in New York like The Art of This Century Gallery. The late 1940s through the mid-1950s ushered in the McCarthy era. It was after World War II and a time of political conservatism and extreme artistic censorship in the United States. Some people have conjectured that since the subject matter was often totally abstract, Abstract expressionism became a safe strategy for artists to pursue this style. Abstract art could be seen as apolitical. Or if the art was political, the message was largely for the insiders. However, those theorists are in the minority. As the first truly original school of painting in America, Abstract expressionism demonstrated the vitality and creativity of the country in the post-war years, as well as its ability (or need) to develop an aesthetic sense that was not constrained by the European standards of beauty.
Although Abstract expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were New York City and California, especially in the New York School, and the San Francisco Bay area. Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an "all-over" approach, in which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges). The canvas as the arena became a credo of action painting, while the integrity of the picture plane became a credo of the Color Field painters. Many other artists began exhibiting their abstract expressionist related paintings during the 1950s including Alfred Leslie, Sam Francis, Joan Mitchell, Helen Frankenthaler, Cy Twombly, Milton Resnick, Michael Goldberg, Norman Bluhm, Ray Parker, Nicolas Carone, Grace Hartigan, Friedel Dzubas, and Robert Goodnough among others.
During the 1950s Color Field painting initially referred to a particular type of abstract expressionism, especially the work of Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Robert Motherwell and Adolph Gottlieb. It essentially involved abstract paintings with large, flat expanses of color that expressed the sensual, and visual feelings and properties of large areas of nuanced surface. Art critic Clement Greenberg perceived Color Field painting as related to but different from Action painting. The overall expanse and gestalt of the work of the early color field painters speaks of an almost religious experience, awestruck in the face of an expanding universe of sensuality, color and surface. During the early-to-mid-1960s, Color Field painting came to refer to the styles of artists like Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, and Helen Frankenthaler, whose works were related to second-generation abstract expressionism, and to younger artists like Larry Zox, and Frank Stella, – all moving in a new direction. Artists like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, Helen Frankenthaler, Larry Zox, and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery. In Mountains and Sea, from 1952, a seminal work of Color Field painting by Helen Frankenthaler the artist used the stain technique for the first time.
In Europe there was the continuation of Surrealism, Cubism, Dada and the works of Matisse. Also in Europe, Tachisme (the European equivalent to Abstract expressionism) took hold of the newest generation. Serge Poliakoff, Nicolas de Staël, Georges Mathieu, Vieira da Silva, Jean Dubuffet, Yves Klein and Pierre Soulages among others are considered important figures in post-war European painting.
Eventually abstract painting in America evolved into movements such as Neo-Dada, Color Field painting, Post painterly abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Minimal art, shaped canvas painting, lyrical abstraction, Neo-expressionism and the continuation of Abstract expressionism. As a response to the tendency toward abstraction imagery emerged through various new movements, notably Pop art.
Earlier in England in 1956 the term Pop Art was used by Lawrence Alloway for paintings that celebrated consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age.[68] The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton Peter Blake and Eduardo Paolozzi were considered seminal examples in the movement.
Pop art in America was to a large degree initially inspired by the works of Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, and Robert Rauschenberg. Although the paintings of Gerald Murphy, Stuart Davis and Charles Demuth during the 1920s and 1930s set the table for pop art in America. In New York City during the mid-1950s Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns created works of art that at first seemed to be continuations of Abstract expressionist painting. Actually their works and the work of Larry Rivers, were radical departures from abstract expressionism especially in the use of banal and literal imagery and the inclusion and the combining of mundane materials into their work. The innovations of Johns' specific use of various images and objects like chairs, numbers, targets, beer cans and the American flag; Rivers paintings of subjects drawn from popular culture such as George Washington crossing the Delaware, and his inclusions of images from advertisements like the camel from Camel cigarettes, and Rauschenberg's surprising constructions using inclusions of objects and pictures taken from popular culture, hardware stores, junkyards, the city streets, and taxidermy gave rise to a radical new movement in American art. Eventually by 1963 the movement came to be known worldwide as pop art.
