Los hispanos, iberoamericanos y latinoamericanos ( en español : Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos ; en portugués : Estadunidenses hispânicos e latinos ) son estadounidenses de origen, cultura u familia total o parcialmente español y/o latinoamericano . [3] [4] [5] [6] Estos datos demográficos incluyen a todos los estadounidenses que se identifican como hispanos o latinos independientemente de su raza. [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] En 2020, la Oficina del Censo estimó que había casi 65,3 millones de hispanos y latinos viviendo en los Estados Unidos y sus territorios .
"Origen" puede ser visto como la ascendencia, grupo de nacionalidad, linaje o país de nacimiento de la persona o los padres o antepasados de la persona antes de su llegada a los Estados Unidos de América. Las personas que se identifican como hispanas o latinas pueden ser de cualquier raza, porque de manera similar a lo que ocurrió durante la colonización y la post-independencia de los Estados Unidos, los países latinoamericanos tenían sus poblaciones compuestas por descendientes de colonizadores europeos blancos (en este caso portugueses y españoles), pueblos nativos de las Américas , descendientes de esclavos africanos , inmigrantes post-independencia provenientes de Europa , Medio Oriente y Asia Oriental , así como descendientes de uniones multirraciales entre estos diferentes grupos étnicos. [13] [14] [15] [16] Como una de las dos únicas categorías específicamente designadas de etnicidad en los Estados Unidos , los hispanos y latinos forman una pan-etnicidad que incorpora una diversidad de herencias culturales y lingüísticas interrelacionadas, siendo el uso de los idiomas español y portugués el más importante de todos. La mayoría de los hispanoamericanos y latinoamericanos son de origen mexicano , puertorriqueño , cubano , salvadoreño , dominicano , colombiano , guatemalteco , hondureño , ecuatoriano , peruano , venezolano o nicaragüense . El origen predominante de las poblaciones hispanas y latinas regionales varía ampliamente en diferentes lugares del país. [14] [17] [18] [19] [20] En 2012, los hispanoamericanos fueron el segundo grupo étnico de más rápido crecimiento por crecimiento porcentual en los Estados Unidos después de los asiáticoamericanos . [21]
Los hispanos multirraciales ( mestizos ) de ascendencia indígena y española son los segundos grupos étnicos más antiguos (después de los nativos americanos ) que habitan gran parte de lo que hoy es Estados Unidos. [22] [23] [24] [25] España colonizó grandes áreas de lo que hoy es el suroeste y la costa oeste de Estados Unidos , así como Florida. Sus posesiones incluían las actuales California, Texas, Nuevo México, Nevada, Utah, Arizona y Florida, todas las cuales formaban parte del Virreinato de Nueva España , con sede en la Ciudad de México . Más tarde, este vasto territorio pasó a formar parte de México después de su independencia de España en 1821 y hasta el final de la guerra entre México y Estados Unidos en 1848. Los inmigrantes hispanos en el área metropolitana de Nueva York / Nueva Jersey proceden de un amplio espectro de países hispanos. [26]
Los términos " hispano " y " latino " se refieren a una etnia . "Hispano" comenzó a usarse popularmente para referirse a individuos con orígenes en países de habla hispana después de que la Oficina de Administración y Presupuesto creó la clasificación en 1977, según lo propuesto por un subcomité compuesto por tres empleados del gobierno, un cubano, un mexicano y un puertorriqueño estadounidense. [27] La Oficina del Censo de los Estados Unidos define ser hispano como ser miembro de una etnia, en lugar de ser miembro de una raza en particular y, por lo tanto, las personas que son miembros de este grupo también pueden ser miembros de cualquier raza. [14] [28] [29] En una encuesta nacional de 2015 de hispanos autoidentificados, el 56% dijo que ser hispano es parte de su origen racial y étnico, mientras que un número menor lo consideró parte de su origen étnico solamente (19%) o solo de su origen racial (11%). [28] Los hispanos pueden ser de cualquier origen lingüístico; En una encuesta de 2015, el 71% de los hispanos estadounidenses estuvo de acuerdo en que "no es necesario que una persona hable español para ser considerada hispana/latina". [30] Las personas hispanas y latinas pueden compartir algunas similitudes en su idioma, cultura, historia y herencia. Según el Instituto Smithsoniano , el término "latino" incluye a las personas con raíces portuguesas, como los brasileños , así como a las de origen hispano. [31] [32] La diferencia entre los términos hispano y latino es ambigua para algunas personas. [33] La Oficina del Censo de los EE. UU. equipara los dos términos y los define como una referencia a cualquier persona de España o de los países de habla hispana o portuguesa de las Américas. Después de que concluyó la guerra mexicano-estadounidense en 1848, el término hispano o hispanoamericano se utilizó principalmente para describir a los hispanos de Nuevo México en el suroeste de Estados Unidos . El censo de los Estados Unidos de 1970 amplió de manera controvertida la definición a "una persona de origen mexicano, puertorriqueño, cubano, dominicano, sudamericano o centroamericano u otro origen o cultura española, independientemente de la raza". Esta es ahora la definición formal y coloquial común del término dentro de los Estados Unidos, fuera de Nuevo México. [34] [35] Esta definición es coherente con el uso del siglo XXI por parte de la Oficina del Censo de los Estados Unidos y la OMB , ya que las dos agencias usan ambos términos hispano y latino indistintamente. El Pew Research Centercree que el término "hispano" está estrictamente limitado a España , Puerto Rico y todos los países donde el español es el único idioma oficial, mientras que "latino" incluye a todos los países de América Latina (incluso Brasil independientemente del hecho de que el portugués es su único idioma oficial), pero no incluye a España y Portugal. [3]
Los términos latino y latina son palabras prestadas de Italia y, en última instancia, de la antigua Roma . En inglés, el término latino es una forma condensada de "latinoamericano" , el término español para un latinoamericano o alguien que viene de América Latina. El término latino ha desarrollado varias definiciones. Esta definición, como "habitante latinoamericano masculino de los Estados Unidos", [36] es la definición más antigua que se usa en los Estados Unidos, se usó por primera vez en 1946. [36] Según esta definición, un mexicano-estadounidense o un puertorriqueño , por ejemplo, es tanto hispano como latino. Un brasileño-estadounidense también es latino según esta definición, que incluye a aquellos de origen de habla portuguesa de América Latina. [37] [38] [39 ] [40] [41] [42] En inglés, los italoamericanos no se consideran "latinos", ya que en su mayoría descienden de inmigrantes de Europa en lugar de América Latina, a menos que hayan tenido una historia reciente en un país latinoamericano.
La preferencia de uso de los términos entre los hispanos en los Estados Unidos a menudo depende de dónde residen los usuarios de los respectivos términos. Aquellos en el este de los Estados Unidos tienden a preferir el término hispano , mientras que aquellos en el oeste tienden a preferir latino . [13]
La designación étnica estadounidense latino se abstrae de la forma más larga latinoamericano . [43] El elemento latino- es en realidad una forma compositiva indeclinable en -o (es decir, un elemento compositivo ) que se emplea para acuñar formaciones compuestas (similar a franco o- en franc o canadiense 'francocanadiense', o ibero- en iberorrománico , [44] etc.).
El término Latinx (y el neologismo similar Xicanx ) han ganado cierto uso. [46] [47] La adopción de la X estaría "reflejando una nueva conciencia inspirada en el trabajo más reciente de los movimientos LGBTQI y feministas, algunos activistas hispanohablantes están usando cada vez más una "x" aún más inclusiva para reemplazar la "a" y la "o", en una ruptura total con el binario de género . [48] Entre los defensores del término LatinX , una de las quejas más frecuentemente citadas sobre sesgo de género en el idioma español es que un grupo de género mixto o desconocido sería denominado latinos , mientras que latinas se refiere a un grupo de mujeres solamente (pero esto se cambia inmediatamente a latinos , si incluso un solo hombre se une a este grupo femenino). [49] Una encuesta del Pew Research Center de 2020 encontró que alrededor del 3% de los hispanos usan el término (en su mayoría mujeres), y solo alrededor del 23% ha oído hablar del término. De ellos, el 65% dijo que no debería usarse para describir su grupo étnico. [50]
Algunos han señalado que el término “hispano” se refiere a una identidad panétnica, que abarca una gama de razas, orígenes nacionales y antecedentes lingüísticos. “Términos como hispano y latino no reflejan plenamente cómo nos vemos a nosotros mismos”, dice Geraldo Cadava, profesor asociado de historia y estudios hispánicos en la Universidad Northwestern . [51]
Según datos de la Encuesta sobre la Comunidad Estadounidense de 2017 , una pequeña minoría de inmigrantes de Brasil (2%), Portugal (2%) y Filipinas (1%) se autoidentificaron como hispanos. [11]
Los exploradores españoles fueron pioneros en el territorio de los actuales Estados Unidos. El primer desembarco europeo confirmado en los Estados Unidos continentales fue el de Juan Ponce de León , quien desembarcó en 1513 en una exuberante costa que bautizó como La Florida . En las siguientes tres décadas, los españoles se convirtieron en los primeros europeos en llegar a los Apalaches , el río Misisipi , el Gran Cañón y las Grandes Llanuras . Los barcos españoles navegaron a lo largo de la costa atlántica , penetrando hasta la actual Bangor, Maine , y subiendo por la costa del Pacífico hasta Oregón . De 1528 a 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca y tres compañeros (incluido un africano llamado Estevanico ), de una expedición española que naufragó, viajaron desde Florida hasta el golfo de California . En 1540, Hernando de Soto emprendió una extensa exploración de los actuales Estados Unidos.
También en 1540, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado lideró a 2.000 españoles y nativos mexicanos a través de la actual frontera entre Arizona y México y viajó hasta el centro de Kansas , cerca del centro geográfico exacto de lo que ahora es Estados Unidos continental. Otros exploradores españoles del territorio estadounidense incluyen, entre otros: Alonso Álvarez de Pineda , Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón , Pánfilo de Narváez , Sebastián Vizcaíno , Gaspar de Portolà , Pedro Menéndez de Avilés , Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca , Tristán de Luna y Arellano y Juan de Oñate , y exploradores no españoles que trabajaban para la Corona española, como Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo . En 1565, los españoles crearon el primer asentamiento europeo permanente en los Estados Unidos continentales, en San Agustín, Florida . Los misioneros y colonos españoles fundaron asentamientos en las actuales Santa Fe, Nuevo México , El Paso , San Antonio , Tucson , Albuquerque , San Diego , Los Ángeles y San Francisco . [52]
Los asentamientos españoles en América formaban parte de una red más amplia de rutas comerciales que conectaban Europa, África y las Américas. Los españoles establecieron conexiones comerciales con los pueblos indígenas, intercambiando bienes como pieles , cueros , productos agrícolas y productos manufacturados. Estas redes comerciales contribuyeron al desarrollo económico de las colonias españolas y facilitaron el intercambio cultural entre diferentes grupos.
Tan tarde como en 1783, al final de la Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos (un conflicto en el que España ayudó y luchó junto a los rebeldes), España tenía derecho a aproximadamente la mitad del territorio de los Estados Unidos continentales actuales. De 1819 a 1848, los Estados Unidos aumentaron su área en aproximadamente un tercio a expensas de España y México, adquiriendo los actuales estados estadounidenses de California , Texas , Nevada , Utah , la mayor parte de Colorado , Nuevo México y Arizona , y partes de Oklahoma , Kansas y Wyoming a través del Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo después de la Guerra México-Estadounidense , [53] así como Florida a través del tratado Adams-Onís , [54] y el territorio estadounidense de Puerto Rico a través de la Guerra Hispano-Estadounidense en 1898. [55] Muchos latinos que residían en esas regiones durante ese período obtuvieron la ciudadanía estadounidense. No obstante, muchos residentes latinos establecidos desde hacía mucho tiempo enfrentaron dificultades significativas después de la ciudadanía. Con la llegada de los angloamericanos a estas áreas recién incorporadas, los habitantes latinos lucharon por mantener sus propiedades, su influencia política y sus tradiciones culturales. [56] [57]
El descubrimiento de oro en California en 1848 atrajo a personas de diversos orígenes, incluidos mineros, comerciantes y colonos hispanos y latinos. La fiebre del oro provocó un auge demográfico y un rápido crecimiento económico en California, transformando el panorama social y político de la región.
Muchos nativos hispanos vivían en las zonas que Estados Unidos adquirió, y una nueva ola de inmigrantes mexicanos, centroamericanos, caribeños y sudamericanos se había mudado a Estados Unidos en busca de nuevas oportunidades. Este fue el comienzo de un grupo demográfico que aumentaría drásticamente con el paso de los años. [58]
Durante los siglos XX y XXI, la inmigración hispana a los Estados Unidos aumentó notablemente tras los cambios en la ley de inmigración en 1965. [61] Durante las guerras mundiales, los hispanoamericanos y los inmigrantes habían ayudado a estabilizar la economía estadounidense para que no cayera debido al auge industrial en el Medio Oeste en estados como Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin y Minnesota. Si bien un porcentaje de estadounidenses había huido de sus trabajos debido a la guerra, los hispanos habían ocupado sus puestos de trabajo en el mundo industrial. Esto puede explicar por qué hay una concentración tan alta de hispanoamericanos en áreas metropolitanas como las de Chicago-Elgin-Naperville, Detroit-Warren-Dearborn y Cleveland-Elyria. [58]
Los hispanos y latinoamericanos participaron activamente en el movimiento de derechos civiles del siglo XX, en defensa de la igualdad de derechos, la justicia social y el fin de la discriminación y la segregación. Organizaciones como la Liga de Ciudadanos Latinoamericanos Unidos (LULAC) y los Trabajadores Agrícolas Unidos (UFW) lucharon por los derechos de los trabajadores y las comunidades hispanas y latinas.
