Nuevo México (español: Nuevo México [Nota 2] [7] [ˈnweβo ˈmexiko] ;Navajo:Yootó Hahoodzo Pronunciación navajo: [jòːtʰó hɑ̀hòːtsò]) es un estado en lasuroestede los Estados Unidos. Es uno de losestados montañososdel sur de lasMontañas Rocosas, que comparte lalas Cuatro EsquinasconUtah,ColoradoyArizona. También limita con el estado deTexasal este y sureste,Oklahomaal noreste y comparteuna frontera internacionalcon losestados mexicanosdeChihuahuaySonoraal sur. La ciudad más grande de Nuevo México esAlbuquerque, y sucapital estatalesSanta Fe, la capital estatal más antigua de los EE. UU., fundada en 1610 como sede del gobierno deNuevo MéxicoenNueva España.
Nuevo México es el quinto estado más grande de los cincuenta por área, pero con poco más de 2,1 millones de residentes, ocupa el puesto 36 en población y el 46 en densidad de población . [8] Su clima y geografía son muy variados, desde montañas boscosas hasta desiertos dispersos; las regiones norte y este exhiben un clima alpino más frío , mientras que el oeste y el sur son más cálidos y áridos . El Río Grande y su valle fértil corren de norte a sur, creando un clima ribereño a través del centro del estado que sustenta un hábitat de bosque y un clima distintivo de la cuenca de Albuquerque . Un tercio de la tierra de Nuevo México es de propiedad federal, y el estado alberga muchas áreas silvestres protegidas y monumentos nacionales, incluidos tres sitios del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO , la mayor cantidad de cualquier estado de EE. UU. [9]
La economía de Nuevo México está altamente diversificada, incluyendo la ganadería , la agricultura, la madera, la investigación científica y tecnológica, el turismo y las artes; los sectores principales incluyen la minería, el petróleo y el gas, la industria aeroespacial, los medios de comunicación y el cine. [10] [11] [12] [13] Su producto interno bruto (PIB) total en 2020 fue de $ 95,73 mil millones, con un PIB per cápita de aproximadamente $ 46,300. [14] [15] La política fiscal estatal se caracteriza por una tributación baja a moderada de la renta personal de los residentes según los estándares nacionales, con créditos fiscales, exenciones y consideraciones especiales para el personal militar y las industrias favorables. Nuevo México tiene una importante presencia militar estadounidense , [16] incluido el campo de misiles White Sands y centros de investigación federales de valor estratégico, como los Laboratorios Nacionales Sandia y Los Álamos . El estado albergó varias instalaciones clave del Proyecto Manhattan , que desarrolló la primera bomba atómica del mundo , y fue el sitio de la primera prueba nuclear, Trinity .
En tiempos prehistóricos , Nuevo México fue el hogar de los pueblos ancestrales , la cultura mogollón y los ute ancestrales . [17] Los navajos y los apaches llegaron a fines del siglo XV y los comanches a principios del siglo XVIII. Los pueblos pueblo ocuparon varias docenas de aldeas, principalmente en el valle del Río Grande en el norte de Nuevo México. [18] [19] Los exploradores y colonos españoles llegaron en el siglo XVI desde el actual México. [20] [21] [22] Aislado por su terreno accidentado, Nuevo México era una parte periférica del virreinato de Nueva España dominado por la Comanchería . Después de la independencia mexicana en 1821, se convirtió en una región autónoma de México, aunque cada vez más amenazada por las políticas centralizadoras del gobierno mexicano, que culminó en la Revuelta de 1837 ; Al mismo tiempo, la región se volvió más dependiente económicamente de los EE. UU. Después de la guerra entre México y los Estados Unidos en 1848, los EE. UU. anexaron Nuevo México como parte del Territorio de Nuevo México más grande . Desempeñó un papel central en la expansión estadounidense hacia el oeste y fue admitido en la Unión como el 47.º estado el 6 de enero de 1912.
La historia de Nuevo México ha contribuido a su carácter demográfico y cultural único. Es uno de los siete estados de mayoría minoritaria , con el mayor porcentaje de hispanos y latinoamericanos del país y el segundo porcentaje más alto de nativos americanos, después de Alaska . [23] El estado alberga un tercio de la Nación Navajo , 19 comunidades Pueblo reconocidas por el gobierno federal y tres tribus Apache reconocidas por el gobierno federal . Su gran población hispana incluye hispanos descendientes de colonos durante la era española , [24] [25] y grupos posteriores de mexicano-estadounidenses desde el siglo XIX. La bandera de Nuevo México , que se encuentra entre las más reconocibles en los EE. UU., [26] refleja los orígenes eclécticos del estado, presentando el antiguo símbolo del sol de los Zia , una tribu Puebloan, con la coloración escarlata y dorada de la bandera española . [27] La confluencia de influencias indígenas, hispanas (españolas y mexicanas) y estadounidenses también es evidente en la cocina , el género musical y los estilos arquitectónicos únicos de Nuevo México .
Nuevo México recibió su nombre mucho antes de que el actual país de México obtuviera su independencia de España y adoptara ese nombre en 1821. El nombre "México" deriva del náhuatl y originalmente se refería al corazón de los mexicas , los gobernantes del Imperio azteca , en el Valle de México . La historia mexicana situó el origen de su pueblo en Aztlán , un lugar al norte desde el que emigraron a México. Este relato y los informes de los exploradores españoles sobre la red comercial de los Pueblos y otros eventualmente evolucionaron hasta convertirse en el folclore de las Siete Ciudades de Oro . La Crónica Mexicayotl en lengua náhuatl de 1609 hizo explícita la identificación de Nuevo México y Aztlán, describiendo cómo el pueblo mexica dejó "su hogar allí en el Viejo México Aztlan Quinehuayan Chicomoztoc, que hoy llaman Nuevo México ( yancuic mexico )". [28] [29]
Tras la conquista de los aztecas a principios del siglo XVI, los españoles comenzaron a explorar lo que hoy es el suroeste de los Estados Unidos, al que llamaron Nuevo México . En 1581, la expedición Chamuscado y Rodríguez bautizó la región al norte del río Grande como San Felipe del Nuevo México . [30] Los españoles esperaban encontrar culturas indígenas ricas similares a la mexica. Sin embargo, las culturas indígenas de Nuevo México resultaron no estar relacionadas con los mexicas y carecían de riquezas, pero el nombre persistió. [31] [32]
Antes de la condición de estado en 1912, el nombre "Nuevo México" se aplicaba vagamente a varias configuraciones de territorios en la misma área general, que evolucionaron a lo largo de los períodos español, mexicano y estadounidense , pero que típicamente abarcaban la mayor parte del actual Nuevo México junto con secciones de estados vecinos. [33]
Los primeros habitantes conocidos de Nuevo México fueron miembros de la cultura Clovis de los paleoindios . [34] : 19 Las huellas descubiertas en 2017 sugieren que los humanos pueden haber estado presentes en la región hace ya entre 21 000 y 23 000 a. C. [35] Los habitantes posteriores incluyen las culturas Mogollón y Pueblo Ancestral , que se caracterizan por un sofisticado trabajo de cerámica y desarrollo urbano; [36] : 52 pueblos o sus restos, como los de Acoma , Taos y el Parque Histórico Nacional de la Cultura Chaco , indican la escala de las viviendas de los Pueblo Ancestrales dentro del área. Estas culturas forman parte de la región más amplia de Oasisamérica de la América del Norte precolombina.
Las vastas redes comerciales de los pueblos ancestrales dieron lugar a leyendas en toda Mesoamérica y el Imperio Azteca ( México ) sobre un imperio invisible del norte que rivalizaba con el suyo, al que llamaban México Yancuic , traducido literalmente como "un nuevo México".
Las leyendas aztecas de un imperio próspero al norte se convirtieron en la base principal de las míticas Siete Ciudades de Oro , que estimularon la exploración de los conquistadores españoles después de su conquista de los aztecas a principios del siglo XVI; entre los exploradores destacados se encontraban Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca , Andrés Dorantes de Carranza , Alonso del Castillo Maldonado , Estevanico y Marcos de Niza .
El asentamiento de La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís —la actual Santa Fe— fue establecido por Pedro de Peralta como una capital más permanente al pie de las montañas de Sangre de Cristo en 1610. [37] : 182 Hacia fines del siglo XVII, la Rebelión Pueblo expulsó a los españoles y ocupó estas primeras ciudades durante más de una década. [38] Después de la muerte del líder Pueblo Popé , Diego de Vargas restauró el área al dominio español, [36] : 68–75 ofreciendo a los habitantes de Pueblo mayores libertades culturales y religiosas. [39] [40] [34] : 6, 48 Los colonos que regresaron fundaron La Villa de Alburquerque en 1706 en Old Town Albuquerque como un centro comercial para las comunidades circundantes existentes, como Barelas , Isleta , Los Ranchos y Sandia ; [36] : 84 Recibió su nombre en honor al virrey de la Nueva España, Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, décimo duque de Alburquerque . [41] El gobernador Francisco Cuervo y Valdés estableció la villa en Tiguex para proporcionar acceso libre al comercio y facilitar el intercambio cultural en la región.
Además de forjar mejores relaciones con los pueblos, los gobernadores fueron indulgentes en su enfoque hacia los pueblos indígenas, como fue el caso del gobernador Tomás Vélez Cachupín ; [42] las reservas comparativamente grandes en Nuevo México y Arizona son en parte un legado de los tratados españoles que reconocen los reclamos de tierras indígenas en Nuevo México. [43] Sin embargo, las relaciones entre los diversos grupos indígenas y los colonos españoles siguieron siendo nebulosas y complejas, variando desde el comercio y el comercio hasta la asimilación cultural y los matrimonios mixtos hasta la guerra total. Durante la mayor parte del siglo XVIII, las incursiones de los navajos , los apaches y, especialmente, los comanches inhibieron el crecimiento y la prosperidad de Nuevo México. El duro entorno y la lejanía de la región, rodeada de nativos americanos hostiles, fomentaron un mayor grado de autosuficiencia, así como una cooperación pragmática, entre los pueblos pueblo y los colonos. Muchas comunidades indígenas disfrutaron de una gran medida de autonomía hasta bien entrado el siglo XIX debido a la mejora de la gobernanza.
Para fomentar el asentamiento en su vulnerable periferia, España otorgó concesiones de tierras a los colonos europeos en Nuevo México; debido a la escasez de agua en toda la región, la gran mayoría de los colonos residieron en el valle central del Río Grande y sus afluentes. La mayoría de las comunidades eran enclaves amurallados que consistían en casas de adobe que se abrían a una plaza, desde la cual salían cuatro calles hacia pequeñas parcelas agrícolas privadas y huertos; estos eran regados por acequias , canales de irrigación de propiedad y operación comunitaria. Justo más allá del muro estaba el ejido , tierra comunal para pastoreo, leña o recreación. Para 1800, la población de Nuevo México había alcanzado los 25.000 (sin incluir a los habitantes indígenas), superando con creces los territorios de California y Texas. [44]
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Como parte de Nueva España, la provincia de Nuevo México se convirtió en parte del Primer Imperio Mexicano en 1821 después de la Guerra de Independencia de México . [36] : 109 Tras su secesión de México en 1836, la República de Texas reclamó la porción al este del Río Grande , basándose en la suposición errónea de que los asentamientos hispanos más antiguos del alto Río Grande eran los mismos que los asentamientos mexicanos recién establecidos de Texas. La Expedición texana de Santa Fe se lanzó para apoderarse del territorio en disputa, pero fracasó con la captura y encarcelamiento de todo el ejército por parte de la milicia hispana de Nuevo México.
A finales del siglo XIX, la parte más al noreste de Nuevo México, al norte del río Canadian y al este de la cordillera de Sangre de Cristo, todavía era reclamada por Francia, que la vendió en 1803 como parte de la Compra de Luisiana . En 1812, Estados Unidos reclasificó la tierra como parte del Territorio de Misuri . Esta región de Nuevo México (junto con el territorio que comprende el sureste de Colorado actual, los Panhandles de Texas y Oklahoma y el suroeste de Kansas ) fue cedida a España en virtud del Tratado Adams-Onis en 1819.
Cuando la Primera República Mexicana comenzó a transformarse en la República Centralista de México , comenzaron a centralizar el poder ignorando la soberanía de Santa Fe y haciendo caso omiso de los derechos territoriales de los Pueblo. Esto condujo a la Rebelión Chimayó en 1837, liderada por el genízaro José Gonzales. [45] La muerte del entonces gobernador Albino Pérez durante la revuelta fue recibida con mayor hostilidad. Aunque José Gonzales fue ejecutado debido a su participación en la muerte del gobernador, los gobernadores posteriores Manuel Armijo y Juan Bautista Vigil y Alarid estuvieron de acuerdo con algunos de los sentimientos subyacentes. Esto llevó a que Nuevo México se vinculara financiera y políticamente con los EE. UU. y prefiriera el comercio a lo largo del Camino de Santa Fe .
Tras la victoria de los Estados Unidos en la guerra entre México y Estados Unidos (1846-1848), México cedió sus territorios del norte a los EE. UU., incluidos California, Texas y Nuevo México. [36] : 132 Los estadounidenses inicialmente fueron duros en su trato a los antiguos ciudadanos mexicanos, lo que desencadenó la Rebelión de Taos en 1847 por parte de los hispanos y sus aliados Pueblo; la insurrección condujo a la muerte del gobernador territorial Charles Bent y al colapso del gobierno civil establecido por Stephen W. Kearny . En respuesta, el gobierno de los EE. UU. nombró al local Donaciano Vigil como gobernador para representar mejor a Nuevo México, [46] y también prometió aceptar los derechos territoriales de los nuevomexicanos y otorgarles la ciudadanía. En 1864, el presidente Abraham Lincoln simbolizó el reconocimiento de los derechos territoriales de los nativos con los Bastones de Lincoln, cetros de oficina otorgados a cada uno de los Pueblos, una tradición que se remonta a las épocas española y mexicana. [47] [48]
Después de que la República de Texas fuera admitida como estado en 1846, intentó reclamar la parte oriental de Nuevo México al este del Río Grande, mientras que la República de California y el Estado de Deseret reclamaron partes del oeste de Nuevo México. Bajo el Compromiso de 1850 , el gobierno de los EE. UU. obligó a estas regiones a abandonar sus reclamos, Texas recibió $ 10 millones en fondos federales, se le concedió a California la condición de estado y se estableció oficialmente el Territorio de Utah ; reconociendo así la mayoría de los reclamos de tierras históricamente establecidos de Nuevo México. [36] : 135 De conformidad con el compromiso, el Congreso estableció el Territorio de Nuevo México en septiembre de ese año; [49] incluía la mayor parte de la actual Arizona y Nuevo México, junto con el Valle de Las Vegas y lo que luego se convertiría en el Condado de Clark en Nevada .