American pop art is exemplified by artists: Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg, Wayne Thiebaud, James Rosenquist, Jim Dine, Tom Wesselmann and Roy Lichtenstein among others. Lichtenstein's most important work is arguably Whaam! (1963, Tate Modern, London[69]), one of the earliest known examples of pop art, adapted a comic-book panel from a 1962 issue of DC Comics' All-American Men of War.[70] The painting depicts a fighter aircraft firing a rocket into an enemy plane, with a red-and-yellow explosion. The cartoon style is heightened by the use of the onomatopoeic lettering "Whaam!" and the boxed caption "I pressed the fire control... and ahead of me rockets blazed through the sky..."[69] Pop art merges popular and mass culture with fine art, while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery and content into the mix. In October 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists the first major pop art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Sidney Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. 57th Street. The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in the fall of 1962 an historically important and ground-breaking New Painting of Common Objects exhibition of pop art, curated by Walter Hopps at the Pasadena Art Museum sent shock waves across the Western United States.
While in the downtown scene in New York City's East Village 10th Street galleries artists were formulating an American version of Pop Art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront and made painted objects, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist. Later Leo Castelli exhibited other American artists including the bulk of the careers of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein and his use of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a connection between the radical works of Duchamp, and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists – with a sense of humor; and pop artists like Alex Katz (who became known for his parodies of portrait photography and suburban life), Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein and the others.
While throughout the 20th century many painters continued to practice landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, like Milton Avery, John D. Graham, Fairfield Porter, Edward Hopper, Balthus, Francis Bacon, Nicolas de Staël, Andrew Wyeth, Lucian Freud, Frank Auerbach, Philip Pearlstein, David Park, Nathan Oliveira, David Hockney, Malcolm Morley, Richard Estes, Ralph Goings, Audrey Flack, Chuck Close, Susan Rothenberg, Eric Fischl, Vija Celmins and Richard Diebenkorn.
During the 1930s through the 1960s abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, Post painterly abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Minimal art, shaped canvas painting, and lyrical abstraction. Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction, allowing figurative imagery to continue through various new contexts like the Bay Area Figurative Movement in the 1950s and new forms of expressionism from the 1940s through the 1960s. In Italy during this time, Giorgio Morandi was the foremost still life painter, exploring a wide variety of approaches to depicting everyday bottles and kitchen implements.[71] Throughout the 20th century many painters practiced Realism and used expressive imagery; practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like still-life painter Giorgio Morandi, Milton Avery, John D. Graham, Fairfield Porter, Edward Hopper, Andrew Wyeth, Balthus, Francis Bacon, Leon Kossoff, Frank Auerbach, Lucian Freud, Philip Pearlstein, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Grace Hartigan, Robert De Niro, Sr., Elaine de Kooning and others. Along with Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Pierre Bonnard, Georges Braque, and other 20th-century masters. In particular Milton Avery through his use of color and his interest in seascape and landscape paintings connected with the Color field aspect of Abstract expressionism as manifested by Adolph Gottlieb and Mark Rothko as well as the lessons American painters took from the work of Henri Matisse.[72][73]
Head VI, 1949 is a painting by the Irish born artist Francis Bacon and is an example of Post World War II European Expressionism. The work shows a distorted version of the Portrait of Innocent X painted by the Spanish artist Diego Velázquez in 1650. The work is one of a series of variants of the Velázquez painting which Bacon executed throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, over a total of forty-five works.[74] When asked why he was compelled to revisit the subject so often, Bacon replied that he had nothing against the Popes, that he merely "wanted an excuse to use these colours, and you can't give ordinary clothes that purple colour without getting into a sort of false fauve manner."[75] The Pope in this version seethes with anger and aggression, and the dark colors give the image a grotesque and nightmarish appearance.[76] The pleated curtains of the backdrop are rendered transparent, and seem to fall through the Pope's face.[77]Italian painter Giorgio Morandi was an important 20th-century early pioneer of Minimalism. Born in Bologna, Italy, in 1890, throughout his career, Morandi concentrated almost exclusively on still lifes and landscapes, except for a few self-portraits. With great sensitivity to tone, color, and compositional balance, he would depict the same familiar bottles and vases again and again in paintings notable for their simplicity of execution. Morandi executed 133 etchings, a significant body of work in its own right, and his drawings and watercolors often approach abstraction in their economy of means. Through his simple and repetitive motifs and economical use of color, value and surface, Morandi became a prescient and important forerunner of Minimalism. He died in Bologna in 1964.