Las contribuciones hispanas en el pasado histórico y presente de los Estados Unidos se abordan con más detalle a continuación (ver Personas notables y sus contribuciones). Para reconocer las contribuciones actuales e históricas de los hispanoamericanos, el 17 de septiembre de 1968, el presidente Lyndon B. Johnson designó una semana a mediados de septiembre como Semana Nacional de la Herencia Hispana, con la autorización del Congreso . En 1988, el presidente Ronald Reagan extendió la celebración a un mes, designado Mes Nacional de la Herencia Hispana . [62] [63] Los hispanoamericanos se convirtieron en el grupo minoritario más grande en 2004. [64]
Durante el siglo XX, los hispanos y latinoamericanos buscaron cada vez más representación y empoderamiento político. La elección de personas como Edward Roybal , Henry B. González y Dennis Chávez para el Congreso marcó hitos importantes en la representación política hispana. Además, el nombramiento de personas como Lauro Cavazos y Bill Richardson para puestos en el gabinete destacó la creciente influencia de los líderes hispanos y latinos en el gobierno.
Los hispanos y latinoamericanos se convirtieron en el grupo minoritario más grande de los Estados Unidos, contribuyendo significativamente al crecimiento demográfico del país. Los esfuerzos por preservar y promover la cultura y el patrimonio hispanos y latinos continuaron en el siglo XXI, incluidas iniciativas para apoyar la educación bilingüe, celebrar las tradiciones y los festivales culturales y reconocer las contribuciones de los individuos y las comunidades hispanas y latinas a la sociedad estadounidense.
En 2020, los hispanos representaban entre el 19% y el 20% de la población de Estados Unidos, o entre 62 y 65 millones de personas. [65] La Oficina del Censo de Estados Unidos estimó posteriormente que los hispanos estaban subcontados en un 5,0% o 3,3 millones de personas en el censo de Estados Unidos, lo que explica el rango de 3 millones en la cifra anterior. En cambio, los blancos estaban sobrecontados en unos 3 millones. [66] La tasa de crecimiento hispano durante el período del 1 de abril de 2000 al 1 de julio de 2007 fue del 28,7%, aproximadamente cuatro veces la tasa de crecimiento de la población total del país (7,2%). [67] La tasa de crecimiento del 1 de julio de 2005 al 1 de julio de 2006 por sí sola fue del 3,4% [68] , aproximadamente tres veces y media la tasa de crecimiento de la población total del país (1,0%). [67] Según el censo de 2010, los hispanos son ahora el grupo minoritario más grande en 191 de las 366 áreas metropolitanas de los Estados Unidos. [69] La población hispana proyectada de los Estados Unidos para el 1 de julio de 2050 es de 132,8 millones de personas, o el 30,2% de la población total proyectada del país en esa fecha. [70]
Áreas estadísticas metropolitanas de Estados Unidos con más de un millón de hispanos (2014) [71]
Estados y territorios con mayor proporción de hispanos (2021) [72]
Del total de la población hispana del país, el 49% (21,5 millones) vive en California o Texas . [73] En 2022, la ciudad de Nueva York y Washington, DC comenzaron a recibir cantidades significativas de inmigrantes latinos del estado de Texas, en su mayoría originarios de Venezuela , Ecuador , Colombia y Honduras . [74]
Más de la mitad de la población hispana se concentra en la región suroeste , compuesta principalmente por mexicanos estadounidenses. California y Texas tienen algunas de las mayores poblaciones de mexicanos e hispanos centroamericanos en los Estados Unidos. La región noreste está dominada por dominicanos estadounidenses y puertorriqueños , con las mayores concentraciones de ambos en el país. En la región del Atlántico Medio, centrada en el área metropolitana de DC , los salvadoreños estadounidenses son el grupo hispano más grande. Florida está dominada por cubanoamericanos y puertorriqueños. Tanto en los estados de los Grandes Lagos como en los estados del Atlántico Sur , dominan los mexicanos y los puertorriqueños. Los mexicanos dominan en el resto del país, incluidos los estados del Oeste , Centro Sur y Grandes Llanuras .
En 2022, aproximadamente el 60,1% de la población hispana del país era de origen mexicano (véase la tabla). Otro 9,6% era de origen puertorriqueño , y aproximadamente el 3,9% de origen cubano y salvadoreño y aproximadamente el 3,7% de origen dominicano . [75] El resto era de otro origen centroamericano o sudamericano, o de origen directamente español. En 2017, dos tercios de todos los hispanoamericanos nacieron en los Estados Unidos. [77]
Hay pocos inmigrantes directamente de España, ya que los españoles han emigrado históricamente a Hispanoamérica en lugar de a países de habla inglesa. Debido a esto, la mayoría de los hispanos que se identifican como españoles también se identifican con el origen nacional hispanoamericano. En la estimación del censo de 2017, aproximadamente 1,76 millones de estadounidenses declararon alguna forma de " español " como su ascendencia, ya sea directamente de España o no. [75]
En el norte de Nuevo México y el sur de Colorado , hay una gran parte de hispanos que rastrean su ascendencia a los colonos de Nueva España (México), y a veces de la propia España , a fines del siglo XVI hasta el siglo XVII. Las personas de este origen a menudo se identifican como "hispanos", "españoles" o "hispanos". Muchos de estos colonos también se casaron con nativos americanos locales, creando una población mestiza . [78] Asimismo, el sur de Luisiana es el hogar de comunidades de personas de ascendencia de las Islas Canarias , conocidas como isleños , además de otras personas de ascendencia española. Los californios , nuevomexicanos y tejanos son estadounidenses de ascendencia española y/o mexicana , con subgrupos que a veces se llaman a sí mismos chicanos . Los nuevomexicanos y tejanos son culturas hispanas del suroeste distintas con sus propias cocinas, dialectos y tradiciones musicales.
Los nuyoricans son estadounidenses de ascendencia puertorriqueña del área de la ciudad de Nueva York . Hay cerca de dos millones de nuyoricans en los Estados Unidos. Entre los nuyoricans más destacados se encuentran la congresista Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez , la jueza de la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos Sonia Sotomayor y la cantante Jennifer Lopez .
Los hispanos provienen de países multirraciales y multiétnicos con diversidad de orígenes; por lo tanto, un hispano puede ser de cualquier raza o mezcla de razas. Las ascendencias más comunes son: nativos americanos, europeos y africanos. Muchos también tienen ascendencia judía sefardí cristiana nueva de la era colonial . [79] Como resultado de su diversidad racial, los hispanos forman una etnia que comparte un idioma ( español ) y una herencia cultural, en lugar de una raza .
El origen hispano es independiente de la raza y la Oficina del Censo de los Estados Unidos lo denomina "etnicidad" .
En el censo de Estados Unidos de 2020 , el 20,3 % de los hispanos seleccionó "blanca" como su raza. Esto marcó una gran caída en comparación con el censo de Estados Unidos de 2010 en el que el 53,0 % de los hispanos se identificaron como "blancos". [80] Estos hispanos representan 12 579 626 personas o el 3,8 % de la población.
Más del 42% de los hispanoamericanos se identifican como " de alguna otra raza ". [81] De todos los estadounidenses que marcaron la casilla "de alguna otra raza", el 97 por ciento eran hispanos. [82] Estos hispanos representan 26.225.882 personas o el 42,2% de la población hispana.
Más de la mitad de los encuestados de " dos o más razas " eran hispanos. [83] Estos hispanos representan 20.299.960 personas o el 32,7% de la población hispana.
La mayor cantidad de hispanos negros provienen de las islas del Caribe español, incluidas las comunidades cubana, dominicana , panameña y puertorriqueña.
En Puerto Rico, la gente tiene cierta ascendencia indígena americana nativa, así como ascendencia europea y de las islas Canarias. También hay una población de ascendencia predominantemente africana, así como poblaciones de ascendencia nativa americana, así como aquellas con ascendencias mezcladas. Los cubanos son en su mayoría de ascendencia ibérica y canaria, con algo de herencia de los indígenas nativos del Caribe. También hay poblaciones de ascendencia negra subsahariana y personas multirraciales. [84] [85] [86] La raza y la cultura de cada país hispano y su diáspora en los Estados Unidos difieren según la historia y la geografía.
Welch y Sigelman encontraron, a partir del año 2000, una menor interacción entre latinos de diferentes nacionalidades (como entre cubanos y mexicanos) que entre latinos y no latinos. [87] Esto es un recordatorio de que, si bien a menudo se los trata como tales, los latinos en los Estados Unidos no son un monolito y a menudo ven su propia identidad étnica o nacional como muy diferente de la de otros latinos. [87]
Un estudio de ADN automosal publicado en 2019, centrado específicamente en la ascendencia nativa americana en diferentes grupos étnicos/raciales dentro de los EE. UU., encontró que los estadounidenses hispanos autoidentificados tenían una cantidad promedio más alta de ascendencia nativa americana en comparación con los estadounidenses negros y blancos no hispanos . En promedio, se encontró que los estadounidenses hispanos eran un poco más de la mitad europeos, alrededor del 38% nativos americanos y menos del 10% africanos. [93] [94] Sin embargo, estos resultados, al ser un promedio de toda la población hispana, varían marcadamente entre individuos y entre regiones. Los participantes hispanos de las regiones de la Costa Oeste y el Centro Sur Oeste , donde la población hispana es predominantemente mexicano-americana , [95] tenían un promedio de 43% de ascendencia nativa americana. [94] Por otro lado, aquellos de la región del Atlántico Medio , donde la población hispana es predominantemente de ascendencia puertorriqueña o dominicana , [96] tenían un promedio de solo 11% de ascendencia nativa americana. [94]
En 2014, un tercio, o 17,9 millones, de la población hispana tenía menos de 18 años y una cuarta parte, 14,6 millones, eran millennials . Esto los convierte en más de la mitad de la población hispana en los Estados Unidos. [97]
Con el aumento de la población hispana en los Estados Unidos, los hispanos han tenido un impacto considerable en el sistema K-12. En 2011-12, los hispanos representaban el 24% de todas las inscripciones en los Estados Unidos, incluido el 52% y el 51% de la matrícula en California y Texas, respectivamente. [98] Investigaciones posteriores muestran que la población hispana seguirá creciendo en los Estados Unidos, lo que implica que más hispanos poblarán las escuelas estadounidenses.
El estado de la educación hispana muestra algunas señales de esperanza. En primer lugar, los estudiantes hispanos que asisten a preescolar o jardín de infantes tienen más probabilidades de asistir a programas de día completo. [98] En segundo lugar, los hispanos en educación primaria son el segundo grupo más representado en los programas para superdotados y talentosos. [98] En tercer lugar, las puntuaciones promedio de los hispanos en NAEP en matemáticas y lectura han aumentado de manera constante durante los últimos 10 años. [98] Por último, los hispanos tienen más probabilidades que otros grupos, incluidos los blancos, de ir a la universidad. [98]
Sin embargo, sus logros académicos en la educación infantil, primaria y secundaria están por detrás de los de otros grupos. [98] Por ejemplo, sus puntajes promedio de NAEP en matemáticas y lectura fueron más bajos que los de todos los demás grupos, excepto los afroamericanos, y tienen la tasa de deserción escolar más alta de todos los grupos, 13% a pesar de haber disminuido del 24%. [98]
Para explicar estas disparidades, algunos académicos han sugerido que existe una "crisis educativa" hispana debido a políticas sociales y escolares fallidas. [99] Con este fin, los académicos han ofrecido además varias razones potenciales, incluidas las barreras lingüísticas, la pobreza y el estatus de inmigrante/nacimiento, que dan como resultado que los hispanos no tengan un buen desempeño académico. [100] [101]
En la actualidad, los estudiantes hispanos representan el 80% de los estudiantes de inglés en los Estados Unidos. [102] En 2008-2009, 5,3 millones de estudiantes fueron clasificados como estudiantes de inglés (ELL) desde preescolar hasta el 12º grado. [103] Esto es el resultado de que muchos estudiantes ingresan al sistema educativo a diferentes edades, aunque la mayoría de los ELL no nacieron en el extranjero. [103] Para proporcionar instrucción en inglés a los estudiantes hispanos ha habido una multitud de programas de idioma inglés. Las escuelas hacen exigencias en lo que respecta a la fluidez en inglés. Hay requisitos de prueba para certificar a los estudiantes que no son hablantes nativos de inglés en escritura, habla, lectura y comprensión auditiva, por ejemplo. Toman una prueba ELPAC, que evalúa su eficiencia en inglés. Esta evaluación determina si se consideran estudiantes ELL o no. Para los estudiantes hispanos, ser un estudiante ELL tendrá un gran impacto porque es una presión adicional para aprobar un examen adicional aparte de sus propias clases originales. Además, si el examen no se aprueba antes de que comiencen a asistir a la escuela secundaria, el estudiante se quedará atrás en sus cursos debido a los cursos ELD adicionales en lugar de tomar sus clases normales en ese año. [104] Sin embargo, la gran mayoría de estos programas son de inmersión en inglés, lo que posiblemente socave la cultura y el conocimiento de los estudiantes de su lengua materna. [101] Como tal, sigue habiendo un gran debate dentro de las escuelas sobre qué programa puede abordar estas disparidades lingüísticas.