En 1853, Estados Unidos adquirió la parte suroccidental mayoritariamente desértica del estado, junto con las tierras de Arizona al sur del río Gila, en la Compra de Gadsden , que era necesaria para el derecho de paso para fomentar la construcción de un ferrocarril transcontinental . [36] : 136
Cuando estalló la Guerra Civil de los Estados Unidos en 1861, tanto los gobiernos de la Confederación como los de la Unión reclamaron la propiedad y los derechos territoriales sobre el Territorio de Nuevo México. La Confederación reclamó la zona sur como su propio Territorio de Arizona y, como parte del Teatro Trans-Misisipi de la guerra, libró la ambiciosa Campaña de Nuevo México para controlar el suroeste de Estados Unidos y abrir el acceso a la California de la Unión. El poder confederado en el Territorio de Nuevo México quedó efectivamente roto después de la Batalla del Paso de Glorieta en 1862, aunque el gobierno territorial confederado continuó operando desde Texas. Más de 8000 soldados del Territorio de Nuevo México sirvieron en el Ejército de la Unión . [50]
El final de la guerra vio un rápido desarrollo económico y asentamiento en Nuevo México, que atrajo a colonos, rancheros, vaqueros, hombres de negocios y forajidos; [51] muchos de los personajes folclóricos del género Western tuvieron sus orígenes en Nuevo México, más notablemente la empresaria María Gertrudis Barceló , el forajido Billy the Kid y los agentes de la ley Pat Garrett y Elfego Baca . La afluencia de "angloamericanos" del este de los EE. UU. (que incluyen afroamericanos e inmigrantes europeos recientes) reformuló la economía, la cultura y la política del estado. Hasta fines del siglo XIX, la mayoría de los habitantes de Nuevo México seguían siendo mestizos étnicos de ascendencia mixta española y nativa americana (principalmente pueblo, navajo, apache, genízaro y comanche), muchos de los cuales tenían raíces que se remontan al asentamiento español en el siglo XVI; este grupo étnico claramente nuevomexicano se conoció como hispanos y desarrolló una identidad más pronunciada frente a los recién llegados anglosajones. Políticamente, todavía controlaban la mayoría de los cargos de la ciudad y del condado a través de elecciones locales, y las familias ganaderas adineradas tenían una influencia considerable, prefiriendo las relaciones comerciales, legislativas y judiciales con otros grupos indígenas de Nuevo México. Por el contrario, los angloamericanos, que eran "superados en número, pero estaban bien organizados y en aumento" [52], tendían a tener más vínculos con el gobierno territorial, cuyos funcionarios eran designados por el gobierno federal de los EE. UU.; posteriormente, los residentes más nuevos de Nuevo México generalmente favorecían mantener el estatus territorial, que veían como un control de la influencia nativa e hispana.
Una consecuencia de la guerra civil fue la intensificación del conflicto con los pueblos indígenas, que era parte de las guerras indias americanas más amplias a lo largo de la frontera. La retirada de tropas y material para el esfuerzo bélico había provocado incursiones de tribus hostiles, y el gobierno federal se movió para someter a las muchas comunidades nativas que habían sido efectivamente autónomas durante el período colonial. Después de la eliminación de la amenaza confederada, el general de brigada James Carleton , que había asumido el mando del Departamento Militar de Nuevo México en 1862, dirigió lo que describió como una "guerra despiadada contra todas las tribus hostiles" que tenía como objetivo "obligarlas a arrodillarse, y luego confinarlas en reservas donde pudieran ser cristianizadas e instruidas en agricultura". [51] Con el famoso pionero Kit Carson puesto a cargo de las tropas en el campo, poderosos grupos indígenas como los navajos , los apaches mescaleros , los kiowa y los comanches fueron brutalmente pacificados a través de una política de tierra arrasada, y luego obligados a mudarse a reservas áridas y remotas. Los conflictos esporádicos continuaron hasta finales de la década de 1880, sobre todo las campañas guerrilleras lideradas por los jefes apaches Victorio y su yerno Nana .
Los enfrentamientos políticos y culturales entre estos grupos étnicos en competencia a veces culminaron en violencia de turbas, incluidos linchamientos de pueblos nativos, hispanos y mexicanos, como se intentó en el tiroteo de Frisco en 1884. Sin embargo, figuras prominentes de todas estas comunidades, y de los partidos demócrata y republicano , intentaron luchar contra este prejuicio y forjar una identidad neomexicana más cohesionada y multiétnica; entre ellos se incluyen los representantes de la ley Baca y Garrett , y los gobernadores Curry , Hagerman y Otero . [53] [54] De hecho, algunos gobernadores territoriales, como Lew Wallace , habían servido en los ejércitos mexicano y estadounidense. [55]
El Congreso de los Estados Unidos admitió a Nuevo México como el 47.º estado el 6 de enero de 1912. [36] : 166 Había sido elegible para la condición de estado 60 años antes, pero se retrasó debido a la percepción de que su población mayoritariamente hispana era "ajena" a la cultura y los valores políticos estadounidenses. [56] Cuando Estados Unidos entró en la Primera Guerra Mundial aproximadamente cinco años después, los habitantes de Nuevo México se ofrecieron como voluntarios en cantidades significativas, en parte para demostrar su lealtad como ciudadanos de pleno derecho de los Estados Unidos. El estado ocupó el quinto lugar en la nación en cuanto a servicio militar, alistando a más de 17 000 reclutas de los 33 condados; más de 500 habitantes de Nuevo México murieron en la guerra. [57]
Las familias indígenas hispanas se habían establecido desde la era española y mexicana, [58] pero la mayoría de los colonos estadounidenses en el estado tenían una relación incómoda con las grandes tribus nativas americanas. [59] La mayoría de los indígenas de Nuevo México vivían en reservas y cerca de antiguas placitas y villas . En 1924, el Congreso aprobó una ley que otorgaba a todos los nativos americanos la ciudadanía estadounidense y el derecho a votar en las elecciones federales y estatales. Sin embargo, los recién llegados angloamericanos a Nuevo México promulgaron leyes de Jim Crow contra los hispanos, los hispanoamericanos y aquellos que no pagaban impuestos, apuntando a los individuos afiliados a los indígenas; [60] debido a que los hispanos a menudo tenían relaciones interpersonales con los pueblos indígenas, a menudo estaban sujetos a la segregación , la desigualdad social y la discriminación laboral . [59]
Durante la lucha por el sufragio femenino en los Estados Unidos , las mujeres hispanas y mexicanas de Nuevo México que estuvieron a la vanguardia incluyeron a Trinidad Cabeza de Baca, Dolores "Lola" Armijo, la Sra. James Chávez, Aurora Lucero, Anita "Mrs. Secundino" Romero, Arabella "Mrs. Cleofas" Romero y su hija, Marie. [61] [62]
En 1928, un importante descubrimiento de petróleo cerca de la ciudad de Hobbs trajo consigo una mayor riqueza al estado, especialmente al condado de Lea . [63] La Oficina de Minas y Recursos Minerales de Nuevo México lo calificó como "el descubrimiento de petróleo más importante en la historia de Nuevo México". [64] Sin embargo, la agricultura y la ganadería siguieron siendo las principales actividades económicas.
Nuevo México se transformó en gran medida con la entrada de Estados Unidos en la Segunda Guerra Mundial en diciembre de 1941. Al igual que en la Primera Guerra Mundial, el patriotismo era alto entre los habitantes de Nuevo México, incluidas las comunidades hispanas e indígenas marginadas; en términos per cápita, Nuevo México produjo más voluntarios y sufrió más bajas que cualquier otro estado. La guerra también estimuló el desarrollo económico, en particular en las industrias extractivas, y el estado se convirtió en un proveedor líder de varios recursos estratégicos. El terreno accidentado y el aislamiento geográfico de Nuevo México lo convirtieron en un lugar atractivo para varias instalaciones militares y científicas sensibles; la más famosa fue Los Álamos , una de las instalaciones centrales del Proyecto Manhattan , donde se diseñaron y fabricaron las primeras bombas atómicas . La primera bomba se probó en el sitio Trinity en el desierto entre Socorro y Alamogordo , que hoy es parte del campo de misiles White Sands . [36] : 179–180
Como legado de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Nuevo México sigue recibiendo grandes cantidades de gasto del gobierno federal en importantes instituciones militares y de investigación. Además del Campo de Misiles White Sands, el estado alberga tres bases de la Fuerza Aérea de los EE. UU. que se establecieron o ampliaron durante la guerra. Si bien la alta presencia militar trajo consigo una inversión considerable, también ha sido el centro de la controversia; el 22 de mayo de 1957, un B-36 arrojó accidentalmente una bomba nuclear a 4,5 millas de la torre de control mientras aterrizaba en la Base de la Fuerza Aérea Kirtland en Albuquerque; solo detonó su "gatillo" convencional. [65] [66] El Laboratorio Nacional de Los Álamos y los Laboratorios Nacionales Sandia , dos de las principales instalaciones de investigación científica federal del país , se originaron a partir del Proyecto Manhattan. El enfoque en la alta tecnología sigue siendo una prioridad máxima del estado, hasta el punto de que se convirtió en un centro de objetos voladores no identificados , especialmente después del incidente de Roswell de 1947 .
La población de Nuevo México casi se duplicó, pasando de aproximadamente 532.000 habitantes en 1940 a más de 954.000 en 1960. [67] [68] Además del personal y las agencias federales, muchos residentes y empresas se mudaron al estado, particularmente desde el noreste, a menudo atraídos por su clima cálido y sus bajos impuestos. [69] El patrón continúa en el siglo XXI, y Nuevo México sumó más de 400.000 residentes entre 2000 y 2020.
Los nativos americanos de Nuevo México lucharon por los Estados Unidos en ambas guerras mundiales. Los veteranos que regresaron se sintieron decepcionados al ver que sus derechos civiles estaban limitados por la discriminación estatal. En Arizona y Nuevo México, los veteranos desafiaron las leyes o prácticas estatales que les prohibían votar. En 1948, después de que el registrador del condado le dijera al veterano Miguel Trujillo Sr. de Isleta Pueblo que no podía registrarse para votar, presentó una demanda contra el condado en un tribunal federal de distrito. Un panel de tres jueces anuló por inconstitucionales las disposiciones de Nuevo México que establecían que los nativos americanos que no pagaban impuestos (y no podían documentar si habían pagado impuestos) no podían votar. [60] [Nota 3]
A principios y mediados del siglo XX, la presencia artística en Santa Fe creció y se la conoció como uno de los grandes centros artísticos del mundo. [70] La presencia de artistas como Georgia O'Keeffe atrajo a muchos otros, incluidos los que vivían a lo largo de Canyon Road . [71] A fines del siglo XX, la ley federal autorizó a los nativos americanos a establecer casinos de juego en sus reservas bajo ciertas condiciones, en los estados que habían autorizado dichos juegos. Estas instalaciones han ayudado a las tribus cercanas a los centros de población a generar ingresos para reinvertir en el desarrollo económico y el bienestar de sus pueblos. Como resultado, el área metropolitana de Albuquerque alberga varios casinos. [72]
En el siglo XXI, las áreas de crecimiento del empleo en Nuevo México incluyen circuitos electrónicos , investigación científica , tecnología de la información, casinos , arte del suroeste estadounidense , comida, cine y medios de comunicación, particularmente en Albuquerque . [73] El estado fue la ubicación fundadora de Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems , lo que llevó a la fundación de Microsoft en Albuquerque. [74] Intel mantiene su F11X en Rio Rancho , que también alberga un centro de TI para HP Inc. [75] [76] La escena culinaria de Nuevo México se hizo reconocida y ahora es una fuente de ingresos para el estado. [77] [78] [79] Albuquerque Studios se ha convertido en un centro de filmación para Netflix , y trajo compañías de producción de medios internacionales al estado como NBCUniversal . [80] [81] [82]
Se confirmó que la pandemia de COVID-19 había llegado al estado estadounidense de Nuevo México el 11 de marzo de 2020. El 23 de diciembre de 2020, el Departamento de Salud de Nuevo México informó 1174 nuevos casos de COVID-19 y 40 muertes, lo que elevó los totales acumulados en todo el estado a 133 242 casos y 2243 muertes desde el inicio de la pandemia. [83] Durante el último trimestre de 2020, las hospitalizaciones por COVID-19 en Nuevo México aumentaron y alcanzaron un pico de 947 hospitalizaciones el 3 de diciembre.
Los condados más poblados del estado han registrado la mayor cantidad de infecciones, pero a mediados de abril, los condados del noroeste de McKinley y San Juan se convirtieron en las áreas más infectadas del estado, y el condado de Sandoval también registró una alta tasa de infección. Todos estos condados tienen grandes poblaciones de nativos americanos . Según el panel de datos del estado, los indígenas estadounidenses tenían casi el 58 por ciento de las tasas de infección a nivel estatal al 15 de mayo. El 25 de abril, el condado de McKinley tuvo el mayor número total de casos, mientras que el condado de San Juan tuvo el mayor número de muertes el 26 de abril. Sin embargo, a fines de julio, los hispanos/latinos tenían una pluralidad de casos. La proporción de casos entre los indígenas estadounidenses continuó disminuyendo y, a mediados de febrero de 2021, estaba por debajo de la de los blancos. [83]
Con una superficie total de 121.590 millas cuadradas (314.900 km 2 ), [1] Nuevo México es el quinto estado más grande , después de Alaska, Texas, California y Montana. Su frontera oriental se encuentra a lo largo de la longitud 103°O con el estado de Oklahoma , y 2,2 millas (3,5 kilómetros) al oeste de la longitud 103°O con Texas debido a un error topográfico del siglo XIX. [84] [85] En la frontera sur, Texas constituye los dos tercios orientales, mientras que los estados mexicanos de Chihuahua y Sonora conforman el tercio occidental, con Chihuahua representando aproximadamente el 90% de eso. La frontera occidental con Arizona corre a lo largo de la longitud 109° 03'O . [86] La esquina suroeste del estado se conoce como Bootheel . El paralelo 37°N forma el límite norte con Colorado. Los estados de Nuevo México, Colorado, Arizona y Utah se unen en las Cuatro Esquinas en la esquina noroeste de Nuevo México. Su superficie de agua superficial es de aproximadamente 292 millas cuadradas (760 km 2 ). [1]
A pesar de su descripción popular como un desierto mayoritariamente árido, Nuevo México tiene uno de los paisajes más diversos de cualquier estado de los EE. UU., que va desde amplios desiertos de color castaño rojizo y verdes praderas , hasta mesetas quebradas y altos picos nevados. [87] Cerca de un tercio del estado está cubierto de bosques , con páramos montañosos densamente arbolados que dominan el norte. Las montañas Sangre de Cristo , la parte más meridional de las Montañas Rocosas , corren aproximadamente de norte a sur a lo largo del lado este del Río Grande , en el norte accidentado y pastoral. Las Grandes Llanuras se extienden hasta el tercio oriental del estado, sobre todo el Llano Estacado ("Llanura estacada"), cuyo límite más occidental está marcado por la escarpa Mescalero Ridge . El cuadrante noroeste de Nuevo México está dominado por la meseta de Colorado , caracterizada por formaciones volcánicas únicas, pastizales secos y matorrales, bosques abiertos de pino piñonero y enebro y bosques de montaña. [88] El desierto de Chihuahua , el más grande de América del Norte, se extiende por el sur.
