Relieve rupestre de Ardashir I (224–242 d. C.) en Naqsh-e Rostam , con la inscripción "Esta es la figura del adorador de Mazda, el señor Ardashir, rey de Irán".
El término Irán , « la tierra de los arios », deriva del persa medio Ērān , atestiguado por primera vez en una inscripción del siglo III en Naqsh-e Rostam , con la inscripción parta que lo acompaña usando Aryān , en referencia a los iraníes . [8] Ērān y Aryān son formas plurales oblicuas de los sustantivos gentilicios ēr- (persa medio) y ary- (parto), derivados del idioma protoiraní *arya- (que significa « ario », es decir, de los iraníes), [8] [9] reconocido como un derivado del idioma protoindoeuropeo *ar-yo- , que significa « el que reúne (hábilmente) » . [10] Según la mitología iraní , el nombre proviene de Iraj , un rey legendario. [11]
Occidente se refería a Irán como Persia , debido a que los historiadores griegos se referían a todo Irán como Persís , que significa 'la tierra de los persas '. [12] [13] [14] [15] Persia es la provincia de Fars en el suroeste de Irán, la cuarta provincia más grande, también conocida como Pârs . [16] [17] El persa Fârs (فارس), derivado de la forma anterior Pârs (پارس), que a su vez se deriva de Pârsâ ( persa antiguo : 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿). Debido a la importancia histórica de Fars, [18] [19] Persia se originó a partir de este territorio a través de los griegos alrededor del 550 a. C., [20] y los occidentales se refirieron a todo el país como Persia , [21] [22] hasta 1935, cuando Reza Shah solicitó a la comunidad internacional que usara su nombre nativo y original, Irán ; [23] Los iraníes llamaron a su nación Irán desde al menos el año 1000 a. C. [16] Hoy en día, tanto Irán como Persia se utilizan culturalmente, mientras que Irán sigue siendo obligatorio en el uso oficial. [24] [25] [26] [27] [28]
La pronunciación persa de Irán es [ʔiːˈɾɒːn] . Las pronunciaciones de Irán en inglés de la Commonwealth aparecen en el Oxford English Dictionary como / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / y / ɪ ˈ r æ n / , [29] mientras que los diccionarios de inglés estadounidense proporcionan pronunciaciones que se asignan a / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n , - ˈ r æ n , aɪ ˈ r æ n / , [ 30] o / ɪ ˈ r æ n , ɪ ˈ r ɑː n , aɪ ˈ r æ n / . El Cambridge Dictionary enumera / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / como la pronunciación británica y / ɪ ˈ r æ n / como la pronunciación estadounidense. La guía de pronunciación de Voice of America proporciona / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / . [31]
Historia
Chogha Zanbil es uno de los pocos zigurats existentes fuera de Mesopotamia y se considera el ejemplo mejor conservado del mundo.
Irán es el hogar de una de las civilizaciones más antiguas del mundo, con asentamientos históricos y urbanos que datan de 4000 a. C. [32] La parte occidental de la meseta iraní participó en el antiguo Oriente Próximo tradicional con Elam (3200-539 a. C.), y más tarde con otros pueblos como los casitas , los manneos y los gutianos . Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel llamó a los persas el "primer pueblo histórico". [33] El Imperio iraní comenzó en la Edad del Hierro con el ascenso de los medos , que unificaron Irán como nación e imperio en 625 a. C. [34] El Imperio aqueménida (550-330 a. C.), fundado por Ciro el Grande , fue el imperio más grande que el mundo había visto, abarcando desde los Balcanes hasta el norte de África y Asia Central . Fueron sucedidos por los imperios seléucida , parto y sasánida , que gobernaron Irán durante casi 1000 años, convirtiendo a Irán en una potencia líder una vez más. El archirrival de Persia durante este período fue el Imperio romano y su sucesor, el Imperio bizantino .