Hay más de cinco millones de ELL de todo el mundo que asisten a escuelas públicas en los Estados Unidos y hablan al menos 460 idiomas diferentes . [104] Los inmigrantes indocumentados no siempre han tenido acceso a la educación obligatoria en los Estados Unidos. Sin embargo, desde el caso histórico de la Corte Suprema Plyler v. Doe en 1982, los inmigrantes han recibido acceso a la educación K-12. Esto impactó significativamente a todos los grupos de inmigrantes, incluidos los hispanos. Sin embargo, su logro académico depende de varios factores que incluyen, entre otros, el momento de llegada y la escolarización en el país de origen. [105] Cuando los hablantes no nativos llegan a los Estados Unidos, el estudiante no solo ingresa a un nuevo país, idioma o cultura, sino que también ingresa a una cultura de pruebas para determinar todo, desde sus colocaciones hasta el avance al siguiente nivel de grado en su educación. [104] Además, el estado migratorio/de nacimiento de los hispanos juega un papel importante con respecto a su logro académico. Por ejemplo, los hispanos de primera y segunda generación superan a sus contrapartes de generaciones posteriores. [106] Además, sus aspiraciones también parecen disminuir. [107] Esto tiene implicaciones importantes para su futuro postsecundario.
Existe un término “bilingües simultáneos” que surge de la investigación de Guadalupe Valdez [108], quien afirma que lo utilizan los individuos que adquieren dos idiomas como “primera” lengua; que la mayoría de los bilingües circunstanciales estadounidenses adquieren primero su lengua étnica o de inmigrante y luego adquieren el inglés. El período de adquisición de la segunda lengua se conoce como bilingüismo incipiente.
El porcentaje de venezolanos con título universitario o superior es del 50%, mientras que el de ecuatorianos de 25 años o más es del 18%. Entre los grupos hispanos más numerosos, el porcentaje de cubanos con título universitario o superior es del 25%, el de puertorriqueños es del 16%, el de dominicanos es del 15% y el de mexicanos es del 11%. Más del 21% de los dominicanos de segunda generación tienen título universitario, porcentaje ligeramente inferior al promedio nacional (28%) pero significativamente superior al de los mexicanos nacidos en Estados Unidos (13%) y los puertorriqueños nacidos en Estados Unidos (12%). [110]
Los hispanos constituyen el segundo o tercer grupo étnico más numeroso en las universidades de la Ivy League , consideradas las más prestigiosas de los Estados Unidos. La matrícula hispana en las universidades de la Ivy League ha aumentado gradualmente a lo largo de los años. Hoy en día, los hispanos representan entre el 8% de los estudiantes de la Universidad de Yale y el 15% de la Universidad de Columbia . [111] Por ejemplo, el 18% de los estudiantes de la promoción de 2018 de la Universidad de Harvard son hispanos. [112]
Los hispanos tienen una matrícula significativa en muchas otras universidades importantes, como la Universidad de Texas en El Paso (70% de los estudiantes), la Universidad Internacional de Florida (63%), la Universidad de Miami (27%) y el MIT , la UCLA y la UC-Berkeley con un 15% cada una. En la Universidad de Stanford , los hispanos son el tercer grupo étnico más grande detrás de los blancos no hispanos y los asiáticos, con un 18% de la población estudiantil. [113]
Mientras los hispanos estudian en colegios y universidades de todo el país, algunos optan por asistir a instituciones designadas por el gobierno federal para servir a los hispanos , instituciones que están acreditadas, otorgan títulos, son instituciones de educación superior públicas o privadas sin fines de lucro con un 25 por ciento o más de matrícula total de estudiantes hispanos de pregrado equivalentes a tiempo completo (FTE). Hay más de 270 instituciones de educación superior que han sido designadas como HSI. [115]
En 2016, la esperanza de vida de los hispanoamericanos era de 81,8 años, superior a la de los blancos (78,6 años). [130] La investigación sobre la " paradoja hispana " (la aparente ventaja de mortalidad bien establecida de los hispanoamericanos en comparación con los blancos, a pesar del estatus socioeconómico más aventajado de estos últimos) se ha explicado principalmente por "(1) la migración relacionada con la salud hacia y desde los EE. UU.; y (2) los mecanismos de protección social y cultural, como el mantenimiento de estilos de vida y comportamientos saludables adoptados en los países de origen, y la disponibilidad de amplias redes sociales en los EE. UU." [131] La hipótesis del "sesgo del salmón", que sugiere que la ventaja de salud de los hispanos es atribuible a tasas más altas de migración de retorno entre los migrantes menos saludables, ha recibido cierto apoyo en la literatura académica. [132] Un estudio de 2019, que examinó la salud comparativamente mejor de los hispanoamericanos nacidos en el extranjero, cuestionó la hipótesis de que una orientación más fuerte hacia la familia ( familismo ) contribuía a esta ventaja. [133] Algunos investigadores han sugerido que es probable que la ventaja de mortalidad hispana desaparezca debido a las mayores tasas de obesidad y diabetes entre los hispanos en relación con los blancos, aunque las menores tasas de tabaquismo (y, por lo tanto, de mortalidad atribuible al tabaquismo ) entre los hispanos pueden contrarrestar esto hasta cierto punto. [131]
En 2017, aproximadamente el 19% de los hispanoamericanos carecía de cobertura de seguro médico , lo que representa la tasa más alta de todos los grupos étnicos, excepto los indígenas estadounidenses y los nativos de Alaska. [134] En términos de extensión de la cobertura de salud, los hispanos fueron los más beneficiados entre los grupos étnicos de EE. UU. por la Ley de Atención Médica Asequible (ACA); entre los hispanos no ancianos, la tasa de personas sin seguro disminuyó del 26,7% en 2013 al 14,2% en 2017. [134] Entre la población hispana no anciana sin seguro en 2017, aproximadamente el 53% eran no ciudadanos, aproximadamente el 39% eran ciudadanos nacidos en EE. UU. y aproximadamente el 9% eran ciudadanos naturalizados. [134] (La ACA no ayuda a los inmigrantes indocumentados o inmigrantes legales con menos de cinco años de residencia en los Estados Unidos a obtener cobertura). [134]
Según un estudio de 2013, las mujeres mexicanas tienen la tasa más alta de personas sin seguro (54,6%) en comparación con otros inmigrantes (26,2%), negros (22,5%) y blancos (13,9%). [135] Según el estudio, las mujeres mexicanas son el grupo femenino inmigrante más grande en los Estados Unidos y también son las que corren mayor riesgo de desarrollar enfermedades prevenibles. [135] Múltiples factores como el acceso limitado a la atención médica, el estatus legal y los ingresos aumentan el riesgo de desarrollar enfermedades prevenibles porque muchos inmigrantes indocumentados posponen las visitas de rutina al médico hasta que enferman gravemente.
Algunas familias que están en proceso de cruzar fronteras ilegalmente pueden sufrir el riesgo de ser atrapadas y separadas por agentes de patrulla fronteriza. Los migrantes también corren el peligro de ser separados si no traen suficientes recursos, como agua, para que todos sus miembros puedan seguir cruzando. Una vez que los inmigrantes ilegales han llegado al nuevo país, pueden temer redadas en sus lugares de trabajo donde son detenidos y deportados.
La separación familiar pone a los niños nacidos en Estados Unidos, a los niños indocumentados y a sus padres inmigrantes ilegales en riesgo de depresión y síndrome de mala adaptación familiar. Los efectos suelen ser a largo plazo y el impacto se extiende al nivel comunitario. Los niños pueden experimentar traumas emocionales y cambios de comportamiento a largo plazo. Además, cuando los padres son retirados a la fuerza, los niños suelen desarrollar sentimientos de abandono y pueden culparse a sí mismos por lo que le ha sucedido a su familia. Algunos niños que son víctimas de cruces fronterizos ilegales que resultan en la separación familiar creen en la posibilidad de no volver a ver a sus padres. Estos efectos pueden causar un apego negativo entre padres e hijos. La reunificación puede ser difícil debido a las leyes de inmigración y las restricciones de reingreso que afectan aún más la salud mental de los niños y los padres. [136] Los padres que abandonan su país de origen también experimentan experiencias negativas de salud mental. Según un estudio publicado en 2013, el 46% de los hombres migrantes mexicanos que participaron en el estudio informaron niveles elevados de síntomas depresivos. [137] En los últimos años, la duración de la estancia de los migrantes ha aumentado, de 3 años a casi una década. [137] Los migrantes que se separaron de sus familias, ya sea que estuvieran casados o solteros, experimentaron una mayor depresión que los hombres casados acompañados de sus esposas. [137] Además, el estudio también reveló que los hombres que están separados de sus familias son más propensos a vivir en condiciones más duras, como el hacinamiento en las viviendas, y están bajo una mayor presión para enviar remesas para ayudar a sus familias. Estas condiciones generan un estrés adicional en los migrantes y a menudo empeoran su depresión. Las familias que emigraron juntas experimentan mejores condiciones de vida, reciben aliento emocional y motivación mutua y comparten un sentido de solidaridad. También tienen más probabilidades de desenvolverse con éxito en los sistemas de empleo y atención médica en el nuevo país y no se ven presionadas para enviar remesas a sus hogares.
La Ley de Reforma de la Inmigración Ilegal y Responsabilidad de los Inmigrantes de 1996 cambió significativamente la forma en que Estados Unidos lidiaba con la inmigración. Bajo esta nueva ley, los inmigrantes que permanecieran más tiempo del permitido por sus visas o que se encontraran en Estados Unidos ilegalmente estaban sujetos a ser detenidos y/o deportados sin representación legal. Los inmigrantes que violaran estas leyes podrían no ser autorizados a regresar al país. De manera similar, esta ley dificultó la entrada a Estados Unidos u obtener estatus legal a otros inmigrantes. Estas leyes también ampliaron los tipos de delitos que pueden considerarse dignos de deportación para inmigrantes documentados. [136] Las políticas promulgadas por futuros presidentes limitan aún más el número de inmigrantes que ingresan al país y su expulsión acelerada.
Muchas familias de inmigrantes ilegales no pueden disfrutar de sus actividades cotidianas sin tener cuidado porque temen encontrarse con agentes de inmigración, lo que limita su participación en eventos comunitarios. Las familias indocumentadas tampoco confían en las instituciones y servicios gubernamentales. Debido a su miedo a encontrarse con agentes de inmigración, los inmigrantes ilegales a menudo se sienten excluidos y aislados, lo que puede conducir al desarrollo de problemas de salud mental como depresión y ansiedad. [136] Los efectos nocivos de ser excluido del resto de la sociedad no se limitan solo a los inmigrantes indocumentados, sino que afectan a toda la familia, incluso si algunos de los miembros tienen un estatus legal. Los niños a menudo informan haber sido víctimas de acoso escolar por parte de sus compañeros de clase porque sus padres son indocumentados. [138] Esto puede hacer que se sientan aislados y desarrollen un sentimiento de inferioridad que puede afectar negativamente a su rendimiento académico.
A pesar de las dificultades que enfrentan las familias hispanas, han encontrado formas de mantenerse motivadas. Muchos inmigrantes usan la religión como fuente de motivación. Los inmigrantes mexicanos creían que las dificultades que enfrentan son parte del plan más grande de Dios y creen que su vida mejorará al final. Mantuvieron su fe fuerte y oraron todos los días, esperando que Dios mantuviera a sus familias a salvo. [138] Los inmigrantes participan en los servicios religiosos y se relacionan con otros inmigrantes que comparten las mismas experiencias. [136] Los hispanos indocumentados también encuentran apoyo de amigos, familiares y la comunidad que sirven como mecanismos de afrontamiento. Algunos hispanos afirman que sus hijos son la razón por la que tienen la fuerza para seguir adelante. Quieren que sus hijos tengan un futuro y les dan cosas que ellos mismos no pueden tener. [138] La comunidad puede proporcionar ciertos recursos que las familias inmigrantes necesitan, como tutoría para sus hijos, asistencia financiera y servicios de asesoramiento. [136] Algunos identificaron que mantener una actitud mental positiva los ayudó a enfrentar el estrés que experimentan. Muchos inmigrantes se niegan a vivir una vida con un miedo constante que los lleve a la depresión, con el fin de disfrutar de la vida en los Estados Unidos. [138] Dado que muchos inmigrantes tienen fuentes de ingresos inestables, muchos planifican con anticipación para evitar futuros problemas financieros. Reservan dinero y encuentran formas de ahorrarlo en lugar de gastarlo, como aprender a reparar electrodomésticos por sí mismos. [138]
Muchas familias hispanas emigran en busca de mejores oportunidades económicas para poder enviar remesas a sus hogares. La indocumentación limita las posibilidades de empleo que los inmigrantes aceptan y muchos tienen dificultades para encontrar un trabajo estable. Muchos hispanos denuncian que las empresas los rechazan porque no tienen un número de Seguro Social. Si logran conseguir un trabajo, los inmigrantes corren el riesgo de perderlo si su empleador descubre que no pueden proporcionar pruebas de residencia o ciudadanía. Muchos recurren a agencias que no piden identificación, pero esos trabajos suelen ser poco fiables. Para evitar ser detenidos y deportados, muchos tienen que trabajar bajo explotación. En un estudio, un participante informó: "Si alguien sabe que no tienes los papeles... esa persona es un peligro. Mucha gente los estafa... si saben que no tienes los papeles, con todo lo que dicen es 'oye, voy a llamar a inmigración'". [138] Estas condiciones reducen los ingresos que las familias hispanas aportan a su hogar y para algunos resulta muy difícil vivir cada día. Cuando un padre indocumentado es deportado o detenido, los ingresos se reducen significativamente si el otro padre también mantiene económicamente a la familia. El padre que queda tiene que cuidar de la familia y puede resultarle difícil trabajar junto con otras responsabilidades. Incluso si las familias no están separadas, los hispanos viven constantemente con el temor de perder su equilibrio económico.
La vida en la pobreza se ha relacionado con la depresión, la baja autoestima, la soledad, las actividades delictivas y el uso frecuente de drogas entre los jóvenes. [136] Las familias con bajos ingresos no pueden permitirse una vivienda adecuada y algunas de ellas son desalojadas. El entorno en el que crecen los hijos de inmigrantes indocumentados suele estar compuesto por una mala calidad del aire, ruido y toxinas que impiden un desarrollo saludable. [136] Además, estos barrios son propensos a la violencia y las actividades de pandillas, lo que obliga a las familias a vivir con un miedo constante que puede contribuir al desarrollo del trastorno de estrés postraumático, la agresión y la depresión.