After World War II the term School of Paris often referred to Tachisme, the European equivalent of American Abstract expressionism and those artists are also related to Cobra. Important proponents being Jean Dubuffet, Pierre Soulages, Nicolas de Staël, Hans Hartung, Serge Poliakoff, and Georges Mathieu, among several others. During the early 1950s Dubuffet (who was always a figurative artist), and de Staël, abandoned abstraction, and returned to imagery via figuration and landscape. De Staël 's work was quickly recognised within the post-war art world, and he became one of the most influential artists of the 1950s. His return to representation (seascapes, footballers, jazz musicians, seagulls) during the early 1950s can be seen as an influential precedent for the American Bay Area Figurative Movement, as many of those abstract painters like Richard Diebenkorn, David Park, Elmer Bischoff, Wayne Thiebaud, Nathan Oliveira, Joan Brown and others made a similar move; returning to imagery during the mid-1950s. Much of de Staël 's late work – in particular his thinned, and diluted oil on canvas abstract landscapes of the mid-1950s predicts Color Field painting and Lyrical Abstraction of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicolas de Staël's bold and intensely vivid color in his last paintings predict the direction of much of contemporary painting that came after him including Pop art of the 1960s.
During the 1950s and 1960s as abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as Color Field painting, post-painterly abstraction, op art, hard-edge painting, minimal art, shaped canvas painting, lyrical abstraction, and the continuation of Abstract expressionism. Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction with art brut,[78] as seen in Court les rues, 1962, by Jean Dubuffet, fluxus, neo-Dada, New Realism, allowing imagery to re-emerge through various new contexts like pop art, the Bay Area Figurative Movement (a prime example is Diebenkorn's Cityscape I, (Landscape No. 1), 1963, Oil on canvas, 60 1/4 x 50 1/2 inches, collection: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art) and later in the 1970s Neo-expressionism. The Bay Area Figurative Movement of whom David Park, Elmer Bischoff, Nathan Oliveira and Richard Diebenkorn whose painting Cityscape 1, 1963 is a typical example were influential members flourished during the 1950s and 1960s in California. Although throughout the 20th century painters continued to practice Realism and use imagery, practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like Milton Avery, Edward Hopper, Jean Dubuffet, Francis Bacon, Frank Auerbach, Lucian Freud, Philip Pearlstein, and others. Younger painters practiced the use of imagery in new and radical ways. Yves Klein, Martial Raysse, Niki de Saint Phalle, Wolf Vostell, David Hockney, Alex Katz, Malcolm Morley, Ralph Goings, Audrey Flack, Richard Estes, Chuck Close, Susan Rothenberg, Eric Fischl, John Baeder and Vija Celmins were a few who became prominent between the 1960s and the 1980s. Fairfield Porter was largely self-taught, and produced representational work in the midst of the Abstract Expressionist movement. His subjects were primarily landscapes, domestic interiors and portraits of family, friends and fellow artists, many of them affiliated with the New York School of writers, including John Ashbery, Frank O'Hara, and James Schuyler. Many of his paintings were set in or around the family summer house on Great Spruce Head Island, Maine.
Also during the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against painting. Critics like Douglas Crimp viewed the work of artists like Ad Reinhardt, and declared the "death of painting". Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained prominence some of which are: Fluxus, Happening, Video art, Installation art Mail art, the situationists, Conceptual art, Postminimalism, Earth art, arte povera, performance art and body art among others.[79][80]
Neo-Dada is also a movement that started in the 1950s and 1960s and was related to Abstract expressionism only with imagery. Featuring the emergence of combined manufactured items, with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting. This trend in art is exemplified by the work of Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and Installation art, and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography. Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz among others were important pioneers of both abstraction and Pop Art; creating new conventions of art-making; they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion of unlikely materials as parts of their works of art.