Irán siguió siendo una monarquía hasta la Revolución iraní de 1979 , cuando se convirtió oficialmente en una república islámica el 1 de abril de 1979. [39] [40] Desde entonces, Irán ha experimentado importantes cambios políticos, sociales y económicos. El establecimiento de la República Islámica de Irán condujo a la reestructuración de su sistema político, con el Ayatolá Jomeini como Líder Supremo. Las relaciones exteriores de Irán han estado marcadas por la Guerra Irán-Irak (1980-1988), las tensiones en curso con los Estados Unidos y su programa nuclear, que ha sido un punto de discordia en la diplomacia internacional.
Desde los años 1990
En 1989, Akbar Rafsanjani se concentró en una política pro empresarial para reconstruir la economía sin romper con la ideología de la revolución. Apoyó el libre mercado en el país, favoreciendo la privatización de las industrias estatales y una posición moderada en el plano internacional. En 1997, Rafsanjani fue sucedido por el reformista moderado Mohammad Khatami , cuyo gobierno abogó por la libertad de expresión , relaciones diplomáticas constructivas con Asia y la Unión Europea y una política económica que apoyaba el libre mercado y la inversión extranjera.
Irán tiene una superficie de 1.648.195 km² ( 636.372 millas cuadradas). Es el sexto país más grande enteramente de Asia y el segundo más grande de Asia occidental. [65] Se encuentra entre las latitudes 24° y 40° N , y las longitudes 44° y 64° E. Limita al noroeste con Armenia (35 km o 22 mi), el enclave azerí de Najicheván (179 km o 111 mi), [66] y la República de Azerbaiyán (611 km o 380 mi); al norte con el mar Caspio ; al noreste con Turkmenistán (992 km o 616 mi); al este con Afganistán (936 km o 582 mi) y Pakistán (909 km o 565 mi); al sur con el golfo Pérsico y el golfo de Omán ; y al oeste con Irak (1.458 km o 906 mi) y Turquía (499 km o 310 mi).
Irán se encuentra en una zona sísmicamente activa. [67] En promedio, un terremoto de magnitud siete en la escala de Richter ocurre una vez cada diez años. [68] La mayoría de los terremotos tienen un foco superficial y pueden ser muy devastadores, como el terremoto de Bam de 2003 .
Irán está formado por la meseta iraní . Es uno de los países más montañosos del mundo, su paisaje está dominado por escarpadas cadenas montañosas que separan cuencas o mesetas . La populosa parte occidental es la más montañosa, con cordilleras como la del Cáucaso , Zagros y Alborz , esta última conteniendo el monte Damavand , el punto más alto de Irán, a 5.610 m (18.406 pies), que es el volcán más alto de Asia. Las montañas de Irán han impactado su política y economía durante siglos.
La parte norte está cubierta por los exuberantes bosques hircanios de las tierras bajas del mar Caspio , cerca de las costas meridionales del mar Caspio. La parte este se compone principalmente de cuencas desérticas , como el desierto de Kavir , que es el desierto más grande del país, y el desierto de Lut , así como lagos salados . El desierto de Lut es el punto más cálido registrado en la superficie de la Tierra, con 70,7 °C registrados en 2005. [69] [70] [71] [72] Las únicas llanuras grandes se encuentran a lo largo de la costa del Caspio y en el extremo norte del golfo Pérsico, donde el país limita con la desembocadura del río Arvand . Llanuras más pequeñas y discontinuas se encuentran a lo largo de la costa restante del golfo Pérsico, el estrecho de Ormuz y el golfo de Omán. [73] [74] [75]
Las islas iraníes se encuentran principalmente en el Golfo Pérsico. Irán tiene 102 islas en el lago Urmia , 427 en el río Aras , varias en la laguna Anzali , la isla Ashurade en el mar Caspio , la isla Sheytan en el mar de Omán y otras islas interiores. Irán tiene una isla deshabitada en el extremo más alejado del Golfo de Omán , cerca de Pakistán. Los turistas pueden visitar algunas islas. La mayoría son propiedad de los militares o se utilizan para la protección de la vida silvestre, y la entrada está prohibida o requiere un permiso. [76] [77] [78]
