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Historia de los Estados Unidos

Territorios actuales de los Estados Unidos después de que el Territorio en Fideicomiso de las Islas del Pacífico obtuviera la independencia en 1994

La historia de las tierras que se convirtieron en los Estados Unidos comenzó con la llegada de los primeros habitantes a las Américas alrededor del año 15.000 a. C. Se formaron numerosas culturas indígenas . Después de que la colonización europea de América del Norte comenzara a fines del siglo XV, las guerras y las epidemias diezmaron las sociedades indígenas. A partir de 1585, el Imperio británico colonizó la Costa Atlántica y, para la década de 1760, se establecieron las trece colonias británicas . Las colonias del sur construyeron un sistema agrícola sobre el trabajo esclavo , esclavizando a millones de personas de África para este propósito. Después de derrotar a Francia , el Parlamento británico impuso una serie de impuestos, incluida la Ley del Timbre de 1765 , rechazando el argumento constitucional de los colonos de que los nuevos impuestos necesitaban su aprobación . La resistencia a estos impuestos, especialmente el Motín del Té de Boston en 1773, llevó al Parlamento a emitir las Leyes Intolerables diseñadas para terminar con el autogobierno. El conflicto armado comenzó en Massachusetts en 1775 .

En 1776, en Filadelfia , el Segundo Congreso Continental declaró la independencia de las colonias como los "Estados Unidos de América". Liderados por el general George Washington , ganaron la Guerra de la Independencia en 1783. El Tratado de París estableció las fronteras del nuevo estado soberano. Los Artículos de la Confederación , si bien establecieron un gobierno central, fueron ineficaces para proporcionar estabilidad. Una convención escribió una nueva Constitución que fue adoptada en 1789, y se agregó una Declaración de Derechos en 1791 para garantizar derechos inalienables . Washington, el primer presidente , y su asesor Alexander Hamilton crearon un gobierno central fuerte. La Compra de Luisiana en 1803 duplicó el tamaño del país.

Alentado por la disponibilidad de tierras baratas y la noción del destino manifiesto , el país se expandió hacia la costa del Pacífico . Después de 1830, las tribus indias fueron desplazadas por la fuerza hacia el oeste. La expansión resultante de la esclavitud fue cada vez más controvertida y alimentó batallas políticas y constitucionales que se resolvieron mediante compromisos. La esclavitud fue abolida en todos los estados al norte de la línea Mason-Dixon en 1804, pero continuó en los estados del sur para apoyar su economía agrícola. Después de la elección de Abraham Lincoln como presidente en 1860 , los estados del sur se separaron de la Unión para formar los Estados Confederados de América proesclavistas y comenzaron la Guerra Civil . La derrota de los confederados en 1865 condujo a la abolición de la esclavitud . En la posterior era de la Reconstrucción , los derechos legales y de voto se extendieron a los esclavos varones liberados. El gobierno nacional emergió mucho más fuerte y ganó el deber explícito de proteger los derechos individuales . Los demócratas blancos sureños recuperaron su poder político en el Sur en 1877, a menudo utilizando la supresión paramilitar del voto y las leyes de Jim Crow para mantener la supremacía blanca , así como nuevas constituciones estatales que legalizaron la discriminación racial e impidieron que la mayoría de los afroamericanos participaran en la vida pública.

Estados Unidos se convirtió en la principal potencia industrial del mundo en el siglo XX, debido al espíritu emprendedor, la industrialización y la llegada de millones de trabajadores inmigrantes y agricultores . Se completó una red ferroviaria nacional y se establecieron minas y fábricas a gran escala. La insatisfacción con la corrupción, la ineficiencia y la política tradicional estimuló el movimiento progresista , lo que llevó a reformas que incluyeron el impuesto federal sobre la renta , la elección directa de senadores, la ciudadanía para muchos indígenas, la prohibición del alcohol y el sufragio femenino . Inicialmente neutral durante la Primera Guerra Mundial , Estados Unidos declaró la guerra a Alemania en 1917, uniéndose a los exitosos Aliados . Después de los prósperos años veinte , el desplome de Wall Street de 1929 marcó el inicio de la Gran Depresión mundial que duró una década . Los programas del New Deal del presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt , que incluían el alivio del desempleo y la seguridad social , definieron el liberalismo estadounidense moderno . [1] Tras el ataque japonés a Pearl Harbor , Estados Unidos entró en la Segunda Guerra Mundial y financió el esfuerzo bélico aliado , ayudando a derrotar a la Alemania nazi y a la Italia fascista en el teatro europeo . En la Guerra del Pacífico , Estados Unidos derrotó al Japón imperial después de usar armas nucleares en Hiroshima y Nagasaki .

Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética surgieron como superpotencias rivales tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial . Durante la Guerra Fría , los dos países se enfrentaron indirectamente en la carrera armamentista , la carrera espacial , las campañas de propaganda y las guerras por poderes . En la década de 1960, en gran parte debido al movimiento por los derechos civiles , las reformas sociales hicieron cumplir los derechos constitucionales de voto y libertad de movimiento a los afroamericanos. En la década de 1980, la presidencia de Ronald Reagan realineó la política estadounidense hacia reducciones de impuestos y regulaciones. La Guerra Fría terminó cuando la Unión Soviética se disolvió en 1991 , dejando a Estados Unidos como la única superpotencia del mundo. La política exterior después de la Guerra Fría a menudo se ha centrado en muchos conflictos en Oriente Medio , especialmente después de los ataques del 11 de septiembre . En el siglo XXI, el país se vio afectado negativamente por la Gran Recesión y la pandemia de COVID-19 .

Habitantes indígenas

Ubicación aproximada del corredor libre de hielo y sitios paleoindios específicos ( teoría de Clovis )

No se sabe con certeza cómo o cuándo los nativos americanos se asentaron por primera vez en América y en los Estados Unidos actuales. La teoría predominante propone que los pueblos de Eurasia siguieron a sus presas a través de Beringia , un puente terrestre que conectaba Siberia con la actual Alaska durante la Edad de Hielo , y luego se extendieron hacia el sur por todo el continente americano. Esta migración puede haber comenzado hace 30.000 años [2] y continuó hasta hace unos 10.000 años, cuando el puente terrestre quedó sumergido por el aumento del nivel del mar causado por el derretimiento de los glaciares. [3] Estos primeros habitantes, llamados paleoindios , pronto se diversificaron en cientos de asentamientos y países culturalmente distintos .

Esta era precolombina incorpora todos los períodos de la historia de las Américas antes de la aparición de influencias europeas en los continentes americanos, abarcando desde el asentamiento original en el período Paleolítico superior hasta la colonización europea durante el período moderno temprano . Si bien el término se refiere técnicamente a la era anterior al viaje de Cristóbal Colón en 1492, en la práctica el término generalmente incluye la historia de las culturas indígenas americanas hasta que fueron conquistadas o significativamente influenciadas por los europeos, incluso si esto sucedió décadas o siglos después del desembarco inicial de Colón. [4]

Paleoindios

Las áreas culturales de la América del Norte precolombina , según Alfred Kroeber

Hacia el año 10.000 a. C., los humanos ya estaban relativamente bien establecidos en toda América del Norte. En un principio, los paleoindios cazaban la megafauna de la Edad de Hielo, como los mamuts , pero cuando estos comenzaron a extinguirse, la gente recurrió a los bisontes como fuente de alimento. Con el paso del tiempo, la búsqueda de bayas y semillas se convirtió en una alternativa importante a la caza. Los paleoindios del centro de México fueron los primeros en dedicarse a la agricultura en América, y comenzaron a plantar maíz, frijoles y calabazas alrededor del año 8000 a. C. Con el tiempo, el conocimiento comenzó a extenderse hacia el norte. Hacia el año 3000 a. C., se cultivaba maíz en los valles de Arizona y Nuevo México , seguido de sistemas de irrigación primitivos y, hacia el año 300 a. C., las primeras aldeas de los hohokam . [5] [6]

Una de las culturas más antiguas de los Estados Unidos actuales fue la cultura Clovis , que se identifica principalmente por el uso de puntas de lanza estriadas llamadas punta Clovis . Desde el 9100 al 8850 a. C., la cultura se extendió por gran parte de América del Norte y también apareció en América del Sur. Los artefactos de esta cultura se excavaron por primera vez en 1932 cerca de Clovis, Nuevo México . La cultura Folsom era similar, pero se caracteriza por el uso de la punta Folsom .

Una migración posterior identificada por lingüistas, antropólogos y arqueólogos ocurrió alrededor del 8000 a. C., que incluía a los pueblos de habla na-dene , que llegaron al noroeste del Pacífico alrededor del 5000 a. C. [7] Desde allí, migraron a lo largo de la costa del Pacífico y hacia el interior y construyeron grandes viviendas multifamiliares en sus aldeas, que se usaban solo estacionalmente en verano para cazar y pescar, y en invierno para recolectar alimentos. [8] Otro grupo, el pueblo de la tradición Oshara , que vivió entre el 5500 a. C. y el 600 d. C., fue parte del suroeste arcaico .

Constructores de montículos y pueblos

El primer maíz, cuento popular del pueblo Pawnee . El maíz era el cultivo básico de la agricultura de los nativos americanos.
El túmulo de los Monjes de Cahokia ( Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO ) en verano
Cliff Palace, Parque Nacional Mesa Verde , Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO

Los adena comenzaron a construir grandes montículos de tierra alrededor del año 600 a. C. Son los primeros habitantes conocidos de esta cultura , aunque existen montículos en los Estados Unidos que son anteriores a esta cultura. Watson Brake es un complejo de 11 montículos en Luisiana que data del año 3500 a. C., y el cercano Poverty Point , construido por la cultura Poverty Point , es un complejo de montículos de tierra que data del año 1700 a. C. Es probable que estos montículos tuvieran un propósito religioso.

Los adenanos fueron absorbidos por la tradición hopewell , un pueblo poderoso que comerciaba herramientas y bienes en un amplio territorio. Continuaron la tradición adena de construcción de montículos, con restos de varios miles aún existentes en el núcleo de su antiguo territorio en el sur de Ohio . Los hopewell fueron pioneros en un sistema de comercio llamado el Sistema de Intercambio Hopewell, que en su mayor extensión se extendió desde el sudeste actual hasta el lado canadiense del lago Ontario . [9] Para el año 500 d. C., los hopewellianos también habían desaparecido, absorbidos por la cultura misisipiense más amplia .

Los habitantes de Mississippi eran un grupo amplio de tribus. Su ciudad más importante era Cahokia , cerca de la actual San Luis, Misuri . En su apogeo en el siglo XII, la ciudad tenía una población estimada de 20.000 habitantes, más que la población de Londres en ese momento. Toda la ciudad estaba centrada alrededor de un montículo de 30 metros de altura. Cahokia, como muchas otras ciudades y pueblos de la época, dependía de la caza, la recolección de alimentos, el comercio y la agricultura, y desarrolló un sistema de clases con esclavos y sacrificios humanos que estaba influenciado por las sociedades del sur, como los mayas . [5]

En el suroeste , los anasazi comenzaron a construir pueblos de piedra y adobe alrededor del año 900 a. C. [10] Estas estructuras similares a apartamentos a menudo se construían en las paredes de los acantilados, como se ve en el Palacio del Acantilado en Mesa Verde . Algunas crecieron hasta alcanzar el tamaño de ciudades, como Pueblo Bonito a lo largo del río Chaco en Nuevo México, que alguna vez contó con 800 habitaciones. [5]

Noroeste y noreste

El tótem K'alyaan del clan Tlingit Kiks.ádi, erigido en el Parque Histórico Nacional de Sitka para conmemorar las vidas perdidas en la Batalla de Sitka de 1804.

Los pueblos indígenas del noroeste del Pacífico fueron probablemente los más ricos de los nativos americanos. Allí se desarrollaron muchos grupos culturales y entidades políticas diferentes, pero todos compartían ciertas creencias, tradiciones y prácticas, como la importancia del salmón como recurso y símbolo espiritual. Ya en el año 1000 a. C. comenzaron a desarrollarse aldeas permanentes en esta región y estas comunidades celebraban con el banquete de entrega de regalos del potlatch . Estas reuniones se organizaban generalmente para conmemorar eventos especiales, como la elevación de un tótem o la celebración de un nuevo jefe.

En el actual norte del estado de Nueva York , los iroqueses formaron una confederación de pueblos tribales a mediados del siglo XV, compuesta por los oneida , mohawk , onondaga , cayuga y seneca . Su sistema de afiliación era una especie de federación, diferente de las fuertes y centralizadas monarquías europeas. [11] [12] [13] Cada tribu tenía asientos en un grupo de 50 jefes sachem . Se ha sugerido que su cultura contribuyó al pensamiento político durante el desarrollo del gobierno de los Estados Unidos. Los iroqueses eran poderosos y libraron guerras con muchas tribus vecinas y, más tarde, con los europeos. A medida que su territorio se expandió, las tribus más pequeñas se vieron obligadas a desplazarse más al oeste, incluidos los pueblos osage , kaw , ponca y omaha . [13] [14]

Nativos hawaianos

La fecha exacta de la colonización de Hawái es objeto de controversia, pero lo más probable es que el primer asentamiento tuviera lugar entre 940 y 1130 d. C. [15] Alrededor de 1200 d. C., los exploradores tahitianos encontraron y comenzaron a colonizar la zona, estableciendo además un nuevo sistema de castas. Esto marcó el surgimiento de la civilización hawaiana, que estaría en gran medida separada del resto del mundo hasta la llegada de los británicos 600 años después. [16] [17] [18] Los europeos bajo el mando del explorador británico James Cook llegaron a las islas hawaianas en 1778 y, cinco años después del contacto, la tecnología militar europea ayudaría a Kamehameha I a conquistar la mayor parte del grupo de islas y, finalmente, unificar las islas por primera vez; estableciendo el Reino de Hawái . [19]

Puerto Rico

La isla de Puerto Rico ha estado poblada por al menos 4.000 años, remontándose a los restos del hombre de Puerto Ferro. Comenzando con la cultura ortoiroides , sucesivas generaciones de migraciones nativas llegaron reemplazando o absorbiendo a las poblaciones locales. Para el año 1000, los arahuacos habían llegado desde América del Sur a través de las Antillas Menores , estos colonos se convertirían en los taínos con los que se encontraron los españoles en 1493. Tras el contacto europeo, era probable que hubiera una población nativa de entre 30.000 y 60.000 personas, liderada por un solo jefe llamado cacique . [20] La colonización resultó en la aniquilación de los habitantes locales debido al duro sistema de encomiendas y las epidemias causadas por enfermedades del Viejo Mundo. Puerto Rico seguiría siendo parte de España hasta la anexión estadounidense en 1898. [20]

Colonización europea (1075-1754)

El Mayflower en el puerto de Plymouth. Los primeros europeos llegaron a América en barcos de vela , carabelas y carracas .