Color Field painting clearly pointed toward a new direction in American painting, away from abstract expressionism. Color Field painting is related to post-painterly abstraction, suprematism, abstract expressionism, hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction. During the 1960s and 1970s abstract painting continued to develop in America through varied styles. Geometric abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Color Field painting and minimal painting, were some interrelated directions for advanced abstract painting as well as some other new movements. Morris Louis was an important pioneer in advanced Color Field painting, his work can serve as a bridge between abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, and minimal art. Two influential teachers Josef Albers and Hans Hofmann introduced a new generation of American artists to their advanced theories of color and space. Josef Albers is best remembered for his work as a Geometric abstractionist painter and theorist. Most famous of all are the hundreds of paintings and prints that make up the series Homage to the Square. In this rigorous series, begun in 1949, Albers explored chromatic interactions with flat colored squares arranged concentrically on the canvas. Albers' theories on art and education were formative for the next generation of artists. His own paintings form the foundation of both hard-edge painting and Op art.
Josef Albers, Hans Hofmann, Ilya Bolotowsky, Burgoyne Diller, Victor Vasarely, Bridget Riley, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Frank Stella, Morris Louis, Kenneth Noland,[81] Ellsworth Kelly, Barnett Newman, Larry Poons, Ronald Davis, Larry Zox, Al Held and some others like Mino Argento,[82] are artists closely associated with Geometric abstraction, Op art, Color Field painting, and in the case of Hofmann and Newman Abstract expressionism as well.
In 1965, an exhibition called The Responsive Eye, curated by William C. Seitz, was held at the Museum of Modern Art, in New York City. The works shown were wide-ranging, encompassing the Minimalism of Frank Stella, the Op art of Larry Poons, the work of Alexander Liberman, alongside the masters of the Op Art movement: Victor Vasarely, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Bridget Riley and others. The exhibition focused on the perceptual aspects of art, which result both from the illusion of movement and the interaction of color relationships. Op art, also known as optical art, is a style present in some paintings and other works of art that use optical illusions. Op art is also closely akin to geometric abstraction and hard-edge painting. Although sometimes the term used for it is perceptual abstraction.
Op art is a method of painting concerning the interaction between illusion and picture plane, between understanding and seeing.[83] Op art works are abstract, with many of the better known pieces made in only black and white. When the viewer looks at them, the impression is given of movement, hidden images, flashing and vibration, patterns, or alternatively, of swelling or warping.
Color Field painting sought to rid art of superfluous rhetoric. Artists like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, Helen Frankenthaler, John Hoyland, Larry Zox, and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery. Certain artists quoted references to past or present art, but in general color field painting presents abstraction as an end in itself. In pursuing this direction of modern art, artists wanted to present each painting as one unified, cohesive, monolithic image.
Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Ellsworth Kelly, Barnett Newman, Ronald Davis, Neil Williams, Robert Mangold, Charles Hinman, Richard Tuttle, David Novros, and Al Loving are examples of artists associated with the use of the shaped canvas during the period beginning in the early 1960s. Many Geometric abstract artists, minimalists, and Hard-edge painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format. In fact, the use of the shaped canvas is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly abstract, formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean-lined, brashly sharp-edged, or minimalist in character. The Andre Emmerich Gallery, the Leo Castelli Gallery, the Richard Feigen Gallery, and the Park Place Gallery were important showcases for Color Field painting, shaped canvas painting and Lyrical Abstraction in New York City during the 1960s. There is a connection with post-painterly abstraction, which reacted against abstract expressionisms' mysticism, hyper-subjectivity, and emphasis on making the act of painting itself dramatically visible – as well as the solemn acceptance of the flat rectangle as an almost ritual prerequisite for serious painting. During the 1960s Color Field painting and Minimal art were often closely associated with each other. In actuality by the early 1970s both movements became decidedly diverse.
Another related movement of the late 1960s, Lyrical Abstraction (the term being coined by Larry Aldrich, the founder of the Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum, Ridgefield Connecticut), encompassed what Aldrich said he saw in the studios of many artists at that time.[88] It is also the name of an exhibition that originated in the Aldrich Museum and traveled to the Whitney Museum of American Art and other museums throughout the United States between 1969 and 1971.[89]
Lyrical Abstraction in the late 1960s is characterized by the paintings of Dan Christensen, Ronnie Landfield, Peter Young and others, and along with the fluxus movement and postminimalism (a term first coined by Robert Pincus-Witten in the pages of Artforum in 1969)[90] sought to expand the boundaries of abstract painting and minimalism by focusing on process, new materials and new ways of expression. Postminimalism often incorporating industrial materials, raw materials, fabrications, found objects, installation, serial repetition, and often with references to Dada and Surrealism is best exemplified in the sculptures of Eva Hesse.[90] Lyrical Abstraction, conceptual art, postminimalism, Earth art, video, performance art, installation art, along with the continuation of fluxus, abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, hard-edge painting, minimal art, op art, pop art, photorealism and New Realism extended the boundaries of contemporary art in the mid-1960s through the 1970s.[91] Lyrical Abstraction is a type of freewheeling abstract painting that emerged in the mid-1960s when abstract painters returned to various forms of painterly, pictorial, expressionism with a predominate focus on process, gestalt and repetitive compositional strategies in general.