En 2017, el censo de Estados Unidos informó que el ingreso familiar promedio de los hispanoamericanos era de $50,486. Este es el tercer aumento anual consecutivo del ingreso familiar promedio de los hogares de origen hispano. [90]
Según el censo de EE. UU., la tasa de pobreza de los hispanos fue del 18,3 por ciento en 2017, una reducción respecto del 19,4 por ciento en 2016. Los hispanos representaban 10,8 millones de personas en situación de pobreza. [90] En comparación, la tasa de pobreza promedio en 2017 para los estadounidenses blancos no hispanos fue del 8,7 por ciento con 17 millones de personas en situación de pobreza, la de los estadounidenses asiáticos fue del 10,0 por ciento con 2 millones de personas en situación de pobreza, y la de los afroamericanos fue del 21,2 por ciento con 9 millones de personas en situación de pobreza. [90]
Entre los grupos hispanos más numerosos durante 2015 se encontraban: hondureños estadounidenses y dominicanos estadounidenses (27%), guatemaltecos estadounidenses (26%), puertorriqueños (24%), mexicanos estadounidenses (23%), salvadoreños estadounidenses (20%), cubanos estadounidenses y venezolanos estadounidenses (17%), ecuatorianos estadounidenses (15%), nicaragüenses estadounidenses (14%), colombianos estadounidenses (13%), argentinos estadounidenses (11%) y peruanos estadounidenses (10%). [140]
La pobreza afecta a muchos estudiantes subrepresentados, ya que las minorías raciales y étnicas tienden a permanecer aisladas en grupos de comunidades de bajos ingresos. Esto da lugar a varias desigualdades, como "la oferta escolar, la calidad de los docentes, el plan de estudios, la orientación y todo tipo de cosas que mantienen a los estudiantes interesados en la escuela y los preparan para graduarse". [141] En el caso de los hispanos, la tasa de pobreza de los niños hispanos en 2004 era del 28,6 por ciento. [102] Además, con esta falta de recursos, las escuelas reproducen estas desigualdades para las generaciones futuras. Para aliviar la pobreza, muchas familias hispanas pueden recurrir a los servicios sociales y comunitarios como recursos.
La diversidad geográfica, política, social, económica y racial de los hispanoamericanos hace que todos los hispanos sean muy diferentes según su herencia familiar y/o su origen nacional. Muchas veces, existen muchas similitudes culturales entre los hispanos de países vecinos y los de países más distantes, es decir, del Caribe español, del Cono Sur, de América Central, etc. Sin embargo, varias características tienden a unir a los hispanos de estos diversos orígenes.
As one of the most important uniting factors of Hispanic Americans, Spanish is an important part of Hispanic culture. Teaching Spanish to children is often one of the most valued skills taught amongst Hispanic families. Spanish is not only closely tied with the person's family, heritage, and overall culture, but valued for increased opportunities in business and one's future professional career. A 2013 Pew Research survey showed that 95% of Hispanics adults said "it's important that future generations of Hispanics speak Spanish".[142][143] Given the United States' proximity to other Spanish-speaking countries, Spanish is being passed on to future American generations. Amongst second-generation Hispanics, 80% speak fluent Spanish, and amongst third-generation Hispanics, 40% speak fluent Spanish.[144] Spanish is also the most popular language taught in the United States.[145][146]
Hispanics have revived the Spanish language in the United States, first brought to North America during the Spanish colonial period in the 16th century. Spanish is the oldest European language in the United States, spoken uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries, since the founding of Saint Augustine, Florida in 1565.[147][148][149][150] Today, 90% of all Hispanics speak English, and at least 78% speak fluent Spanish.[151] Additionally, 2.8 million non-Hispanic Americans also speak Spanish at home for a total of 41.1 million.[92]
With 40% of Hispanic Americans being immigrants,[152] and with many of the 60% who are US-born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large. At home, at least 69% of all Hispanics over the age of five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English-speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish speakers. Another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home.[151]
The Spanish dialects spoken in the United States differ depending on the country of origin of the person or the person's family heritage. However, generally, Spanish spoken in the Southwest is Mexican Spanish or Chicano Spanish. A variety of Spanish native to the Southwest spoken by descendants of the early Spanish colonists in New Mexico and Colorado is known as Traditional New Mexican Spanish. One of the major distinctions of Traditional New Mexican Spanish is its use of distinct vocabulary and grammatical forms that make New Mexican Spanish unique amongst Spanish dialects. The Spanish spoken in the East Coast is generally Caribbean Spanish and is heavily influenced by the Spanish of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. Isleño Spanish, descended from Canarian Spanish, is the historic Spanish dialect spoken by the descendants of the earliest Spanish colonists beginning in the 18th century in Louisiana. Spanish spoken elsewhere throughout the country varies, although is generally Mexican Spanish.[92][156]
Heritage Spanish speakers tend to speak Spanish with near-native level phonology, but a more limited command of morphosyntax.[157] Hispanics who speak Spanish as a second language often speak with English accents.
Hispanics have influenced the way Americans speak with the introduction of many Spanish words into the English language. Amongst younger generations of Hispanics, Spanglish, a term for any mix of Spanish and English, is common in speaking. As they are fluent in both languages, speakers will often switch between Spanish and English throughout the conversation. Spanglish is particularly common in Hispanic-majority cities and communities such as Miami, Hialeah, San Antonio, Los Angeles and parts of New York City.[158]
Hispanics have also influenced the way English is spoken in the United States. In Miami, for example, the Miami dialect has evolved as the most common form of English spoken and heard in Miami today. This is a native dialect of English, and was developed amongst second and third generations of Cuban Americans in Miami. Today, it is commonly heard everywhere throughout the city. Gloria Estefan and Enrique Iglesias are examples of people who speak with the Miami dialect. Another major English dialect, is spoken by Chicanos and Tejanos in the Southwestern United States, called Chicano English. George Lopez and Selena are examples of speakers of Chicano English.[159] An English dialect spoken by Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups is called New York Latino English; Jennifer Lopez and Cardi B are examples of people who speak with the New York Latino dialect.
When speaking in English, American Hispanics may often insert Spanish tag and filler items such as tú sabes, este, and órale, into sentences as a marker of ethnic identity and solidarity. The same often occurs with grammatical words like pero.[160]
According to a Pew Center study which was conducted in 2019, the majority of Hispanic Americans are Christians (72%),[161] Among American Hispanics, as of 2018–19, 47% are Catholic, 24% are Protestant, 1% are Mormon, less than 1% are Orthodox Christian, 3% are members of non-Christian faiths, and 23% are unaffiliated.[161] The proportion of Hispanics who are Catholic has dropped from 2009 (when it was 57%), while the proportion of unaffiliated Hispanics has increased since 2009 (when it was 15%).[161] Among Hispanic Protestant community, most are evangelical, but some belong to mainline denominations.[162] Compared to Catholic, unaffiliated, and mainline Protestant Hispanics; Evangelical Protestant Hispanics are substantially more likely to attend services weekly, pray daily, and adhere to biblical liberalism.[162] As of 2014, about 67% of Hispanic Protestants and about 52% of Hispanic Catholics were renewalist, meaning that they described themselves as Pentecosal or charismatic Christians (in the Catholic tradition, called Catholic charismatic renewal).[163]
Catholic affiliation is much higher among first-generation Hispanic immigrants than it is among second and third-generation Hispanic immigrants, who exhibit a fairly high rate of conversion to Protestantism or the unaffiliated camp.[164] According to Andrew Greeley, as many as 600,000 American Hispanics leave Catholicism for Protestant churches every year, and this figure is much higher in Texas and Florida.[165] Hispanic Catholics are developing youth and social programs to retain members.[166]
Hispanics make up a substantial proportion (almost 40%) of Catholics in the United States,[167] although the number of American Hispanic priests is low relative to Hispanic membership in the church.[168] In 2019, José Horacio Gómez, Archbishop of Los Angeles and a naturalized American citizen born in Mexico, was elected as president of the US Conference of Catholic Bishops.[167]
The United States is home to thousands of Spanish-language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial and some non-commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low-power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting US Hispanic consumers. Some of the outlets are online versions of their printed counterparts and some online exclusively.
Increased use of Spanish-language media leads to increased levels of group consciousness, according to survey data. The differences in attitudes are due to the diverging goals of Spanish-language and English-language media. The effect of using Spanish-language media serves to promote a sense of group consciousness among Hispanics by reinforcing roots in the Hispanic world and the commonalities among Hispanics of varying national origin.[170][171]
The first Hispanic-American owned major film studio in the United States is based in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2017, Ozzie and Will Areu purchased Tyler Perry's former studio to establish Areu Bros. Studios.[172][173]
Spanish language radio is the largest non-English broadcasting media.[174] While other foreign language broadcasting declined steadily, Spanish broadcasting grew steadily from the 1920s to the 1970s. The 1930s were boom years.[175] The early success depended on the concentrated geographical audience in Texas and the Southwest.[176] American stations were close to Mexico which enabled a steady circular flow of entertainers, executives and technicians, and stimulated the creative initiatives of Hispanic radio executives, brokers, and advertisers. Ownership was increasingly concentrated in the 1960s and 1970s. The industry sponsored the now-defunct trade publication Sponsor from the late 1940s to 1968.[177] Spanish-language radio has influenced American and Hispanic discourse on key current affairs issues such as citizenship and immigration.[178]
Notable Hispanic-oriented media outlets include:
Because of different cultures throughout the Hispanic world, there are various music forms throughout Hispanic countries, with different sounds and origins. Reggaeton and hip hop are genres that are most popular to Hispanic youth in the United States. Recently Latin trap, trap corridos, and Dominican dembow have gained popularity.[180][181][182]
Soccer is a common sport for Hispanics from outside of the Caribbean region, particularly immigrants. Baseball is a common among Caribbean Hispanics. Other popular sports include boxing, gridiron football, and basketball.
Hispanic food, particularly Mexican food, has influenced American cuisine and eating habits. Mexican cuisine has become mainstream in American culture. Across the United States, tortillas and salsa are arguably becoming as common as hamburger buns and ketchup. Tortilla chips have surpassed potato chips in annual sales, and plantain chips popular in Caribbean cuisines have continued to increase sales.[183] The avocado has been described as "America's new favorite fruit"; its largest market within the US is among Hispanic Americans.[184]
Due to the large Mexican-American population in the Southwestern United States, and its proximity to Mexico, Mexican food there is believed to be some of the best in the United States. Cubans brought Cuban cuisine to Miami and today, cortaditos, pastelitos de guayaba and empanadas are common mid-day snacks in the city. Cuban culture has changed Miami's coffee drinking habits, and today a café con leche or a cortadito is commonly had at one of the city's numerous coffee shops.[185] The Cuban sandwich, developed in Miami, is now a staple and icon of the city's cuisine and culture.[186]
Hispanic culture places a strong value on family, and is commonly taught to Hispanic children as one of the most important values in life. Statistically, Hispanic families tend to have larger and closer knit families than the American average. Hispanic families tend to prefer to live near other family members. This may mean that three or sometimes four generations may be living in the same household or near each other, although four generations is uncommon in the United States. The role of grandparents is believed to be very important in the upbringing of children.[187]
Hispanics tend to be very group-oriented, and an emphasis is placed on the well-being of the family above the individual. The extended family plays an important part of many Hispanic families, and frequent social, family gatherings are common. Traditional rites of passages, particularly Roman Catholic sacraments: such as baptisms, birthdays, first Holy Communions, quinceañeras, Confirmations, graduations and weddings are all popular moments of family gatherings and celebrations in Hispanic families.[188][189]
Education is another important priority for Hispanic families. Education is seen as the key towards continued upward mobility in the United States among Hispanic families. A 2010 study by the Associated Press showed that Hispanics place a higher emphasis on education than the average American. Hispanics expect their children to graduate university.[190][191]
Hispanic youth today stay at home with their parents longer than before. This is due to more years spent studying and the difficulty of finding a paid job that meets their aspirations.[192]
Hispanic Americans, like many immigrant groups before them, are out-marrying at high rates. Out-marriages comprised 17.4% of all existing Hispanic marriages in 2008.[197] The rate was higher for newlyweds (which excludes immigrants who are already married): Among all newlyweds in 2010, 25.7% of all Hispanics married a non-Hispanic (this compares to out-marriage rates of 9.4% of White people, 17.1% of Black people, and 27.7% of Asians). The rate was larger for native-born Hispanics, with 36.2% of native-born Hispanics (both men and women) out-marrying compared to 14.2% of foreign-born Hispanics.[198] The difference is attributed to recent immigrants tending to marry within their immediate immigrant community due to commonality of language, proximity, familial connections, and familiarity.[197]
In 2008, 81% of Hispanics who married out married non-Hispanic White people, 9% married non-Hispanic Black people, 5% non-Hispanic Asians, and the remainder married non-Hispanic, multi-racial partners.[197]
Of approximately 275,500 new interracial or interethnic marriages in 2010, 43.3% were White-Hispanic (compared to White-Asian at 14.4%, White-Black at 11.9%, and other combinations at 30.4%; "other combinations" consists of pairings between different minority groups and multi-racial people).[198] Unlike those for marriage to Black people and Asians, intermarriage rates of Hispanics to White people do not vary by gender. The combined median earnings of White/Hispanic couples are lower than those of White/White couples but higher than those of Hispanic/Hispanic couples. 23% of Hispanic men who married White women have a college degree compared to only 10% of Hispanic men who married a Hispanic woman. 33% of Hispanic women who married a White husband are college-educated compared to 13% of Hispanic women who married a Hispanic man.[198]
Attitudes among non-Hispanics toward intermarriage with Hispanics are mostly favorable, with 81% of White people, 76% of Asians and 73% of Black people "being fine" with a member of their family marrying a Hispanic and an additional 13% of White people, 19% of Asians and 16% of Black people "being bothered but accepting of the marriage". Only 2% of White people, 4% of Asians, and 5% of Black people would not accept a marriage of their family member to a Hispanic.[197]
Hispanic attitudes toward intermarriage with non-Hispanics are likewise favorable, with 81% "being fine" with marriages to White people and 73% "being fine" with marriages to Black people. A further 13% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a White and 22% admitted to "being bothered but accepting" of a marriage of a family member to a Black. Only 5% of Hispanics objected outright marriage of a family member to a non-Hispanic Black and 2% to a non-Hispanic White.[197]
Unlike intermarriage with other racial groups, intermarriage with non-Hispanic Black people varies by nationality of origin. Puerto Ricans have by far the highest rates of intermarriage with Black people, of all major Hispanic national groups, who also has the highest overall intermarriage rate among Hispanics.[190][200][201][202][203][204][205][206][207][208][excessive citations] Cubans have the highest rate of intermarriage with non-Hispanic White people, of all major Hispanic national groups, and are the most assimilated into White American culture.[209][210]
As Hispanic migrants become the norm in the United States, the effects of this migration on the identity of these migrants and their kin becomes most evident in the younger generations. Crossing the borders changes the identities of both the youth and their families. Often "one must pay special attention to the role expressive culture plays as both entertainment and as a site in which identity is played out, empowered, and reformed" because it is "sometimes in opposition to dominant norms and practices and sometimes in conjunction with them".[211] The exchange of their culture of origin with American culture creates a dichotomy within the values that the youth find important, therefore changing what it means to be Hispanic in the global sphere.