Exploración nórdica

La primera mención europea registrada de América se encuentra en un tratado histórico del cronista medieval Adán de Bremen , alrededor de 1075, donde se la menciona como Vinland . [a] También se hace referencia extensa a ella en las sagas nórdicas de Vinland del siglo XIII , que se relacionan con eventos que ocurrieron alrededor del año 1000. Si bien la evidencia arqueológica más sólida de la existencia de asentamientos nórdicos en América se encuentra en Canadá, más notablemente en L'Anse aux Meadows y data de alrededor del año 1000, existe un importante debate académico sobre si los exploradores nórdicos también desembarcaron en Nueva Inglaterra y otras áreas de la costa este. [22] En 1925, el presidente Calvin Coolidge declaró que un explorador nórdico llamado Leif Erikson (c. 970 - c. 1020) fue el primer europeo en descubrir América. [23]

Primeros asentamientos

Los españoles redescubrieron América en 1492. Después de un período de exploración patrocinado por los principales estados europeos , el primer asentamiento inglés exitoso se estableció en 1607. Los europeos trajeron caballos, ganado y cerdos a las Américas y, a su vez, llevaron maíz, pavos, tomates, papas, tabaco, frijoles y calabazas a Europa. Muchos exploradores y primeros colonos murieron después de estar expuestos a nuevas enfermedades en las Américas. Sin embargo, los efectos de las nuevas enfermedades euroasiáticas llevadas por los colonos, especialmente la viruela y el sarampión, fueron mucho peores para los nativos americanos, ya que no tenían inmunidad contra ellas. Sufrieron epidemias y murieron en grandes cantidades, generalmente antes de que comenzara el asentamiento europeo a gran escala. Sus sociedades fueron perturbadas y vaciadas por la escala de muertes. [24] [25]

Contacto en español

Desembarco de Colón en La Española

Los exploradores españoles fueron los primeros europeos, después de los nórdicos, en llegar a los actuales Estados Unidos, después de que las expediciones de Cristóbal Colón (que comenzaron en 1492) establecieran posesiones en el Caribe , incluidos los territorios estadounidenses actuales de Puerto Rico y partes de las Islas Vírgenes de los Estados Unidos . Juan Ponce de León desembarcó en Florida en 1513. [26] Las expediciones españolas llegaron rápidamente a los montes Apalaches , el río Misisipi , el Gran Cañón , [27] y las Grandes Llanuras . [28]

La carta de Cristóbal Colón sobre el descubrimiento de América al rey Fernando y a la reina Isabel de España

En 1539, Hernando de Soto exploró extensamente el sudeste, [28] y un año después Francisco Coronado exploró desde Arizona hasta el centro de Kansas en busca de oro. [28] Los caballos escapados del grupo de Coronado se extendieron por las Grandes Llanuras, y los indios de las llanuras dominaron la equitación en unas pocas generaciones. [5] Los pequeños asentamientos españoles eventualmente crecieron hasta convertirse en ciudades importantes, como San Antonio , Albuquerque , Tucson , Los Ángeles y San Francisco. [29]

Atlántico medio holandés

Nueva Amsterdam en el año 1626 aproximadamente

La Compañía Holandesa de las Indias Orientales envió al explorador Henry Hudson a buscar un Paso del Noroeste hacia Asia en 1609. La compañía estableció Nueva Holanda en 1621 para capitalizar el comercio de pieles de América del Norte . El crecimiento fue lento al principio debido a la mala gestión de los conflictos entre los holandeses y los nativos americanos. Después de que los holandeses compraran la isla de Manhattan a los nativos americanos por un precio reportado de 24 dólares estadounidenses, la tierra fue nombrada Nueva Ámsterdam y se convirtió en la capital de Nueva Holanda. La ciudad se expandió rápidamente y a mediados del siglo XVII se convirtió en un importante centro comercial y puerto. A pesar de ser calvinistas y construir la Iglesia Reformada en América , los holandeses eran tolerantes con otras religiones y culturas y comerciaban con los iroqueses del norte. [30]

La colonia sirvió como barrera a la expansión británica desde Nueva Inglaterra , y como resultado se libraron una serie de guerras . La colonia fue tomada por Gran Bretaña como Nueva York en 1664 y su capital pasó a llamarse Ciudad de Nueva York. Nueva Holanda dejó un legado perdurable en la vida cultural y política estadounidense de tolerancia religiosa y comercio sensato en las áreas urbanas y tradicionalismo rural en el campo (ejemplificado por la historia de Rip Van Winkle ). Entre los estadounidenses notables de ascendencia holandesa se incluyen Martin Van Buren , Theodore Roosevelt , Franklin D. Roosevelt , Eleanor Roosevelt y los Frelinghuysens . [30]

Asentamiento sueco

Nothnagle Log House , el edificio de madera más antiguo de los Estados Unidos

En los primeros años del Imperio sueco , accionistas suecos, holandeses y alemanes formaron la New Sweden Company para comerciar pieles y tabaco en América del Norte. La primera expedición de la compañía estuvo dirigida por Peter Minuit , que había sido gobernador de Nueva Holanda de 1626 a 1631, pero se fue después de una disputa con el gobierno holandés, y desembarcó en la bahía de Delaware en marzo de 1638. Los colonos fundaron Fort Christina en el sitio de la actual Wilmington, Delaware , e hicieron tratados con los grupos indígenas para la propiedad de la tierra en ambos lados del río Delaware . [31] [32]

Durante los siguientes diecisiete años, otras doce expediciones trajeron colonos del Imperio sueco (que también incluía las actuales Finlandia, Estonia y partes de Letonia, Noruega, Rusia, Polonia y Alemania) a Nueva Suecia. La colonia estableció diecinueve asentamientos permanentes junto con muchas granjas, que se extendieron hasta los actuales estados de Maryland , Pensilvania y Nueva Jersey . Se incorporó a Nueva Holanda en 1655 después de una invasión holandesa de la vecina colonia de Nueva Holanda durante la Segunda Guerra del Norte . [31] [32]

Francés y español

El Bastión de San Pablo (terminado en 1683) del Castillo de San Marcos en San Agustín , Florida

Giovanni da Verrazzano desembarcó en Carolina del Norte en 1524 y fue el primer europeo en navegar hasta el puerto de Nueva York y la bahía de Narragansett . En la década de 1540, los hugonotes franceses se asentaron en Fort Caroline, cerca de la actual Jacksonville, en Florida. En 1565, las fuerzas españolas lideradas por Pedro Menéndez destruyeron el asentamiento y establecieron el primer asentamiento español en lo que se convertiría en los Estados Unidos: San Agustín .

La mayoría de los franceses vivían en Quebec y Acadia (actual Canadá), pero las relaciones comerciales de gran alcance con los nativos americanos en toda la región de los Grandes Lagos y el Medio Oeste extendieron su influencia. Los colonos franceses en pequeñas aldeas a lo largo de los ríos Mississippi e Illinois vivían en comunidades agrícolas que servían como fuente de grano para los asentamientos de la Costa del Golfo. Los franceses establecieron plantaciones en Luisiana y se establecieron en Nueva Orleans , Mobile y Biloxi .

Colonias británicas

Campesinos ingleses se establecieron en el este de Carolina del Norte en 1713

Los ingleses, atraídos por las incursiones de Francis Drake contra los barcos españoles que salían del Nuevo Mundo cargados de tesoros, se establecieron en la franja de tierra a lo largo de la costa este en el siglo XVII. La primera colonia británica en América del Norte fue establecida en Roanoke por Walter Raleigh en 1585, pero fracasó. Pasarían veinte años antes de que se volviera a intentar. [5]

Las primeras colonias británicas fueron fundadas por grupos privados que buscaban ganancias y estuvieron marcadas por el hambre, las enfermedades y los ataques de los nativos americanos. Muchos inmigrantes eran personas que buscaban la libertad religiosa o que escapaban de la opresión política, campesinos desplazados por la Revolución Industrial o simplemente aquellos que buscaban aventuras y oportunidades. Entre fines de la década de 1610 y la Revolución, los británicos enviaron aproximadamente entre 50.000 y 120.000 convictos a sus colonias americanas. [33]

En algunas zonas, los nativos americanos enseñaron a los colonos a plantar y cosechar los cultivos nativos. En otras, atacaron a los colonos. Los bosques vírgenes proporcionaban un amplio suministro de material de construcción y leña. Las ensenadas y los puertos naturales bordeaban la costa, lo que proporcionaba puertos fáciles para el comercio esencial con Europa. Los asentamientos permanecieron cerca de la costa debido a esto, así como a la resistencia de los nativos americanos y a los montes Apalaches que se encontraban en el interior. [5]

Primer asentamiento en Jamestown

La masacre india de los colonos de Jamestown en 1622. Pronto los colonos de Virginia temieron a todos los nativos como enemigos.

La primera colonia inglesa exitosa, Jamestown , fue fundada por la Compañía de Virginia en 1607 en el río James en Virginia . Los colonos estaban preocupados con la búsqueda de oro y estaban mal equipados para la vida en el Nuevo Mundo. El capitán John Smith mantuvo unida a la incipiente Jamestown durante el primer año, y la colonia cayó en la anarquía y casi fracasó cuando regresó a Inglaterra dos años después. John Rolfe comenzó a experimentar con tabaco de las Indias Occidentales en 1612, y en 1614 llegó el primer envío a Londres. Se convirtió en la principal fuente de ingresos de Virginia en una década.

En 1624, después de años de enfermedades y ataques indígenas, incluido el ataque Powhatan de 1622 , el rey Jaime I revocó la carta de la Compañía de Virginia e hizo de Virginia una colonia real.

Colonias de Nueva Inglaterra

El primer Día de Acción de Gracias en Plymouth , 1914, Museo Pilgrim Hall , Plymouth, Massachusetts
" Un modelo de caridad cristiana ", escrito por el líder puritano John Winthrop

En un principio, Nueva Inglaterra estuvo poblada principalmente por puritanos que huían de la persecución religiosa. Los peregrinos zarparon hacia Virginia en el Mayflower en 1620, pero una tormenta los desvió de su rumbo y desembarcaron en Plymouth , donde acordaron un contrato social de reglas en el Pacto del Mayflower . Durante el primer invierno en Plymouth, aproximadamente la mitad de los peregrinos murieron. [34] Al igual que Jamestown, Plymouth sufrió enfermedades y hambruna, pero los indios wampanoag locales enseñaron a los colonos a cultivar maíz.

Plymouth fue seguida por los puritanos y la Colonia de la Bahía de Massachusetts en 1630. Mantuvieron una carta de autogobierno separada de Inglaterra y eligieron a su fundador John Winthrop como gobernador durante la mayor parte de sus primeros años. Roger Williams se opuso al trato de Winthrop a los nativos americanos y a la intolerancia religiosa, y estableció la colonia de Providence Plantations , más tarde Rhode Island , sobre la base de la libertad de religión. Otros colonos establecieron asentamientos en el valle del río Connecticut y en las costas de los actuales New Hampshire y Maine . Los ataques de los nativos americanos continuaron, y los más significativos ocurrieron en la Guerra Pequot de 1637 y la Guerra del Rey Felipe de 1675 .

Nueva Inglaterra se convirtió en un centro de comercio e industria debido a que el suelo pobre y montañoso dificultaba la agricultura. Los ríos se aprovecharon para impulsar molinos de cereales y aserraderos, y los numerosos puertos facilitaron el comercio. Alrededor de estos centros industriales se desarrollaron pueblos muy unidos y Boston se convirtió en uno de los puertos más importantes de Estados Unidos.

Colonias del medio

Tratado de Pensilvania con los indios de la provincia de Pensilvania por Benjamin West

En la década de 1660, se establecieron las colonias centrales de Nueva York , Nueva Jersey y Delaware en la antigua Nueva Holanda holandesa, que se caracterizaban por un alto grado de diversidad étnica y religiosa. Al mismo tiempo, los iroqueses de Nueva York, fortalecidos por años de comercio de pieles con los europeos, formaron la poderosa Confederación Iroquesa.

La última colonia de esta región fue Pensilvania , fundada en 1681 por William Penn como hogar para disidentes religiosos, incluidos cuáqueros , metodistas y amish . [35] La capital de la colonia, Filadelfia , se convirtió en un centro comercial dominante en pocos años, con muelles concurridos y casas de ladrillo. Mientras los cuáqueros poblaban la ciudad, los inmigrantes alemanes comenzaron a inundar las colinas y los bosques de Pensilvania, mientras que los escoceses-irlandeses avanzaron hacia la lejana frontera occidental.

Colonias del Sur

"La antigua plantación", Carolina del Sur, alrededor de 1790. Los esclavos gullah tocan instrumentos tradicionales de África occidental para resistir la asimilación forzada de la cultura de la plantación.

Las colonias del sur, predominantemente rurales, contrastaban marcadamente con las colonias de Nueva Inglaterra y del centro. Después de Virginia, la segunda colonia británica al sur de Nueva Inglaterra fue Maryland , establecida como refugio católico en 1632. La economía de estas dos colonias se basaba enteramente en agricultores y plantadores. Los plantadores se establecieron en la región de Tidewater de Virginia, donde establecieron plantaciones masivas con mano de obra esclava.

En 1670 se creó la provincia de Carolina y Charleston se convirtió en el gran puerto comercial de la región. Aunque la economía de Virginia también se basaba en el tabaco, Carolina estaba más diversificada y también exportaba arroz, añil y madera. En 1712 se dividió en dos, creando Carolina del Norte y Carolina del Sur . La colonia de Georgia (la última de las trece colonias) fue fundada por James Oglethorpe en 1732 como frontera con la Florida española y como colonia reformista para ex prisioneros y pobres. [35]

Religión

John Gadsby Chapman , Bautismo de Pocahontas (1840), en exhibición en la Rotonda del Capitolio de los EE. UU.

La religiosidad se expandió enormemente después del Primer Gran Despertar , un avivamiento religioso en la década de 1740 que fue liderado por predicadores como Jonathan Edwards y George Whitefield . Los evangélicos estadounidenses afectados por el Despertar añadieron un nuevo énfasis en los derramamientos divinos del Espíritu Santo y las conversiones que implantaron en los nuevos creyentes un intenso amor por Dios. Los avivamientos encapsularon esos sellos distintivos y llevaron el evangelicalismo recién creado a la república temprana, preparando el escenario para el Segundo Gran Despertar a fines de la década de 1790. [36] En las primeras etapas, los evangélicos del sur, como los metodistas y los bautistas , predicaron por la libertad religiosa y la abolición de la esclavitud; convirtieron a muchos esclavos y reconocieron a algunos como predicadores.

Gobierno

Cada una de las trece colonias estadounidenses tenía una estructura gubernamental ligeramente diferente. Normalmente, cada colonia estaba gobernada por un gobernador designado desde Londres que controlaba la administración ejecutiva y dependía de una legislatura elegida localmente para votar sobre los impuestos y hacer leyes. En el siglo XVIII, las colonias estadounidenses estaban creciendo muy rápidamente como resultado de las bajas tasas de mortalidad junto con los amplios suministros de tierra y alimentos. Las colonias eran más ricas que la mayor parte de Gran Bretaña y atraían un flujo constante de inmigrantes, especialmente adolescentes que llegaban como sirvientes contratados. [37]

Servidumbre y esclavitud

Certificado de servidumbre por contrato del siglo XVIII. Al menos 500.000 europeos llegaron a América del Norte como sirvientes por contrato. Esta práctica disminuyó después del auge de la esclavitud en las colonias.

Más de la mitad de los inmigrantes europeos que llegaron a la América colonial llegaron como sirvientes contratados . [38] Pocos podían afrontar el coste del viaje a América, por lo que esta forma de trabajo no libre proporcionó un medio para inmigrar. Por lo general, las personas firmaban un contrato en el que acordaban trabajar durante un período determinado, normalmente de cuatro a siete años, y a cambio recibían transporte a América y un trozo de tierra al final de su servidumbre. En algunos casos, los capitanes de los barcos recibían recompensas por la entrega de inmigrantes pobres, por lo que las promesas extravagantes y los secuestros eran habituales. La Compañía de Virginia y la Compañía de la Bahía de Massachusetts también utilizaban mano de obra en régimen de servidumbre. [5]

Los primeros esclavos africanos fueron llevados a Virginia [39] en 1619, [40] apenas doce años después de la fundación de Jamestown. Inicialmente considerados como sirvientes contratados que podían comprar su libertad, la institución de la esclavitud comenzó a endurecerse y la servidumbre involuntaria se convirtió en una condición de por vida [40] a medida que la demanda de mano de obra en las plantaciones de tabaco y arroz aumentó en la década de 1660. [ cita requerida ] La esclavitud se identificó con el color de piel marrón, en ese momento visto como una " raza negra ", y los hijos de las esclavas nacían esclavos ( partus sequitur ventrem ). [40] En la década de 1770, los esclavos africanos comprendían una quinta parte de la población estadounidense.