Irán tomó el control de Bumusa y de las islas Mayor y Menor en 1971, en el estrecho de Ormuz, entre el golfo Pérsico y el golfo de Omán. A pesar de que las islas son pequeñas y tienen pocos recursos naturales o población, son muy valiosas por su ubicación estratégica. [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] Aunque los Emiratos Árabes Unidos reclaman la soberanía, [84] [85] [86] ha recibido constantemente una respuesta contundente de Irán, [87] [88] [89] basada en su contexto histórico y cultural. [90] Irán tiene control total sobre las islas. [91]
La isla de Kish , como zona de libre comercio , se promociona como un paraíso para los consumidores, con centros comerciales, atracciones turísticas y hoteles de lujo. Qeshm es la isla más grande de Irán y un Geoparque Mundial de la UNESCO desde 2016. [92] [93] [94] Su cueva de sal, Namakdan, es la más grande del mundo y una de las cuevas más largas del mundo. [95] [96] [97] [98]
El clima de Irán es diverso, desde árido y semiárido hasta subtropical a lo largo de la costa del Caspio y los bosques del norte. [99] En el extremo norte del país, las temperaturas rara vez caen por debajo del punto de congelación y la zona permanece húmeda. Las temperaturas de verano rara vez superan los 29 °C (84,2 °F). [100] La precipitación anual es de 680 mm (26,8 pulgadas) en la parte oriental de la llanura y más de 1.700 mm (66,9 pulgadas) en la parte occidental. El Coordinador Residente de las Naciones Unidas para Irán ha dicho que " la escasez de agua plantea el desafío de seguridad humana más grave en Irán hoy en día". [101]
Al oeste, los asentamientos de la cuenca del río Zagros experimentan temperaturas más bajas, inviernos severos con temperaturas medias diarias gélidas y fuertes nevadas. Las cuencas del este y del centro son áridas, con menos de 200 mm (7,9 pulgadas) de lluvia y tienen desiertos ocasionales. [102] Las temperaturas medias de verano rara vez superan los 38 °C (100,4 °F). Las llanuras costeras del sur del golfo Pérsico y el golfo de Omán tienen inviernos suaves y veranos muy húmedos y calurosos. La precipitación anual varía de 135 a 355 mm (5,3 a 14,0 pulgadas). [103]
Más de una décima parte del país está cubierta de bosques . [104] Alrededor de 120 millones de hectáreas de bosques y campos son propiedad del gobierno para explotación nacional. [105] [106] Los bosques de Irán se pueden dividir en cinco regiones de vegetación: la región de Hyrcanian , que forma el cinturón verde del lado norte del país; la región de Turan , que se encuentran principalmente dispersas en el centro de Irán; la región de Zagros , que contiene principalmente bosques de robles en el oeste; la región del Golfo Pérsico , que se encuentra dispersa en el cinturón costero del sur; la región de Arasbarani , que contiene especies raras y únicas. Se cultivan más de 8.200 especies de plantas . La tierra cubierta por flora natural es cuatro veces mayor que la de Europa. [107] Hay más de 200 áreas protegidas para preservar la biodiversidad y la vida silvestre, y más de 30 son parques nacionales .
El Líder Supremo , "Rahbar", Líder de la Revolución o Autoridad Suprema de Liderazgo, es el jefe de Estado y responsable de la supervisión de la política. El presidente tiene un poder limitado en comparación con el Rahbar. Los ministros clave son seleccionados con el acuerdo del Rahbar y tienen la última palabra en política exterior. [113] El Rahbar participa directamente en los nombramientos ministeriales de Defensa, Inteligencia y Asuntos Exteriores, así como de otros ministerios importantes tras la presentación de candidatos por parte del presidente.