Más de cuatro quintas partes de Nuevo México se encuentran a más de 1200 metros sobre el nivel del mar. La elevación promedio varía desde 2400 metros sobre el nivel del mar en el noroeste hasta menos de 1200 metros en el sureste. [87] El punto más alto es Wheeler Peak, a más de 4010 metros en las montañas Sangre de Cristo, mientras que el más bajo es el embalse Red Bluff , a unos 870 metros en la esquina sureste del estado.
Además del río Grande, que es el cuarto río más largo de los EE. UU ., Nuevo México tiene otros cuatro sistemas fluviales importantes: el Pecos , el Canadian , el San Juan y el Gila . [89] El río Grande, que casi divide Nuevo México de norte a sur, ha desempeñado un papel influyente en la historia de la región; su fértil llanura aluvial ha sustentado la habitación humana desde tiempos prehistóricos, y los colonos europeos inicialmente vivieron exclusivamente en sus valles y a lo largo de sus afluentes. [87] El Pecos, que fluye aproximadamente paralelo al río Grande en su este, era una ruta popular para los exploradores, al igual que el río Canadian, que nace en el norte montañoso y fluye hacia el este a través de las llanuras áridas. El San Juan y el Gila se encuentran al oeste de la Divisoria Continental , en el noroeste y suroeste, respectivamente. Con la excepción del Gila, todos los ríos principales están represados en Nuevo México y proporcionan una importante fuente de agua para el riego y el control de inundaciones.
Los expertos en conservación, cazadores y entusiastas de las actividades al aire libre han expresado su aprecio por el entorno natural de Nuevo México y el imparcial Departamento de Caza y Pesca de Nuevo México . [90] El autor N. Scott Momaday analizó el entorno fronterizo indígena, hispano y estadounidense de Nuevo México y su relación compartida con la tierra, [91] que se cubrió en un documental que narró titulado Remembered Earth sobre el alto desierto de Nuevo México. [92] Los grandes cazadores como Robert L. Runnels, [93] los expertos en pesca Van Beacham y Ti Piper, [94] [95] y los cazadores de patos como Si Robertson de Duck Commander , [96] han reconocido el entorno de caza y pesca de vida silvestre en Nuevo México. [97]
Nuevo México es conocido desde hace mucho tiempo por su clima seco y templado. [87] En general, el estado es semiárido a árido, con áreas de clima continental y alpino en elevaciones más altas. La precipitación media estatal de Nuevo México es de 13,7 pulgadas (350 mm) al año, con cantidades mensuales medias que alcanzan su punto máximo en verano, particularmente en la zona más accidentada del centro-norte alrededor de Albuquerque y en el sur. En general, el tercio oriental del estado recibe la mayor cantidad de lluvia, mientras que el tercio occidental recibe la menor. Las altitudes más altas reciben alrededor de 40 pulgadas (1000 mm), mientras que las elevaciones más bajas reciben tan solo entre 8 y 10 pulgadas (200 y 250 milímetros). [87]
Las temperaturas anuales pueden variar de 65 °F (18 °C) en el sureste a menos de 40 °F (4 °C) en las montañas del norte, [86] con un promedio de mediados de los 50 °F (12 °C). Durante el verano, las temperaturas diurnas a menudo pueden superar los 100 °F (38 °C) en elevaciones por debajo de los 5000 pies (1500 m); la temperatura máxima promedio en julio varía de 99 °F (37 °C) en las elevaciones más bajas hasta 78 °F (26 °C) en las elevaciones más altas. En los meses más fríos de noviembre a marzo, muchas ciudades de Nuevo México pueden tener temperaturas mínimas nocturnas de entre 10 y 15 °C o menos. La temperatura más alta registrada en Nuevo México fue de 122 °F (50 °C) en la Planta Piloto de Aislamiento de Residuos (WIPP) cerca de Loving el 27 de junio de 1994; La temperatura más baja registrada fue de -57 °F (-49 °C) en Ciniza (cerca de Jamestown ) el 13 de enero de 1963. [100]
El clima estable y la escasa población de Nuevo México proporcionan cielos más claros y menos contaminación lumínica , lo que lo convierte en un sitio popular para varios observatorios astronómicos importantes , incluido el Observatorio Apache Point , el Very Large Array y el Observatorio Magdalena Ridge , entre otros. [101] [102]
Debido a su variada topografía , Nuevo México tiene seis zonas de vegetación distintas que proporcionan diversos conjuntos de hábitats para muchas plantas y animales. [103] La Zona Alta de Sonora es por lejos la más prominente, constituyendo alrededor de las tres cuartas partes del estado; incluye la mayoría de las llanuras, estribaciones y valles por encima de los 4.500 pies, y está definida por pastos de pradera, pinos piñoneros bajos y arbustos de enebro. El Llano Estacado en el este presenta pradera de pastos cortos con grama azul , que sustenta a los bisontes . El desierto de Chihuahua en el sur se caracteriza por creosota arbustiva . La meseta de Colorado en la esquina noroeste de Nuevo México es un desierto alto con inviernos fríos, con artemisa , cochinilla , madera de grasa y otras plantas adaptadas al suelo salino y selenífero .
El norte montañoso alberga una amplia gama de tipos de vegetación que corresponden a gradientes de elevación, como bosques de piñones y enebros cerca de la base, pasando por coníferas de hoja perenne , bosques de abetos y álamos en la zona de transición, y Krummholz y tundra alpina en la parte superior. [103] La zona de Apaquia escondida en el talón sudoeste del estado tiene suelo con alto contenido de calcio, bosques de robles , cipreses de Arizona y otras plantas que no se encuentran en otras partes del estado. [104] [105] Las secciones del sur de los valles de Río Grande y Pecos tienen 20.000 millas cuadradas (52.000 kilómetros cuadrados) de las mejores tierras de pastoreo y tierras de cultivo irrigadas de Nuevo México.
Las variadas zonas climáticas y de vegetación de Nuevo México sustentan, en consecuencia, una fauna diversa. Los osos negros , los borregos cimarrones , los linces , los pumas , los ciervos y los alces viven en hábitats por encima de los 7000 pies, mientras que los coyotes , las liebres , las ratas canguro , los jabalíes , los puercoespines , los antílopes berrendos , los cascarudos occidentales y los pavos salvajes viven en regiones menos montañosas y elevadas. [106] [107] [108] El icónico correcaminos , que es el ave del estado, es abundante en el sureste. Las especies en peligro de extinción incluyen al lobo gris mexicano , que se está reintroduciendo gradualmente en el mundo, y al pececillo plateado del Río Grande . [109] Más de 500 especies de aves viven o migran a través de Nuevo México, en tercer lugar solo superado por California y México. [110]
Nuevo México y otros 12 estados occidentales juntos representan el 93% de toda la tierra de propiedad federal en los EE. UU. Aproximadamente un tercio del estado, o 24,7 millones de 77,8 millones de acres, está en manos del gobierno de los EE. UU., el décimo porcentaje más alto del país. Más de la mitad de esta tierra está bajo la Oficina de Administración de Tierras como tierras de dominio público o Tierras de Conservación Nacional , mientras que otro tercio está administrado por el Servicio Forestal de los EE . UU. como bosques nacionales . [111]
Nuevo México fue central para el movimiento conservacionista de principios del siglo XX , y Gila Wilderness fue designada la primera área silvestre del mundo en 1924. [112] El estado también alberga nueve de los 84 monumentos nacionales del país , la mayor cantidad de cualquier estado después de Arizona; estos incluyen el segundo monumento más antiguo, El Morro , que se creó en 1906, y las Gila Cliff Dwellings , proclamadas en 1907. [112]
Los parques nacionales de Nuevo México , junto con los monumentos nacionales y senderos administrados por el Servicio de Parques Nacionales , se enumeran a continuación: [113]
Los monumentos nacionales, las áreas de conservación y otras unidades del Sistema Nacional de Conservación del Paisaje de Nuevo México están gestionados por la Oficina de Gestión de Tierras . Las unidades incluyen, entre otras: [114]
Los refugios nacionales de vida silvestre de Nuevo México están administrados por el Servicio de Pesca y Vida Silvestre de los Estados Unidos . Las unidades incluyen:
Áreas administradas por la División de Parques Estatales de Nuevo México: [115] [Nota 4]
Algunos ejemplos de reservas naturales administradas localmente incluyen:
En enero de 2016, Nuevo México demandó a la Agencia de Protección Ambiental de los Estados Unidos por negligencia después del derrame de aguas residuales de la mina Gold King en 2015. El derrame había provocado que metales pesados como el cadmio y el plomo y toxinas como el arsénico fluyeran hacia el río Animas , contaminando las cuencas hidrográficas de varios estados. [119] Desde entonces, el estado ha implementado o considerado regulaciones más estrictas y sanciones más severas para los derrames asociados con la extracción de recursos. [120]
Nuevo México es un importante productor de gases de efecto invernadero . [121] Un estudio de la Universidad Estatal de Colorado mostró que la industria del petróleo y el gas del estado generó 60 millones de toneladas métricas de gases de efecto invernadero en 2018, más de cuatro veces más de lo estimado anteriormente. [121] El sector de combustibles fósiles representó más de la mitad de las emisiones generales del estado, que totalizaron 113,6 millones de toneladas métricas, aproximadamente el 1,8% del total del país y más del doble del promedio nacional per cápita. [121] [122] El gobierno de Nuevo México ha respondido con esfuerzos para regular las emisiones industriales, promover la energía renovable e incentivar el uso de vehículos eléctricos. [122] [123]
Con apenas 17 personas por milla cuadrada (6,6 personas/km 2 ), Nuevo México es uno de los estados menos densamente poblados , ocupando el puesto 45 de 50; en contraste, la densidad de población general de los EE. UU. es de 90 personas por milla cuadrada (35 personas/km 2 ). El estado está dividido en 33 condados y 106 municipios, que incluyen ciudades, pueblos, aldeas y una ciudad-condado consolidada , Los Álamos . Solo tres ciudades tienen al menos 100.000 residentes: Albuquerque, Rio Rancho y Las Cruces, cuyas respectivas áreas metropolitanas representan juntas la mayoría de la población de Nuevo México.
Los residentes se concentran en la región centro-norte de Nuevo México, con la ciudad más grande del estado, Albuquerque como punto de referencia. Centrada en el condado de Bernalillo , el área metropolitana de Albuquerque incluye la tercera ciudad más grande de Nuevo México, Rio Rancho , y tiene una población de más de 918.000 habitantes, lo que representa un tercio de todos los habitantes de Nuevo México. Está adyacente a Santa Fe , la capital y cuarta ciudad más grande. En total, el área estadística combinada de Albuquerque-Santa Fe-Los Álamos incluye más de 1,17 millones de personas, o casi el 60% de la población del estado.
El otro centro de población importante de Nuevo México se encuentra en la zona centro-sur alrededor de Las Cruces , su segunda ciudad más grande y la ciudad más grande en la región sur del estado. El área metropolitana de Las Cruces incluye aproximadamente 214.000 residentes, pero con su vecina El Paso, Texas, forma un área estadística combinada de más de 1 millón de habitantes. [124]
Nuevo México alberga 23 reservas tribales reconocidas por el gobierno federal, incluida parte de la Nación Navajo, la tribu más grande y poblada; de ellas, 11 poseen tierras fiduciarias fuera de la reserva en otras partes del estado. La gran mayoría de las tribus reconocidas por el gobierno federal se concentran en el noroeste, seguidas por la región centro-norte.
Al igual que varios otros estados del suroeste, Nuevo México alberga numerosas colonias , barrios marginales no incorporados y de bajos ingresos que se caracterizan por la pobreza extrema, la ausencia de servicios básicos (como agua y alcantarillado) y la escasez de viviendas e infraestructura. [125] La Universidad de Nuevo México estima que hay 118 colonias en el estado, aunque el Departamento de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano de los EE. UU. identifica aproximadamente 150. [126] La mayoría están ubicadas a lo largo de la frontera entre México y los EE. UU.