La cuestión de la independencia de Gran Bretaña no se planteó mientras las colonias necesitaron el apoyo militar británico contra las potencias francesa y española. Esas amenazas habían desaparecido en 1765. Sin embargo, Londres siguió considerando que las colonias americanas existían para el beneficio de la metrópoli, en una política conocida como mercantilismo . [37]

La América colonial se caracterizó por una grave escasez de mano de obra que utilizaba formas de trabajo no libre , como la esclavitud y la servidumbre por deudas. Las colonias británicas también se caracterizaron por una política de evitar la aplicación estricta de las leyes parlamentarias, conocida como negligencia saludable . Esto permitió el desarrollo de un espíritu estadounidense distinto del de sus fundadores europeos. [41]

Mapa de los asentamientos británicos , franceses y españoles en América del Norte en 1750, antes de la guerra franco-india

Periodo revolucionario (1754-1793)

Previo a la revolución

En Carolina del Sur y Virginia surgió una clase alta, cuya riqueza se basaba en grandes plantaciones operadas por mano de obra esclava. En el norte del estado de Nueva York funcionaba un sistema de clases único , en el que los agricultores arrendatarios holandeses alquilaban tierras a propietarios holandeses muy ricos, como la familia Van Rensselaer . Las otras colonias eran más igualitarias, siendo Pensilvania la más representativa. A mediados del siglo XVIII, Pensilvania era básicamente una colonia de clase media con un respeto limitado por su pequeña clase alta. [42]

Únete o muere : esta caricatura política de 1756 de Benjamin Franklin instó a las colonias a unirse durante la guerra francesa e india.

La Guerra franco-india (1754-1763), parte de la Guerra de los Siete Años , fue un acontecimiento decisivo en el desarrollo político de las colonias. La influencia de los franceses y los nativos americanos, los principales rivales de la Corona británica en las colonias y Canadá, se redujo significativamente y el territorio de las Trece Colonias se expandió hacia Nueva Francia , tanto en Canadá como en Luisiana . [ cita requerida ] El esfuerzo bélico también resultó en una mayor integración política de las colonias, como se reflejó en el Congreso de Albany y se simbolizó en el llamado de Benjamin Franklin a las colonias a " Unirse o morir ". Franklin fue un hombre de muchas invenciones, una de las cuales fue el concepto de los Estados Unidos de América, que surgió después de 1765 y se haría realidad una década después. [ 43 ]

Una pintura de 1846 del Motín del té de Boston de 1773
Densidad de población en las colonias americanas en 1775

Tras la adquisición por parte de Gran Bretaña de territorio francés en América del Norte, el rey Jorge III emitió la Proclamación Real de 1763 , para organizar el nuevo imperio norteamericano y proteger a los nativos americanos de la expansión colonial hacia tierras occidentales más allá de los Apalaches. En los años siguientes, surgieron tensiones en las relaciones entre los colonos y la Corona. El Parlamento británico aprobó la Ley del Timbre de 1765 , imponiendo un impuesto a las colonias sin pasar por las legislaturas coloniales. La cuestión quedó planteada: ¿tenía el Parlamento derecho a gravar a los estadounidenses que no estaban representados en él? Al clamar " No hay impuestos sin representación ", los colonos se negaron a pagar los impuestos a medida que las tensiones aumentaban a fines de la década de 1760 y principios de la de 1770. [44]

El Boston Tea Party de 1773 fue una acción directa de los activistas de la ciudad de Boston para protestar contra el nuevo impuesto al té. El Parlamento respondió rápidamente al año siguiente con las Leyes Intolerables , despojando a Massachusetts de su derecho histórico de autogobierno y poniéndolo bajo un régimen militar, lo que provocó indignación y resistencia en las trece colonias. Los líderes patriotas de cada colonia convocaron el Primer Congreso Continental para coordinar su resistencia a las Leyes Intolerables. El Congreso llamó a un boicot al comercio británico , publicó una lista de derechos y quejas y solicitó al rey que rectificara esas quejas. [45] Sin embargo, esta apelación a la Corona no tuvo efecto, por lo que el Segundo Congreso Continental se reunió en 1775 para organizar la defensa de las colonias contra el ejército británico.

La gente común se volvió insurgente contra los británicos a pesar de que no estaba familiarizada con las razones ideológicas que se les ofrecían. Tenían una idea muy firme de los "derechos" que creían que los británicos estaban violando deliberadamente: derechos que enfatizaban la autonomía local, el trato justo y el gobierno por consentimiento. Eran muy sensibles a la cuestión de la tiranía, que vieron manifestada por la llegada a Boston del ejército británico para castigar a los bostonianos. Esto acentuó su sensación de derechos violados, lo que los llevó a la rabia y a demandas de venganza, y tenían fe en que Dios estaba de su lado. [46]

Revolución americana

Declaración de Independencia de John Trumbull (1819)
Lectura de la Declaración de Independencia escrita originalmente por Thomas Jefferson , presentada el 4 de julio de 1776
El cruce sorpresivo del río Delaware por parte de Washington en diciembre de 1776 supuso un importante regreso después de la pérdida de la ciudad de Nueva York; su ejército derrotó a los británicos en dos batallas y recuperó Nueva Jersey.

El Segundo Congreso Continental votó para declarar la independencia el 2 de julio de 1776, y la Declaración de Independencia fue redactada por el Comité de los Cinco . La Declaración de Independencia presentó argumentos a favor de los derechos de los ciudadanos, afirmando que todos los hombres son creados iguales , apoyando los derechos a la Vida, la Libertad y la búsqueda de la Felicidad , y exigiendo el consentimiento de los gobernados . También enumeró agravios contra la corona. [47] Los Padres Fundadores se guiaron por la ideología del republicanismo , rechazando el monarquismo de Gran Bretaña. [48] La Declaración de Independencia fue firmada por los miembros del Congreso el 4 de julio. [47] Esta fecha se ha conmemorado desde entonces como el Día de la Independencia . [49]

La Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos comenzó con las batallas de Lexington y Concord , cuando las fuerzas estadounidenses y británicas se enfrentaron el 19 de abril de 1775. [50] George Washington fue nombrado general del Ejército Continental . [51] La campaña de Nueva York y Nueva Jersey fue la primera campaña importante de la guerra, que comenzó en 1776. El cruce del río Delaware por parte de Washington inició una serie de victorias que expulsaron a las fuerzas británicas de Nueva Jersey. [52] Los británicos comenzaron la campaña de Saratoga en 1777 para capturar Albany, Nueva York , como punto de estrangulamiento . [53] Después de la victoria estadounidense en Saratoga , Francia, los Países Bajos y España comenzaron a brindar apoyo al Ejército Continental. [54] Gran Bretaña respondió a la derrota en el teatro norte avanzando en el teatro sur , comenzando con la captura de Savannah en 1778. [55] Las fuerzas estadounidenses recuperaron el sur en 1781, y el ejército británico fue derrotado en el asedio de Yorktown el 19 de octubre de 1781. [56]

El rey Jorge III ordenó formalmente el fin de las hostilidades el 5 de diciembre de 1782, reconociendo la independencia estadounidense. [57] El Tratado de París fue negociado entre Gran Bretaña y los Estados Unidos para establecer los términos de la paz. Fue firmado el 3 de septiembre de 1783, [58] y fue ratificado por el Congreso de la Confederación el 14 de enero de 1784. [59] Washington renunció a su comisión como comandante en jefe del Ejército Continental el 23 de diciembre de 1783. [60]

Estados Unidos después del Tratado de París (1783) , con reclamaciones y cesiones estatales individuales hasta 1802

Período de la Confederación

Los Artículos de la Confederación fueron ratificados como la ley rectora de los Estados Unidos, escritos para limitar los poderes del gobierno central a favor de los gobiernos estatales. Esto provocó un declive económico , ya que el gobierno no pudo aprobar legislación económica y pagar sus deudas. [61] Los nacionalistas temían que la naturaleza confederada de la unión fuera demasiado frágil para soportar un conflicto armado con cualquier estado adversario, o incluso revueltas internas como la Rebelión de Shays de 1786 en Massachusetts. [62] En la década de 1780, el gobierno nacional pudo resolver la cuestión de las regiones occidentales de los jóvenes Estados Unidos, que fueron cedidas por los estados al Congreso y se convirtieron en territorios. Con la migración de colonos al Noroeste, pronto se convirtieron en estados . [ 62] Las Guerras Indígenas Americanas continuaron en la década de 1780 a medida que los colonos se mudaban al oeste, lo que provocó ataques de los nativos americanos contra civiles estadounidenses y, a su vez, provocó ataques estadounidenses contra civiles nativos americanos. [63] La Confederación del Noroeste y los colonos estadounidenses comenzaron a luchar en la Guerra India del Noroeste a fines de la década de 1780; la Confederación del Noroeste recibió apoyo británico, pero los colonos recibieron poca ayuda del gobierno estadounidense. [64] [65]

Lectura de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos de 1787

Los nacionalistas –la mayoría de ellos veteranos de guerra– se organizaron en todos los estados y convencieron al Congreso de convocar la Convención de Filadelfia en 1787. Los delegados de cada estado escribieron una nueva Constitución que creó un gobierno federal con un presidente fuerte y poderes tributarios. El nuevo gobierno reflejaba los ideales republicanos prevalecientes de garantías de la libertad individual y de restricción del poder del gobierno a través de un sistema de separación de poderes . [62] Se llevó a cabo un debate nacional sobre si la constitución debía ser ratificada, y fue ratificada por un número suficiente de estados en 1788 para comenzar a formar un gobierno federal. [66] El Colegio Electoral de los Estados Unidos eligió a George Washington como el primer presidente de los Estados Unidos en 1789. [67]

Primera república (1793-1830)

Crecimiento económico en América: ingreso per cápita. Índice con 1700 fijado como 100.

Presidente George Washington

El legado de George Washington sigue siendo uno de los más grandes en la historia de Estados Unidos, como Comandante en Jefe del Ejército Continental, héroe de la Revolución y primer presidente de los Estados Unidos (por Gilbert Charles Stuart ).

George Washington se convirtió en el primer presidente de los Estados Unidos bajo la nueva Constitución en 1789. La capital nacional se trasladó de Nueva York a Filadelfia en 1790 y finalmente se estableció en Washington, DC, en 1800.

El mayor logro de la Administración de Washington fue crear un gobierno nacional fuerte que fue reconocido sin cuestionamientos por todos los estadounidenses. [68] Su gobierno, siguiendo el vigoroso liderazgo del Secretario del Tesoro Alexander Hamilton , asumió las deudas de los estados (los tenedores de deuda recibieron bonos federales), creó el Banco de los Estados Unidos para estabilizar el sistema financiero y estableció un sistema uniforme de aranceles (impuestos a las importaciones) y otros impuestos para pagar la deuda y proporcionar una infraestructura financiera. Para apoyar sus programas, Hamilton creó un nuevo partido político -el primero en el mundo basado en votantes [ vago ] - el Partido Federalista .

Para apaciguar a los antifederalistas que temían un gobierno central demasiado poderoso, el Congreso adoptó la Declaración de Derechos de los Estados Unidos en 1791. Comprendía las primeras diez enmiendas de la Constitución y garantizaba libertades individuales como la libertad de expresión y de práctica religiosa, juicios con jurado y establecía que los ciudadanos y los estados tenían derechos reservados (que no estaban especificados). [69]

Sistema bipartidista

Thomas Jefferson y James Madison formaron un Partido Republicano de oposición (que los politólogos suelen llamar Partido Demócrata-Republicano ). En 1794, Hamilton y Washington presentaron al país el Tratado Jay , que restablecía las buenas relaciones con Gran Bretaña. Los jeffersonianos protestaron con vehemencia y los votantes se alinearon con uno u otro partido, lo que dio origen al llamado Sistema del Primer Partido . Los federalistas promovían intereses comerciales, financieros y empresariales y querían más comercio con Gran Bretaña. Los republicanos acusaron a los federalistas de tener planes para establecer una monarquía, convertir a los ricos en una clase dirigente y convertir a Estados Unidos en un peón de los británicos. [70] El tratado fue aprobado, pero la política se volvió intensamente acalorada. [71]

Desafíos para el gobierno federal

Entre los desafíos más serios que enfrentó el nuevo gobierno federal se encontraban la Guerra de los Indios del Noroeste , las guerras entre los Cherokee y los estadounidenses en curso y la Rebelión del Whisky de 1794 , en la que los colonos occidentales protestaron contra un impuesto federal al licor. Washington convocó a la milicia estatal y dirigió personalmente un ejército contra los colonos, mientras los insurgentes se dispersaban y el poder del gobierno federal estaba firmemente establecido. [72]

Lectura del discurso de despedida del presidente George Washington, 1796

Washington se negó a cumplir más de dos mandatos, sentando un precedente, y en su famoso discurso de despedida , elogió los beneficios del gobierno federal y la importancia de la ética y la moralidad, al tiempo que advirtió contra las alianzas extranjeras y la formación de partidos políticos. [73]

John Adams , un federalista, derrotó a Jefferson en las elecciones de 1796. Se avecinaba una guerra con Francia y los federalistas aprovecharon la oportunidad para intentar silenciar a los republicanos con las Leyes de Extranjería y Sedición , formar un gran ejército con Hamilton a la cabeza y prepararse para una invasión francesa. Sin embargo, los federalistas se dividieron después de que Adams enviara una exitosa misión de paz a Francia que puso fin a la Cuasi-Guerra de 1798. [70] [74]

Demanda creciente de mano de obra esclava

Esclavos esperando ser vendidos: Richmond, Virginia (por Eyre Crowe )

Durante las dos primeras décadas posteriores a la Guerra de la Independencia, se produjeron cambios drásticos en la situación de la esclavitud entre los estados y aumentó el número de negros liberados . Inspirados por los ideales revolucionarios de la igualdad de los hombres e influidos por su menor dependencia económica de la esclavitud, los estados del norte abolieron la esclavitud.