Along with feeling that they are neither from the country of their ethnic background nor the United States, a new identity within the United States is formed called latinidad. This is especially seen in cosmopolitan social settings like New York City, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Underway is "the intermeshing of different Latino subpopulations has laid the foundations for the emergence and ongoing evolution of a strong sense of latinidad" which establishes a "sense of cultural affinity and identity deeply rooted in what many Hispanics perceive to be a shared historical, spiritual, aesthetic and linguistic heritage, and a growing sense of cultural affinity and solidarity in the social context of the United States."[211] This unites Hispanics as one, creating cultural kin with other Hispanic ethnicities.
In a 1998 study of Mexican Americans it was found that males were more likely to endorse the notion than men should be the sole breadwinners of the family, while Mexican American women did not endorse this notion.[212]
Prior to the 1960s countercultural movement, Mexican men often felt an exaggerated need to be the sole breadwinner of their families.[213] There are two sides to machismo, the man who has a strong work ethic and lives up to his responsibilities, or the man who heavily drinks and therefore displays acts of unpleasant behavior towards his family.[212]
The traditional roles of women in a Hispanic community are of housewife and mother, a woman's role is to cook, clean, and care for her children and husband; putting herself and her needs last.[214] The typical structure of a Hispanic family forces women to defer authority to her husband, allowing him to make the important decisions, that both the woman and children must abide by.[215] In traditional Hispanic households, women and young girls are homebodies or muchachas de la casa ("girls of the house"), showing that they abide "by the cultural norms ... [of] respectability, chastity, and family honor [as] valued by the [Hispanic] community".[216]
Migration to the United States can change the identity of Hispanic youth in various ways, including how they carry their gendered identities.[217] However, when Hispanic women come to the United States, they tend to adapt to the perceived social norms of this new country and their social location changes as they become more independent and able to live without the financial support of their families or partners.[217] The unassimilated community views these adapting women as being de la calle ("of [or from] the street"), transgressive, and sexually promiscuous.[217] A women's motive for pursuing an education or career is to prove she can care and make someone of herself, breaking the traditional gender role that a Hispanic woman can only serve as a mother or housewife, thus changing a woman's role in society.[218] Some Hispanic families in the United States "deal with young women's failure to adhere to these culturally prescribed norms of proper gendered behavior in a variety of ways, including sending them to live in ... [the sending country] with family members, regardless of whether or not ... [the young women] are sexually active".[219] Now there has been a rise in the Hispanic community where both men and women are known to work and split the household chores among themselves; women are encouraged to gain an education, degree, and pursue a career.[220]
According to polling data released in 2022, 11% of Hispanic American adults identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender. This is more than twice the rate of White Americans or African Americans. Over 20% of Hispanic Millennials and Gen Z claimed an LGBT identity.[221] The growth of the young Hispanic population is driving an increase of the LGBT community in the United States.[222] Studies have shown that Hispanic Americans are over-represented among transgender people in the United States.[223][224]
According to Gattamorta, et al. (2018), the socially constructed notion of machismo reinforces male gender roles in Hispanic culture, which can lead to internalized homophobia in Hispanic gay men and increase mental health issues and suicidal ideation.[225] However, according to Reyes Salinas, more recent research shows that there has been an explosive growth of LGBT self-identification among young Hispanic Americans, which may signal that the Hispanic attitudes towards LGBT have broken down.[221] According to Marina Franco, polling conducted in 2022 suggests that the Hispanic community in America is largely accepting of LGBT people and gay marriage, which is significant in light of the rapid growth of LGBT self-identification among Hispanics.[226]
As a result of the rapid growth of the Hispanic population, there has been some tension with other minority populations, especially the African-American population, as Hispanics have increasingly moved into once exclusively Black areas.[227][228] There has also been increasing cooperation between minority groups to work together to attain political influence.[229][230]
Hispanics differ on their political views depending on their location and background. The majority (57%)[237] either identify as or support the Democrats, and 23% identify as Republicans.[237] This 34-point gap as of December 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier. While traditionally a key Democratic Party constituency at-large,[238] beginning in the early 2010s, Hispanics have begun to split[239] between the Democrats and the Republican Party.[240][241][242] In a 2022 study, it was found that 64% of Latinos surveyed had positive attitudes towards President Obama's executive actions on immigration, which was notably four percentage points lower than that of non-Hispanic Black respondents. It was also noted that support for undocumented immigrants was lowest among Latinos living in developing 'bedroom communities' or newly built suburbs designed for commuters. This was also the case for Latinos of affluent income levels, however they were still most likely to display a positive attitude towards undocumented immigrants, especially when compared to their non-Hispanic White counterparts.[243]
Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Chilean Americans, and Venezuelan Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans. Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor progressive political ideologies and support the Democrats. However, because the latter groups are far more numerous—as, again, Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics—the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with the ethnic group overall.
Some political organizations associated with Hispanic Americans are League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC), the National Council of La Raza (NCLR), the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation and the National Institute for Latino Policy.
The United States has a population of over 60 million of Hispanic Americans, of whom 27 million are citizens eligible to vote (13% of total eligible voters); therefore, Hispanics have a very important effect on presidential elections since the vote difference between two main parties is usually around 4%.[244][245][246][247]
During the 1986 midterm elections, Hispanic voter turnout was increasing, although it remained lower compared to other demographic groups. The political concerns of Hispanic communities during this period included immigration reform and civil rights, with modest gains for Latino candidates at state and local levels. In the 1988 presidential election, George H.W. Bush (Republican) and Michael Dukakis (Democrat) were the main contenders, and although Hispanic voters were becoming more engaged, their influence was still emerging. The 1990 Census highlighted the substantial growth of Hispanic populations in the United States, leading to greater attention from political parties to Hispanic issues and concerns.
The 1992 presidential election marked a significant shift as Bill Clinton (Democrat) engaged actively with Hispanic voters, resulting in increased Latino support and signaling a broader Democratic outreach. Clinton's administration would further stimulate Hispanic political activity. The 1994 midterm elections saw Republican gains and were significantly impacted by debates over immigration and welfare reform, including California's Proposition 187, which sought to limit public services for undocumented immigrants and mobilized many Latino voters.
By the 1996 presidential election, Bill Clinton's successful re-election campaign reflected the growing influence of Hispanic voters. Key issues for the Latino community during this time included immigration, education, and healthcare. The period also witnessed an increase in Latino representation in Congress with figures such as Bob Menendez and Luis Gutiérrez emerging as prominent leaders. Overall, the period from 1986 to 1996 marked a critical phase in the evolving political influence and representation of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States.
In the 1996 presidential election, 72% of Hispanics backed President Bill Clinton. In 2000, the Democratic total fell to 62%, and went down again in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 54–44 against Bush.[248] Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Hispanics voted 63–32 for Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Hispanics by a smaller 56–43 margin. Texas Hispanics were split nearly evenly, favoring Kerry 50–49 over their favorite son candidate and Florida Hispanics (who are mostly Cuban American) backed Bush, by a 54–45 margin.
In 1998, California Proposition 227, which sought to eliminate bilingual education in public schools, was passed. This initiative highlighted the political mobilization of Latino communities and their influence on educational policy in California.
The 2000 presidential election was notably close, with George W. Bush winning the presidency over Al Gore. Bush's outreach to Hispanic voters, particularly in battleground states such as Florida, was a significant factor in his narrow victory. Despite the growing visibility of Hispanic candidates, their representation at the national level remained limited. By the 2002 midterm elections, there was a notable increase in Hispanic representation in Congress, with more Latino candidates successfully winning seats in the House of Representatives. This trend continued to grow, reflecting the expanding political engagement of Hispanic Americans. In the 2004 presidential election, George W. Bush was re-elected, with a notable increase in Hispanic support attributed to his campaign's targeted outreach efforts. Prominent Latino figures, including New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson and U.S. Senators Ken Salazar, gained national recognition during this period.
In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal Hispanic immigration and Republican-related Congressional scandals, Hispanics went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed the group voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69–30 margin, with Florida Hispanics for the first time split evenly.
The runoff election in Texas' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Hispanic politics. Democrat Ciro Rodriguez's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Hispanic voters; majority-Hispanic counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez and majority European-American counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla.
In the 2008 Presidential election's Democratic primary, Hispanics participated in larger numbers than before, with Hillary Clinton receiving most of the group's support.[249] Pundits discussed whether Hispanics would not vote for Barack Obama because he was African-American.[229] Hispanics voted 2 to 1 for Mrs. Clinton, even among the younger demographic. In other groups, younger voters went overwhelmingly for Obama.[250] Among Hispanics, 28% said race was involved in their decision, as opposed to 13% for (non-Hispanic) White people.[250] Obama defeated Clinton.
In the matchup between Obama and Republican candidate John McCain, Hispanics supported Obama with 59% to McCain's 29% in the June 30 Gallup tracking poll.[251] This was higher than expected, since McCain had been a leader of the comprehensive immigration reform effort (John McCain was born in Panama to parents who were serving in the US Navy, but raised in the United States).[252] However, McCain had retreated from reform during the Republican primary, damaging his standing among Hispanics.[253][better source needed] Obama took advantage of the situation by running ads in Spanish highlighting McCain's reversal.[254][better source needed]
In the general election, 67% of Hispanics voted for Obama.[255][256] with a relatively strong turnout in states such as Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada and Virginia, helping Obama carry those formerly Republican states. Obama won 70% of non-Cuban Hispanics and 35% of the traditionally Republican Cuban Americans who have a strong presence in Florida. The relative growth of non-Cuban vs Cuban Hispanics also contributed to his carrying Florida's Hispanics with 57% of the vote.[255][257]
While employment and the economy were top concerns for Hispanics, almost 90% of Hispanic voters rated immigration as "somewhat important" or "very important" in a poll taken after the election.[258] Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 had damaged the party's appeal to Hispanics, especially in swing states such as Florida, Nevada and New Mexico.[258] In a Gallup poll of Hispanic voters taken in the final days of June 2008, only 18% of participants identified as Republicans.[251] The 2010 midterm elections highlighted the growing influence of Hispanic Americans in U.S. politics. Marco Rubio, a Republican from Florida, won a Senate seat, enhancing the visibility of Latino politicians in national politics.
Hispanics voted even more heavily for Democrats in the 2012 election with the Democratic incumbent Barack Obama receiving 71% and the Republican challenger Mitt Romney receiving about 27% of the vote.[259][260] Some Hispanic leaders were offended by remarks Romney made during a fundraiser, when he suggested that cultural differences[261] and "the hand of providence"[262][263] help explain why Israelis are more economically successful than Palestinians, and why similar economic disparities exist between other neighbors, such as the United States and Mexico, or Chile and Ecuador.[264] A senior aide to Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas called the remarks racist,[263][265] as did American political scientist Angelo Falcón, president of the National Institute of Latino Policy.[266] Mitt Romney's father was born to American parents in a Mormon colony in Chihuahua, Mexico. The Hispanic vote was crucial to Obama's re-election, particularly in swing states such as Florida, Colorado, and Nevada. The Obama campaign's focus on issues important to Latino voters, including immigration reform and healthcare, helped secure substantial support from the Hispanic community.
"More convincing data" from the 2016 United States presidential election[267] from the polling firm Latino Decisions indicates that Clinton received a higher share of the Hispanic vote, and Trump a lower share, than the Edison exit polls showed. Using wider, more geographically and linguistically representative sampling, Latino Decisions concluded that Clinton won 79% of Hispanic voters (also an improvement over Obama's share in 2008 and 2012), while Trump won only 18% (lower than previous Republicans such as Romney and McCain).[268] Additionally, the 2016 Cooperative Congressional Election Study found that Clinton's share of the Hispanic vote was one percentage point higher than Obama's in 2012, while Trump's was seven percentage points lower than Romney's.[269] Trump's campaign was marked by controversial statements and policies regarding immigration, which galvanized Latino voters.