El censo de 2020 registró una población de 2.117.522, un aumento del 2,8% con respecto a los 2.059.179 del censo de 2010. [ 128] Esta fue la tasa de crecimiento más baja en el oeste de EE. UU. después de Wyoming, y una de las más lentas a nivel nacional. [129] En comparación, entre 2000 y 2010, la población de Nuevo México aumentó un 11,7% desde 1.819.046, una de las tasas de crecimiento más rápidas del país. [130] Un informe encargado en 2021 por la Legislatura de Nuevo México atribuyó el lento crecimiento del estado a una tasa de migración neta negativa , particularmente entre los menores de 18 años, y a una disminución del 19% en la tasa de natalidad. [129] Sin embargo, el crecimiento entre los hispanos y los nativos americanos se mantuvo saludable. [131]
La Oficina del Censo de Estados Unidos estimó una ligera disminución de la población, con 3.333 personas menos entre julio de 2021 y julio de 2022. [132] Esto se atribuyó a que las muertes superaron a los nacimientos en aproximadamente 5.000, y la migración neta mitigó la pérdida en 1.389. [132]
Más de la mitad de los habitantes de Nuevo México (51,4%) nacieron en el estado; el 37,9% nació en otro estado; el 1,1% nació en Puerto Rico, un territorio insular , o en el extranjero de al menos un padre estadounidense; y el 9,4% nació en el extranjero (en comparación con un promedio nacional de aproximadamente el 12%). [133] Casi una cuarta parte de la población (22,7%) tenía menos de 18 años, y la edad media del estado de 38,4 años es ligeramente superior al promedio nacional de 38,2. La población algo mayor de Nuevo México refleja en parte su popularidad entre los jubilados: se clasificó como el destino de jubilación más popular en 2018, [134] con un estimado del 42% de los nuevos residentes jubilados. [135]
Los hispanos y latinos constituyen casi la mitad de todos los residentes (49,3%), lo que le da a Nuevo México la mayor proporción de ascendencia hispana entre los cincuenta estados. Esta amplia clasificación incluye a los descendientes de los colonizadores españoles que se establecieron entre los siglos XVI y XVIII, así como a los inmigrantes recientes de América Latina (en particular, México y América Central).
Entre 2000 y 2010, el número de personas en situación de pobreza aumentó a 400.779, o aproximadamente una quinta parte de la población. [130] El censo de 2020 registró una tasa de pobreza ligeramente reducida del 18,2%, aunque la tercera más alta entre los estados de EE. UU., en comparación con un promedio nacional del 10,5%. La pobreza afecta desproporcionadamente a las minorías, ya que aproximadamente un tercio de los afroamericanos y los nativos americanos viven en la pobreza, en comparación con menos de una quinta parte de los blancos y aproximadamente una décima parte de los asiáticos; asimismo, Nuevo México ocupa el puesto 49 entre los estados en cuanto a igualdad educativa por raza y el 32 por su brecha racial en ingresos. [136]
La población de Nuevo México es una de las más difíciles de contar, según el Centro de Investigación Urbana de la Universidad de la Ciudad de Nueva York , debido al tamaño del estado, la escasa población y las numerosas comunidades aisladas. [129] Asimismo, la Oficina del Censo estimó que aproximadamente el 43% de la población del estado (alrededor de 900.000 personas) vive en esas áreas "difíciles de contar". [129] En respuesta, el gobierno de Nuevo México invirtió mucho en divulgación pública para aumentar la participación en el censo, lo que resultó en un recuento final que superó las estimaciones anteriores y superó a varios estados vecinos. [137]
Según el Informe Anual de Evaluación de Personas sin Hogar de 2022 del HUD , se estima que había 2.560 personas sin hogar en Nuevo México. [138] [139]
La mayoría de los nacimientos vivos en Nuevo México son de hijos de hispanos blancos, y los hispanos de cualquier raza representan consistentemente más de la mitad de todos los nacimientos vivos desde 2013.
Nuevo México es uno de los siete estados de "mayoría-minoría" donde los blancos no hispanos constituyen menos de la mitad de la población. [150] Ya en 1940, se estimaba que aproximadamente la mitad de la población era no blanca. [151] Antes de convertirse en estado en 1912, Nuevo México estaba entre los pocos territorios estadounidenses que eran predominantemente no blancos, lo que contribuyó a su admisión tardía en la Unión. [152]
El grupo étnico más grande son los hispanos y latinoamericanos ; según el censo de 2020, representan casi la mitad de la población del estado, con un 47,7%; incluyen a los hispanos descendientes de los colonos preestadounidenses y sucesiones más recientes de mexicoamericanos . [153]
Nuevo México tiene la cuarta comunidad indígena más grande de Estados Unidos, con más de 200.000 personas; comprende aproximadamente una décima parte de todos los residentes, esta es la segunda población más grande por porcentaje después de Alaska. [154] [155] Nuevo México es también el único estado además de Alaska donde los indígenas han mantenido una proporción estable de la población durante más de un siglo: en 1890, los indígenas americanos constituían el 9,4% de la población de Nuevo México, casi el mismo porcentaje que en 2020. [156] Por el contrario, durante ese mismo período, el vecino Arizona pasó de un tercio de indígenas a menos del 5%. [156]
La población de Nuevo México está formada por muchos grupos indohispanos mestizos , incluidos hispanos de ascendencia oasisamericana y mexicano-americanos indígenas con ascendencia mesoamericana . [157] [158]
Según la Encuesta sobre la comunidad estadounidense de 2022 , [163] [164] [165] los grupos de ascendencia más comúnmente declarados en Nuevo México fueron:
Los datos del censo de 2020 revelaron que el 19,9 % de la población se identifica como multirracial/mestiza, una población mayor que los grupos poblacionales nativos americanos, negros, asiáticos y NHPI. [162] Casi el 90 % de la población multirracial de Nuevo México se identifica como hispana o latina. [166]
Un poco más del 9% de los residentes de Nuevo México nacieron en el extranjero, y un 6,0% adicional de los residentes nacidos en Estados Unidos viven con al menos un padre inmigrante. [167] La proporción de residentes nacidos en el extranjero está por debajo del promedio nacional del 13,7%, y Nuevo México fue el único estado que vio una disminución en su población inmigrante entre 2012 y 2022. [168]
En 2018, los principales países de origen de los inmigrantes de Nuevo México fueron México, Filipinas , India, Alemania y Cuba . [169] En 2021, la gran mayoría de los inmigrantes en el estado provenían de México (67,6%), seguido de Filipinas (3,1%) y Alemania (2,4%). [167]
A pesar de su población relativamente pequeña, los inmigrantes desempeñan un papel desproporcionadamente grande en la economía de Nuevo México, representando casi una octava parte (12,5%) de la fuerza laboral, el 15% de los empresarios y el 19,1% de los asistentes de cuidado personal, así como el 9,1% de los trabajadores en los campos STEM. [167]
New Mexico ranks third after California and Texas in the number of multilingual residents.[170] According to the 2010 U.S. census, 28.5% of the population age 5 and older speak Spanish at home, while 3.5% speak Navajo.[171] Some speakers of New Mexican Spanish are descendants of pre-18th century Spanish settlers.[172] Contrary to popular belief, New Mexican Spanish is not an archaic form of 17th-century Castilian Spanish; though some archaic elements exist, linguistic research has determined that the dialect "is neither more Iberian nor more archaic" than other varieties spoken in the Americas.[173][174] Nevertheless, centuries of isolation during the colonial period insulated the New Mexican dialect from "standard" Spanish, leading to the preservation of older vocabulary as well as its own innovations.[175][176]
Besides Navajo, which is also spoken in Arizona, several other Native American languages are spoken by smaller groups in New Mexico, most of which are endemic to the state. Native New Mexican languages include Mescalero Apache, Jicarilla Apache, Tewa, Southern Tiwa, Northern Tiwa, Towa, Keres (Eastern and Western), and Zuni. Mescalero and Jicarilla Apache are closely related Southern Athabaskan languages, and both are also related to Navajo. Tewa, the Tiwa languages, and Towa belong to the Kiowa-Tanoan language family, and thus all descend from a common ancestor. Keres and Zuni are language isolates with no relatives outside of New Mexico.
New Mexico's original state constitution of 1911 required all laws be published in both English and Spanish for twenty years after ratification;[177] this requirement was renewed in 1931 and 1943,[178] with some sources stating the state was officially bilingual until 1953.[179] Nonetheless, the current constitution does not declare any language "official".[180] While Spanish was permitted in the legislature until 1935, all state officials are required to have a good knowledge of English; consequently, some analysts argue that New Mexico cannot be considered a bilingual state, since not all laws are published in both languages.[178]
However, the state legislature remains constitutionally empowered to publish laws in English and Spanish and to appropriate funds for translation. Whenever a referendum to approve an amendment to the New Mexican constitution is held, the ballots must be printed in both English and Spanish.[181] Certain legal notices must be published in both English and Spanish as well, and the state maintains a list of newspapers for Spanish publication.[182]
With regard to the judiciary, witnesses and defendants have the right to testify in either of the two languages, and monolingual speakers of Spanish have the same right to be considered for jury duty as do speakers of English.[180][183] In public education, the state has the constitutional obligation to provide bilingual education and Spanish-speaking instructors in school districts where the majority of students are Hispanophone.[180] The constitution also provides that all state citizens who speak neither English nor Spanish have a right to vote, hold public office, and serve on juries.[184]
In 1989, New Mexico became the first of only four states to officially adopt the English Plus resolution, which supports acceptance of non-English languages.[185] In 1995, the state adopted an official bilingual song, "New Mexico – Mi Lindo Nuevo México".[186]: 75, 81 In 2008, New Mexico was the first state to officially adopt a Navajo textbook for use in public schools.[187]
Religious self-identification, per Public Religion Research Institute's 2022 American Values Survey[188]
Like most U.S. states, New Mexico is predominantly Christian, with Roman Catholicism and Protestantism each constituting roughly a third of the population. According to Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), the largest denominations in 2010 were the Catholic Church (684,941 members); the Southern Baptist Convention (113,452); The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (67,637), and the United Methodist Church (36,424).[189] Approximately one-fifth of residents are unaffiliated with any religion, which includes atheists, agnostics, deists. A 2020 study by the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) determined 67% of the population were Christian, with Roman Catholics constituting the largest denominational group.[190] In 2022, the PRRI estimated 63% of the population were Christian.[191]
Roman Catholicism is deeply rooted in New Mexico's history and culture, going back to its settlement by the Spanish in the early 17th century. The oldest Christian church in the continental U.S., and the third oldest in any U.S. state or territory, is the San Miguel Mission in Santa Fe, which was built in 1610. Within the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, New Mexico belongs to the ecclesiastical province of Santa Fe. The state has three ecclesiastical districts:[192] the Archdiocese of Santa Fe, the Diocese of Gallup, and the Diocese of Las Cruces.[193] Evangelicalism and nondenominational Christianity have seen growth in the state since the late 20th century: The Billy Graham Evangelistic Association has hosted numerous events in New Mexico,[194][195] and Albuquerque has several megachurches, which have numerous satellite locations in the state, including Calvary of Albuquerque, Legacy Church, and Sagebrush Church.[196]
New Mexico has been a leading center of the New Age movement since at least the 1960s, attracting adherents from across the country.[197] The state's "thriving New Age network" encompasses various schools of alternative medicine, Holistic Health, psychic healing, and new religions, as well as festivals, pilgrimage sites, spiritual retreats, and communes.[198][199] New Mexico's Japanese American community has influenced the state's religious heritage, with Shinto and Zen represented by Kagyu Shenpen Kunchab, Kōbun Chino Otogawa, Upaya Institute and Zen Center.[200] Likewise, Holism is represented in New Mexico, as are associated faiths such as Buddhism and Seventh-day Adventism;[201][202] a Tibetan Buddhist temple is located at Zuni Mountain Stupa in Grants.
Religious education, art, broadcasting, media exist across religions and faiths in New Mexico, including KHAC, KXXQ, Dar al-Islam, and Intermountain Jewish News. Christian schools in New Mexico are encouraged to receive educational accreditation, and among them are the University of the Southwest, St. Pius High School, Hope Christian, Sandia View Academy, St. Michael's High School, Las Cruces Catholic School, St. Bonaventure Indian School, and Rehoboth Christian School. Albuquerque's growing media sector has made it a popular hub for several national Christian media institutions, such as Trinity Broadcasting Network's KNAT-TV. Christian artistic expression includes the gospel tradition within New Mexico music,[203] and contemporary Christian music such as KLYT radio station.[204] Several indigenous and Christian religious sites are registered and protected as part of regional and global cultural heritage.[205][206]
Reflecting centuries of successive migrations and settlements, New Mexico has developed a distinct syncretic folk religion that is centered on Puebloan traditions and Hispano folk Catholicism, with some elements of Diné Bahaneʼ, Apache, Protestant, and Evangelical faiths.[207] This unique religious tradition is sometimes referred to as "Pueblo Christianity" or "Placita Christianity", referring to both the Pueblos and Hispanic town squares.[208] Customs and practices include the maintenance of acequias,[209] Pueblo and Territorial Style churches,[209] ceremonial dances such as the matachines,[210][211] religious artistic expression of kachinas and santos,[212] religious holidays celebrating saints such as Pueblo Feast Days,[213] Christmas traditions of bizcochitos and farolitos or luminarias,[214][215] and pilgrimages like that of El Santuario de Chimayo.[216] The luminaria tradition is a cultural hallmark of the Pueblos and Hispanos of New Mexico and a part of the state's distinct heritage. The luminaria custom has spread nationwide, both as a Christmas tradition as well as for other events. New Mexico's distinctive faith tradition is believed to reflect the religious naturalism of the state's indigenous and Hispano peoples, who constitute a pseudo ethnoreligious group.[217]
New Mexico's leadership within otherwise disparate traditions such as Christianity, the Native American Church, and New Age movements has been linked to its remote and ancient indigenous spirituality, which emphasized sacred connections to nature, and its over 300 years of syncretized Pueblo and Hispano religious and folk customs.[197][198] The state's remoteness has likewise been cited as attracting and fostering communities seeking the freedom to practice or cultivate new beliefs.[198] Global spiritual leaders including Billy Graham and Dalai Lama, along with community leaders of Hispanic and Latino Americans and indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest, have remarked on New Mexico being a sacred space.[218][219][220]
According to a 2017 survey by the Pew Research Center, New Mexico ranks 18th among the 50 U.S. states in religiosity, 63% of respondents stating they believe in God with certainty, with an additional 20% being fairly certain of the existence of God, while 59% considering religion to be important in their lives and another 20% believe it to be somewhat important.[221] Among its population in 2022, 31% were unaffiliated.[191]
Oil and gas production, the entertainment industry, high tech scientific research, tourism, and government spending are important drivers of the state economy.[222] The state government has an elaborate system of tax credits and technical assistance to promote job growth and business investment, especially in new technologies.[223]
As of 2021, New Mexico's gross domestic product was over $95 billion,[224] compared to roughly $80 billion in 2010.[225] State GDP peaked in 2019 at nearly $99 billion but declined in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, the per capita personal income was slightly over $45,800, compared to $31,474 in 2007;[226] it was the third lowest in the country after West Virginia and Mississippi.[227] The percentage of persons below the poverty level has largely plateaued in the 21st century, from 18.4% in 2005 to 18.2% in 2021.[228][229]
Traditionally dependent on resource extraction, ranching, and railroad transportation, New Mexico has increasingly shifted towards services, high-end manufacturing, and tourism.[230][231] Since 2017, the state has seen a steady rise in the number of annual visitors, culminating in a record-breaking 39.2 million tourists in 2021, which had a total economic income of $10 billion.[232] New Mexico has also seen greater investment in media and scientific research.