Los estados del Alto Sur facilitaron la manumisión , lo que resultó en un aumento en la proporción de negros libres en el Alto Sur (como porcentaje de la población total no blanca) de menos del uno por ciento en 1792 a más del 10 por ciento en 1810. Para esa fecha, un total del 13,5 por ciento de todos los negros en los Estados Unidos eran libres. [75] Después de esa fecha, con la demanda de esclavos en aumento debido al cultivo de algodón en expansión en el Sur Profundo, el número de manumisiones disminuyó drásticamente; y un comercio interno de esclavos en los EE. UU. se convirtió en una fuente importante de riqueza para muchos plantadores y comerciantes. [ cita requerida ] En 1807, con cuatro millones de esclavos ya en los Estados Unidos, el Congreso cortó la participación de los EE. UU. en el comercio de esclavos del Atlántico . [76] Durante 50 de los primeros 72 años del país, un esclavista sirvió como presidente, y durante ese período, solo los presidentes esclavistas fueron reelegidos para un segundo mandato. [77]

Segundo Gran Despertar

Dibujo de un campamento protestante (por H. Bridport, c. 1829)

El Segundo Gran Despertar fue un movimiento de avivamiento protestante que afectó a prácticamente toda la sociedad durante el siglo XIX y condujo a un rápido crecimiento de la iglesia. El movimiento comenzó alrededor de 1790, ganó impulso en 1800 y, después de 1820, el número de miembros aumentó rápidamente entre las congregaciones bautistas y metodistas , cuyos predicadores lideraron el movimiento. Había pasado su apogeo en la década de 1840. [78]

Incorporó a millones de nuevos miembros a las denominaciones evangélicas existentes y condujo a la formación de nuevas denominaciones. Muchos conversos creyeron que el Despertar anunciaba una nueva era milenial . El Segundo Gran Despertar estimuló el establecimiento de muchos movimientos de reforma, incluidos el abolicionismo y la templanza, diseñados para eliminar los males de la sociedad antes de la esperada Segunda Venida de Jesucristo. [79]

Luisiana y el republicanismo jeffersoniano

Thomas Jefferson se consideraba un hombre de frontera y un científico; estaba profundamente interesado en expandir y explorar el Oeste.
Expansión territorial; Compra de Luisiana en blanco
El capítulo IV del Diario de Lewis y Clarke (1840) describe el alto río Misuri y sus afluentes.

Jefferson derrotó masivamente a Adams por la presidencia en las elecciones de 1800. El mayor logro de Jefferson como presidente fue la Compra de Luisiana en 1803, que proporcionó a los colonos estadounidenses un vasto potencial de expansión al oeste del río Misisipi. [80] Jefferson, un científico, apoyó expediciones para explorar y cartografiar el nuevo dominio, en particular la Expedición Lewis y Clark . [81] Jefferson creía profundamente en el republicanismo y argumentó que debería basarse en el agricultor y plantador independiente ; desconfiaba de las ciudades, las fábricas y los bancos. También desconfiaba del gobierno federal y los jueces, y trató de debilitar el poder judicial. Sin embargo, encontró su igual en John Marshall , un federalista de Virginia. Aunque la Constitución especificaba una Corte Suprema , sus funciones eran vagas hasta que Marshall, el presidente de la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos (1801-1835), las definió, especialmente el poder de revocar actos del Congreso o de los estados que violaran la Constitución, enunciada por primera vez en 1803 en Marbury v. Madison . [82]

Guerra de 1812

Los estadounidenses estaban cada vez más enojados por la violación británica de los derechos neutrales de los barcos estadounidenses para dañar a Francia, la captura (incautación) de 10.000 marineros estadounidenses que necesitaba la Marina Real para luchar contra Napoleón y el apoyo británico a los indios hostiles que atacaban a los colonos estadounidenses en el Medio Oeste estadounidense con el objetivo de crear un estado barrera indio pro-británico para bloquear la expansión estadounidense hacia el oeste. También es posible que desearan anexar toda o parte de la América del Norte británica , aunque esto todavía se debate intensamente. [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] A pesar de la fuerte oposición del noreste , especialmente de los federalistas que no querían interrumpir el comercio con Gran Bretaña, el Congreso declaró la guerra el 18 de junio de 1812. [88]

El mensaje de Oliver Hazard Perry a William Henry Harrison después de la Batalla del Lago Erie comenzaba así: "Nos hemos encontrado con el enemigo y es nuestro" (por William H. Powell , 1865). [89]

La guerra fue frustrante para ambos bandos. Ambos bandos intentaron invadir al otro y fueron rechazados. El alto mando estadounidense permaneció incompetente hasta el último año. La milicia estadounidense resultó ineficaz porque los soldados se mostraban reacios a abandonar sus hogares y los intentos de invadir Canadá fracasaron repetidamente. El bloqueo británico arruinó el comercio estadounidense, llevó a la quiebra al Tesoro y enfureció aún más a los habitantes de Nueva Inglaterra, que contrabandeaban suministros a Gran Bretaña. Los estadounidenses, al mando del general William Henry Harrison, finalmente obtuvieron el control naval del lago Erie y derrotaron a los indios al mando de Tecumseh en Canadá, [90] mientras que Andrew Jackson puso fin a la amenaza india en el sudeste. La amenaza india a la expansión hacia el Medio Oeste terminó de forma permanente. Los británicos invadieron y ocuparon gran parte de Maine.

Los británicos atacaron y quemaron Washington , pero fueron repelidos en Baltimore en 1814, donde se escribió el himno nacional para celebrar el éxito estadounidense. En el norte del estado de Nueva York, una importante invasión británica del estado de Nueva York fue rechazada en la batalla de Plattsburgh . Finalmente, a principios de 1815, Andrew Jackson derrotó decisivamente una importante invasión británica en la batalla de Nueva Orleans , lo que lo convirtió en el héroe de guerra más famoso. [91]

Con la (aparente) desaparición de Napoleón, las causas de la guerra se habían evaporado y ambas partes acordaron una paz que dejaba intactas las fronteras de antes de la guerra. Los estadounidenses proclamaron su victoria el 18 de febrero de 1815, cuando casi simultáneamente llegaron noticias de la victoria de Jackson en Nueva Orleans y del tratado de paz que dejaba intactas las fronteras de antes de la guerra. Los estadounidenses se llenaron de orgullo por el éxito de la "segunda guerra de independencia"; los detractores del Partido Federalista, que se oponía a la guerra, quedaron en ridículo y el partido nunca se recuperó. Esto contribuyó a que surgiera una identidad estadounidense que cimentó el orgullo nacional sobre el orgullo estatal. [92]

Gran Bretaña nunca logró el objetivo de guerra de otorgar a los indios un estado barrera para bloquear más asentamientos estadounidenses y esto permitió a los colonos llegar al Medio Oeste sin temor a una amenaza importante. [91] La Guerra de 1812 también destruyó la percepción negativa de Estados Unidos de un ejército permanente , que había demostrado ser útil en muchas áreas contra los británicos en oposición a milicias mal equipadas y mal entrenadas en los primeros meses de la guerra, y los funcionarios del Departamento de Guerra decidieron en cambio colocar tropas regulares como las principales capacidades militares del gobierno. [93]

La era de los buenos sentimientos

Representación de las actividades del día de las elecciones en Filadelfia (por John Lewis Krimmel , 1815)

Como firmes oponentes de la guerra de 1812, los federalistas celebraron la Convención de Hartford en 1814, que insinuó una posible desunión. La euforia nacional tras la victoria en Nueva Orleans arruinó el prestigio de los federalistas, que dejaron de desempeñar un papel significativo como partido político. [94] El presidente Madison y la mayoría de los republicanos se dieron cuenta de que habían sido tontos al permitir que el Primer Banco de los Estados Unidos cerrara, pues su ausencia obstaculizaba enormemente la financiación de la guerra. Así que, con la ayuda de banqueros extranjeros, constituyeron el Segundo Banco de los Estados Unidos en 1816. [95] [96]

Los republicanos también impusieron aranceles diseñados para proteger las industrias nacientes que se habían creado cuando Gran Bretaña estaba bloqueando a los EE. UU. Con el colapso de los federalistas como partido, la adopción de muchos principios federalistas por los republicanos y la política sistemática del presidente James Monroe en sus dos mandatos (1817-1825) de restar importancia al partidismo, la sociedad entró en una Era de Buenos Sentimientos , con mucho menos partidismo que antes (o después), y cerró el Primer Sistema de Partidos . [95] [96]

La Doctrina Monroe , expresada en 1823, proclamó la opinión de los Estados Unidos de que las potencias europeas ya no debían colonizar ni interferir en las Américas. Este fue un momento decisivo en la política exterior de los Estados Unidos . La Doctrina Monroe fue adoptada en respuesta a los temores estadounidenses y británicos sobre la expansión rusa y francesa en el hemisferio occidental . [97]

En 1832, el presidente Andrew Jackson , séptimo presidente de los Estados Unidos, se postuló para un segundo mandato bajo el lema "Jackson y ningún banco" y no renovó el estatuto del Segundo Banco, disolviendo el banco en 1836. [98] Jackson estaba convencido de que la banca central era utilizada por la élite para aprovecharse del estadounidense promedio, y en su lugar implementó bancos de propiedad pública en varios estados, conocidos popularmente como "bancos de mascotas". [98]

Expansión y reforma (1830-1848)

Sistema de segundo partido

Después de que el primer sistema de partidos de federalistas y republicanos se desvaneciera en la década de 1820, se preparó el terreno para el surgimiento de un nuevo sistema de partidos basado en partidos locales bien organizados que apelaban a los votos de (casi) todos los hombres blancos adultos. El antiguo partido jeffersoniano (demócrata-republicano) se dividió en facciones. Se dividieron por la elección de un sucesor para el presidente James Monroe , y la facción del partido que apoyaba muchos de los viejos principios jeffersonianos, liderada por Andrew Jackson y Martin Van Buren , se convirtió en el Partido Demócrata. Como Norton explica la transformación en 1828:

Los jacksonianos creían que la voluntad del pueblo había prevalecido finalmente. Mediante una coalición de partidos estatales, líderes políticos y editores de periódicos, generosamente financiada, un movimiento popular había elegido al presidente. Los demócratas se convirtieron en el primer partido nacional bien organizado del país, y la organización partidaria estricta se convirtió en el sello distintivo de la política estadounidense del siglo XIX. [99]

Las facciones opuestas lideradas por Henry Clay ayudaron a formar el Partido Whig . El Partido Demócrata tuvo una pequeña pero decisiva ventaja sobre los Whigs hasta la década de 1850, cuando los Whigs se desmembraron por la cuestión de la esclavitud.

Expansión hacia el oeste y destino manifiesto

La Ley de Remoción de los Indios resultó en el trasplante de varias tribus nativas americanas y el Sendero de las Lágrimas .

Las colonias americanas y la recién formada unión crecieron rápidamente en población y área, mientras los pioneros empujaban la frontera de asentamiento hacia el oeste. [100] [101] El proceso finalmente terminó alrededor de 1890-1912 cuando se colonizaron las últimas tierras agrícolas y ranchos importantes. Las tribus nativas americanas en algunos lugares resistieron militarmente, pero fueron abrumadas por los colonos y el ejército, y después de 1830, fueron reubicadas en reservas en el oeste. [102] Ese año, el Congreso aprobó la Ley de Remoción de los Indios , que autorizó al presidente a negociar tratados que intercambiaran tierras tribales de nativos americanos en los estados del este por tierras al oeste del río Misisipi. [103] Su objetivo era principalmente expulsar a los nativos americanos, incluidas las Cinco Tribus Civilizadas , del sudeste estadounidense: ocuparon tierras que los colonos querían. [104]

Los demócratas jacksonianos exigieron el traslado forzoso de las poblaciones nativas que se negaron a reconocer las leyes estatales a las reservas del oeste. Los whigs y los líderes religiosos se opusieron a la medida por considerarla inhumana. Miles de muertes resultaron de las reubicaciones, como se ve en el Sendero de las Lágrimas Cherokee . [104] El Sendero de las Lágrimas resultó en que aproximadamente entre 2000 y 8000 de los 16 543 cherokees reubicados murieran en el camino. [105] [106] Muchos de los indios seminolas de Florida se negaron a mudarse al oeste y lucharon contra el ejército durante años en las Guerras Seminolas .

Las noticias sobre la fiebre del oro en California atrajeron a unas 300.000 personas a California desde el resto de Estados Unidos y el extranjero.

Los primeros colonos del oeste fueron los españoles de Nuevo México (los " californios "), seguidos por más de 100.000 mineros de la fiebre del oro de California (los "49ers"). California creció rápidamente y, en 1880, San Francisco se había convertido en el centro económico de toda la costa del Pacífico, con una población diversa de un cuarto de millón de personas. Desde principios de la década de 1830 hasta 1869, la Ruta de Oregón y sus numerosos ramales fueron utilizados por más de 300.000 colonos. Los "49ers", ganaderos, agricultores, empresarios y sus familias se dirigieron a California, Oregón y otros puntos del lejano oeste. Las caravanas de carromatos tardaban cinco o seis meses a pie. [107]

El New York Tribune de Horace Greeley —el principal periódico Whig— apoyando a Henry Clay para presidente en 1844

El destino manifiesto era la creencia de que los colonos estadounidenses estaban destinados a expandirse por todo el continente. Este concepto nació de "un sentido de misión para redimir al Viejo Mundo con un gran ejemplo... generado por las potencialidades de una nueva tierra para construir un nuevo cielo". [108] El destino manifiesto fue rechazado por los modernizadores, especialmente los Whigs como Henry Clay y Abraham Lincoln que querían construir ciudades y fábricas, no más granjas. [b] Los demócratas favorecieron firmemente la expansión y ganaron la elección clave de 1844. Después de un amargo debate en el Congreso, la República de Texas fue anexada en 1845, lo que llevó a una guerra con México, que consideraba que Texas era parte de México debido a la gran cantidad de colonos mexicanos. [110]

La guerra entre México y Estados Unidos estalló en 1846, con los Whigs opuestos a la guerra y los demócratas apoyándola. El ejército de los EE. UU., utilizando tropas regulares y un gran número de voluntarios, derrotó a los ejércitos mexicanos, invadió en varios puntos, capturó la Ciudad de México y ganó decisivamente. El Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo puso fin a la guerra en 1848. Muchos demócratas querían anexar todo México, pero esa idea fue rechazada por los sureños blancos , que argumentaron que al incorporar a millones de mexicanos , principalmente de raza mixta, socavaría a los EE. UU. como una república exclusivamente blanca. [109]

En cambio, Estados Unidos se apoderó de Texas y de las partes del norte, que estaban poco pobladas (California y Nuevo México). Los residentes hispanos obtuvieron la ciudadanía plena y los indios mexicanos se convirtieron en indios americanos . Simultáneamente, en 1848 se descubrió oro en California. Para despejar el estado para los colonos, el gobierno estadounidense inició una política de exterminio que luego se denominó genocidio de California . [111] Un compromiso pacífico con Gran Bretaña le dio a Estados Unidos la propiedad del Territorio de Oregón , que pasó a llamarse Territorio de Oregón . [110]

La ocupación estadounidense de la Ciudad de México en 1848

La demanda de guano (valorado como fertilizante agrícola ) llevó a Estados Unidos a aprobar la Ley de las Islas Guaneras en 1856, que permitía a los ciudadanos estadounidenses tomar posesión, en nombre del país, de islas no reclamadas que contuvieran depósitos de guano. En virtud de la ley, Estados Unidos anexó casi 100 islas en el océano Pacífico y el mar Caribe. En 1903, 66 de estas islas fueron reconocidas como territorios de los Estados Unidos. [112]

El movimiento por el sufragio femenino comenzó con la Convención Nacional de 1848 del Partido de la Libertad . El candidato presidencial Gerrit Smith abogó por el sufragio femenino y lo estableció como un objetivo del partido. Un mes después, se organizó la Convención de Seneca Falls , en la que se firmó la Declaración de Sentimientos que exigía la igualdad de derechos para las mujeres, incluido el derecho al voto. [c] Muchas de estas activistas adquirieron conciencia política durante el movimiento abolicionista. La campaña por los derechos de las mujeres durante la primera ola del feminismo estuvo liderada por Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Lucy Stone y Susan B. Anthony , entre otras. Stone y Paulina Wright Davis organizaron la prominente e influyente Convención Nacional por los Derechos de las Mujeres en 1850. [114]

Guerra civil y reconstrucción (1848-1877)