Lyrical Abstraction shares similarities with color field painting and abstract expressionism, Lyrical Abstraction as exemplified by the 1968 Ronnie Landfield painting For William Blake, (above) especially in the freewheeling usage of paint – texture and surface. Direct drawing, calligraphic use of line, the effects of brushed, splattered, stained, squeegeed, poured, and splashed paint superficially resemble the effects seen in abstract expressionism and color field painting. However, the styles are markedly different. Setting it apart from abstract expressionism and action painting of the 1940s and 1950s is the approach to composition and drama. As seen in action painting there is an emphasis on brushstrokes, high compositional drama, dynamic compositional tension. While in Lyrical Abstraction there is a sense of compositional randomness, all over composition, low key and relaxed compositional drama and an emphasis on process, repetition, and an all over sensibility.,[92][93]
Agnes Martin, Robert Mangold, Brice Marden, Jo Baer, Robert Ryman, Richard Tuttle, Neil Williams, David Novros, Paul Mogenson, Charles Hinman are examples of artists associated with Minimalism and (exceptions of Martin, Baer and Marden) the use of the shaped canvas also during the period beginning in the early 1960s. Many Geometric abstract artists, minimalists, and hard-edge painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format. In fact, the use of the shaped canvas is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly abstract, formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean-lined, brashly sharp-edged, or minimalist in character. The Bykert Gallery, and the Park Place Gallery were important showcases for Minimalism and shaped canvas painting in New York City during the 1960s.
During the 1960s and 1970s artists such as Robert Motherwell, Adolph Gottlieb, Phillip Guston, Lee Krasner, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Richard Diebenkorn, Josef Albers, Elmer Bischoff, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Sam Francis, Ellsworth Kelly, Morris Louis, Helen Frankenthaler, Gene Davis, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Joan Mitchell, Friedel Dzubas, and younger artists like Brice Marden, Robert Mangold, Sam Gilliam,[94] John Hoyland, Sean Scully, Pat Steir, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and dozens of others produced a wide variety of paintings.
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During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against abstract painting. Some critics viewed the work of artists like Ad Reinhardt, and declared the 'death of painting'. Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained prominence some of which are: postminimalism, Earth art, video art, installation art, arte povera, performance art, body art, fluxus, happening, mail art, the situationists and conceptual art among others.
However still other important innovations in abstract painting took place during the 1960s and the 1970s characterized by monochrome painting and hard-edge painting inspired by Ad Reinhardt, Barnett Newman, Milton Resnick, and Ellsworth Kelly. Artists as diverse as Agnes Martin, Al Held, Larry Zox, Frank Stella, Larry Poons, Brice Marden and others explored the power of simplification. The convergence of Color Field painting, minimal art, hard-edge painting, Lyrical Abstraction, and postminimalism blurred the distinction between movements that became more apparent in the 1980s and 1990s. The neo-expressionism movement is related to earlier developments in abstract expressionism, neo-Dada, Lyrical Abstraction and postminimal painting.