New Mexico is the second largest crude oil and ninth largest natural gas producer in the United States;[233] it overtook North Dakota in oil production in July 2021 and is expected to continue expanding.[234] The Permian and San Juan Basins, which are located partly in New Mexico, account for some of these natural resources. In 2000 the value of oil and gas produced was $8.2 billion,[235] and in 2006, New Mexico accounted for 3.4% of the crude oil, 8.5% of the dry natural gas, and 10.2% of the natural gas liquids produced in the United States.[236] However, the boom in hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling since the mid-2010s led to a large increase in the production of crude oil from the Permian Basin and other U.S. sources; these developments allowed the United States to again become the world's largest producer of crude oil by 2018.[237][238][239][240] New Mexico's oil and gas operations contribute to the state's above-average release of the greenhouse gas methane, including from a national methane hot spot in the Four Corners area.[241][242][243][244]
In common with other states in the Western U.S., New Mexico receives royalties from the sale of federally owned land to oil and gas companies.[245] It has the highest proportion of federal land with oil and gas, as well as the most lucrative: since the last amendment to the U.S. Mineral Leasing Act in 1987, New Mexico had by far the lowest percent of land sold for the minimum statutory amount of $2 per acre, at just 3%; by contrast, all of Arizona's federal land was sold at the lowest rate, followed by Oregon at 98% and Nevada at 84%.[245] The state had the fourth-highest total acreage sold to the oil and gas industry, at about 1.1 million acres, and the second-highest number of acres currently leased fossil fuel production, at 4.3 million acres, after Wyoming's 9.2 million acres; only 11 percent of these lands, or 474,121 acres, are idle, which is the lowest among Western states.[245] Nevertheless, New Mexico has had recurring disputes and discussions with the U.S. government concerning management and revenue rights over federal land.[246]
Reflecting the artistic traditions of the American Southwest, New Mexican art has its origins in the folk arts of the indigenous and Hispanic peoples in the region. Pueblo pottery, Navajo rugs, and Hispano religious icons like kachinas and santos are recognized in the global art world.[247] Georgia O'Keeffe's presence brought international attention to the Santa Fe art scene, and today the city has several notable art establishments and many commercial art galleries along Canyon Road.[248] As the birthplace of William Hanna, and the residence of Chuck Jones, the state also connections to the animation industry.[249][250]
New Mexico provides financial incentives for film production, including tax credits valued at 25–40% of eligible in-state spending.[251][252] A program enacted in 2019 provides benefits to media companies that commit to investing in the state for at least a decade and that use local talent, crew, and businesses.[253] According to the New Mexico Film Office, in 2022, film and television expenditures reached the highest recorded level at over $855 million, compared to $624 million the previous year.[254] During fiscal years 2020–2023, the total direct economic impact from the film tax credit was $2.36 million. In 2018, Netflix chose New Mexico for its first U.S. production hub, pledging to spend over $1 billion over the next decade to create one of the largest film studios in North America at Albuquerque Studios.[255] NBCUniversal followed suit in 2021 with the opening of its own television film studio in the city, committing to spend $500 million in direct production and employ 330 full-time equivalent local jobs over the next decade.[253] Albuquerque is consistently recognized by MovieMaker magazine as one of the top "big cities" in North America to live and work as a filmmaker, and the only city to earn No. 1 for four consecutive years (2019–2022); in 2024, it placed second, after Toronto.[256]
Country music record labels have a presence in the state, following the former success of Warner Western.[257][258][259][260][261] During the 1950s to 1960s, Glen Campbell, The Champs, Johnny Duncan, Carolyn Hester, Al Hurricane, Waylon Jennings, Eddie Reeves, and JD Souther recorded on equipment by Norman Petty at Clovis. Norman Petty's recording studio was a part of the rock and roll and rockabilly movement of the 1950s, with the distinctive "Route 66 Rockabilly" stylings of Buddy Holly and The Fireballs.[262] Albuquerque has been referred to as the "Chicano Nashville" due to the popularity of regional Mexican and Western music artists from the region.[263] A heritage style of country music, called New Mexico music, is widely popular throughout the southwestern U.S.; outlets for these artists include the radio station KANW, Los 15 Grandes de Nuevo México music awards, and Al Hurricane Jr. hosts Hurricane Fest to honor his father's music legacy.[264][265][266]
New Mexico is part of the larger Rio Grande Technology Corridor, an emerging alternative to Silicon Valley[267] consisting of clusters of science and technology institutions stretching from southwestern Colorado to the Gulf of Mexico.[268] The constituent New Mexico Technology Corridor, centered primarily around Albuquerque, hosts a constellation of high technology and scientific research entities, which include federal facilities such as Sandia National Laboratories, Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Very Large Array; private companies such as Intel, HP, and Facebook; and academic institutions such as the University of New Mexico (UNM), New Mexico State University (NMSU), and New Mexico Tech.[269][270][76][271][272] Most of these entities form part of an "ecosystem" that links their researchers and resources with private capital, often through initiatives of local, state, and federal governments.[273]
New Mexico has been a science and technology hub since at least the mid-20th century, following heavy federal government investment during the Second World War. Los Alamos was the site of Project Y, the laboratory responsible for designing and developing the world's first atomic bomb for the Manhattan Project. Horticulturist Fabián García developed several new varieties of peppers and other crops at what is now NMSU, which is also a leading space grant college. Robert H. Goddard, credited with ushering the space age, conducted many of his early rocketry tests in Roswell. Astronomer Clyde Tombaugh of Las Cruces discovered Pluto in neighboring Arizona. Personal computer company MITS, which was founded in Albuquerque in 1969, brought about the "microcomputer revolution" with the development of the first commercially successful microcomputer, the Altair 8800; two of its employees, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, later founded Microsoft in the city in 1975.[274][275][276] Multinational technology company Intel, which has had operations in Rio Rancho since 1980, opened its Fab 9 factory in the city in January 2024, part of its commitment to invest $3.5 billion in expanding its operations in the state; it is the company's first high-volume semiconductor operation and the only U.S. factory producing the world's most advanced packaging solutions at scale.[277]
The New Mexican government has aimed to develop the state into a major center for technology startups, namely through financial incentives and public-private partnerships.[273] The bioscience sector has experienced particularly robust growth, beginning with the 2013 opening of a BioScience Center in Albuquerque, the state's first private incubator for biotechnology startups; New Mexicans have since founded roughly 150 bioscience companies, which have received more patents than any other sector.[223] In 2017, New Mexico established the Bioscience Authority to foster local industry development; the following year, pharmaceutical company Curia built two large facilities in Albuquerque, and in 2022 announced plans to invest $100 million to expand local operations.[223] The state is also positioning itself to play a leading role in developing quantum computing, quantum dot, and clean energy technologies.[278][279]
New Mexico's high altitude, generally clear skies, and sparse population have long fostered astronomical and aerospace activities, beginning with the ancient observatories of the Chaco Canyon culture; the "Space Triangle" between Roswell, Alamogordo, and Las Cruces has seen the highest concentration rocket tests and launches.[280] New Mexico is sometimes considered the birthplace of the U.S. space program, beginning with Goddard's design of the first liquid fuel rocket in Roswell in the 1930s.[281] The first rocket to reach space flew from White Sands Missile Range in 1948, and both NASA and the Department of Defense continue to develop and test rockets there and at the adjacent Holloman Air Force Base.[280] New Mexico has also become a major center for private space flight, hosting the world's first purpose-built commercial spaceport, Spaceport America, which anchors several major aerospace companies and associated contractors, most notably Branson's Virgin Galactic.[282]
In November 2022, the New Mexico State Investment Council, which manages that state's $38 billion sovereign wealth fund, announced it would commit $100 million towards America's Frontier Fund (AFF), a new venture capital firm that will focus on advanced technologies such as microelectronics and semiconductors, advanced manufacturing, artificial intelligence, new energy sources, synthetic biology and quantum sciences.[283]
Although much of its land is arid, New Mexico has hosted a variety of agricultural activities for at least 2,500 years, centered mostly on the Rio Grande and its tributaries. This is helped by its long history of acequias, along with other farming and ranching methods within New Mexico. It is regulated by the New Mexico Department of Agriculture, specialty areas include various cash crops, cattle ranching, farming, game and fish.
Agriculture contributes $40 billion to New Mexico's economy and employs nearly 260,000 people. As of 2023, the state exports $275 million in agricultural goods and ranks first nationwide in the production of chile peppers, second in pecans, and fifth in onions.[284]
The state vegetables are New Mexico chile peppers and pinto beans, with the former being the most famous and valuable crop. According to the 2017 Census of Agriculture, New Mexico ranked first in the nation for chile pepper acreage, with Doña Ana and Luna counties placing first and second among U.S. counties in this regard.[285] New Mexico chile sold close to $40 million in 2021, while dry beans accounted for $7.6 million that year. New Mexico is one of the few states commercially producing pistachios, and its piñon harvest (pine nut) is a protected commodity.[286][287][288][289]
Dairy is the state's largest commodity, with sales of milk alone totaling $1.3 billion.[285] Dean Foods owns the Creamland brand in New Mexico, the brand was originally founded in 1937 to expand a cooperative dairy venture known as the Albuquerque Dairy Association.[290] Southwest Cheese Company in Clovis is the among largest cheese production facilities in the United States.[291][292]
Caballero history among the indigenous and Hispano communities in New Mexico have resulted in large-scale ranch lands throughout the state, most of which are within historically Apache, Navajo, Pueblo, and Spanish land grants.[293] Wild game and fish found in the state include Rio Grande cutthroat trout, rainbow trout, crawdads, and venison.
Restaurant chains originating in the state include Blake's Lotaburger, Boba Tea Company, Dion's Pizza, Little Anita's, Mac's Steak in the Rough, and Twisters; many specialize in New Mexican cuisine. Some companies like Allsup's gas stations have consumer foods, like chimichangas.[294]
New Mexico's distinctive culture, rich artistic scene, favorable climate, and diverse geography have long been major drivers of tourism. As early as 1880, the state was a major destination for travelers suffering from respiratory illnesses (particularly tuberculosis), with its altitude and aridity believed to be beneficial to the lungs.[295] Since the mid aughts, New Mexico has seen a steady rise in annual visitors, welcoming a record-breaking 39.2 million tourists in 2021.[232]
New Mexico's unique culinary scene has garnered increasing national attention, including numerous James Beard Foundation Awards.[296] The state has been featured in major travel television shows such as Diners, Drive-Ins and Dives, Anthony Bourdain: Parts Unknown, Man v. Food Nation, and others. Outdoor recreation in the area is fueled by a variety of internationally recognized nature reserves, public parks, ski resorts, hiking trails, and hunting and fishing areas.
New Mexico's government is actively involved in promoting tourism, launching the nation's first state publication, New Mexico Magazine, in 1923.[297] The New Mexico Tourism Department administers the magazine and is also responsible for the New Mexico True campaign.
Federal government spending is a major driver of the New Mexico economy. In 2021, the federal government spent $2.48 on New Mexico for every dollar of tax revenue collected from the state, higher than every state except Kentucky.[298] The same year, New Mexico received $9,624 per resident in federal services, or roughly $20 billion more than what the state pays in federal taxes.[299] The state governor's office estimated that the federal government spends roughly $7.8 billion annually in services such as healthcare, infrastructure development, and public welfare.[129]
Federal employees make up 3.4% of New Mexico's labor force.[245] Many federal jobs in the state relate to the military: the state hosts three air force bases (Kirtland Air Force Base, Holloman Air Force Base, and Cannon Air Force Base); a testing range (White Sands Missile Range); and an army proving ground (Fort Bliss's McGregor Range). A 2005 study by New Mexico State University estimated that 11.7% of the state's total employment arises directly or indirectly from military spending.[300] New Mexico is also home to two major federal research institutions: the Los Alamos National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories. The former alone accounts for 24,000 direct and indirect jobs and over $3 billion in annual federal investment as of 2019.[301]
New Mexico provides a number of economic incentives to businesses operating in the state, including various types of tax credits and tax exemptions. Most incentives are based on job creation: state and local governments are permitted to provide land, buildings, and infrastructure to businesses that will generate employment.[302] Several municipalities impose an Economic Development Gross receipts tax (a form of Municipal Infrastructure GRT) to pay for these infrastructure improvements and for marketing their areas.[303]
The New Mexico Finance Authority operates the New Market Tax Credits (NMTC) to provide greater access to financing for new, expanding, or relocating businesses in "highly distressed" areas (defined by metrics such as poverty above 30% and median family income below 60% of the statewide median).[304]
New Mexico is one of the largest tax havens in the U.S., offering numerous economic incentives and tax breaks on personal and corporate income.[305][306] It does not levy taxes on inheritance, estate, or sales.[307][308] Personal income tax rates range from 1.7% to 5.9% within five income brackets;[309] the top marginal rate was increased from 4.9% in 2021 per a 2019 law.[310] Active-duty military salaries are exempt from state income tax, as is income earned by Native American members of federally recognized tribes on tribal land.[311]
New Mexico imposes a Gross Receipts Tax (GRT) on many transactions, which may even include some governmental receipts. This resembles a sales tax but, unlike the sales taxes in many states, it applies to services as well as tangible goods. Normally, the provider or seller passes the tax on to the purchaser; however, legal incidence and burden apply to the business, as an excise tax. GRT is imposed by the state and by some counties and municipalities.[312] As of 2021, the combined tax rate ranged from 5.125% to 9.063%.[313]
Property tax is imposed on real property by the state, by counties, and by school districts. In general, personal use personal property is not subject to property taxation. On the other hand, property tax is levied on most business-use personal property. The taxable value of property is one-third the assessed value. A tax rate of about 30 mills is applied to the taxable value, resulting in an effective tax rate of about 1%. In the 2005 tax year, the average millage was about 26.47 for residential property, and 29.80 for non-residential property. Assessed values of residences cannot be increased by more than 3% per year unless the residence is remodeled or sold. Property tax deductions are available for military veterans and heads of household.[314]
A 2021 analysis by the nonprofit Tax Foundation placed New Mexico 23rd in business tax climate; its property taxes were found to be the least burdensome in the U.S., while taxation for unemployment insurance and on corporations each ranked as the ninth least burdensome.[315]
New Mexico is one of the poorest states in the U.S. and has long struggled with poverty.[316] Its poverty rate of roughly 18% is among the highest in the country, exceeded only by Louisiana and Mississippi. In 2017, nearly 30% of New Mexico's children were in poverty, which is 40% higher than the national average.[136] The majority of births (54%) were financed by Medicaid, a federal healthcare program for the poor, the third highest of any state.[317] As of May 2021, around 44% of residents were enrolled in Medicaid.