Divisiones entre el Norte y el Sur

Mapa de los Estados Unidos, 1863
   Estados de la Unión
   Territorios de la Unión que no permiten la esclavitud
   Estados de la Unión Fronteriza que permiten la esclavitud
   Estados confederados
   Territorios de la Unión que permitían la esclavitud (reclamados por la Confederación)
Extracto de la Narrativa de la vida de Frederick Douglass , una de las principales inspiraciones del movimiento abolicionista estadounidense

El tema central después de 1848 fue la expansión de la esclavitud, con los elementos antiesclavistas en el Norte enfrentados contra los elementos proesclavistas en el Sur. [115] Para 1860, había cuatro millones de esclavos en el Sur, casi ocho veces más que en todo el país en 1790. [ cita requerida ] Un pequeño número de norteños activos eran abolicionistas que seguían a William Lloyd Garrison y declaraban que la posesión de esclavos era un pecado y exigían su abolición inmediata. Un número mucho mayor en el Norte estaba en contra de la expansión de la esclavitud, buscando ponerla en el camino de la extinción para que Estados Unidos se comprometiera con la tierra libre (como en granjas de bajo costo propiedad y cultivadas por una familia), el trabajo libre y la libertad de expresión (en oposición a la censura del material abolicionista en el Sur). [115] Sin embargo, antes de 1860, solo una minoría de los blancos del Norte apoyaban la abolición, que a menudo se consideraba una medida "radical". En el Norte hubo reacciones violentas contra los defensores del abolicionismo, en particular la quema de una sociedad antiesclavista en Pennsylvania Hall . [116]

Hubo resistencia a la esclavitud tanto por medios pacíficos como violentos. Las rebeliones de esclavos , por parte de Gabriel Prosser (1800), Denmark Vesey (1822), Nat Turner (1831) y John Brown (1859), provocaron temor en el Sur blanco, que impuso una supervisión más estricta de los esclavos y redujo los derechos de los negros libres. [ cita requerida ] Los ex esclavos Frederick Douglass y Harriet Tubman se convirtieron en los principales defensores de la abolición. [117] [118] El tema fue discutido en la exitosa novela antiesclavista La cabaña del tío Tom de Harriet Beecher Stowe . [119]

Los demócratas blancos sureños insistían en que la esclavitud era un beneficio económico, social y cultural para toda la gente blanca e incluso para los mismos esclavos. [115] Las justificaciones de la esclavitud incluían la historia, la religión, la legalidad, el bien social y la economía. Los defensores argumentaban que el final repentino de la economía esclavista habría tenido un impacto económico fatal en el Sur, y habría desempleo generalizado y caos; el trabajo esclavo era la base de su economía. [120] Las sociedades sureñas basadas en la esclavitud se habían enriquecido gracias a su producción de algodón y otros productos agrícolas , así como al comercio interno de esclavos. Las plantaciones eran muy rentables, debido a la gran demanda europea de algodón en bruto. Las ciudades del norte y las industrias regionales estaban vinculadas económicamente a la esclavitud por la banca, el transporte marítimo y la fabricación, incluidas las fábricas textiles . Además, los estados del sur se beneficiaron de su mayor distribución en el Congreso debido al recuento parcial de esclavos en sus poblaciones.

Recuerde su compromiso semanal , caja de recolección para la Sociedad Antiesclavista de Massachusetts , 1850

Los activistas religiosos estaban divididos sobre la esclavitud, con los metodistas y los bautistas dividiéndose en denominaciones del norte y del sur. En el norte, los metodistas, congregacionalistas y cuáqueros incluían a muchos abolicionistas , especialmente entre las mujeres activistas. Las denominaciones católica , episcopal y luterana ignoraron en gran medida el tema. [121]

La cuestión de la esclavitud en los nuevos territorios fue aparentemente resuelta por el Compromiso de 1850 , negociado por el Whig Henry Clay y el demócrata Stephen Douglas ; el Compromiso incluía la admisión de California como estado libre a cambio de que no se impusieran restricciones federales a la esclavitud en Utah o Nuevo México. [122] Un punto de discordia fue la Ley de Esclavos Fugitivos , que requería que los estados cooperaran con los dueños de esclavos cuando intentaran recuperar esclavos fugitivos. Anteriormente, se presumía que un esclavo fugitivo que llegaba a un estado no esclavista había alcanzado santuario y libertad bajo el Compromiso de Misuri . [123] [124] [119]

The Compromise of 1820 was repealed in 1854 with the Kansas–Nebraska Act, promoted by Stephen Douglas in the name of "popular sovereignty" and democracy. It permitted voters to decide on the legality of slavery in each territory, and allowed Douglas to adopt neutrality on the issue of slavery. Anti-slavery forces rose in anger and alarm, forming the new Republican Party. Pro- and anti- contingents rushed to Kansas to vote for or against slavery, resulting in a miniature civil war called Bleeding Kansas. By the late 1850s, the young Republican Party dominated nearly all northern states, and thus, the electoral college. It insisted that slavery would never be allowed to expand, and thus would slowly die out.[125]

The Supreme Court's 1857 decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford ruled that the Compromise was unconstitutional and that free Black people were not U.S. citizens; the decision enraged Northerners. The Republicans worried the decision could be used to expand slavery throughout all states and territories. With Senator Abraham Lincoln leading criticism of the ruling, the stage was set for the 1860 presidential election.[123][124][119]

Civil War

Start of the war

Evolution of the Confederate States between December 1860 and July 1870

After Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election, seven Southern states seceded from the Union in the first of two waves of secession and formed a sovereign state, the Confederate States of America (Confederacy), on February 8, 1861.[126] The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina. In response, Lincoln called on the states to send troops to recapture forts, protect Washington D.C., and "preserve the Union," which in his view still existed despite the secession.[127] Lincoln's call led to four more states seceding in a second wave of secession and joining the Confederacy. A few of the (northernmost) slave states did not secede and became known as the border states; these were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri.[citation needed] During the war, the northwestern portion of Virginia seceded from the Confederacy, which became the new Union state of West Virginia.[128]

Lincoln with Allan Pinkerton and John Alexander McClernand at the Battle of Antietam

The two armies' first major battle was the First Battle of Bull Run, which proved to both sides that the war would be much longer than anticipated.[127] In the western theater, the Union Army was relatively successful, with major battles such as Perryville and Shiloh, along with Union Navy gunboat dominance of navigable rivers producing strategic Union victories and destroying major Confederate operations.[129] Warfare in the eastern theater began poorly for the Union. U.S. General George B. McClellan failed to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, in his Peninsula campaign and retreated after attacks from Confederate General Robert E. Lee.[130] Meanwhile, in 1861 and 1862, both sides concentrated on raising and training new armies. The Union successfully gained control the border states, driving the Confederates out.[131]

Confederate losses

Edwin Stanton (Secretary of War)Salmon Chase (Secretary of the Treasury)President LincolnGideon Welles (Secretary of the Navy)William Seward (Secretary of State)Caleb B. Smith (Secretary of the Interior)Montgomery Blair (Postmaster General)Edward Bates (Attorney General)Emancipation Proclamation draftUnknown Paintinguse cursor to explore or button to enlarge
First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln by Francis Bicknell Carpenter[132]
(People in the image are clickable.)


The autumn 1862 Confederate retreat at the Battle of Antietam led to Lincoln's warning he would issue the Emancipation Proclamation in January 1863 if the states did not return. Making slavery a central war goal energized Northern Republicans, as well as their enemies, the anti-war Copperhead Democrats. It ended the chance of British and French intervention.[131] Lee's smaller Army of Northern Virginia won battles in late 1862 and spring 1863, but he pushed too hard and ignored the Union threat in the west. He invaded Pennsylvania in search of supplies and to cause war-weariness in the North.[133]

The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by Lincoln on January 1, 1863. It freed 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy. The owners were not compensated. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible from the Union army.[134]

Modern reading of President Abraham Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation

In perhaps the turning point of the war, Lee's army was badly beaten by the Army of the Potomac at the July 1863 Battle of Gettysburg, and barely made it back to Virginia.[131] Survivors of the battle were immediately redeployed to suppress the New York City draft riots by Irish Americans protesting Civil War conscription and the city's free Black population.[133] In July 1863, Union forces under General Ulysses S. Grant gained control of the Mississippi River at the Battle of Vicksburg, thereby splitting the Confederacy. In 1864, Union General William Tecumseh Sherman marched south from Chattanooga to capture Atlanta, a decisive victory that ended war jitters among Republicans in the North and helped Lincoln win re-election.

A map of Sherman's March to the Sea (William Tecumseh Sherman's 1863 Union troop movement across Georgia)

End of the war

The Civil War was the world's earliest industrial war. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. Civilian factories, mines, shipyards, and were mobilized.[135] Foreign trade increased, with the U.S. providing both food and cotton to Britain, and Britain sending in manufactured products and thousands of volunteers for the Union Army (and a few to the Confederate army). The Union blockade shut down Confederate ports, and by late 1864, the British blockade runners supplying Confederates were usually captured before they could make more than a handful of runs.

Robert E. Lee and the Confederates surrendering to the Union after the Battle of Appomattox Court House

Sherman's march to the sea was almost unopposed, and demonstrated that the South was unable to resist a Union invasion. Much of the South was destroyed, and could no longer provide desperately needed supplies to its armies. In spring 1864, Grant launched a war of attrition and pursued Lee to the final Appomattox campaign, which resulted in Lee surrendering in April 1865.[citation needed] By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all of the designated slaves.[134]

It remains the deadliest war in American history, resulting in the deaths of about 750,000 soldiers and an undetermined number of civilian casualties.[d] About ten percent of all Northern males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40 died.[135] Many Black people died after being dislocated during the war and Reconstruction.[138]

Reconstruction

Reconstruction lasted from the end of the war until 1877.[127][139][140] Lincoln had to decide the statuses of the ex-slaves ("Freedmen"), ex-Confederates, and ex-Confederate states. He supported the Ten Percent Plan for states' re-admission, and the right of Black people to vote.[141] Lincoln was assassinated in April 1865 by John Wilkes Booth, and succeeded by Andrew Johnson.[142]

Freedmen voting in New Orleans, 1867

The severe threats of starvation and displacement of the unemployed Freedmen were met by the first major federal relief agency, the Freedmen's Bureau, operated by the Army.[143] The bureau also took in freed slaves.[citation needed] Three "Reconstruction Amendments" expanded civil rights for black Americans: the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment outlawed slavery;[144] the 1868 Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal rights for all and citizenship for Black people;[145] the 1870 Fifteenth Amendment prevented race from being used to disenfranchise men.[146]

Ex-Confederates remained in control of most Southern states for over two years, until the Radical Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. Johnson, who sought good treatment for ex-Confederates, was virtually powerless in the face of Congress; he was impeached, but the Senate's attempt to remove him from office failed by one vote. Congress enfranchised black men and temporarily banned many ex-Confederate leaders from holding office. New Republican governments came to power based on a coalition of Freedmen made up of Carpetbaggers (new arrivals from the North), and Scalawags (native white Southerners). They were backed by the Army. Opponents said they were corrupt and violated the rights of whites.[147]

The completion of the first transcontinental railroad in 1869

After the war, the far west was developed and settled, first by wagon trains and riverboats, and then by the first transcontinental railroad. Many Northern European immigrants took up low-cost or free farms in the Prairie States. Mining for silver and copper encouraged development.[148]

KKK and the rise of Jim Crow laws

A cartoon from Tuscaloosa's Independent Monitor in 1868, threatening that the KKK will lynch scalawags (left) and carpetbaggers (right) the day President Grant takes office in 1869

State by state, the New Republicans lost power to a conservative-Democratic coalition, which gained control of the South by 1877. In response to Radical Reconstruction, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) emerged in 1867 as a white-supremacist organization opposed to black civil rights and Republican rule. President Ulysses Grant's enforcement of the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1870 shut them down.[147] Paramilitary groups, such as the White League and Red Shirts emerging around 1874, openly intimidated and attacked Black people voting, to regain white political power in states across the South. One historian described them as the military arm of the Democratic Party.[147]

Reconstruction ended after the disputed 1876 election. The Compromise of 1877 gave Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes the presidency in exchange for removing all remaining federal troops in the South. The federal government withdrew its troops, and Southern Democrats took control of the region[149] In 1882, the United States passed the Chinese Exclusion Act (which barred all Chinese immigrants except for students and businessmen),[150] and the Immigration Act of 1882 (which barred all immigrants with mental health issues).[151] From 1890 to 1908, southern states effectively disenfranchised Black and poor white voters by making voter registration more difficult through poll taxes and literacy tests. Black people were segregated from whites in the violently-enforced Jim Crow system that lasted until roughly 1968.[152][153][154]

Gilded Age and the Progressive Era (1877–1914)

After Reconstruction

The "Gilded Age" was a term that Mark Twain used to describe the period of the late 19th century with a dramatic expansion of American wealth and prosperity, underscored by the mass corruption in the government.[156] Some historians have argued that the United States was effectively plutocratic for at least part of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.[157][158][159] As financiers and industrialists such as J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller began to amass vast fortunes, many observers were concerned that the nation was losing its pioneering egalitarian spirit.[160]

An unprecedented wave of immigration from Europe served to both provide the labor for American industry and create diverse communities in previously undeveloped areas. From 1880 to 1914, peak years of immigration, more than 22 million people migrated to the country.[161] By 1890, American industrial production and per capita income exceeded those of all other countries.[citation needed] Most were unskilled workers who quickly found jobs in mines, mills, and factories. Many immigrants were craftsmen and farmers (especially from Britain, Germany, and Scandinavia) who purchased inexpensive land on the prairies. Poverty, growing inequality and dangerous working conditions, along with socialist and anarchist ideas diffusing from European immigrants, led to the rise of the labor movement.[162][163][164]

Dissatisfaction on the part of the growing middle class with the corruption and inefficiency of politics, and the failure to deal with increasingly important urban and industrial problems, led to the dynamic progressive movement starting in the 1890s. In every major city, and at the federal level, progressives called for the modernization and reform of decrepit institutions in the fields of politics, education, medicine, and industry.[165]

Chapter 9 of The Jungle, a 1906 muckraking novel by Upton Sinclair describing corruption in the Gilded Age

Leading politicians from both parties, most notably Republicans Theodore Roosevelt, Charles Evans Hughes, and Robert La Follette, and Democrats William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson, took up the cause of progressive reform.[165] "Muckraking" journalists such as Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens and Jacob Riis exposed corruption in business and government, and highlighted rampant inner-city poverty. Progressives implemented antitrust laws and regulated such industries of meat-packing, drugs, and railroads. Four new constitutional amendments – the Sixteenth through Nineteenth – resulted from progressive activism, bringing the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, prohibition, and female suffrage.[165]

In 1881, President James A. Garfield was assassinated by Charles Guiteau.[166]

Unions and strikes

Violence erupted on July 7, 1894, with hundreds of boxcars and coal cars looted and burned. State and federal troops violently attacked striking workers, as this study by Frederic Remington illustrates.