In the late 1960s an abstract expressionist painter Philip Guston helped to lead a transition from abstract expressionism to Neo-expressionism in painting, abandoning the so-called "pure abstraction" of abstract expressionism in favor of more cartoonish renderings of various personal symbols and objects. These works were inspirational to a new generation of painters interested in a revival of expressive imagery. His painting Painting, Smoking, Eating 1973, seen above in the gallery is an example of Guston's final and conclusive return to representation.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was also a return to painting that occurred almost simultaneously in Italy, Germany, France and Britain. These movements were called Transavantguardia, Neue Wilde, Figuration Libre,[95] Neo-expressionism, the school of London, and in the late 1980s the Stuckists respectively. These paintings were characterized by large formats, free expressive mark making, figuration, myth and imagination. All work in this genre came to be labeled neo-expressionism. Critical reaction was divided. Some critics regarded it as driven by profit motivations by large commercial galleries. This type of art continues in popularity into the 21st century, even after the art crash of the late 1980s. Anselm Kiefer is a leading figure in European Neo-expressionism by the 1980s, Kiefer's themes widened from a focus on Germany's role in civilization to the fate of art and culture in general. His work became more sculptural and involves not only national identity and collective memory, but also occult symbolism, theology and mysticism. The theme of all the work is the trauma experienced by entire societies, and the continual rebirth and renewal in life.
During the late 1970s in the United States painters who began working with invigorated surfaces and who returned to imagery like Susan Rothenberg gained in popularity, especially as seen above in paintings like Horse 2, 1979. During the 1980s American artists like Eric Fischl, David Salle, Jean-Michel Basquiat (who began as a graffiti artist), Julian Schnabel, and Keith Haring, and Italian painters like Mimmo Paladino, Sandro Chia, and Enzo Cucchi, among others defined the idea of Neo-expressionism in America.
Neo-expressionism was a style of modern painting that became popular in the late 1970s and dominated the art market until the mid-1980s. It developed in Europe as a reaction against the conceptual and minimalistic art of the 1960s and 1970s. Neo-expressionists returned to portraying recognizable objects, such as the human body (although sometimes in a virtually abstract manner), in a rough and violently emotional way using vivid colours and banal colour harmonies. The veteran painters Philip Guston, Frank Auerbach, Leon Kossoff, Gerhard Richter, A. R. Penck and Georg Baselitz, along with slightly younger artists like Anselm Kiefer, Eric Fischl, Susan Rothenberg, Francesco Clemente, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, Keith Haring, and many others became known for working in this intense expressionist vein of painting.
Painting still holds a respected position in contemporary art. Art is an open field no longer divided by the objective versus non-objective dichotomy. Artists can achieve critical success whether their images are representational or abstract. What has currency is content, exploring the boundaries of the medium, and a refusal to recapitulate the works of the past as an end goal.
At the beginning of the 21st century Contemporary painting and Contemporary art in general continues in several contiguous modes, characterized by the idea of pluralism. The "crisis" in painting and current art and current art criticism today is brought about by pluralism. There is no consensus, nor need there be, as to a representative style of the age. There is an anything goes attitude that prevails; an "everything going on", and consequently "nothing going on" syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam with no firm and clear direction and with every lane on the artistic superhighway filled to capacity. Consequently magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles and aesthetic temperaments, the marketplace being left to judge merit.
Hard-edge painting, geometric abstraction, appropriation, hyperrealism, photorealism, expressionism, minimalism, Lyrical Abstraction, pop art, op art, abstract expressionism, Color Field painting, monochrome painting, neo-expressionism, collage, intermedia painting, assemblage painting, digital painting, postmodern painting, neo-Dada painting, shaped canvas painting, environmental mural painting, traditional figure painting, landscape painting, portrait painting, are a few continuing and current directions in painting at the beginning of the 21st century.
During the period before and after European exploration and settlement of the Americas, including North America, Central America, South America and the Islands of the Caribbean, the Antilles, the Lesser Antilles and other island groups, indigenous native cultures produced creative works including architecture, pottery, ceramics, weaving, carving, sculpture, painting and murals as well as other religious and utilitarian objects. Each continent of the Americas hosted societies that were unique and individually developed cultures; that produced totems, works of religious symbolism, and decorative and expressive painted works. African influence was especially strong in the art of the Caribbean and South America. The arts of the indigenous people of the Americas had an enormous impact and influence on European art and vice versa during and after the Age of Exploration. Spain, Portugal, France, The Netherlands, and England were all powerful and influential colonial powers in the Americas during and after the 15th century. By the 19th century cultural influence began to flow both ways across the Atlantic
The depiction of humans, animals or any other figurative subjects is forbidden within Islam to prevent believers from idolatry so there is no religiously motivated painting (or sculpture) tradition within Muslim culture. Pictorial activity was reduced to Arabesque, mainly abstract, with geometrical configuration or floral and plant-like patterns. Strongly connected to architecture and calligraphy, it can be widely seen as used for the painting of tiles in mosques or in illuminations around the text of the Koran and other books. In fact, abstract art is not an invention of modern art but it is present in pre-classical, barbarian and non-western cultures many centuries before it and is essentially a decorative or applied art. Notable illustrator M. C. Escher was influenced by this geometrical and pattern-based art. Art Nouveau (Aubrey Beardsley and the architect Antonio Gaudí) re-introduced abstract floral patterns into western art.