On June 26, 2018, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, a millennial, won the Democratic primary in New York's 14th congressional district covering parts of The Bronx and Queens in New York City, defeating the incumbent, Democratic Caucus Chair Joe Crowley, in what has been described as the biggest upset victory in the 2018 midterm election season and at the age of 29 years, became the youngest woman ever elected to Congress.[270][271] She is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America and has been endorsed by various politically progressive organizations and individuals.[272] According to a Pew Research Center report, the 2020 election will be the first one when Hispanics are the largest racial or ethnic minority group in the electorate. A record 32 million Hispanics were projected to be eligible to vote in the presidential election, many of them first-time voters. On September 15, 2020, President Donald J. Trump announced his intent to nominate and appoint Eduardo Verastegui, to be a member of the President's Advisory Commission on Hispanic Prosperity if re-elected after days of the Democratic convention.[273]
Hispanic communities across the United States were long held as a single voting bloc, but economic, geographic and cultural differences show stark divides in how Hispanic Americans have cast their ballots in 2020. Hispanics helped deliver Florida to Donald Trump in part because of Cuban Americans and Venezuelan Americans (along with smaller populations such as Nicaraguan Americans and Chilean Americans); President Trump's reelection campaign ran pushing a strong anti-socialism message as a strategy in Florida, to their success. However the perceived anti-immigrant rhetoric resonated with Mexican Americans in Arizona and the COVID-19 pandemic (Arizona being one of the states hardest hit by the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States).[274] Many Latino voters in Nevada are members of the Culinary Union Local 226 and supported Biden based on Right-to-work standards.[275] The takeaway may be this may be the last election cycle that the "Hispanic vote" as a whole is more talked about instead of particular communities within it, such as Cubans, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans and so on. In Texas like in Arizona and Nevada, the Hispanic community mainly being Mexican American; one in three Texan voters is now Hispanic. Biden did win the Hispanic vote in those states. But in Texas, 41 percent to 47 percent of Hispanic voters backed Trump in several heavily Hispanic border counties in the Rio Grande Valley region, a Democratic stronghold. In Florida, Trump won 45 percent of the Hispanic vote, an 11-point improvement from his 2016 performance reported NBC News.[276] Recognizing Hispanics as a population that can not only make a difference in swing states like Arizona, Nevada, Texas or Florida, but also really across the country, even in places like Georgia, North Carolina, Wisconsin, Michigan and Pennsylvania, the number of Hispanic eligible voters may be the reason for the thin margins. In 1984, 37 percent of Hispanics voted for Ronald Reagan and 40 percent voted for George W. Bush in 2004.
In Florida, even though Trump won Florida and gained Hispanic voters, Biden kept 53% of the Hispanic vote and Trump 45%. According to NBC News exit polls, 55% of Cuban Americans, 30% of Puerto Ricans and 48% of other Hispanics voted for Trump.[277]
Subsections of Hispanic voters have a range of historical influences vying to affect their votes. Cuban American voters, mostly concentrated in South Florida, tend to vote Republican in part because of their anathema for socialism, the party of Fidel Castro's government that many of their families fled. Mexican Americans, however, have no such historical relationship with either party. Puerto Rican voters who have left the island might be influenced by the territory's move towards statehood, as a referendum for Trump's relief effort after Hurricane Maria, or regarding how it is taxed.[51] The 2020 presidential election was a major event, with Joe Biden defeating incumbent President Donald Trump. Biden's campaign focused on issues such as immigration reform, healthcare, and economic recovery, which resonated with many Latino voters. Despite Biden's win, Trump made significant inroads with Hispanic voters compared to 2016, particularly in Florida and Texas. This election highlighted the diverse political preferences within the Latino community and the growing complexity of its electoral impact.
Nationwide, Hispanics cast 16.6 million votes in 2020, an increase of 30.9% over the 2016 presidential election.[278]
After representative Filemon Vela Jr. resigned, Mayra Flores won a special election to succeed him, she won the election to the United States House of Representatives in June 2022.[279][280] She was the first Mexican-born woman to serve in the House, but would go on to lose in the 2022 General election to Democrat Vicente Gonzalez.[280][281][282]
Hispanic Americans have made distinguished contributions to the United States in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, film, literature, sports, business and finance, and science.[283]
In 1995, the American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award was created. It is a distinction given to Hispanic performers (actors, film and television directors and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza. The number of Latin nominees at the Grammy Awards lag behind. Talking to People magazine ahead of music's biggest night in 2021, Grammy nominees J Balvin and Ricky Martin reflected on what it is mean to continue to represent Hispanics at awards shows like the Grammys. Martin, who served as a pioneer for the "Latin crossover" in the '90s told "When you get nominated, it's the industry telling you, 'Hey Rick, you did a good job this year, congratulations.' Yes, I need that", the 49-year-old says. "When you walk into the studio, you say, 'This got a Grammy potential.' You hear the songs that do and the ones that don't. It's inevitable." Like Selena Gomez tapping into her roots, the influence Hispanics and reggaetón are having on the mainstream is undeniable.[284]
There are many Hispanic American musicians that have made a significant impact on the music industry and achieved fame within the United States and internationally, such as Christopher Rios better known by his stage name Big Pun, Jennifer Lopez, Joan Baez, Selena Gomez, Demi Lovato, Fergie, Pitbull, Victoria Justice, Linda Ronstadt, Zack de la Rocha, Gloria Estefan, Héctor Lavoe, Celia Cruz, Tito Puente, Kat DeLuna, Selena, Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony, Miguel, Carlos Santana, Christina Aguilera, Bruno Mars, Mariah Carey, Jerry García, Dave Navarro, Santaye, Elvis Crespo, Romeo Santos, Tom Araya, Sonny Sandoval, The Mars Volta, Los Lobos, Villano Antillano, South Park Mexican, Cuco, Malo, OhGeesy, Malu Trevejo, Ice Spice, Young M.A, Lloyd Banks, Exposé, Sweet Sensation, Jellybean, Immortal Technique, Brujeria, Fuerza Regida, Xavi, Aventura, Lunay, Myke Towers, Jay Wheeler, J.I., Amara La Negra, Joseline Hernandez, Lele Pons, Snow Tha Product, The Marías, Ángela Aguilar, Tego Calderón, Prince Royce, Don Omar, Eddie Palmieri, Wisin & Yandel, Melanie Martinez, Mariah Angeliq, That Mexican OT, MC Magic, TKA, La India, George Lamond, Sa-Fire, Cynthia, Lisa Lisa, Julieta Venegas, Intocable, Marisela, Pepe Aguilar, Jon Secada, Chayanne, DannyLux, Eslabon Armado, Iván Cornejo, Grupo Frontera, Yahritza y su Esencia, Herencia de Patrones, Omar Apollo, Eladio Carrión, Kid Frost, Cypress Hill, N.O.R.E., Fat Joe, Mellow Man Ace, Chicano Batman, Delinquent Habits, Lil Rob, Ritchie Valens, Ozomatli, BIA, Plan B, Chencho Corleone, Maye, Kap G, Tha Mexakinz, Brownside, Psycho Realm, A Lighter Shade of Brown, Gilberto Santa Rosa, Noriel, Baby Rasta, Brytiago, Farruko, J Álvarez, Darell, Ñengo Flow, Luis Fonsi, José Feliciano, Daddy Yankee, Lil Suzy, Judy Torres, Nayobe, Willie Colón, Jenni Rivera, Baby Bash, Frankie J, Larry Hernandez, Arcángel, De la Ghetto, Giselle Bellas, Juan Luis Guerra, Residente, Anuel AA, Ozuna, Lil Pump, 6ix9ine, Becky G, Ivy Queen, Cardi B, Kali Uchis, Bad Bunny, Rauw Alejandro, all of the members of all-female band Go Betty Go, Camila Cabello, two members of girl group Fifth Harmony: Lauren Jauregui and Ally Brooke, and two members of the nu metal band Nonpoint.
Hispanic music imported from Cuba (chachachá, mambo, and rhumba) and Mexico (ranchera and mariachi) had brief periods of popularity during the 1950s. Examples of artists include Celia Cruz, who was a Cuban American singer and the most popular Latin artist of the 20th century, gaining twenty-three gold albums during her career. Bill Clinton awarded her the National Medal of Arts in 1994.
Among the Hispanic American musicians who were pioneers in the early stages of rock and roll were Ritchie Valens, who scored several hits, most notably "La Bamba" and Herman Santiago, who wrote the lyrics to the iconic rock and roll song "Why Do Fools Fall in Love". Songs that became popular in the United States and are heard during the holiday/Christmas season include "¿Dónde Está Santa Claus?", a novelty Christmas song with 12-year-old Augie Ríos which was a hit record in 1959 and featured the Mark Jeffrey Orchestra, "Feliz Navidad" by José Feliciano; and Mariah Carey’s 1994 song "All I Want for Christmas Is You", which is the best-selling holiday song by a female artist. Miguel del Aguila wrote 116 works and has three Latin Grammy nominations.
In 1986, Billboard magazine introduced the Hot Latin Songs chart which ranks the best-performing songs on Spanish-language radio stations in the United States. Seven years later, Billboard initiated the Top Latin Albums which ranks top-selling Latin albums in the United States.[285] Similarly, the Recording Industry Association of America incorporated "Los Premios de Oro y Platino" (The Gold and Platinum Awards) to certify Latin recordings which contains at least 50% of its content recorded in Spanish.[286]
In 1989, Univision established the Lo Nuestro Awards which became the first award ceremony to recognize the most talented performers of Spanish-language music and was considered to be the "Hispanic Grammys".[287][288] In 2000, the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences (LARAS) established the Latin Grammy Awards to recognize musicians who perform in Spanish and Portuguese.[289] Unlike The Recording Academy, LARAS extends its membership internationally to Hispanophone and Lusophone communities worldwide beyond the Americas, particularly the Iberian Peninsula.[290] Becky G won favorite female Latin artist, a brand new category at the AMAs in 2020.[291] For the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, the academy announced several changes for different categories and rules: the category Latin Pop Album has been renamed Best Latin Pop or Urban Album, while Latin Rock, Urban or Alternative Album has been renamed Best Latin Rock or Alternative Album.
American cinema has often reflected and propagated negative stereotypes towards foreign nationals and ethnic minorities.[292] For example, Hispanics are largely depicted as sexualized figures such as the Hispanic macho or the Hispanic vixen, gang members, (illegal) immigrants, or entertainers.[293] However representation in Hollywood has enhanced in latter times of which it gained noticeable momentum in the 1990s and does not emphasize oppression, exploitation, or resistance as central themes. According to Ramírez Berg, third wave films "do not accentuate Chicano oppression or resistance; ethnicity in these films exists as one fact of several that shape characters' lives and stamps their personalities".[294] Filmmakers like Edward James Olmos and Robert Rodriguez were able to represent the Hispanic American experience like none had on screen before, and actors like Hilary Swank, Michael Peña, Jordana Brewster, Ana de Armas, Jessica Alba, Natalie Martinez and Jenna Ortega have become successful. In the last decade, minority filmmakers like Chris Weitz, Alfonso Gomez-Rejon and Patricia Riggen have been given applier narratives. Portrayal in films of them include La Bamba (1987), Selena (1997), The Mask of Zorro (1998), Nothing like the Holidays (2008), Dora and the Lost City of Gold (2019), Being the Ricardos (2001), Father of the Bride (2022) and Josefina López's Real Women Have Curves, originally a play which premiered in 1990 and was later released as a film in 2002.[294]
Hispanics have also contributed some prominent actors and others to the film industry. Of Puerto Rican origin: José Ferrer (the first Hispanic actor to win an acting Academy Award for his role in Cyrano de Bergerac), Auliʻi Cravalho, Rita Moreno, Chita Rivera, Raul Julia, Rosie Perez, Rosario Dawson, Esai Morales, Aubrey Plaza, Jennifer Lopez, Joaquin Phoenix and Benicio del Toro. Of Mexican origin: Emile Kuri (the first Hispanic to win an Academy Award – for Best Production Design – in 1949), Ramon Novarro, Dolores del Río, Lupe Vélez, Anthony Quinn, Ricardo Montalbán, Katy Jurado, Adrian Grenier, Jay Hernandez, Salma Hayek, Danny Trejo, Jessica Alba, Tessa Thompson, and Kate del Castillo. Of Cuban origin: Cesar Romero, Mel Ferrer, Andy García, Cameron Diaz, María Conchita Alonso, William Levy, and Eva Mendes. Of Dominican origin: Maria Montez and Zoe Saldana. Of partial Spanish origin: Rita Hayworth, Martin Sheen. Other outstanding figures are: Anita Page (of Salvadoran origin), Fernando Lamas, Carlos Thompson, Alejandro Rey and Linda Cristal (of Argentine origin), Raquel Welch (of Bolivian origin), John Leguizamo (of Colombian origin), Oscar Isaac (of Guatemalan origin), John Gavin and Pedro Pascal (both of Chilean origin).
In stand-up comedy, Cristela Alonzo, Anjelah Johnson, Paul Rodríguez, Greg Giraldo, Cheech Marin, George Lopez, Freddie Prinze, Jade Esteban Estrada, Carlos Mencia, John Mendoza, Gabriel Iglesias and others are prominent.
Some of the Hispanic actors who achieved notable success in U.S. television include Desi Arnaz, Lynda Carter, Jimmy Smits, Charo, Jencarlos Canela, Christian Serratos, Carlos Pena Jr., Eva Longoria, Sofía Vergara, Ricardo Antonio Chavira, Jacob Vargas, America Ferrera, Benjamin Bratt, Ricardo Montalbán, Hector Elizondo, Mario Lopez, America Ferrera, Karla Souza, Diego Boneta, Erik Estrada, Cote de Pablo, Freddie Prinze, Lauren Vélez, Isabella Gomez, Justina Machado, Tony Plana Stacey Dash, and Charlie Sheen. Kenny Ortega is an Emmy Award-winning producer, director and choreographer who has choreographed many major television events such as Super Bowl XXX, the 72nd Academy Awards and Michael Jackson's memorial service.