Skilled workers banded together to control their crafts and raise wages by forming labor unions in industrial areas of the Northeast. Samuel Gompers led the American Federation of Labor (1886–1924), coordinating multiple unions. In response to heavy debts and decreasing farm prices, wheat and cotton farmers joined the Populist Party.[167]

The Panic of 1893 broke out, and created a severe nationwide depression impacted farmers, workers, and businessmen.[168] Many railroads went bankrupt. The resultant political reaction fell on the Democratic Party, whose leader President Grover Cleveland shouldered much of the blame. Labor unrest involved numerous strikes, most notably the violent Pullman Strike of 1894, which was forcibly shut down by federal troops under Cleveland's orders. One of the disillusioned leaders of the Pullman strike, Eugene V. Debs, went on to become the leader of the Socialist Party of America, eventually going on to win almost 1 million votes in the 1912 presidential election.[169]

Economic growth

Important legislation of the era included the 1883 Civil Service Act, which mandated a competitive examination for applicants for government jobs, the 1887 Interstate Commerce Act, which ended railroads' discrimination against small shippers, and the 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act, which outlawed monopolies in business.[156]

After 1893, the Populist Party gained strength among farmers and coal miners, but was overtaken by the even more popular Free silver movement, which demanded using silver to enlarge the money supply, leading to inflation that the silverites promised would end the depression.[170] Financial and railroad communities fought back hard, arguing that only the gold standard would save the economy. In the 1896 presidential election, conservative Republican William McKinley defeated silverite William Jennings Bryan, who ran on the Democratic, Populist, and Silver Republican tickets. Bryan swept the South and West, but McKinley ran up landslides among the middle class, industrial workers, cities, and among upscale farmers in the Midwest.[171]

The assassination of William McKinley by Leon Czolgosz in 1901

Prosperity returned under McKinley. The gold standard was enacted, and the tariff was raised. By 1900, the U.S. had the strongest economy in the world. Republicans, citing McKinley's policies, took the credit for the growth.[172] McKinley was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz in 1901, and was succeeded by Theodore Roosevelt.[173]

The period also saw a major transformation of the banking system, with the arrival of the first credit union in 1908 (and thus, cooperative banking) and the creation of the Federal Reserve System in 1913.[174][175] Apart from two short recessions in 1907 and 1920, the economy remained prosperous and growing until 1929.[172]

Imperialism

This cartoon reflects the view of Judge magazine regarding America's imperial ambitions following a quick victory in the Spanish–American War of 1898.[176]

The United States Army continued to fight wars with Native Americans as settlers encroached on their traditional lands. Gradually the U.S. purchased the Native American tribal lands and extinguished their claims, forcing most tribes onto subsidized reservations. According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 1894, from 1789 to 1894, the Indian Wars killed 19,000 white people and more than 30,000 Indians.[177]

The United States emerged as a world economic and military power after 1890. The main episode was the Spanish–American War, which began when Spain refused American demands to reform its oppressive policies in Cuba.[178] The war was a series of quick American victories on land and at sea. At the Treaty of Paris peace conference the United States acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam.[179]

American children of many ethnic backgrounds celebrate noisily in a 1902 Puck cartoon.

Cuba became an independent country, under close American tutelage. Although the war itself was widely popular, the peace terms proved controversial. William Jennings Bryan led his Democratic Party in opposition to control of the Philippines, which he denounced as imperialism unbecoming to American democracy.[179] President William McKinley defended the acquisition and was riding high as society had returned to prosperity and felt triumphant in the war. McKinley easily defeated Bryan in a rematch in the 1900 presidential election.[180]

After defeating an insurrection by Filipino nationalists, the United States achieved little in the Philippines except in education, and it did something in the way of public health. It also built roads, bridges, and wells, but infrastructural development lost much of its early vigor with the failure of the railroads.[181] By 1908, however, Americans lost interest in an empire and turned their international attention to the Caribbean, especially the building of the Panama Canal. The canal opened in 1914 and increased trade with Japan and the rest of the Far East. A key innovation was the Open Door Policy, whereby the imperial powers were given equal access to Chinese business, with not one of them allowed to take control of China.[182]

Charlotte Perkins Gilman (pictured) wrote these articles about feminism for the Atlanta Constitution in 1916.

Women's suffrage

Excerpt of a reading of Susan B Anthony's 1873 speech at her voter fraud trial, advocating for woman's suffrage

The women's suffrage movement reorganized after the Civil War, gaining experienced campaigners, many of whom had worked for prohibition in the Women's Christian Temperance Union. By the end of the century, a few Western states had granted women full voting rights,[114] and women gained rights in areas such as property and child custody law.[183]

Around 1912, the feminist movement reawakened, putting an emphasis on its demands for equality, and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded purification by women.[184] Protests became increasingly common, as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capital and major cities. Paul split from the large, moderate National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their "Silent Sentinels" pickets at the White House, and were taken as political prisoners.[185] Another prominent leader of the movement was Jane Addams of Chicago, who created settlement houses.[165]

Women's suffragists parade in New York City in 1917, carrying placards with signatures of more than a million women.[186]

The anti-suffragist argument that only men could fight in a war, and therefore only men deserve the right to vote, was refuted by the participation of American women on the home front in World War I. The success of woman's suffrage was demonstrated by the politics of states which already allowed women to vote, including Montana, who elected the first woman to the House of Representatives, Jeannette Rankin. The main resistance came from the South, where white leaders were worried about the threat of Black women voting. Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919, and women could vote in 1920.[187] NAWSA became the League of Women Voters. Politicians responded to the new electorate by emphasizing issues of special interest to women, especially prohibition, child health, and world peace.[188][189] Notably, in 1928, women were mobilized to support both candidates in the year's presidential election between Al Smith and Herbert Hoover.[190]

Modern America and World Wars (1914–1945)

World War I and the interwar years

The American Cemetery at Romagne-sous-Montfaucon, France

As World War I raged in Europe from 1914, President Woodrow Wilson took full control of foreign policy, declaring neutrality, but warning Germany that resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against American ships supplying goods to Allied nations would mean war. Germany decided to take the risk, and try to win by cutting off supplies to Britain through the sinking of ships such as the RMS Lusitania. The U.S. declared war in April 1917, mainly from the threat of the Zimmermann Telegram.[191]

By the summer of 1918 soldiers in General John J. Pershing's American Expeditionary Forces arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day, while Germany was unable to replace its losses.[192] Dissent against the war was suppressed by the Sedition Act of 1918 & Espionage Act of 1917. German language, leftist & pacifist publications were suppressed. Over 2,000 were imprisoned for speaking out against the war, later released by U.S. President Warren G. Harding.[193]

The Allies won in November 1918. Wilson demanded Germany depose Wilhelm II and accept his terms in the famed Fourteen Points speech. Wilson dominated the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, putting his geopolitical hopes in the new League of Nations as Germany was treated harshly in the Treaty of Versailles (1919). Wilson refused to compromise with Senate Republicans over the issue of Congressional power to declare war, and the Senate rejected the Treaty and the League.[194] Instead, the United States chose to pursue unilateralism.[195] The aftershock of Russia's October Revolution resulted in real fears of Communism in the United States, leading to a Red Scare and the deportation of non-citizens considered subversive.

Prohibition agents destroying barrels of alcohol in Chicago, 1921

Despite the Progressive-era modernization of hospitals and medical schools,[196] the country lost around 550,000 lives to the Spanish flu pandemic in 1918 and 1919.[197][198] During the "Roaring" 1920s, the economy expanded. African-Americans benefited from the Great Migration and had more cultural power; an example being the Harlem Renaissance which spread jazz music. Meanwhile, the Ku Klux Klan had a resurgence, and the Immigration Act of 1924 was passed to strictly limit the number of new entries.[199] The Osage Indian murders, an attempt by some rich, white Oklahomans to control the Osage Nation's oil reserves, were the first "big case" of the newly created Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).[200]

Prohibition began in 1920, when the manufacture, sale, import and export of alcohol were prohibited by the Eighteenth Amendment. Americans resulted to drinking denatured alcohol or bootlegged alcohol from elsewhere in the Americas. Bootlegged alcohol in the cities ended up under the control of gangs, who fought each other for territory in which they controlled the drink's sale. Italian bootleggers in New York City gradually formed the Mafia crime syndicate. In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt repealed prohibition by signing the Cullen-Harrison Act.[201]

Great Depression and the New Deal

The sharp decrease of the money supply between Black Tuesday and the Bank Holiday in March 1933, when there were massive bank runs across the United States

The Great Depression (1929–1939) and the New Deal (1933–1936) were decisive moments in American political, economic, and social history that reshaped the nation.[202] During the 1920s, the nation enjoyed widespread prosperity, albeit with a weakness in agriculture. A financial bubble was fueled by an inflated stock market, which later led to the Wall Street Crash on October 29, 1929.[203] This, along with many other economic factors, triggered a worldwide depression. During this time, the United States experienced deflation as prices fell, unemployment soared from 3% in 1929 to 25% in 1933, farm prices fell by half, and manufacturing output plunged by one-third.

The March 12, 1933 fireside chat radio address from President Franklin Roosevelt

In 1932, Democratic presidential nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt promised "a New Deal for the American people", coining the enduring label for his domestic policies. The result was a series of permanent reform programs including the Social Security program, unemployment relief and insurance, public housing, bankruptcy insurance, farm subsidies, and regulation of financial securities.[204] It also provided unemployment relief through the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and for young men, the Civilian Conservation Corps. Large scale spending projects designed to provide private sector construction jobs and rebuild the infrastructure were under the purview of the Public Works Administration.[204]

Dorothea Lange's Migrant Mother depicts destitute pea pickers in California, in Nipomo, California, in 1936.

State governments added new programs as well, and introduced the sales tax to pay for them. Ideologically, the New Deal established modern liberalism in the United States and kept the Democrats in power in Washington almost continuously for three decades, thanks to the New Deal coalition of ethnic white and Black people, blue-collar workers, and labor unions.[204] The New Deal coalition won re-election for Roosevelt in 1936, 1940, and 1944.[204] The Second New Deal in 1935 and 1936 brought the economy further left, building up labor unions through the Wagner Act. Roosevelt weakened his second term by a failed effort to pack the Supreme Court, which had been a center of conservative resistance to his programs.[204] The economy essentially recovered by 1936, but had a sharp, short recession in 1937 and 1938. Long-term unemployment, however, remained a problem until it was solved by wartime spending. Most of the relief programs were dropped in the 1940s, when the conservatives regained power in Congress through the Conservative coalition.[204]

In an effort to denounce past U.S. interventionism and create a friendly relationship with Latin America, Roosevelt announced in 1933 he would stray from asserting military force in the region.[205][206] For Hispanics in the United States, the Depression was a difficult period, as the Mexican Repatriation resulted in the dislocation of an estimated 400,000 Mexicans and Mexican Americans.[207]

World War II

The USS Arizona (BB-39) burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941

During the Depression, the United States remained focused on domestic concerns, while democracy declined across the world and many countries fell under the control of dictators. Imperial Japan asserted dominance in East Asia and in the Pacific. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy militarized and threatened conquests of their neighbors, while Britain and France attempted appeasement to avert another war in Europe. U.S. legislation in the Neutrality Acts sought to avoid foreign conflicts; however, policy clashed with increasing anti-Nazi feelings following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 that started World War II.[208]

President Roosevelt's speech in aftermath of Pearl Harbor Attack

At first, Roosevelt positioned the U.S. as the "Arsenal of Democracy", pledging full-scale financial and munitions support for the Allies and Lend-Lease agreements – but no military personnel.[208] Japan tried to neutralize America's power in the Pacific by attacking Pearl Harbor in 1941, but instead it catalyzed American support to enter the war.[209]

Japanese-Americans in Woodland, California, boarding a bus to the Merced Assembly Center internment camp in 1942

War fervor inspired anti-Japanese sentiment, leading to internment of Japanese Americans.[210] Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 resulted in over 120,000 Americans of Japanese descent being removed from their homes and placed in internment camps. Two-thirds of those interned were American citizens, and half of them were children.[211][212][213]

The Allies – the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, and other countries – fought against Germany in the European theater and Japan in the Pacific War.[214] The U.S. gave the Allied war effort money, food, petroleum, technology, and military personnel. The U.S. focused on maximizing its national economic output, causing a dramatic increase in GDP, the end of unemployment, and a rise in civilian consumption, even as 40% of the GDP went to the war effort.[202] A wartime production boom led to the end of the Great Depression. Tens of millions of workers moved into the active labor force and to higher-productivity jobs. Labor shortages encouraged industries to look for new sources of workers, finding new roles for women and Black people. Economic mobilization was managed by the War Production Board.[202] Most durable goods became unavailable, and meat, clothing, and gasoline were tightly rationed. In industrial areas, housing was in short supply, as people lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled, and Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war.[215][216]

Into the Jaws of Death: U.S. troops landing at Omaha Beach in France, during the Normandy landings in June 1944

The U.S. stopped Japanese expansion in the Pacific in 1942; after the loss of the Philippines to Japanese conquests, as well as a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea in May, the American Navy then inflicted a decisive blow at Midway in June 1942. The Allied forces built up a garrison on Guadalcanal, a Pacific island formerly held by the Japanese, after the successes of the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and the Battle of Guadalcanal. The Japanese then stopped advancing south, and the U.S. began taking New Guinea. Japan also lost their invasion of the Alaskan Aleutian Islands, allowing the U.S. to begin attacking the Japanese-controlled Kuril Islands.[214]

American ground forces assisted in the North African campaign that eventually concluded with the collapse of Fascist Italy in 1943, as Italy switched to the Allied side. A more significant European front was opened on D-Day, June 6, 1944, in which Allied forces invaded Nazi-occupied France from Britain.[214] The Allies began pushing the Germans out of France in the Normandy campaign, breaking through the local German defenses after Operation Cobra in August. This also led to conflict within the German high command, and the unsuccessful July Plot. After French and American forces landed at the French Riviera in Operation Dragoon, Hitler allowed his army to retreat from Normandy.[217] Roosevelt died in 1945, and was succeeded by Harry Truman.[218] The western front stopped short of Berlin, leaving the Soviets to take it in the Battle of Berlin. The Nazi regime formally capitulated in May 1945, ending the war in Europe.[214]

The Manhattan Project's Trinity Test, the first detonation of a nuclear weapon, in 1945

In the Pacific, the U.S. implemented an island hopping strategy toward Tokyo. The Philippines was eventually reconquered, after Japan and the United States fought in history's largest naval battle, the Battle of Leyte Gulf.[219] However, the war wiped out all the development the United States invested in the Philippines, as cities and towns were completely destroyed.[220] After the war, the U.S. granted the Philippines independence.[221]

Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima: United States Marines raising a US flag atop Mount Suribachi during the Battle of Iwo Jima

Military research and development increased during the war, leading to the Manhattan Project, a secret effort to harness nuclear fission to produce atomic bombs.[222] The first nuclear device ever detonated was conducted on July 16, 1945.[223] Meanwhile, the U.S. established airfields for bombing runs against mainland Japan from the Mariana Islands, achieving hard-fought victories at Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945.[224] The U.S. prepared to invade Japan's home islands when they dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, compelling Japan to surrender and ending World War II.[225] The U.S. occupied Japan (and part of Germany), and restructured Japan along American lines.[226] 400,000 American military personnel and civilians were killed.[227] Nuclear weapons have not been used since the war ended, and a "long peace" began between the global powers in era of competition that came to be known as the Cold War.[228]

Post-war America (1945–1981)

The NATO (blue) and Warsaw Pact (red) alliances from 1949 to 1990

Economic boom and the beginning of the Cold War

Truman administration

In the decades after World War II, the United States became a global influence in economic, political, military, cultural, and technological affairs. Following World War II, the United States emerged as one of the two dominant superpowers, the Soviet Union being the other. The U.S. Senate, on a bipartisan vote, approved U.S. participation in the United Nations (UN), which marked a turn away from traditional American isolationism and toward increased international involvement.[229] The United States and other major Allied powers — the United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China — became the foundation of the UN Security Council.[230] The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was created in 1947.[231]

Marshall Plan poster
One of a number of posters created by the Economic Cooperation Administration, an agency of the U.S. government, to sell the Marshall Plan in Europe