La política regional está controlada directamente por el Rahbar, y la tarea del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores se limita al protocolo y a las ocasiones ceremoniales. Los embajadores en los países árabes, por ejemplo, son elegidos por la Fuerza Quds , que informa directamente al Rahbar. [114] El Rahbar puede ordenar que se modifiquen las leyes. [115] Reuters estimó que Setad tenía un valor de 95.000 millones de dólares en 2013, y las cuentas de este valor son secretas incluso para el parlamento . [116] [117]
El Rahbar es el comandante en jefe de las Fuerzas Armadas , controla las operaciones de inteligencia y seguridad militares y tiene el poder exclusivo para declarar la guerra o la paz. Los jefes del poder judicial, las cadenas de radio y televisión estatales, los comandantes de la policía y el ejército y los miembros del Consejo de Guardianes son designados por el Rahbar.
La Asamblea de Expertos es responsable de elegir al Rahbar y tiene el poder de destituirlo sobre la base de sus calificaciones y la estima popular. [118] Hasta la fecha, la Asamblea de Expertos no ha impugnado ninguna de las decisiones del Rahbar ni ha intentado destituirlo. El anterior jefe del sistema judicial, Sadeq Larijani , designado por el Rahbar, dijo que es ilegal que la Asamblea de Expertos supervise al Rahbar. [119] Muchos creen que la Asamblea de Expertos se ha convertido en un órgano ceremonial sin ningún poder real. [120] [121] [122]
El Presidente es el jefe de gobierno y la segunda autoridad de mayor rango, después del Líder Supremo. El Presidente es elegido por sufragio universal por 4 años. Antes de las elecciones , los nominados para convertirse en candidatos presidenciales deben ser aprobados por el Consejo de Guardianes . [126] Los miembros del Consejo son elegidos por el Líder, y el Líder tiene el poder de destituir al presidente. [127] El Presidente solo puede ser reelegido por un mandato. [128] El presidente es el comandante en jefe adjunto del Ejército , el jefe del Consejo Supremo de Seguridad Nacional y tiene el poder de declarar el estado de emergencia después de su aprobación por el parlamento.
El Presidente es responsable de la implementación de la constitución y del ejercicio de los poderes ejecutivos en la implementación de los decretos y políticas generales delineados por el Rahbar, excepto en asuntos directamente relacionados con el Rahbar, quien tiene la última palabra. [129] El Presidente funciona como el ejecutivo de asuntos tales como la firma de tratados y otros acuerdos internacionales, y la administración de la planificación nacional, el presupuesto y los asuntos de empleo estatal, todo según lo aprobado por el Rahbar. [130] [131]
El Presidente nombra a los ministros, sujetos a la aprobación del Parlamento, y del Rahbar, quien puede destituir o restituir a cualquier ministro. [132] [133] [134] El Presidente supervisa el Consejo de Ministros , coordina las decisiones gubernamentales y selecciona las políticas gubernamentales que se presentarán ante la legislatura. [135] Ocho Vicepresidentes sirven bajo el Presidente, así como un gabinete de 22 ministros, todos designados por el Presidente. [136]
Consejo de guardianes
Los candidatos presidenciales y parlamentarios deben ser aprobados por el Consejo de Guardianes, compuesto por 12 miembros (todos ellos designados por el Líder), o por el Líder, antes de presentarse como candidato para asegurar su lealtad. [137] El Líder rara vez realiza la investigación, pero tiene el poder de hacerlo, en cuyo caso no se necesita la aprobación adicional del Consejo de Guardianes. El Líder puede revocar las decisiones del Consejo de Guardianes. [138]
La constitución otorga al consejo tres mandatos: poder de veto sobre la legislación aprobada por el parlamento , [139] [140] supervisión de las elecciones [141] y aprobación o descalificación de candidatos que busquen presentarse a elecciones locales, parlamentarias, presidenciales o de la Asamblea de Expertos. [142] El consejo puede anular una ley basándose en dos motivos: estar en contra de la Sharia (ley islámica) o estar en contra de la constitución. [143]