Hispanics are underrepresented in U.S. television, radio, and film. This is combatted by organizations such as the Hispanic Organization of Latin Actors (HOLA), founded in 1975; and National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC), founded in 1986.[295] Together with numerous Hispanic civil rights organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout" of the national television networks in 1999, after discovering that there were no Hispanic on any of their new prime time series that year.[296] This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox and NBC that have since increased the hiring of Hispanic talent and other staff in all of the networks.
Latino Public Broadcasting (LPB) funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These programs are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States.
The 72nd Primetime Emmy Awards was criticized by Hispanics; there were no major nominations for Hispanic performers, despite the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences publicizing their improved diversity in 2020. While there was a record number of Black nominees, there was only one individual Hispanic nomination. Hispanic representation groups said the greater diversity referred only to more African American nominees.[297][298] When the Los Angeles Times reported the criticism using the term "Black", it was itself criticized for erasing Afro-Hispanics, a discussion that then prompted more investigation into this under-represented minority ethnic group in Hollywood.[299] John Leguizamo boycotted the Emmys because of its lack of Hispanic nominees.[300]
In the world of fashion, notable Hispanic designers include Oscar de la Renta, Carolina Herrera, Narciso Rodriguez, Manuel Cuevas, Maria Cornejo,[301] among others. Christy Turlington, Lais Ribeiro, Adriana Lima, Gisele Bündchen and Lea T achieved international fame as models.
Notable Hispanic artists include Jean-Michel Basquiat, Judith Baca, Carmen Herrera, Patssi Valdez, Gronk, Luis Jiménez, Félix González-Torres, Ana Mendieta, Ester Hernandez, Joe Shannon, Richard Serra, Abelardo Morell, Bill Melendez, María Magdalena Campos Pons, Sandra Ramos, Myrna Báez, Soraida Martinez and Yolanda Gonzalez.
The total number of Hispanic-owned businesses in 2002 was 1.6 million, having grown at triple the national rate for the preceding five years.[62]
Hispanic business leaders include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of The Coca-Cola Company.[302] Advertising Mexican-American magnate Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major league team in the United States when he purchased the Los Angeles Angels baseball club.[303] Also a major sports team owner is Mexican-American Linda G. Alvarado, president and CEO of Alvarado Construction, Inc. and co-owner of the Colorado Rockies baseball team.
There are several Hispanics on the Forbes 400 list of richest Americans. Alejandro Santo Domingo and his brother Andres Santo Domingo inherited their fathers stake in SABMiller, now merged with Anheuser-Busch InBev. The brothers are ranked No. 132 and are each worth $4.8bn.[304] Jorge Perez founded and runs The Related Group. He built his career developing and operating low-income multifamily apartments across Miami.[305][306] He is ranked No. 264 and is worth $3bn.[304]
The largest Hispanic-owned food company in the United States is Goya Foods, because of World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company's founders.[307] Angel Ramos was the founder of Telemundo, Puerto Rico's first television station[308] and now the second largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with an average viewership over one million in primetime. Samuel A. Ramirez Sr. made Wall Street history by becoming the first Hispanic to launch a successful investment banking firm, Ramirez & Co.[309][310] Nina Tassler is president of CBS Entertainment since September 2004. She is the highest-profile Hispanic in network television and one of the few executives who has the power to approve the airing or renewal of series.
Since 2021, magazine Hispanic Executive has released a list of 30 under 30 executives in the United States.[311] Members include financial analyst Stephanie Nuesi, fashion entrepreneur Zino Haro, and Obama scholar Josue de Paz.[312]
As of 2007, there were more than five thousand elected officeholders in the United States who were of Hispanic origin.[313]
In the House of Representatives, Hispanic representatives have included Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, Romualdo Pacheco and Manuel Lujan Jr., out of almost two dozen former representatives. Current representatives include Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Jose E. Serrano, Luis Gutiérrez, Nydia Velázquez, Xavier Becerra, Lucille Roybal-Allard, Loretta Sanchez, Rubén Hinojosa, Mario Díaz-Balart, Raul Grijalva, Ben R. Lujan, Jaime Herrera Beutler, Raul Labrador and Alex Mooney—in all, they number thirty. Former senators are Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Mel Martinez, Dennis Chavez, Joseph Montoya and Ken Salazar. As of January 2011, the U.S. Senate includes Hispanic members Bob Menendez, a Democrat and Republicans Ted Cruz and Marco Rubio, all Cuban Americans.[314]
Numerous Hispanics hold elective and appointed office in state and local government throughout the United States.[315] Current Hispanic Governors include Republican Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval and Republican New Mexico Governor Susana Martinez; upon taking office in 2011, Martinez became the first Hispanic woman governor in the history of the United States.[316] Former Hispanic governors include Democrats Jerry Apodaca, Raul Hector Castro, and Bill Richardson, as well as Republicans Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Romualdo Pacheco and Bob Martinez.
Since 1988,[317] when Ronald Reagan appointed Lauro Cavazos the Secretary of Education, the first Hispanic United States Cabinet member, Hispanic Americans have had an increasing presence in presidential administrations. Hispanics serving in subsequent cabinets include Ken Salazar, current Secretary of the Interior; Hilda Solis, current United States Secretary of Labor; Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña, former Secretary of Energy; Henry Cisneros, former Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; Manuel Lujan Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations. Rosa Rios is the current US Treasurer, including the latest three, were Hispanic women.
In 2009, Sonia Sotomayor became the first Supreme Court Associate Justice of Hispanic origin.
In 2022, Robert Santos became the first Director of the U.S. Census Bureau of Hispanic origin (Mexican American).[318]
The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC), founded in December 1976, and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC), founded on March 19, 2003, are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. They are divided into the two major American political parties: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic representatives, whereas the Congressional Hispanic Conference is composed entirely of Republican representatives.
Groups like the United States Hispanic Leadership Institute (USHLI) work to achieve the promises and principles of the United States by "promoting education, research, and leadership development, and empowering Hispanics and similarly disenfranchised groups by maximizing their civic awareness, engagement, and participation".[319]
Political strategists
Hispanics have participated in the military of the United States and in every major military conflict from the American Revolution onward.[322][323][324] 11% to 13% military personnel now are Hispanics and they have been deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and U.S. military missions and bases elsewhere.[325] Hispanics have not only distinguished themselves in the battlefields but also reached the high echelons of the military, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign posts. Up to now, 43 Hispanics have been awarded the nation's highest military distinction, the Medal of Honor (also known as the Congressional Medal of Honor). The following is a list of some notable Hispanics in the military:
The following 43 Hispanics were awarded the Medal of Honor:Philip Bazaar, Joseph H. De Castro, John Ortega, France Silva, David B. Barkley, Lucian Adams, Rudolph B. Davila, Marcario Garcia, Harold Gonsalves, David M. Gonzales, Silvestre S. Herrera, Jose M. Lopez, Joe P. Martinez, Manuel Perez Jr., Cleto L. Rodriguez, Alejandro R. Ruiz, Jose F. Valdez, Ysmael R. Villegas, Fernando Luis García, Edward Gomez, Ambrosio Guillen, Rodolfo P. Hernandez, Baldomero Lopez, Benito Martinez, Eugene Arnold Obregon, Joseph C. Rodriguez, John P. Baca, Roy P. Benavidez, Emilio A. De La Garza, Ralph E. Dias, Daniel Fernandez, Alfredo Cantu "Freddy" Gonzalez, Jose Francisco Jimenez, Miguel Keith, Carlos James Lozada, Alfred V. Rascon, Louis R. Rocco, Euripides Rubio, Hector Santiago-Colon, Elmelindo Rodrigues Smith, Jay R. Vargas, Humbert Roque Versace and Maximo Yabes.
Among Hispanic Americans who have excelled in science are Luis Walter Álvarez, Nobel Prize–winning physicist of Spanish descent, and his son Walter Alvarez, a geologist. They first proposed that an asteroid impact on the Yucatán Peninsula caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. Mario J. Molina won the Nobel Prize in chemistry and currently works in the chemistry department at the University of California, San Diego. Dr. Victor Manuel Blanco is an astronomer who in 1959 discovered "Blanco 1", a galactic cluster.[348] F. J. Duarte is a laser physicist and author; he received the Engineering Excellence Award from the prestigious Optical Society of America for the invention of the N-slit laser interferometer.[349] Alfredo Quiñones-Hinojosa is the director of the Pituitary Surgery Program at Johns Hopkins Hospital and the director of the Brain Tumor Stem Cell Laboratory at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Physicist Albert Baez made important contributions to the early development of X-ray microscopes and later X-ray telescopes. His nephew John Carlos Baez is also a noted mathematical physicist. Francisco J. Ayala is a biologist and philosopher, former president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and has been awarded the National Medal of Science and the Templeton Prize. Peruvian-American biophysicist Carlos Bustamante has been named a Searle Scholar and Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellow. Luis von Ahn is one of the pioneers of crowdsourcing and the founder of the companies reCAPTCHA and Duolingo. Colombian-American Ana Maria Rey received a MacArthur Fellowship for her work in atomic physics in 2013.
Dr. Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas discovered the bacteria that cause dental cavity. Dr. Gualberto Ruaño is a biotechnology pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, Coupled Amplification and Sequencing (CAS) System, used worldwide for the management of viral diseases.[350] Fermín Tangüis was an agriculturist and scientist who developed the Tangüis Cotton in Peru and saved that nation's cotton industry.[351] Severo Ochoa, born in Spain, was a co-winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Dr. Sarah Stewart, a Mexican-American microbiologist, is credited with the discovery of the Polyomavirus and successfully demonstrating that cancer causing viruses could be transmitted from animal to animal. Mexican-American psychiatrist Dr. Nora Volkow, whose brain imaging studies helped characterize the mechanisms of drug addiction, is the current director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Dr. Helen Rodríguez Trías, an early advocate for women's reproductive rights, helped drive and draft U.S. federal sterilization guidelines in 1979. She was awarded the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton, and was the first Hispanic president of the American Public Health Association.
Some Hispanics have made their names in astronautics, including several NASA astronauts:[352] Franklin Chang-Diaz, the first Hispanic NASA astronaut, is co-recordholder for the most flights in outer space, and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets; France A. Córdova, former NASA chief scientist; Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; Lieutenant Carlos I. Noriega, NASA mission specialist and computer scientist; Dr. Orlando Figueroa, mechanical engineer and director of Mars exploration in NASA; Amri Hernández-Pellerano, engineer who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.
Olga D. González-Sanabria won an R&D 100 Award for her role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Batteries" which help enable the International Space Station power system. Mercedes Reaves, research engineer and scientist who is responsible for the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail at NASA Langley Research Center. Dr. Pedro Rodríguez, inventor and mechanical engineer who is the director of a test laboratory at NASA and of a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis. Dr. Felix Soto Toro, electrical engineer and astronaut applicant who developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system); Ellen Ochoa, a pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut; Joseph Acaba, Fernando Caldeiro, Sidney Gutierrez, José M. Hernández, Michael López-Alegría, John Olivas and George Zamka, who are current or former astronauts.
Hispanic and Latino American women have left an indelible mark on sports in the US, showcasing exceptional talent, resilience, and cultural diversity. Some notable figures include Monica Puig, tennis player hailing from Puerto Rico, Monica Puig achieved historic success by winning the gold medal in women's singles at the 2016 Rio Olympics, marking Puerto Rico's first-ever Olympic gold medal in any sport. Laurie Hernandez, gymnastics athlete also of Puerto Rican descent, Laurie Hernandez secured a gold medal with the US gymnastics team at the 2016 Rio Olympics and added a silver medal on the balance beam, captivating audiences with her grace and skill. Jessica Mendoza, softball/baseball] of Mexican heritage, is celebrated as a former professional softball player and Olympic gold medalist (2004). She continues to inspire as a groundbreaking baseball analyst for ESPN, breaking barriers in sports broadcasting. Giselle Juarez, softball player of Mexican descent, emerged as a standout pitcher, leading the University of Oklahoma to victory in the 2021 NCAA Women's College World Series championship, showcasing her dominance on the mound. Linda Alvarado, made history as the first Hispanic woman to co-own a Major League Baseball team, the Colorado Rockies, breaking barriers and paving the way for diversity in professional sports ownership. Brenda Villa, water polo of Mexican descent, is a trailblazer in women's water polo, earning four Olympic medals (gold in 2012, silver in 2000 and 2008, bronze in 2004) and inspiring a generation with her leadership and achievements. Nancy Lopez, golf a Hall of Fame golfer of Mexican heritage, amassed an impressive 48 LPGA Tour victories, including three major championships, during her illustrious career, solidifying her legacy as one of golf's all-time greats. Sofia Huerta, player of Mexican and American descent, has excelled in professional soccer, showcasing her versatility and skill as a midfielder and forward in the NWSL and internationally with Mexico's national team, inspiring young athletes with her talent and determination.
There have been far fewer football and basketball players, let alone star players, but Tom Flores was the first Hispanic head coach and the first Hispanic quarterback in American professional football, and won Super Bowls as a player, as assistant coach and as head coach for the Oakland Raiders. Anthony Múñoz is enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranked No. 17 on Sporting News's 1999 list of the 100 greatest football players, and was the highest-ranked offensive lineman. Jim Plunkett won the Heisman Trophy and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame, and Joe Kapp is inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame and College Football Hall of Fame. Steve Van Buren, Martin Gramatica, Victor Cruz, Tony Gonzalez, Ted Hendricks, Marc Bulger, Tony Romo and Mark Sanchez can also be cited among successful Hispanics in the National Football League (NFL).