New Mexico ranks 39th in the share of households with more than $1 million in wealth (5%), and among fourteen states without a Fortune 500 company.[318] The state has a relatively high level of income disparity, with a Gini coefficient of 0.4769, albeit below the national average of 0.486. Household income is slightly less than $47,000, which is the fourth lowest in the U.S. The unemployment rate for June 2021 is 7.9%, tied with Connecticut as the highest in the country, and close to the peak of 8.0% for June–October 2010, following the 2007–2008 financial crisis.[319]
The New Mexico government has enacted several policies to address chronic poverty, including approving a minimum wage increase in January 2021 and requiring paid sick leave.[316] The state's minimum wage of $10.50 is higher than that of the federal government and 34 other states;[320] it is set to increase to $11.50 on January 1, 2022, and $12.00 on January 1, 2023.[321] Additionally, counties and municipalities have set their own minimum wages; Santa Fe County enacted a "Living Wage Ordinance" on March 1, 2021, mandating $12.32.[322]
The New Mexico Legislature is considering implementing a statewide guaranteed basic income program targeting poorer residents; if enacted, it would be only the second U.S. state after California with such a policy.[323] In August 2021, Santa Fe announced a one-year pilot program that would provide a "stability stipend" of $400 monthly to 100 parents under the age of 30 who attend Santa Fe Community College;[324] the results of the program will determine whether the state government follows suit with its own basic income proposals.[325][316] Las Cruces, the state's second largest city, is officially discussing the enactment of a similar program.[325]
New Mexico has long been an important corridor for trade and migration. The builders of the ruins at Chaco Canyon also created a radiating network of roads from the mysterious settlement.[326] Chaco Canyon's trade function shifted to Casas Grandes in the present-day Mexican state of Chihuahua; however, north–south trade continued. The pre-Columbian trade with Mesoamerican cultures included northbound exotic birds, seashells and copper. Turquoise, pottery, and salt were some of the goods transported south along the Rio Grande. Present-day New Mexico's pre-Columbian trade is especially remarkable for being undertaken on foot. The north–south trade route later became a path for horse-drawn colonists arriving from New Spain as well as trade and communication; later called El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, it was among the four "royal roads" that were crucial lifelines to Spanish colonial possessions in North America.[327]
The Santa Fe Trail was the 19th-century territory's vital commercial and military highway link to the Eastern United States.[328] All with termini in Northern New Mexico, the Camino Real, the Santa Fe Trail and the Old Spanish Trail are all recognized as National Historic Trails. New Mexico's latitude and low passes made it an attractive east–west transportation corridor.[329] As a territory, the Gadsden Purchase increased New Mexico's land area for the purpose of constructing a southern transcontinental railroad, that of the Southern Pacific Railroad. Another transcontinental railroad was completed by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. The railroads essentially replaced the earlier trails but prompted a population boom. Early transcontinental auto trails later crossed the state, bringing more migrants. Railroads were later supplemented or replaced by a system of highways and airports. Today, New Mexico's Interstate Highways approximate the earlier land routes of the Camino Real, the Santa Fe Trail and the transcontinental railroads.
Personal automobiles remain the primary means of transportation for most New Mexicans, especially in rural areas.[123] The state had 59,927 route miles of highway as of 2000[update], of which 7,037 receive federal aid.[330] In that same year there were 1,003 miles (1,614 km) of freeways, of which a thousand were the route miles of Interstate Highways 10, 25 and 40.[331] The former number has increased with the upgrading of roads near Pojoaque, Santa Fe and Las Cruces to freeways. Notable bridges include the Rio Grande Gorge Bridge near Taos. Larger cities in New Mexico typically have some form of public transportation by road; ABQ RIDE is the largest such system in the state.[332] Rural and intercity public transportation by road is provided by Americanos USA, LLC, Greyhound Lines and several government operators.
New Mexico is plagued by poor road conditions, with roughly a third of its roadways suffering from "inadequate state and local funding".[333] As of 2001[update], 703 highway bridges, or one percent, were declared "structurally deficient" or "structurally obsolete".[334] Data from 2019 found 207 bridges and more than 3,822 miles of highway in less than subpar condition, resulting in greater commute times and higher costs in vehicles maintenance.[335]
New Mexico has historically had a problem with drunk driving, though this has lessened: According to the Los Angeles Times, the state once had the nation's highest alcohol-related crash rates but ranked 25th in this regard by July 2009.[336] The highway traffic fatality rate was 1.9 per million miles traveled in 2000, the 13th highest rate among U.S. states.[337] A 2022 report cited poor road as a major factor in New Mexico's continually high traffic fatalities; between 2015 and 2019, close 1,900 people were killed in automotive crashes in the state.[333]
New Mexico has only three Interstate Highways: Interstate 10 travels southwest from the Arizona state line near Lordsburg to the area between Las Cruces and Anthony, near El Paso, Texas; Interstate 25 is a major north–south interstate highway starting from Las Cruces to the Colorado state line near Raton; and Interstate 40 is a major east–west interstate highway starting from the Arizona state line west of Gallup to the Texas state line east from Tucumcari. In Albuquerque, I-25 and I-40 meet at a stack interchange called The Big I. The state is tied with Delaware, North Dakota, Puerto Rico, and Rhode Island in having the fewest primary interstate routes, which is partly a reflection of its rugged geography and sparse population.[338]
New Mexico currently has 15 United States Highways, which account for over 2,980 miles (4,800 km) of its highway system. All but seven of its 33 counties are served by U.S. routes, with most of the remainder connected by Interstate Highways. Most routes were built in 1926 by the state government and are still managed and maintained by state or local authorities. The longest is U.S. 70, which spans over 448 miles (721 km) across southern New Mexico, making up roughly 15% of the state's total U.S. Highway length; the shortest is U.S. 160, which runs just 0.86 miles (1.38 km) across the northwestern corner of the state, between the Arizona and Colorado borders.
The most famous route in New Mexico, if not the United States, was U.S. 66, colloquially known as the nation's "Mother Road" for its scenic beauty and importance to migrants fleeing West from the Dust Bowl of the 1930s.[339] The road crossed through northern New Mexico, connecting the cities of Albuquerque and Gallup, before being replaced by I-40 in 1985. Much of U.S. 66 remains in use for tourism and has been preserved for historical significance.[340] Another famous route was U.S. 666, which ran south to north along the western portion of the state, serving the Four Corners area. It was known as the "Devil's Highway" due to the number 666 denoting the "Number of the beast" in Christianity; this numerical designation, as well as its high fatality rate was subject to controversy, superstition, and numerous cultural references. U.S. 666 was subsequently renamed U.S. Route 491 in 2003. Many existing and former highways in New Mexico are recognized for their aesthetic, cultural, or historical significance, particularly for tourism purposes.[341] The state hosts ten out of 184 "America's Byways", which are federally designated for preservation due to their scenic beauty or national importance.[342]
There were 2,354 route miles of railroads in the year 2000; this number increased by a few miles with the opening of the Rail Runner's extension to Santa Fe in 2006.[343] In addition to local railroads and other tourist lines, the state jointly owns and operates a heritage narrow-gauge steam railroad, the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railway, with the state of Colorado since 1970. Narrow-gauge railroads once connected many communities in the northern part of the state, from Farmington to Santa Fe.[344]: 110 No fewer than 100 railroads of various names and lineage have operated in the state at some point.[344]: 8 New Mexico's rail transportation system reached its height in terms of length following admission as a state; in 1914, eleven railroads operated 3124 route miles.[344]: 10
Railroad surveyors arrived in New Mexico in the 1850s shortly after it became a U.S. territory.[345] The first railroads incorporated in 1869,[344]: 9 and the first railway became operational in 1878 with the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway (ATSF), which entered via the lucrative and contested Raton Pass. The ATSF eventually reached El Paso, Texas in 1881, and with the entry of the Southern Pacific Railroad from the Arizona Territory in 1880, created the nation's second transcontinental railroad, with a junction at Deming.[344]: 9, 18, 58–59 [345] The Denver & Rio Grande Railway, which generally used narrow gauge equipment in New Mexico, entered the territory from Colorado, beginning service to Española in December 1880.[344]: 95–96 [345] These first railroads were built as long-distance corridors; later railroad construction also targeted resource extraction.[344]: 8–11
The rise of rail transportation was a major source of demographic and economic growth in the state, with many settlements expanding or being established shortly thereafter. As early as 1878, the ATSF promoted tourism in the region with an emphasis on Native American imagery.[346]: 64 Named trains often reflected the territory they traveled: Super Chief, the streamlined successor to the Chief;[346] Navajo, an early transcontinental tourist train; and Cavern, a through car operation connecting Clovis and Carlsbad (by the early 1950s as train 23–24), were some of the named passenger trains of the ATSF that connoted New Mexico,[344]: 49–50 [347]: 51 The Super Chief became a favorite of early Hollywood stars and among the most famous named trains in the U.S.; it was known for its luxury and exoticness, with cars bearing the name of regional Native American tribes and outfitted with the artwork of many local artists – but also for its speed: as brief as 39 hours 45 minutes westbound from Chicago to Los Angeles.[346]
At its height, passenger train service once connected nine of New Mexico's present ten most populous cities (the sole exception is Rio Rancho); currently, only Albuquerque and Santa Fe are connected by a rail network.[348] With the decline of most intercity rail service in the U.S. in the late 1960s, New Mexico was left with minimal services; no less than six daily long-distance roundtrip trains, supplemented by many branch-line and local trains, served New Mexico in the early 1960s. Declines in passenger revenue, but not necessarily ridership, prompted many railroads to turn over their passenger services in truncated form to Amtrak, a state-owned enterprise. Amtrak, also known as the National Passenger Railroad Corporation, began operating the two extant long-distance routes on May 1, 1971.[344][346][347]Resurrection of passenger rail service from Denver to El Paso, a route once plied in part by the ATSF's El Pasoan,[347]: 37 has been proposed; in the 1980s, then–Governor Toney Anaya suggested building a high-speed rail line connecting the two cities with New Mexico's major cities.[349] In 2004, the Colorado-based nonprofit Front Range Commuter Rail was established with the goal of connecting Wyoming and New Mexico with high-speed rail;[350] however, it became inactive in 2011.[351]
Since 2006, a state owned, privately run commuter railway, the New Mexico Rail Runner Express, has served the Albuquerque metropolitan area, connecting the city proper with Santa Fe and other communities.[348][352] The system expanded in 2008 with the adding of the BNSF Railway's line from Belen to a few miles south of Lamy.[353] Phase II of Rail Runner extended the line northward to Santa Fe from the Sandoval County station, the northernmost station under Phase I service; the service now connects Santa Fe, Sandoval, Bernalillo, and Valencia counties. Rail Runner operates scheduled service seven days per week,[354] connecting Albuquerque's population base and central business district to downtown Santa Fe with up to eight roundtrips in a day; the section of the line running south to Belen is served less frequently.[355]
Amtrak's Southwest Chief passes through daily at stations in Gallup, Albuquerque, Lamy, Las Vegas, and Raton, offering connections to Los Angeles, Chicago and intermediate points.[356] A successor to the Super Chief and El Capitan,[347]: 115 the Southwest Chief is permitted a maximum speed of 90 mph (140 km/h) in various places on the tracks of the BNSF Railway;[357] it also operates on New Mexico Rail Runner Express trackage. The Sunset Limited makes stops three times a week in both directions at Lordsburg, and Deming, serving Los Angeles, New Orleans and intermediate points.[358] The Sunset Limited is the successor to the Southern Pacific Railroad's train of the same name and operates exclusively on Union Pacific trackage in New Mexico.
New Mexico is served by two of the nation's ten class I railroads, which denote the highest revenue railways for freight: the BNSF Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. Together they operate 2,200 route miles of railway in the state.[343]
New Mexico has four primary commercial airports that are served by most major domestic and international airliners. Albuquerque International Sunport is the state's main aerial port of entry and by far the largest airport: It is the only one designated a medium-sized hub by the Federal Aviation Administration, serving millions of passengers annually.
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The only other comparatively large airports are Lea County Regional Airport, Roswell International Air Center, and Santa Fe Regional Airport, which have varying degrees of service by major airlines. Most airports in New Mexico are small, general aviation hubs operated by municipal and county governments, and usually served solely by local and regional commuter airlines.
Due to its sparse population and many isolated, rural communities, New Mexico ranks among the states most reliant on Essential Air Service, a federal program that maintains a minimal level of scheduled air service to communities that are otherwise unprofitable for commercial airlines.
New Mexico hosts the world's first operational and purpose-built commercial spaceport, Spaceport America, located in Upham, near Truth or Consequences.[359][360][361] It is operated by the state-backed New Mexico Spaceport Authority (NMSA). Rocket launches began in April 2007,[361] with the spaceport officially opening in 2011.[362] Tenants include HAPSMobile, UP Aerospace, SpinLaunch, and Virgin Galactic.[363]
Over 300 suborbital flights have been successfully launched from Spaceport America since 2006, with the most notable being Virgin Galactic's VSS Unity on May 22, 2021, which made New Mexico the third U.S. state to launch humans into space, after California and Florida.[364][365]
On October 22, 2021, Spaceport America was the site of the first successfully tested vacuum-sealed "suborbital accelerator", which aims to offer a significantly more economical alternative to launching satellites via rockets.[366] Conducted by Spaceport tenant SpinLaunch, the test is the first of roughly 30 demonstrations being planned.[366]
The Constitution of New Mexico was adopted by popular referendum in 1911. It establishes a republican form of government based on popular sovereignty and a separation of powers. New Mexico has a bill of rights modeled on its federal counterpart, but with more expansive rights and freedoms; for example, victims of certain serious crimes, such as aggravated battery and sexual assault, have explicit rights to privacy, dignity, and the timely adjudication of their case.[367] Major state issues may be decided by popular vote, and the constitution may be amended by a majority vote of both lawmakers and the electorate.[368]
Mirroring the federal system, the New Mexico government consists of executive, legislative, and judicial departments. The executive is led by the governor and other popularly elected officials, including the lieutenant governor (elected on the same ticket as the governor), attorney general, secretary of state, state auditor, state treasurer, and commissioner of public lands. New Mexico's governor is granted more authority than those of other states, with the power to appoint most high-ranking officials in the cabinet and other state agencies.[368]
The legislative branch consists of the bicameral New Mexico Legislature, comprising the 70-member House of Representatives and the 42-member Senate. Members of the House are elected to two-year terms, while those of the Senate are elected every four years. New Mexican legislators are unique in the U.S. for being volunteers, receiving only a daily stipend while in session; this "citizen legislature" dates back to New Mexico's admission as a state, and is considered a source of civic pride.[369]
The judiciary is headed by the New Mexico Supreme Court, the state's highest court, which primarily adjudicates appeals from lower courts or government agencies. It is made up of five judges popularly elected every eight years with overlapping terms. Below the state supreme court is the New Mexico Court of Appeals, which has intermediate appellate jurisdiction statewide. New Mexico has 13 judicial districts with circuit courts of general jurisdiction, as well as various municipal, magistrate, and probate courts of limited jurisdiction.