America wished to rescue Europe from the devastation of World War II, and to contain the expansion of communism, represented by the Soviet Union. U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War was built around the support of Western Europe and Japan along with the policy of containment (containing the spread of communism to countries already under that system).[232] The Truman Doctrine in 1947 was the U.S.' attempt to secure trading partners in Europe, by providing military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey to counteract the threat of communist expansion in the Balkans.[233][228] In 1948, the United States replaced piecemeal financial aid programs with a comprehensive Marshall Plan, which pumped money into Western Europe, and removed trade barriers, while modernizing the managerial practices of businesses and governments.[234] Post-war American aid to Europe totaled $25 billion, out of the U.S. GDP of $258 billion in 1948. Soviet head of state Joseph Stalin prevented his satellite states from participating, and from that point on, Eastern Europe, with inefficient centralized economies, fell further and further behind Western Europe in terms of economic development and prosperity.[234] In Asia, despite being devastated by World War 2 and being a former colony, the Philippines, received negligible assistance from the United States compared to the larger aid given to other Asian allies like: Israel, South Korea, South Vietnam,[235] and Taiwan,[236] because the latter had hostile Pro-Soviet Union neighbors which the United States were opposed to.[237]

In 1949, the United States, rejecting the long-standing policy of no military alliances in peacetime, formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance, which continues into the 21st century. In response, the Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact of communist states, leading to the "Iron Curtain".[234] In 1949, the Soviets performed their first nuclear weapon test, using intelligence they had gained from spies inside the Manhattan Project.[238][228] This escalated the risk of nuclear warfare; the threat of mutually assured destruction, however, prevented both powers from nuclear war, and resulted the proxy wars in which the two sides did not directly confront each other.[228]

U.S. Marines fighting in the streets of Seoul, Korea during the Second Battle of Seoul in 1950

The U.S. fought against communists in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and toppled left-wing governments in the third world to try to stop its spread, such as Iran in 1953 and Guatemala in 1954.[232] McCarthyism was a widespread government program led by Senator Joseph McCarthy to expose communists in government and business. Government employees were made to prove their loyalty to America, and Hollywood was targeted by the House Un-American Activities Committee.[239][240] J. Robert Oppenheimer, director of the Los Alamos Laboratory during the Manhattan Project, had his high-level security clearance revoked in 1954 over alleged communist sympathies, losing his ability to advise the top heads of government.[241][242] Gay people were targeted under the McCarthyist Lavender Scare.[243]

Eisenhower administration

An American family watching television together in 1958

Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected president in 1952 in a landslide.[244] He ended the Korean War, and avoided any other major conflict. He cut military spending by relying on advanced technology, such as nuclear weapons carried by long-range bombers and intercontinental missiles.[245] He also promoted safe and fast travel across the country with the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, creating the Interstate Highway System.[246] After Stalin died in 1953, Eisenhower worked to obtain friendlier relationships with the Soviet Union. At home, he ended McCarthyism, expanded the Social Security program, and presided over a decade of bipartisan cooperation.[245]

Domestically, after 1948, America entered an economic boom. Americans found themselves flush with cash from wartime work, due to there being little to buy for several years. As a result, 60% of the American population had attained a "middle-class" standard of living by the mid-1950s (defined as incomes of $3,000 to $10,000 in constant dollars), compared with only 31% in the 1928 and 1929. Between 1947 and 1960, the average real income for American workers increased by as much as it had in the previous half-century.[247] The economy allowed for an affordable lifestyle with large families; this created the baby boom, in which millions of children were born at increased rates from 1945 to 1964. The baby boomer demographic eventually made up 40 percent of the country.[248][249] Many Americans moved into suburban neighborhoods.[250]

The 101st Airborne Division escorting the Little Rock Nine into Little Rock Central High School in 1957

Eisenhower promoted civil rights for African-Americans cautiously.[245] In the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education, public school segregation was ruled unconstitutional.[251] When nine Black students were threatened over their admission into all-white Little Rock Central High School, Eisenhower sent in a thousand National Guard troops to ensure peace.[245][252] Starting in the late 1950s, institutionalized racism across the United States, but especially in the South, was increasingly challenged by the growing civil rights movement. The activism of Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. led to the boycott of segregated public buses in Montgomery, Alabama in 1955, organized by King and the Montgomery Improvement Association. They faced multiple acts of violence, but continued the boycott for a year, until the Supreme Court ordered the city to desegregate the buses. In 1957, King created the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to facilitate future protests.[251]

The Soviets unexpectedly surpassed American technology in 1957 with Sputnik, the first Earth satellite. The R-7 missile which launched Sputnik into space could have hypothetically dropped a nuclear bomb into U.S. air space from above; new American fears regarding Soviet power began the Space Race, a competition between the two countries to prove their technological superiority through space exploration. In 1958, Eisenhower created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for this purpose, and in 1958, the U.S. launched the Explorer I satellite.[253] In 1961, Eisenhower's newly elected successor, John F. Kennedy, announced the U.S. would land a man on the moon by the end of the decade.[254] Angst about the weaknesses of American education led to large-scale federal support for science education and research.[255]

Civil unrest and social reforms

Kennedy and Johnson administrations

Lyndon B. Johnson being inaugurated in 1963 after the assassination of John F. Kennedy

In 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected President and his administration saw the acceleration of the country's role in the Space Race, escalation of the American role in the Vietnam War, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and the Cuban Missile Crisis. President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, leaving the nation in profound shock.[256] Lyndon B. Johnson then became president.[257]

President Lyndon Johnson's speech on the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Johnson was rewarded with an electoral landslide in 1964 against conservative Barry Goldwater.[257] He then secured congressional passage of his Great Society programs,[258] dealing with civil rights, the end of legal segregation, Medicare, extension of welfare, federal aid to education at all levels, subsidies for the arts and humanities, environmental activism, and a series of programs designed to wipe out poverty.[259][260]

Civil rights and counterculture movements

Civil rights activists during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963

For years, civil rights activists were victims of violence, but they would achieve great steps toward equality with Supreme Court decisions like Loving v. Virginia, and laws like the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968. These ended the Jim Crow laws that legalized racial segregation between white and Black people.[261] Native Americans protested federal courts, highlighting the federal government's failure to honor treaties involving them. One of the most outspoken Native American groups was the American Indian Movement (AIM). In the 1960s, Cesar Chavez began organizing poorly paid Mexican-American farm workers in California. He led a five-year-long strike by grape pickers. Then Chávez formed the country's first successful union of farm workers, the United Farm Workers of America (UFW).[262]

U.S. soldiers searching a village for potential Viet Cong during the Vietnam War in 1966
An anti-Vietnam War demonstration in 1967

Amid the Cold War, the United States entered the Vietnam War, whose growing unpopularity fed already existing social movements, including those among women, minorities, and young people. Feminism and the environmental movement became political forces, and progress continued toward civil rights for all Americans. A counterculture revolution swept through the nation and much of the western world in the late sixties and early seventies, further dividing Americans in a "culture war" but also bringing forth more liberated social views.[263] Frustrations with the seemingly slow progress of the integration movement led to the emergence of more radical politics, such as Black Power movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s.[264] The summer of 1967 saw opposing philosophies in two widespread movements, the more peaceful summer of love and the radical long, hot summer, which included nationwide riots.[265] Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in 1968.[266] Following his death, there were further riots, and others led the movement, most notably his wife, Coretta Scott King.[266][267] The modern gay rights movement started after the Stonewall riots in 1969.[268]

A new consciousness of the inequality of American women began sweeping the nation, starting with the 1963 publication of Betty Friedan's best-seller, The Feminine Mystique, which critiqued the American cultural idea that women could only find fulfillment through their roles as wives, mothers, and keepers of the home, arguing that women should join the workforce. In 1966, Friedan and others established the National Organization for Women (NOW) to advocate for women's rights.[183][269] Protests began, and the new women's liberation movement grew in size and power, gaining much media attention. There were striking gains for women in medicine, law, and business, while only a few were elected to office.[270]

Activists protesting for women's liberation in 1970

The proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, passed by Congress in 1972 was defeated by a conservative coalition mobilized by Phyllis Schlafly.[270][271] However, many federal laws stablished women's equal status under the law, such as those equalizing pay, employment, education, employment opportunities, and credit between genders, ending pregnancy discrimination, and requiring organizations like NASA to admit women. State laws criminalized spousal abuse and marital rape, and the Supreme Court ruled that the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied to women. Social custom and consciousness began to change, accepting women's equality. The controversial issue of abortion, deemed by the Supreme Court as a fundamental right in Roe v. Wade (1973), is still a point of debate today.

Nixon administration

Buzz Aldrin (shown) and Neil Armstrong became the first humans to walk on the Moon during NASA's 1969 Apollo 11 mission.

In March 1968, Johnson announced he would not run for a second full term in office.[272] This was partially because Robert F. Kennedy, who was against the Vietnam War, entered the Democratic primary race. The war was increasingly controversial after the recent Tet Offensive. Kennedy was assassinated in June. The winner of the primaries was Hubert Humphrey; his policies regarding the Vietnam War led to riots at the party's convention that year.[273][274] Humphrey was defeated by Republican Richard Nixon,[273] who largely continued the New Deal and Great Society programs he inherited.[257][275] The Republican Party expanded its base throughout the South after 1968, largely due to its strength among socially conservative white Evangelical Protestants and traditionalist Roman Catholics, adding to its traditional strength in the business community and suburbs. The Democratic party also started moving to the right-center.[276]

Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency,[277] opened relations with China,[278] and attempted to gradually turn the Vietnam War effort over to the South Vietnamese forces. He negotiated the peace treaty in 1973 which secured the release of POWs and led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops. The war had cost the lives of 58,000 American troops. Nixon manipulated the fierce distrust between the Soviet Union and China to the advantage of the U.S., achieving détente with both parties.[275] He was also president during the U.S.' landing on the moon in 1969.[279]

Richard Nixon departing from the White House, 1974

The Watergate scandal, involving Nixon's cover-up of his operatives' break-in into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex destroyed his political base, sent many aides to prison, and forced his resignation on August 9, 1974.[275] He was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford, who pardoned Nixon for Watergate.[275][280]

Ford and Carter administrations

The Fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975, ended the Vietnam War, and resulted in North and South Vietnam being reunited. Communist victories in neighboring Cambodia and Laos occurred in the same year, with the fall of Cambodia's capital, Phnom Penh on April 17 and the taking of Laos's capital, Vientiane on December 2.[275] In Central America, the U.S. government supported right-wing governments against left-wing groups, such as in El Salvador and Guatemala. In South America, they supported Argentina and Chile, who carried out Operation Condor, a campaign of assassinations of exiled political opponents by Southern Cone governments, which was created at the behest of Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet in 1975.[281][282][283]

The OPEC oil embargo marked a long-term economic transition since, for the first time, energy prices skyrocketed, and American factories faced serious competition from foreign automobiles, clothing, electronics, and consumer goods. By the late 1970s, the economy suffered an energy crisis, slow economic growth, high unemployment, and very high inflation, coupled with high-interest rates. The term stagflation was coined to define these trends. Since economists agreed on deregulation, many of the New Deal era regulations were ended, such as in transportation, banking, and telecommunications.[284] Meanwhile, the first mass-market personal computers were being developed in California's Silicon Valley.[285]

Jimmy Carter, running as someone who was not a part of the Washington political establishment, was elected president in 1976.[286] Carter brokered the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt. In 1979, Iranian students stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took 66 Americans hostage, resulting in the Iran hostage crisis. With the hostage crisis and continuing stagflation, Carter lost the 1980 election to the Republican Ronald Reagan.[287] On January 20, 1981, minutes after Carter's term ended, the remaining U.S. captives were released.[288]

Contemporary America (1981–present)

Reagan and George H.W. Bush administrations

Monthly unemployment, inflation, and interest rates from January 1981 to January 1989

The Republican Party's central leader by 1980 was president Ronald Reagan, whose conservative policies produced a major political realignment with his 1980 and 1984 landslide elections.[276][289] Reagan's neoliberal economic policies (dubbed "Reaganomics"), including the implementation of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, lowered the top marginal tax rate from 70% to 28% over the course of seven years.[289][290][291] Reagan continued to downsize government taxation and regulation;[292] New Deal and Great Society programs were ended.[257] The U.S. experienced a recession in 1982, but after inflation decreased, unemployment then decreased, and the economic growth rate increased from 4.5% in 1982 to 7.2% in 1984.[293][294] However, homelessness and economic inequality also rose.[295][296]

The Reagan administration's expansion of the War on Drugs led to an increase in incarceration, particularly among African Americans, with the number of people imprisoned for drug offences rising from 50,000 to 400,000 between 1980 and 1997.[297][298] Manufacturing industries moving out of inner cities increased poverty in those areas; poverty increased drug dealing and contributed to the crack epidemic, which in turn led to increased crime and incarceration.[297][299] The government also reacted slowly to the AIDS crisis, and banned reliable information on the disease, which led to higher infection rates.[300][301]

Ronald Reagan at the Brandenburg Gate challenges Soviet general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall in 1987, shortly before the end of the Cold War.

Reagan ordered a buildup of the U.S. military, incurring additional budget deficits.[302] The 1983 invasion of Grenada and 1986 bombing of Libya were popular in the U.S., though Reagan's backing of the Contra rebels was mired in the controversy over the Iran–Contra affair.[303] Reagan also introduced a complicated missile defense system known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). The Soviets reacted harshly because they thought it violated the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, and would upset the balance of power by giving the U.S. a major military advantage, so they stopped negotiating disarmament deals until the late 1980s.[302] Historians debate over if the SDI forced Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to initiate radical reforms, or whether the deterioration of the Soviet economy alone forced the reforms.[304]

US Air Force aircraft fly over oil fields which had been destroyed by the retreating Iraqi army in 1991's Operation Desert Shield.

Reagan met four times with Gorbachev, and their summit conferences led to the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Gorbachev tried to save communism in the Soviet Union, first by ending the expensive nuclear arms race with America.[305] However, the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, ending the Cold War.[306] For the remainder of the 20th century, the United States emerged as the world's sole remaining superpower and continued to intervene in international affairs during the 1990s.[307]

The Gulf War against Iraq started during George H.W. Bush's administration.[307] The war started when Iraq invaded neighboring Kuwait in 1990. After a "massive", international U.S.-led offensive, Kuwait was taken back.[308] Under Bush, the U.S. also became involved in wars in Panama, Somalia, Bosnia, and Croatia.[309][310][311] In 1992, there were riots in Los Angeles over police brutality.[312]

Clinton administration

Ruins of the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995

Following his election in 1992, President Bill Clinton oversaw one of the longest periods of economic expansion and unprecedented gains in securities values. President Clinton worked with the Republican Congress to pass the first balanced federal budget in 30 years.[307] Much of the economic boom was a side effect of the Digital Revolution, and new business opportunities created by the Internet (which started as the government project ARPANET).[313] During Clinton's administration, the U.S. was involved in wars in Haiti and Kosovo.[314][315]

White Democrats in the South lost dominance of the Democratic Party in the 1990s.[276] Conservative Republicans heavily won the 1994 midterm elections in a "Republican Revolution" which was built around the Contract with America policy agenda.[316][317] Newt Gingrich was chosen as House Speaker,[316] and he would heavily influence the Republican Party to engage in "confrontational" political speech.[318][319] In response, in June 1995, Clinton shifted his policies more towards the center from the left. This did not majorly increase his approval, but rather, his leadership after the Oklahoma City bombing in April did.[320] He won in the 1996 presidential elections.[321] In 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives on charges of lying under oath about a sexual relationship with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. He was acquitted by the Senate. The failure of impeachment and the Democratic gains in the 1998 election forced Gingrich to resign from Congress.[307]

The Nasdaq Composite index swelled with the dot-com bubble in the optimistic "New economy". The bubble burst in 2000.