Hispanics have played in the Major Leagues since the very beginning of organized baseball, with Cuban player Esteban Bellán being the first (1873).[353][354] The large number of Hispanic American stars in Major League Baseball (MLB) includes players like Ted Williams (considered by many to be the greatest hitter of all time), Sammy Sosa, Alex Rodriguez, Alex Rios, Miguel Cabrera, Lefty Gómez, Adolfo Luque, Iván Rodríguez, Carlos González, Roberto Clemente, Adrián González, Jose Fernandez, David Ortiz, Juan Marichal, Fernando Valenzuela, Nomar Garciaparra, Albert Pujols, Omar Vizquel, managers Miguel Angel Gonzalez (the first Hispanic Major League manager),[355][356] Al López, Ozzie Guillén and Felipe Alou, and General Manager Omar Minaya. Hispanics in the MLB Hall of Fame include Roberto Alomar, Luis Aparicio, Rod Carew, Orlando Cepeda, Juan Marichal, Pedro Martínez, Tony Pérez, Iván Rodríguez, Ted Williams, Reggie Jackson, Mariano Rivera, Edgar Martinez and Roberto Clemente. Afro-Hispanic players Martin Dihigo, Jose Mendez and Cristóbal Torriente are Hispanic Hall of Famers who played in the Negro leagues.[357]
Trevor Ariza, Mark Aguirre, Carmelo Anthony, Manu Ginóbili, Carlos Arroyo, Gilbert Arenas, Rolando Blackman, Pau Gasol, Jose Calderon, José Juan Barea and Charlie Villanueva can be cited in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Dick Versace made history when he became the first person of Hispanic heritage to coach an NBA team. Rebecca Lobo was a major star and champion of collegiate (National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)) and Olympic basketball and played professionally in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). Diana Taurasi became just the seventh player ever to win an NCAA title, a WNBA title and as well an Olympic gold medal. Orlando Antigua became in 1995 the first Hispanic and the first non-Black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.
Notable Hispanic and Latino American tennis players include legendary player Pancho Gonzales, as well as Olympic tennis champions Mary Joe Fernández and Gigi Fernández. Monica Puig, a Puerto Rican-born player, achieved significant recognition by winning the gold medal in women's singles at the 2016 Rio Olympics.[358]
Hispanics have made significant contributions to all major American sports and leagues, with a particularly notable impact on the growth of soccer in the United States. Soccer, being the most popular sport in the Spanish-speaking world, has been profoundly influenced by Hispanic heritage. This influence is evident in Major League Soccer (MLS), where teams such as LA Galaxy, Los Angeles FC, Houston Dynamo and Columbus Crew have substantial fan bases comprising primarily Mexican Americans.[359][360][361] Notable Hispanic players in MLS include Tab Ramos, Claudio Reyna, Omar Gonzalez, Marcelo Balboa, Roger Espinoza, and Carlos Bocanegra.
Swimmers Ryan Lochte (the second-most decorated swimmer in Olympic history measured by total number of medals)[362] and Dara Torres (one of three women with the most Olympic women's swimming medals), both of Cuban ancestry,[363] have won multiple medals at various Olympic Games over the years. Torres is also the first American swimmer to appear in five Olympic Games.[364] Maya DiRado, of Argentine ancestry, won four medals at the 2016 games, including two gold medals.[358]
Boxing's first Hispanic American world champion was Solly Smith. Some other champions include Oscar De La Hoya, Miguel Cotto, Bobby Chacon, Brandon Ríos, Michael Carbajal, John Ruiz, Andy Ruiz Jr. and Mikey Garcia.
Ricco Rodriguez, Tito Ortiz, Diego Sanchez, Nick Diaz, Nate Diaz, Dominick Cruz, Frank Shamrock, Gilbert Melendez, Roger Huerta, Carlos Condit, Tony Ferguson, Jorge Masvidal, Kelvin Gastelum, Henry Cejudo and UFC Heavy Weight Champion Cain Velasquez have been competitors in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) of mixed martial arts.
In 1991, Bill Guerin whose mother is Nicaraguan became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League (NHL). He was also selected to four NHL All-Star Games. In 1999, Scott Gomez won the NHL Rookie of the Year Award.[365]
Figure skater Rudy Galindo; golfers Chi Chi Rodríguez, Nancy López and Lee Trevino; softball player Lisa Fernández; and Paul Rodríguez Jr., X Games professional skateboarder, are all Hispanic Americans who have distinguished themselves in their sports.
In gymnastics, Laurie Hernandez, who is of Puerto Rican ancestry, was a gold medalist at the 2016 Games.[358]
In sports entertainment we find the professional wrestlers Hulk Hogan, Alberto Del Rio, Rey Mysterio, Eddie Guerrero, Tyler Black and Melina Pérez and executive Vickie Guerrero.
In countries where the majority of the population is descended from immigrants, such as the United States, opposition to immigration sometimes takes the forms of nativism, racism, religious intolerance and xenophobia.[366] Throughout US history, anti-Latino sentiment has existed to varying degrees at different times, and it was largely based on ethnicity, race, culture, Anti-Catholicism (see Anti-Catholicism in the United States), xenophobia (see Xenophobia in the United States), economic and social conditions in Hispanic America, and opposition to the use of the Spanish language.[367][368][369][370] In 2006, Time magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily as a result of anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment.[371] According to Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) statistics, the number of anti-Hispanic hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003 (albeit from a low level). In California, the state with the largest Hispanic population, the number of hate crimes which were committed against Hispanics almost doubled.[372]
In 2009, the FBI reported that 4,622 of the 6,604 hate crimes which were recorded in the United States were anti-Hispanic, comprising 70.3% of all recorded hate crimes, the highest percentage of all of the hate crimes which were recorded in 2009. This percentage is contrasted by the fact that 34.6% of all of the hate crimes which were recorded in 2009 were anti-Black, 17.9% of them were anti-homosexual, 14.1% of them were anti-Jewish, and 8.3% of them were anti-White.[373]
It is reported that 31% of Hispanics have reported personal experiences with discrimination whilst 82% of Hispanics believe that discrimination plays a crucial role in whether or not they will find success while they are living in the United States.[136] The current legislation on immigration policies also plays a crucial role in creating a hostile and discriminatory environment for immigrants. In order to measure the discrimination which immigrants are being subjected to, researchers must take into account the immigrants' perception that they are being targeted for discrimination and they must also be aware that instances of discrimination can also vary based on: personal experiences, social attitudes and ethnic group barriers. The immigrant experience is associated with lower self-esteem, internalized symptoms and behavioral problems amongst Mexican youth. It is also known that more time which is spent living in the United States is associated with increased feelings of distress, depression and anxiety.[136] Like many other Hispanic groups that migrate to the United States, these groups are often stigmatized. An example of this stigmatization occurred after 9/11, when people who were considered threats to national security were frequently described with terms like migrant and the "Hispanic Other" along with other terms like refugee and asylum seeker.[374]
The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), enacted in 1952, serves as a foundational piece of US immigration law by consolidating and reorganizing various provisions into a unified framework. Since its enactment, the INA has undergone numerous amendments, reflecting its evolving role in immigration policy. It is codified in Title 8 of the United States Code (USC), which is the comprehensive collection of US laws. Title 8 specifically addresses "Aliens and Nationality," and the INA's sections are aligned with corresponding US Code sections for clarity. For accuracy, the official U.S. Code is provided by the Office of the Law Revision Counsel of the US House of Representatives, with links available through USCIS.[375]
The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA), detailed in House Report 99-1000, introduced significant changes to US immigration law. Title I of the Act focused on controlling illegal immigration by making it unlawful for employers to hire or continue employing unauthorized aliens without verifying their work status.[376] It established an employment verification system requiring employers to attest to and maintain records of employees' work eligibility. The Act also set up procedures for monitoring the verification system and addressing violations, while explicitly prohibiting the use of such verification for national identity purposes. Additionally, Title I outlined employer sanctions, including a public education period and a phased enforcement approach. Title II of the Act provided a legalization program for certain undocumented aliens who met specific criteria, including continuous residence in the U.S. since January 1, 1982.[376] It authorized adjustment from temporary to permanent resident status under certain conditions and required the Attorney General to manage and disseminate information about the program. Title III addressed the reform of legal immigration, including provisions for temporary agricultural workers and adjustments to visa programs. The Act also established various commissions and reports to assess and improve immigration policies and enforcement measures.
The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 expanded the definition of "qualified alien" under section 431 of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996 (8 USC 1641) to include certain categories of battered aliens. The new provisions added to 8 USC 1641 recognize battered aliens.[377] Those who have experienced battery or extreme cruelty by a spouse or parent, or by a member of their family residing with them. As eligible for benefits if there is a substantial connection between the abuse and the need for assistance. This includes aliens with pending petitions for various statuses under the Immigration and Nationality Act, such as spousal or child status of a US citizen or applications for suspension of deportation. The act extends protections to aliens whose children have been subjected to similar abuse, provided there is no active participation by the alien in the abuse. It also includes alien children who reside with a parent who has been abused. These provisions do not apply if the abuser resides in the same household as the victim. The Attorney General is tasked with issuing guidance on the interpretation of "battery" and "extreme cruelty" and establishing standards for determining the connection between such abuse and the need for benefits.[377]
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) is a policy established on June 15, 2012, by Janet Napolitano, then Secretary of Homeland Security, under the Obama administration. The policy provides temporary relief from deportation and work authorization to certain young undocumented immigrants who meet specific criteria. DACA does not offer a pathway to permanent legal status. Instead, it grants temporary protection that requires renewal every two years. To be eligible, applicants must have arrived in the United States before the age of 16, be currently under the age of 31, and have continuously resided in the US since June 15, 2007. They must also be enrolled in school, have graduated from high school, or have been honorably discharged from the US Armed Forces or Coast Guard. Upon its implementation, DACA initially benefited approximately 832,881 individuals. The policy has been associated with various socioeconomic improvements among its recipients. According to a 2019 survey, DACA recipients experienced an 86 percent increase in their average hourly wage. This rise in wages has contributed to enhanced financial independence and increased consumer spending, which in turn has had positive economic effects. Recipients also reported improved job conditions and expanded educational opportunities, reflecting the broader impact of the policy on their quality of life. Overall, DACA has been a significant, though temporary, measure aimed at addressing the status of undocumented young immigrants and has had notable effects on their economic and educational outcomes.[378]
DACA's future has faced legal challenges, including a 2020 Supreme Court ruling that blocked the Trump administration's attempt to end it and a 2021 decision declaring DACA unlawful, though it did not immediately affect current recipients. The Biden administration has since reaffirmed its support and proposed regulatory changes to secure the program's future.
Places of settlement in United States:
Diaspora:
Individuals:
Other Hispanic and Latino Americans topics:
General:
'Hispanic Americans,' which includes persons of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Central or South American, or other Spanish or Portuguese culture or origin, regardless of race.
SBA has defined 'Hispanic American' as an individual whose ancestry and culture are rooted in South America, Central America, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and Mexico.
"Hispanic or Latino" refers to a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race.
Race and Hispanic origin are two separate concepts in the federal statistical system. People who are Hispanic may also be members of any race. People in each racial group may either be Hispanic or they may not be Hispanic. Each person has two attributes, their race (or races) and whether or not they are Hispanic/Latino.
Note: It defines "Hispanic" as meaning those with Spanish-speaking roots in the Americas and Spain, and "Latino" as meaning those from both Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking cultures in Latin America.
[T]he term 'Latino' ... may be more inclusive than the term 'Hispanic.'
There was a Hispanic presence on the continent for more than 200 years before 13 colonies on the eastern coast declared their independence from England. ... By 1607, when the British established their first successful settlement, at Jamestown, Virginia, writes historian Bernard Bailyn, "Spain's American dominion extended nearly 8,000 miles, from Southern California to the Straits of Magellan"
Founded in 1565, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied settlement of European origin in the United States. Forty-two years before the English colonized Jamestown and fifty-five years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, the Spanish established at St. Augustine this nation's first enduring settlement.
On September 8, 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés landed on the shore of what is now called Matanzas Bay and began the founding of the Presidio of San Agustin. Later the settlement would be called St. Augustine, Florida. Built on the site of an ancient Native American village, and near the place where Ponce de León, the European discoverer of Florida, landed in 1513 in search of the legendary Fountain of Youth, it has been continually inhabited since its founding.
The poll found 11% of U.S. Latino adults said they identified as LGBTQ, nearly twice the rate of 6.2% of non-Hispanic white adults and 6.6% of Black adults who said they were queer. The percentage of queer Latino adults was even higher among Gen Zers — the cohort born between 1997 and 2012 — where more than 1 in 5 said they were LGBTQ, the report found.
New data has confirmed that young Hispanic Americans are driving an increase in the LGBTQ+ population.
Studies evaluating racial and ethnic demographic trends suggest that non-white groups are overrepresented in TGNB populations. Flores et al. estimate transgender prevalence among non-Hispanic whites at approximately 480 per 100,000, lower than the 770 per 100,000 for non-Hispanic blacks, 840 per 100,000 for "Hispanic/Latino" and 640 per 100,000 for "other non-Hispanic" categories.
Based on these estimates, we find that adults who identify as transgender are less likely to be White and more likely to be African-American or Black and Hispanic or Latino than the U.S. general population.
Machismo, a socially constructed set of behaviors that reinforces male gender roles in Hispanic culture, may impact identity development and behavior (Arciniega, Anderson, Tovar-Blank, & Tracey, 2008; Basham, 1976; De La Cancela, 1986). Hirai, Winkel, and Popan (2014) reported that higher levels of machismo was positively correlated with prejudice toward lesbians and gay men. In addition, machismo has been correlated with internalized homophobia (Estrada, Rigali-Oiler, Arciniega, & Tracey, 2011), and this, in turn, has been linked to mental health issues and suicidal ideation (Cochran, Sullivan, & Mays, 2003; Hatzenbuehler, McLaughlin, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2008; Newcomb & Mustanski, 2010; Williamson, 2000).