New Mexico is organized into a number of local governments consisting of counties, municipalities, and special districts.[370]
Since 2018, New Mexico has been led by Governor Michelle Lujan Grisham and Lieutenant Governor Howie Morales, both of the Democratic Party. All constitutional officers are currently Democrats, including Secretary of State Maggie Toulouse Oliver,[371] Attorney General Raúl Torrez,[372] State Auditor Joseph Maestas,[373] State Land Commissioner Stephanie Garcia Richard,[374] and State Treasurer Laura Montaya.[375]
Both chambers of the New Mexico Legislature have Democratic majorities: 27 Democrats and 15 Republicans in the Senate, and 45 Democrats and 25 Republicans in the House of Representatives. Likewise, the state is represented in the U.S. Senate by Democrats Martin Heinrich and Ben Ray Luján. The state's three delegates to the U.S. House of Representatives are Democrats Melanie Stansbury, Gabe Vasquez, and Teresa Leger Fernandez, representing the first, second, and third districts, respectively.
Since achieving statehood in 1912, New Mexico has been carried by the national popular vote winner in every presidential election except 1976, when Gerald Ford won the state by 2% but lost the national popular vote by 2%.[377] In all but three elections – 1976, 2000, and 2016 – the candidate who won New Mexico won the presidency. Until 2008, New Mexico was traditionally a swing state in presidential elections. The 1992 election of Bill Clinton marked the first time the state was won by a Democrat since Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964. Al Gore narrowly carried the state in 2000 by 366 votes, and George W. Bush won in 2004 by less than 6,000 votes. The election of Barack Obama in 2008 marked the state's transition into a relatively reliably Democratic stronghold in a largely Republican region; Obama was also the first Democrat to win a majority of New Mexico votes since Johnson.[378] Obama won again in 2012, followed by Hillary Clinton in 2016, and Joe Biden in 2020.
Although state politics are decidedly Democratic leaning, New Mexico's political culture is relatively moderate and bipartisan by national standards. While registered Democrats outnumber registered Republicans by nearly 200,000, New Mexico voters have historically favored moderate to conservative candidates of both parties at the state and federal levels: According to Pew Research, the largest political ideology among New Mexicans is political moderate at 36%, while 34% are conservatives, 23% are liberal, and 7% stated they did not know.[379] Likewise, New Mexico's demographics are atypical of most traditional liberal states with "political ideology [being] less important" than the profile or outreach efforts of the individual candidate.[380] Due to their historically positive connections to the state's heritage, the Republican and Democratic parties of New Mexico are each relatively robust, and New Mexico is considered a bellwether state.[381][382][383][384][385] The state's Republican Party was the first to incorporate Hispanics and Natives into leadership roles, such as territorial governor Miguel Antonio Otero and state governor Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, who was later the first Mexican American and first Hispanic member of the U.S. Senate.[386][387] Republican president Theodore Roosevelt had much respect for the Hispanos, Mexican Americans, and indigenous communities of New Mexico, many of whom had been a part of his Rough Riders.[388][389]
Lujan Grisham succeeded two-term Republican governor Susana Martinez on January 1, 2019. Gary Johnson was governor from 1995 to 2003 as a Republican, but in 2012 and 2016 ran for president from the Libertarian Party. New Mexico's Second Congressional District is among the most competitive in the country: Republican Herrell narrowly lost to Democrat Xochitl Torres Small in 2018 but retook her seat in 2020, subsequently losing to Democrat Gabe Vasquez in 2022.[380] Recent election cycles within the past decade have seen moderate incumbents replaced by progressive Democrats in cities like Albuquerque, Santa Fe, and Las Cruces, with conservative Republicans being elected in rural areas. Democrats in the state are usually strongest in the Santa Fe area, parts of the Albuquerque metro area (such as the southeast and central areas, including the affluent Nob Hill neighborhood and the vicinity of the University of New Mexico), Northern and West Central New Mexico, and most Native American reservations, particularly the Navajo Nation.[378] Republicans have traditionally had their strongholds in the eastern and southern parts of the state, the Farmington area, Rio Rancho, and the newly developed areas in the northwest mesa. Albuquerque's Northeast Heights have historically leaned Republican but have become a key swing area for Democrats in recent election cycles.
A 2020 study ranked New Mexico as the 20th hardest state for citizens to vote, due mostly to the inaccessibility of polling stations among many isolated communities.[390]
New Mexico has elected more women of color to public office than any other U.S. state.[391] While the trend is partly reflective of the state's disproportionately high Hispanic and indigenous populations, it also reflects longstanding cultural and political trends: In 1922, Soledad Chávez Chacón was the first woman elected secretary of state of New Mexico, and the first Hispanic woman elected to statewide office in the United States. Republican governor Susana Martinez was the first Hispanic female governor in the United States, and Democrat congresswoman Deb Haaland was among the first Native American women elected to the U.S. Congress.[392][393]
Research by the Center for American Women and Politics at Rutgers University found that two-thirds of all nonwhite women who have ever been elected governor in the U.S. are from New Mexico, including the current governor, Lujan Grisham. The state also accounts for nearly one-third of the women of color who have served in any statewide executive office, such as lieutenant governor and secretary of state, a distinction shared by only ten other states.[391] New Mexico also has a relatively high percentage of state legislators who are women of color, which at 16% is the sixth highest in the nation.
New Mexico is described as a "national leader in electing female legislators".[394] As of January 2023, it ranked sixth in the number of female state legislators (43.8%),[395] with women comprising a majority of the New Mexico House of Representatives (53%) and over a quarter of the Senate (29%).[394] Women also hold a majority of seats on the state Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals.[394] At the federal level, two out of three congressional districts are represented by women.
Local government in New Mexico consists primarily of counties and municipalities. There are 33 counties, of which the most populous is Bernalillo, which contains the state's largest city, Albuquerque. Counties are usually governed by an elected five-member county commission, sheriff, assessor, clerk and treasurer. A municipality may call itself a village, town, or city,[396] with no distinction in law and no correlation to any particular form of government. Municipal elections are non-partisan.[397] In addition, limited local authority can be vested in special districts and landowners' associations.
New Mexico is one of 23 states without the death penalty,[398] becoming the 15th state to abolish capital punishment in 2009.[399]
The state has among the most permissive firearms laws in the country.[401] Its constitution explicitly enshrines the right to bear arms and prevents local governments from regulating gun ownership.[402] Residents may purchase any firearm deemed legal under federal law without a permit.[401] There is a 7-day waiting period under state law for picking up a firearm after it has been purchased (holders of concealed handgun licenses are exempt from the 7-day waiting period), nor any restrictions on magazine capacity. Additionally, New Mexico is a "shall-issue" state for concealed carry permits, thus giving applicants a presumptive right to receive a license without giving a compelling reason.[403]
Before December 2013, New Mexico law was silent on the issue of same-sex marriage. The issuance of marriage licenses to same-sex couples was determined at the county level, with some county clerks issuing marriage licenses to same-sex couples and others not. In December 2013, the New Mexico Supreme Court issued a unanimous ruling directing all county clerks to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples, thereby making New Mexico the 17th state to recognize same-sex marriage statewide.
Based on 2008 data, New Mexico had 146 law enforcement agencies across the state, county, and municipal levels.[404] State law enforcement is statutorily administered by the Department of Public Safety (DPS).[405] The New Mexico State Police is a division of the DPS with jurisdiction over all crimes in the state.[406][407] As of 2008, New Mexico had over 5,000 sworn police officers, a ratio of 252 per 100,000 residents, which is roughly the same as the nation.[404] The state struggles with one of the nation's highest rates of officer-involved killings, which has prompted political and legal reforms at local and state levels.[408]
In April 2021, New Mexico became the 18th state to legalize cannabis for recreational use; possession, personal cultivation, and retail sales are permitted under certain conditions, while relevant marijuana-related arrests and convictions are expunged.[409] New Mexico has long pioneered loosening cannabis restrictions: In 1978, it was the first state to pass legislation allowing the medical use of marijuana in some form, albeit restricted to a federal research program.[410] In 1999, Republican Governor Gary Johnson became the highest-ranking elected official in the U.S. to publicly endorse drug legalization.[411] Medicinal marijuana was fully legalized in 2007, making New Mexico the 12th state to do so, and the fourth via legislative action.[412] In 2019, it was the first U.S. state to decriminalize possession of drug paraphernalia.[413]
As of June 2022, New Mexico has one of the nation's most permissive abortion laws: Elective abortion care is legal at all stages of pregnancy, without restrictions such as long waiting periods and mandated parental consent.[414] In 2021, the state repealed a 1969 "trigger law" that had banned most abortion procedures, which would have come into effect following the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization.[415] In response to the Dobbs decision, which held that abortion was not a constitutional right, New Mexico's governor issued an executive order protecting abortion providers from out-of-state litigation, in anticipation of the influx of nonresidents seeking abortions.[415][416]
On a per capita basis, New Mexico's government has one of the largest state budgets, at $9,101 per resident.[417] As of 2017, the state had an S&P Global Rating of AA+, denoting a very strong capacity to meet financial commitments alongside a very low credit risk.
New Mexico has two constitutionally mandated permanent funds: The Land Grant Permanent Fund (LGPF), which was established upon statehood in 1912, and the Severance Tax Permanent Fund (STPF), which was created in 1973 during the oil boom.[418] Both funds derive revenue from rents, royalties, and bonuses related to the state's extensive oil, gas, and mining operations; the vast majority of the LGPF's distributions are earmarked for "common (public) schools", while all distributions from the STPF are allocated to the LGPF.[418] As of 2020, the Land Grant Permanent Fund was valued at $21.6 billion, while the Severance Tax Permanent Fund was worth $5.8 billion.[418]
Due to its relatively low population and numerous federally funded research facilities, New Mexico had the highest concentration of PhD holders of any state in 2000.[419] Los Alamos County, which hosts the eponymous national laboratory, leads the state in the most post-secondary degree holders, at 38.7% of residents, or 4,899 of 17,950.[420] However, New Mexico routinely ranks near the bottom in studies measuring the quality of primary and secondary school education.[421]
By national standards, New Mexico has one of the highest concentrations of persons who did not finish high school or have some college education, albeit by a low margin: Slightly more than 14% of residents did not have a high school diploma, compared to the national rate of 11.4%, the fifth lowest out of 52 U.S. states and territories. Almost a quarter of people over 25 (23.9%) did not complete college,[130] compared with 21% nationally.[422] New Mexico ranks among the bottom ten states in the proportion of residents with a bachelor's degree or higher (27.7%), but 21st in PhD earners (12.2%); the national average is 33.1% and 12.8%, respectively. In 2020, the number of doctorate recipients was 300, placing the state 34th in the nation.[423]
In 2018, a state judge issued a landmark ruling that "New Mexico is violating the constitutional rights of at-risk students by failing to provide them with sufficient education", in particularly those with indigenous, non-English-speaking, and low-income backgrounds.[424] The court ordered the governor and legislature to provide an adequate system by April 2019;[425] in response, New Mexico increased teacher salaries, funded an extended school year, expanded prekindergarten childhood education programs, and developed a budget formula for delivering more funding to schools that serve at-risk and low-income students.[426] Nevertheless, many activists and public officials contend that these efforts continue to fall short, particularly with respect to Native American schools and students.[426]
The New Mexico Public Education Department oversees the operation of primary and secondary schools; individual school districts directly operate and staff said schools.
In January 2022, New Mexico became the first state in the U.S. to recruit national guardsmen and state workers to serve as substitute teachers due to staffing shortages caused by COVID-19.[427] Partly in response to pandemic-related shortages, on March 1, 2022, Governor Grisham signed into law four bills to increase the salaries and benefits of teachers and other school staff, particularly in entry-level positions.[428]
New Mexico has 41 accredited, degree-granting institutions; twelve are private and 29 are state-funded, including four tribal colleges.[429][430][431] Additionally, select students can attend certain institutions in Colorado, at in-state tuition rates, pursuant to a reciprocity program between the two states.[432]
Graduates of four-year colleges in New Mexico have some of the lowest student debt burdens in the U.S.; the class of 2017 owed an average of $21,237 compared with a national average of $28,650, according to the Institute for College Access & Success.[433]
New Mexico ranked 13th in the 2022 Social Mobility Index (SMI), which measures the extent to which economically disadvantaged students (with family incomes below the national median) have access to colleges and universities with lower tuition and indebtedness and higher job prospects.[434]
New Mexico is one of eight states that fund college scholarships through the state lottery.[435][436][437] The state requires that the lottery put 30% of its gross sales into the scholarship fund.[438]The scholarship is available to residents who graduated from a state high school, and attend a state university full-time while maintaining a 2.5 GPA or higher.[439] It covered 100% of tuition when it was first instated in 1996,[440] decreased to 90%, then dropped to 60% in 2017.[436] The value slightly increased in 2018, and new legislation was passed to outline what funds are available per type of institution.[440]
In September 2019, New Mexico announced a plan to make tuition at its public colleges and universities free for all state residents, regardless of family income.[433] The proposal was described as going further than any other existing state or federal plan or program at the time.[433] In March 2022, New Mexico became the first state to offer free college tuition for all residents, after the legislature passed a bipartisan bill allocating almost 1 percent of the state budget toward covering tuition and fees at all 29 public colleges, universities, community colleges, and tribal colleges.[441] The program, which takes effect July 1, 2022, is described as among the most ambitious and generous in the country, as it is available to all residents regardless of income, work status, or legal status, and is provided without taking into account other scholarships and sources of financial aid.[441]
New Mexican culture is a unique fusion of indigenous, Spanish, Hispanic, and American influences. The state bears some of the oldest evidence of human habitation, with thousands of years of indigenous heritage giving way to centuries of successive migration and settlement by Spanish, Mexican, and Anglo-American colonists. The intermingling of these diverse groups is reflected in New Mexico's demographics, toponyms, cuisine, dialect, and identity. The state's distinct culture and image are reflected in part by the fact that many Americans do not know it is part of the U.S.;[442] this misconception variably elicits frustration, amusement, or even pride among New Mexicans as evidence of their unique heritage.[443][444]
Like other states in the American Southwest, New Mexico bears the legacy of the "Old West" period of American westward expansion, characterized by cattle ranching, cowboys, pioneers, the Santa Fe Trail, and conflicts among and between settlers and Native Americans.[445] The state's vast and diverse geography, sparse population, and abundance of ghost towns have contributed to its enduring frontier image and atmosphere.[445] Many fictional works of the Western genre are set or produced in New Mexico.