In 2000, the dot-com bubble, a widespread overvaluation of Internet company stocks, burst and hurt the U.S. economy.[322][323] The close presidential election in 2000 between Governor George W. Bush and Al Gore helped lay the seeds for political polarization to come. The vote in the decisive states of New Mexico and Florida was extremely close and produced a dramatic dispute over the counting of votes.[324] Bush ultimately won.[325] Including 2000, the Democrats outpolled the Republicans in the national vote in every election from 1992 to 2020, except for 2004.[326]

George W. Bush administration

United Airlines Flight 175 crashes into the South Tower of the World Trade Center complex in New York City during the September 11 attacks.

On September 11, 2001 (9/11), the United States was struck by a terrorist attack, when 19 al-Qaeda hijackers commandeered four commercial planes to be used in suicide attacks. Two were crashed intentionally into both Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, and a third into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia. The fourth plane was re-taken by the passengers and crew of the aircraft, and it was crashed into an empty field in Pennsylvania, killing everyone on board and saving whatever target the terrorists were aiming for. Every building of the World Trade Center partially or completely collapsed, massively damaging the surrounding area and blanketing Lower Manhattan in toxic dust clouds. A total of 2,977 victims died in the attacks. In response, on September 20, Bush announced a "war on terror".[327][328]

Bush's address to the American people on the night of the September 11 attacks
U.S. Marines prepare to storm one of Saddam Hussein's palaces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

In October 2001, the U.S. and NATO invaded Afghanistan and ousted the Taliban regime, which had harbored al-Qaeda and its leader Osama bin Laden.[329] Bin Laden then escaped to Pakistan, starting a manhunt for him.[330] The U.S. established new domestic efforts to prevent future attacks. The Patriot Act increased the power of government to monitor communications and removed legal restrictions on intelligence sharing between federal law enforcement agencies.[331] The government's indefinite detention of terrorism suspects captured abroad at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, a prison at the U.S. naval base in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, led to allegations of human rights abuses and violations of international law.[332][333][334] The Department of Homeland Security was created to lead federal counter-terrorism activities.[331]

In March 2003, the U.S. launched an invasion of Iraq, claiming Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and the Iraqi people needed to liberated from him. Intelligence backing WMDs were later found to be inaccurate. The war led to the collapse of the Iraqi government and the eventual capture of Hussein.[335][336] Despite some initial successes early in the invasion, the continued Iraq War fueled international protests and gradually saw domestic support decline as many people questioned if the invasion was worth the cost.[337][338]

In 2005, Hurricane Katrina killed 1,800 people around New Orleans after the city's levees broke.[339] In 2007, after years of violence by the Iraqi insurgency, Bush deployed more troops in a strategy dubbed "the surge". While the death toll decreased, the political stability of Iraq remained in doubt.[340] In December 2007, the U.S. unemployment rate rose from 5% to 10%.[341] In 2008, the U.S. entered the Great Recession.[342][343] Multiple overlapping crises were involved, especially the housing market crisis, a subprime mortgage crisis, soaring oil prices, an automotive industry crisis, rising unemployment, and the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression. The financial crisis threatened the stability of the entire economy in September 2008, when Lehman Brothers failed, and other giant banks were in grave danger.[344] Starting in October, the federal government lent $245 billion to financial institutions through the bipartisan Troubled Asset Relief Program.[345][346]

Obama administration

First term

Barack Obama's 2009 inauguration speech

The unpopularity of Bush and the Iraq War, along with the financial crisis, led to the 2008 election of Barack Obama, the first multiracial[347] president, with African-American or Kenyan ancestry.[348] He won by a wide electoral margin.[349] He signed the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act, which allowed people to serve in the military while openly gay.[350] To help the economy, he signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009,[351] Consumer Assistance to Recycle and Save Act,[352] the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (informally "Obamacare"),[353] and the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act.[354][355] The employment rate began falling as the economy and labor markets experienced a recovery.[341] These changes to the economic system created new political movements, such as the liberal Occupy movement and the conservative Tea Party movement.[356]

Tea Party protesters walk towards the United States Capitol during the Taxpayer March on Washington in 2009.

The recession officially ended in June 2009, and the economy slowly began recovering.[357] Following the 2010 midterm elections, which resulted in a Republican-controlled House of Representatives and a Democratic-controlled Senate,[358] Congress was in gridlock, as heated debates were held over whether or not to raise the debt ceiling, extend tax cuts for citizens making over $250,000 annually, and how to address other key issues.[359] These ongoing debates led to the Budget Control Act of 2011.[360] The economic expansion that followed the Great Recession was the longest in U.S. history;[361][362] the unemployment rate reached a 50-year low in 2019.[363] Despite the strong economy, increases in the cost of living surpassed increases in wages.[364][365] The economic expansion came to an end in early 2020, largely caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.[361][362]

Obama announces the killing of Osama bin Laden in 2011.

In 2009, Obama issued an executive order banning the use of torture,[366][367] a prohibition codified into law in 2015.[368] He ordered the closure of secret CIA-run prisons overseas,[369][370] and sought to close the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, but his efforts were stymied by Congress, which in 2011 enacted a measure blocking him from transferring any Guantanamo detainees to U.S. facilities. The number of inmates nonetheless was decreased.[371][372] Obama reluctantly continued the war effort in Iraq until August 2010, when he declared that combat operations had ended. However, 50,000 American soldiers and military personnel were kept in Iraq for safety reasons until they left the country in December 2011.[373] Meanwhile, he increased involvement in Afghanistan, adding an additional 30,000 troops, while proposing to begin withdrawing troops in 2014.[367] The U.S., with NATO, intervened in the Libyan Civil War for seven months in 2011.[374] In May 2011, Osama bin Laden was killed in Pakistan in a raid ordered by Obama and conducted by Navy SEALs. While Al Qaeda was near collapse in Afghanistan, affiliated organizations continued to operate in Yemen and other remote areas, as the CIA used drones to hunt down its leadership.[375][376] In October, Obama sent troops to Central Africa to fight the Lord's Resistance Army.[377]

Second term

Following Obama's 2012 re-election, Congressional gridlock continued. Congressional Republicans' demands, like calling for the repeal of the Affordable Care Act, resulted in the first government shutdown since the Clinton administration, and almost led to the first default on U.S. debt since the 19th century. As a result of growing public frustration with both parties in Congress, Congressional approval ratings fell to record lows.[378] In 2012, the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Newtown, Connecticut led to unsuccessful attempts from Obama to promote gun reform.[379] The Boston Marathon bombing of 2013 killed three people and injured more than 260.[380] Also that year, NSA employee Edward Snowden leaked information regarding the NSA's widespread program of surveilling American citizens through the Internet.[381]

In 2013, the U.S. also started a counter-terrorist invention in Niger,[382] and began a covert operation to train rebels in Syria who were fighting against the terrorist group ISIS. The latter program was publicized and expanded in 2014.[383] That year, ISIS grew in scope in the Middle East, and inspired many terrorist attacks in the United States, including the 2015 San Bernardino attack.[384][385][386] The U.S. and its allies began a significant military offensive against ISIS in Iraq which lasted from 2014 to 2021.[387][388] In December 2014, Obama officially ended the combat mission in Afghanistan and promised a withdrawal of almost all remaining U.S. troops at the end of 2016.[389] However, troops stayed until 2021.[390]

The White House lit with rainbow colors in celebration of the legalization of gay marriage in 2015

The shooting of Black teen Michael Brown by police officer Darren Wilson, and a grand jury declining to charge Wilson with murder, led to the Ferguson unrest in Missouri in 2014 and 2015.[391] In 2015, U.S. also joined the international Paris Agreement on climate change.[392] Meanwhile, debate over the issue of rights for the LGBT community, including same-sex marriage, began to shift in favor of same-sex couples.[393] In 2012, President Obama became the first president to openly support same-sex marriage.[394] The Supreme Court provided federal recognition of same-sex marriages in 2013,[395] and then legalized gay marriage nationwide with Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015.[396]

Trump administration

Donald Trump's 2016 presidential election victory speech

In November 2016, following a contentious election against Hillary Clinton, Republican Donald Trump was elected president.[397] The election's legitimacy was disputed when the FBI and Congress investigated if Russia interfered in the election to help Trump win. There were also accusations of collusion between Trump's campaign and Russian officials. The Mueller report concluded that Russia attempted to help Trump's campaign, but there was no evidence of "explicit" collusion found.[398][399][400] Trump, however, "welcomed help from Russia"; in July 2016, after WikiLeaks published emails from the Democratic National Committee (DNC) – initially suspected to be obtained by Russian hackers – Trump publicly asked Russia to find emails that were deleted from Clinton's private email server that she used as Obama's Secretary of State. In 2018, the DNC emails were confirmed to be obtained by a Russian hacker or hacker group named Guccifer 2.0.[399][401][402][403]

A demonstration organized in the wake of the Parkland shooting in Florida in 2018

In the 2010s and early 2020s, Americans became more politically polarized.[404][405][406] The #MeToo movement exposed alleged sexual harassment and abuse in the workplace.[407] Many celebrities were accused of misconduct or rape.[408][409] The Black Lives Matter movement gained support after multiple police killings of African-Americans.[410] White supremacy also grew.[411][412][413] The 2017 Women's March against Trump's presidency was one of the largest protests in American history.[414] Multiple mass shootings, including the 2016 Pulse Nightclub shooting, 2017 Las Vegas shooting, and 2018 Parkland shooting, led to increased calls for gun reform, such as in the March for Our Lives student protest movement.[415][416]

During Trump's presidency, he espoused an "America First" ideology, placing restrictions on asylum seekers, expanding the wall on the U.S.-Mexico border, and banning immigration from seven Muslim-majority countries. Many of his executive orders and other actions were challenged in court.[417][418][419] He confirmed three new Supreme Court justices (cementing a conservative majority),[420] started a trade war with China,[421] signed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, and removed the U.S. from the Paris Agreement.[392] In 2018, the administration separated families which were illegally immigrating to the country. After public outcry, Trump rescinded the policy.[422][423] In 2019, a U.S. attack caused the suicide of the leader of ISIS, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi.[424] A whistleblower complaint also alleged that Trump had withheld foreign aid from Ukraine under the demand that they investigate the business dealings of Hunter Biden; Hunter's father, Democrat Joe Biden, would be Trump's opponent in the 2020 presidential election.[425][426] Trump was impeached for abuse of power and obstruction of congress, but he was acquitted in 2020.[427]

Weekly confirmed deaths from COVID-19 in the United States from January 2020 to August 2023

The COVID-19 disease started spreading in China in 2019.[428] In March 2020, the WHO declared the spread to be a pandemic.[429] American state and local governments imposed stay-at-home orders to slow the virus' spread, reducing patient overload in hospitals. By April, the U.S. had the most cases of any country, at 100,000.[430][431][432] At Trump's direction, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services and Centers for Disease Control released preventative guidelines for Americans.[433] On April 11, the U.S. death toll became the highest in the world at 20,000,[434] and by May 2022, one million had died.[435] U.S. life expectancy fell by around a year and a half in 2020 and 2021, and unemployment rates were the highest since the Great Depression.[436][437] The biggest mass vaccination campaign in U.S. history started in December 2020, when the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine was first distributed to U.S. citizens.[438] By October 2022, 613 million vaccine shots had been administered to Americans.[439]

The May 2020 murder of George Floyd caused mass protests and riots in many cities over police brutality, with many states calling in the National Guard.[440] Many organizations attempted to rid themselves of institutionalized racism.[441] 2020 was also marked by a rise in domestic terrorist threats and widespread conspiracy theories around mail-in voting and COVID-19.[442][443][444] The QAnon conspiracy theory gained publicity due to greater Internet usage during the pandemic.[445][446] Multiple major cities were hit by rioting and fighting between far-left anti-fascist groups and far-right groups like the Proud Boys.[447][448]

Supporters of then-President Trump attempting to stop the counting of electoral votes on January 6, 2021

Joe Biden defeated Trump in the 2020 election, the first defeat of an incumbent president since 1992.[426] The election, with an exceptional amount of mail-in voting and early voting due to the pandemic, had historically high voter turnout.[449] Trump then repeatedly made false claims of massive voter fraud and election rigging,[450][451][452] leading to the January 6 United States Capitol attack by supporters of Trump and right-wing militias.[453][454] The attack was widely described as a coup d'état.[455][456][457] It led to Trump's impeachment for incitement of insurrection, making him the only U.S. president to be impeached twice.[458][459][460] The Senate later acquitted Trump, despite some fellow Republicans voting against him.[461][462] Kamala Harris was inaugurated as the first Black, Asian, and female vice president.[463]

Biden administration

In 2021, Biden finished the withdrawal of American troops from Afghanistan which started under Trump. After an evacuation of over 120,000 American citizens, Afghanistan fell to the Taliban in August.[390][464][465] Biden signed into law the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021; a $1.9 trillion stimulus bill in response to continued economic pressure from COVID-19.[466] He also proposed a significant expansion of the social safety net through the Build Back Better Act, but those efforts, along with voting rights legislation, failed in Congress.[467] He then signed bills regarding infrastructure,[468] gun reform,[469] inflation reduction,[470] and healthcare for veterans,[471] among other issues.[472] The Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, started spreading in 2021. New preventative restrictions were put in place in reaction to this.[473][474][475]

Protestors outside the Supreme Court shortly after the announcement of the Dobbs v. Jackson decision in 2022

In the early 2020s, Republican-led states began sweeping rollbacks of LGBT rights.[476] In 2022, the Supreme Court ruled in Dobbs v. Jackson that having an abortion is not a protected Constitutional right, overturning Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood v. Casey and sparking nationwide protests.[477][478] Biden also appointed Ketanji Brown Jackson to become the first Black woman to serve on the court.[479] In 2023, Trump began appearing in court as a defendant in multiple notable criminal trials, including alleged federal crimes,[480] while he was campaigning for the 2024 presidential election.[481] Meanwhile, the U.S. began supporting Israel in the Israel-Hamas war[482] and protecting shipping in the Red Sea from attacks by the Yemeni Houthis.[483]

In June 2024, Trump became the first president convicted of a crime, when he was found guilty of 34 felony counts for falsifying business documents related to his paying off of Stormy Daniels in 2016.[484] In July, the Supreme Court ruled in Trump v. United States that presidents are somewhat immune from criminal prosecution after their presidency over "official acts" taken during their presidency, helping Trump before his planned election subversion trial;[485][486][487] the trial was later dismissed by a Trump-appointed judge.[488] Later in July, Biden dropped out of the 2024 race, endorsing Kamala Harris.[489] During the election season, there were two assassination attempts on Trump.[490]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ 'In addition, he [i.e., Sweyn Estridsson, king of Denmark (reigned 1047–1076)] named one more island in this ocean, discovered by many, which is called "Vinland", because vines grow wild there, making the best wine. For [that] crops [that are] not sown, abound there, we learn not from fanciful opinion but from the true account of the Danes.'[21]
  2. ^ Howe argued that, "American imperialism did not represent an American consensus; it provoked bitter dissent within the national polity."[109]
  3. ^ The Seneca Falls Convention was preceded by the Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women in 1837 held in New York City, at which women's rights issues were debated, especially African-American women's rights.[113]
  4. ^ A new way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 people, but most likely 761,000 people, died through the war.[136][137]

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Sources

External links