Note that despite the taboo of figurative visualization, some Muslim countries did cultivate a rich tradition in painting, though not in its own right, but as a companion to the written word. Iranian or Persian art, widely known as Persian miniature, concentrates on the illustration of epic or romantic works of literature. Persian illustrators deliberately avoided the use of shading and perspective, though familiar with it in their pre-Islamic history, in order to abide by the rule of not creating any lifelike illusion of the real world. Their aim was not to depict the world as it is, but to create images of an ideal world of timeless beauty and perfect order.
Oriental historian Basil Gray believes "Iran has offered a particularly unique [sic] art to the world which is excellent in its kind". Caves in Iran's Lorestan province exhibit painted imagery of animals and hunting scenes. Some such as those in Fars Province and Sialk are at least 5,000 years old. Painting in Iran is thought to have reached a climax during the Tamerlane era, when outstanding masters such as Kamaleddin Behzad gave birth to a new style of painting.
Paintings of the Qajar period are a combination of European influences and Safavid miniature schools of painting such as those introduced by Reza Abbasi and classical works by Mihr 'Ali. Masters such as Kamal-ol-molk further pushed forward the European influence in Iran. It was during the Qajar era when "Coffee House painting" emerged. Subjects of this style were often religious in nature depicting scenes from Shia epics and the like.
African traditional culture and tribes do not seem to have great interest in two-dimensional representations in favour of sculpture and relief. However, decorative painting in African culture is often abstract and geometrical. Another pictorial manifestation is body painting, and face painting present for example in Maasai and Kĩkũyũ culture in their ceremony rituals. Ceremonial cave painting in certain villages can be found to be still in use. Note that Pablo Picasso and other modern artists were influenced by African sculpture and masks in their varied styles. Contemporary African artists follow western art movements and their paintings have little difference from occidental art works.
The Kingdom of Kush in ancient Nubia (i.e. modern Sudan), bordering Ancient Egypt, produced a wide variety of arts, including wall paintings and painted objects. At the Sudanese site of Kerma, center of the Kerma culture that predated the Kingdom of Kush, a circa 1700 BC fragmentary painting from a royal tomb depicts a sailing ship and houses with ladders that are similar to scenes in reliefs from the reign of Egyptian queen Hatshepsut (c. 1479–1458 BC).[96][97] The ancient tradition of wall paintings, first described by Abu Salih during the 12th century AD, continued into the period of medieval Nubia.[98]
The Christian tradition of painting in Ethiopia dates back to the 4th century AD, during the ancient Kingdom of Aksum.[99] During their exile to Axum, the 7th-century followers of Muhammad described paintings decorating the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion.[100] However, the earliest surviving examples of church paintings in Ethiopia come from the church of Debre Selam Mikael in the Tigray Region, dated to the 11th century AD.[100] Ethiopian paintings in illuminated manuscripts predate the earliest surviving church paintings. For instance, the Ethiopian Garima Gospels of the 4th-6th centuries AD contain illuminated scenes imitating the contemporary Byzantine illuminated style.[101]
At the start of the 20th century, artists like Picasso, Matisse, Paul Gauguin and Modigliani became aware of, and were inspired by, African art.[102] In a situation where the established avant garde was straining against the constraints imposed by serving the world of appearances, African Art demonstrated the power of supremely well organised forms; produced not only by responding to the faculty of sight, but also and often primarily, the faculty of imagination, emotion and mystical and religious experience. These artists saw in African art a formal perfection and sophistication unified with phenomenal expressive power.[103][104][105][106][107]
Les Demoiselles contains vestiges of Cézanne, El Greco, Gauguin and Ingres, among others, with the addition of conceptual aspects of primitive art properly represented with geometry.
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