Compared to other Western states, New Mexico's Spanish and Mexican heritage remain more visible and enduring, due to it having been the oldest, most populous, and most important province in New Spain's northern periphery.[446] However, some historians allege that this history has been understated or marginalized by persistent American biases and misconceptions towards Spanish colonial history.[447]
New Mexico is an important center of Native American culture. Some 200,000 residents, about one-tenth of the population, are of indigenous descent,[448] ranking third in size,[449] and second proportionally,[450] nationwide. There are 23 federally recognized tribal nations, each with its distinct culture, history, and identity. Both the Navajo and Apache share Athabaskan origin, with the latter living on three federal reservations in the state.[451] The Navajo Nation, which spans over 16 million acres (6.5 million ha), mostly in neighboring Arizona, is the largest reservation in the U.S., with one-third of its members living in New Mexico.[448] Pueblo Indians, who share a similar lifestyle but are culturally and linguistically distinct, live in 19 pueblos scattered throughout the state, which collectively span over 2 million acres (800,000 ha).[452] The Puebloans have a long history of independence and autonomy, which has shaped their identity and culture.[38] Many indigenous New Mexicans have moved to urban areas throughout the state, and some cities such as Gallup are major hubs of Native American culture.[445] New Mexico is also a hub for indigenous communities beyond its borders: the annual Gathering of Nations, which began in 1983, has been described as the largest pow wow in the U.S., drawing hundreds of native tribes from across North America.[453]
Almost half of New Mexicans claim Hispanic origin; many are descendants of colonial settlers called Hispanos or Neomexicanos, who settled mostly in the north of the state between the 16th and 18th centuries; by contrast, the majority of Mexican immigrants reside in the south. Some Hispanos claim Jewish ancestry through descendance from conversos or Crypto-Jews among early Spanish colonists.[454] Many New Mexicans speak a unique dialect known as New Mexican Spanish, which was shaped by the region's historical isolation and various cultural influences; New Mexican Spanish lacks certain vocabulary from other Spanish dialects and uses numerous Native American words for local features, as well as anglicized words that express American concepts and modern inventions.[455]
Examples of New Mexico's architectural history date back to the Ancestral Puebloans within Oasisamerica.[citation needed] The Hispanos of New Mexico adapted the Pueblo architecture style within their own buildings, and following the establishment of Albuquerque in 1706, the Territorial Style of architecture blended the styles.[456] Rural communities incorporated both building types into a New Mexico vernacular style, further exemplifying the indigenous roots of New Mexico.[457] After statehood, the modern Pueblo Revival and Territorial Revival architectural styles became more prevalent, with these revival architectures becoming officially encouraged since the 1930s.[458] These styles have been blended with other modern styles, as happened with Pueblo Deco architecture,[459] within modern contemporary New Mexican architecture.[460][461]
The earliest New Mexico artists whose work survives today are the Mimbres Indians, whose black and white pottery could be mistaken for modern art, except for the fact that it was produced before 1130 CE. Many examples of this work can be seen at the Deming Luna Mimbres Museum[462] and at the Western New Mexico University Museum.[463]
Santa Fe has long hosted a thriving artistic community, which has included such prominent figures as Bruce Nauman, Richard Tuttle, John Connell, Steina Vasulka and Ned Bittinger.[464] The capital city has several art museums, including the New Mexico Museum of Art, Museum of Spanish Colonial Art, Museum of International Folk Art, Museum of Indian Arts and Culture, Museum of Contemporary Native Arts, SITE Santa Fe and others. Colonies for artists and writers thrive, and the small city teems with art galleries. In August, the city hosts the annual Santa Fe Indian Market, which is the oldest and largest juried Native American art showcase in the world. Performing arts include the renowned Santa Fe Opera, which presents five operas in repertory each July to August; the Santa Fe Chamber Music Festival held each summer; and the restored Lensic Theater, a principal venue for many kinds of performances. The weekend after Labor Day boasts the burning of Zozobra, a fifty-foot (15 m) marionette, during Fiestas de Santa Fe.
As New Mexico's largest city, Albuquerque hosts many of the state's leading cultural events and institutions, including the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, the National Hispanic Cultural Center, the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History, and the famed annual Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta. The National Hispanic Cultural Center has held hundreds of performing arts events, art showcases, and other events related to Spanish culture in New Mexico and worldwide in the centerpiece Roy E Disney Center for the Performing Arts or in other venues at the 53-acre facility. New Mexico residents and visitors alike can enjoy performing art from around the world at Popejoy Hall on the campus of the University of New Mexico. Popejoy Hall hosts singers, dancers, Broadway shows, other types of acts, and Shakespeare.[465] Albuquerque also has the unique and iconic KiMo Theater built in 1927 in the Pueblo Revival Style architecture. The KiMo presents live theater and concerts as well as movies and simulcast operas.[466] In addition to other general interest theaters, Albuquerque also has the African American Performing Arts Center and Exhibit Hall which showcases achievements by people of African descent[467] and the Indian Pueblo Cultural Center which highlights the cultural heritage of the First Nations people of New Mexico.[468]
New Mexico holds strong to its Spanish heritage. Old Spanish traditions such zarzuelas and flamenco are popular;[469][470] the University of New Mexico is the only institute of higher education in the world with a program dedicated to flamenco.[471] Flamenco dancer and native New Mexican María Benítez founded the Maria Benítez Institute for Spanish Arts "to present programs of the highest quality of the rich artistic heritage of Spain, as expressed through music, dance, visual arts, and other art forms". There is also the annual Festival Flamenco Internacional de Alburquerque, where native Spanish and New Mexican flamenco dancers perform at the University of New Mexico; it is the largest and oldest flamenco event outside of Spain.[472]
In the mid-20th century, there was a thriving Hispano school of literature and scholarship being produced in both English and Spanish. Among the more notable authors were: Angélico Chávez, Nina Otero-Warren, Fabiola Cabeza de Baca, Aurelio Espinosa, Cleofas Jaramillo, Juan Bautista Rael, and Aurora Lucero-White Lea. As well, writer D. H. Lawrence lived near Taos in the 1920s, at the D. H. Lawrence Ranch, where there is a shrine said to contain his ashes.
New Mexico's strong Spanish, Anglo, and Wild West frontier motifs have contributed to a unique body of literature, represented by internationally recognized authors such as Rudolfo Anaya, Tony Hillerman, and Daniel Abraham.[473] Western fiction folk heroes Billy the Kid, Elfego Baca, Geronimo, and Pat Garrett originate in New Mexico.[474] These same Hispanic, indigenous, and frontier histories have given New Mexico a place in the history of country and Western music,[475][476][477] with its own New Mexico music genre,[478][479][480] including the careers of Al Hurricane,[481] Robert Mirabal,[482] and Michael Martin Murphey.[483]
Silver City, originally a mining town, is now a major hub and exhibition center for large numbers of artists, visual and otherwise.[484] Another former mining town turned art haven is Madrid, New Mexico, which was brought to national fame as the filming location for the 2007 movie Wild Hogs.[485] Las Cruces, in southern New Mexico, has a museum system affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution Affiliations Program,[486] and hosts a variety of cultural and artistic opportunities for residents and visitors.[487]
The Western genre immortalized the varied mountainous, riparian, and desert environment into film.[92] Owing to a combination of financial incentives, low cost, and geographic diversity, New Mexico has long been a popular setting or filming location for various films and television series. In addition to Wild Hogs, other movies filmed in New Mexico include Sunshine Cleaning and Vampires. Various seasons of the A&E/Netflix series Longmire were filmed in several New Mexico locations, including Las Vegas, Santa Fe, Eagle Nest, and Red River.[488] The widely acclaimed Breaking Bad franchise was set and filmed in and around Albuquerque, a product of the ongoing success of media in the city in large part helped by Albuquerque Studios, and the presence of production studios like Netflix and NBCUniversal.[489][490][82]
New Mexico is known for its unique and eclectic culinary scene,[491] which fuses various indigenous cuisines with those of Spanish and Mexican Hispanos originating in Nuevo México.[492][493][494] Like other aspects of the state's culture, New Mexican cuisine has been shaped by a variety of influences from throughout its history;[495][492][496] consequently, it is unlike Latin food originating elsewhere in the contiguous United States.[497]: 109 [498][499] Distinguishing characteristics include the use of local spices, herbs, flavors, and vegetables, particularly red and green New Mexico chile peppers,[500][501][502] anise (used in bizcochitos),[503] and piñon (pine nuts).[504]
Among the dishes unique to New Mexico are frybread-style sopapillas, breakfast burritos, enchilada montada (stacked enchiladas), green chile stew, carne seca (a thinly sliced variant of jerky), green chile burgers, posole (a hominy dish), slow-cooked frijoles (beans, typically pinto beans), calabacitas (sautéed zucchini and summer squash), and carne adovada (pork marinated in red chile).[505][506][507] The state is also the epicenter of a burgeoning Native American culinary movement, in which chefs of indigenous descent serve traditional cuisine through food trucks.[508]
No major league professional sports teams are based in New Mexico, but the Albuquerque Isotopes are the Pacific Coast League baseball affiliate of the MLB Colorado Rockies. The state hosts several baseball teams of the Pecos League: the Roswell Invaders, Ruidoso Osos, Santa Fe Fuego and the White Sands Pupfish. The Duke City Gladiators of the Indoor Football League (IFL) plays their home games at Tingley Coliseum in Albuquerque; the city also hosts two soccer teams: New Mexico United, which began playing in the second tier USL Championship in 2019, and the associated New Mexico United U23, which plays in the fourth tier USL League Two.
Collegiate athletics are the center of spectator sports in New Mexico, namely the rivalry between various teams of the University of New Mexico Lobos and the New Mexico State Aggies.[509] The intense competition between the two teams is often referred to as the "Rio Grande Rivalry" or the "Battle of I-25" (in reference to both campuses being located along that highway). NMSU also has a rivalry with the University of Texas at El Paso called "The Battle of I-10". The winner of the NMSU-UTEP football game receives the Silver Spade trophy.
Olympic gold medalist Tom Jager, an advocate of controversial high-altitude training for swimming, has conducted training camps in Albuquerque at 5,312 feet (1,619 m) and Los Alamos at 7,320 feet (2,231 m).[510]
New Mexico is a major hub for various shooting sports, mainly concentrated in the NRA Whittington Center in Raton, which is largest and most comprehensive competitive shooting range and training facility in the U.S.[511]
Owing to its millennia of habitation and over two centuries of Spanish colonial rule, New Mexico features a significant number of sites with historical and cultural significance. Forty-six locations across the state are listed by the U.S. National Register of Historic Places, the 18th highest of any state.[512]
New Mexico has nine of the country's 84 national monuments, which are sites federally protected by presidential proclamation; this is the second-highest number after Arizona.[112] The monuments include some of the earliest to have been created: El Morro and Gila Cliff Dwellings, proclaimed in 1906 and 1907, respectively; both preserve the state's ancient indigenous heritage.[112]
New Mexico is one of 20 states with a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and among only eight with more than one. Excluding sites shared between states, New Mexico has the most World Heritage Sites in the country, with three exclusively within its territory.[513][514][515]
Since 1970, New Mexico Magazine has had a standing feature, One of Our 50 Is Missing Archived June 21, 2023, at the Wayback Machine, which relates often humorous anecdotes about instances in which people elsewhere do not realize New Mexico is a state, confuse it with the nation of Mexico, or otherwise mistake it as being a foreign country. The state's license plates say "New Mexico USA", so as to avoid confusion with Mexico, which it borders to the southwest. New Mexico is the only state that specifies "USA" on its license plates.[516]
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)inchan yn ompa huehue mexico aztlan quinehuayan chicomoztoc yn axcan quitocayotia yancuic mexico
There was Francisco de Ibarra, a great seeker after gold mines. In 1563, he went far to the north ... when he returned south, Ibarra boasted that he had discovered a New Mexico. Doubtless, like others, he stretched the tale, and certainly, the land of which he told was well south of the one now so-called. Yet, men remembered the name Nuevo México, though not at first, as that of the region which Coronado had once conquered.
American policy swiftly sought to reenact Hispano and Nativo peace treaties "Domestic and imperial reforms finally provided peace treaties during the last quarter of the eighteenth century." "Apaches, Navajos, and Comanches to sue for peace in 1775 and 1786. In return for annual gifts, food rations, horses, and supplies, warriors promised to honor these long-sought peace treaties." "Pueblos, the Comanche, Ute, and Navajo nations enlisted in Spanish armies as auxiliaries against defiant Apaches." "Implicit in these treaties were Spanish assurances that the king would protect each tribe from the others" "The Spanish responded by counterattacking in great strength at Canyon de Chelly, a principal Navajo sanctuary, resulting in the chieftains' request for peace. Signed on 12 May 1805 at Jemez Pueblo, the peace treaty featured a Navajo promise that the nation would not claim.the. Cebolleta area" "Navajos seemed to comply with treaty terms, even turning over criminals to the governor."
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)That's one of the coolest duck hunts I've ever had.
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Geographic data related to New Mexico at OpenStreetMap34°N 106°W / 34°N 106°W / 34; -106 (State of New Mexico)