Consejo Supremo de Seguridad Nacional
El Consejo Supremo de Seguridad Nacional (SNSC) está en la cima del proceso de decisiones de política exterior. [144] [145] [146] El consejo se formó durante el referéndum constitucional iraní de 1989 para la protección y el apoyo de los intereses nacionales, la revolución, la integridad territorial y la soberanía nacional. [147] El artículo 176 de la Constitución establece que debe ser presidido por el Presidente . [148] [149]
El líder elige al secretario del Consejo Supremo, y las decisiones del Consejo entran en vigor después de la confirmación del líder. El SNSC formula la política nuclear y entrarán en vigor si son confirmadas por el líder. [150] [151]
Legislatura
La legislatura , conocida como Asamblea Consultiva Islámica (ACI), Parlamento iraní o "Majles", es un órgano unicameral compuesto por 290 miembros elegidos por cuatro años. [152] Redacta leyes, ratifica tratados internacionales y aprueba el presupuesto nacional. Todos los candidatos parlamentarios y la legislación de la asamblea deben ser aprobados por el Consejo de Guardianes . [153] [154] El Consejo de Guardianes puede y ha destituido a miembros electos del parlamento. [155] [156] El parlamento no tiene estatus legal sin el Consejo de Guardianes, y el Consejo tiene poder de veto absoluto sobre la legislación. [157]
El Consejo de Discernimiento de Conveniencia tiene la autoridad de mediar en disputas entre el Parlamento y el Consejo de Guardianes, y sirve como órgano asesor del Líder Supremo, lo que lo convierte en uno de los órganos de gobierno más poderosos de Irán. [158] [159]
El sistema jurídico de Irán es una forma de la sharia , con elementos del derecho civil europeo . El líder supremo nombra al presidente del Tribunal Supremo y al fiscal general. Existen varios tipos de tribunales, entre ellos los tribunales públicos, que se ocupan de causas civiles y penales, y los tribunales revolucionarios, que se ocupan de determinados delitos, como los delitos contra la seguridad nacional . Las decisiones de los tribunales revolucionarios son definitivas y no pueden apelarse.
El Presidente de la Corte Suprema es el jefe del sistema judicial y responsable de su administración y supervisión. Es el juez de más alto rango de la Corte Suprema de Irán . El Presidente de la Corte Suprema nomina a los candidatos para ocupar el cargo de Ministro de Justicia, y el Presidente elige a uno. El Presidente de la Corte Suprema puede ejercer su cargo durante dos mandatos de cinco años. [160]
El Tribunal Clerical Especial se ocupa de los delitos presuntamente cometidos por clérigos , aunque ha asumido casos que involucran a laicos . El Tribunal Clerical Especial funciona independientemente del marco judicial regular y es responsable únicamente ante el Rahbar. Las decisiones del Tribunal son definitivas y no se pueden apelar. [161] La Asamblea de Expertos, que se reúne durante una semana al año, está compuesta por 86 clérigos "virtuosos y eruditos" elegidos por sufragio de adultos por períodos de ocho años.
Divisiones administrativas
Irán se subdivide en treinta y una provincias ( persa : استان ostân ), cada una gobernada desde un centro local, normalmente la ciudad local más grande, que se denomina capital (persa: مرکز , markaz ) de esa provincia. La autoridad provincial está encabezada por un gobernador general ( استاندار ostândâr ), que es designado por el Ministro del Interior sujeto a la aprobación del gabinete . [162]
Naciones con las que Irán mantiene relaciones diplomáticas
Irán mantiene relaciones diplomáticas con 165 países , pero no con Estados Unidos ni con Israel , un Estado al que Irán desreconoció en 1979. [163]
Irán tiene una relación adversa con Arabia Saudita debido a diferentes ideologías y políticas. Irán y Turquía han estado involucrados en conflictos indirectos modernos como en Siria , Libia y el Cáucaso Sur . [164] [165] [166] Sin embargo, han compartido intereses comunes, como la cuestión del separatismo kurdo y la crisis diplomática de Qatar . [167] [168] Irán tiene una relación estrecha y fuerte con Tayikistán . [169] [170] [171] [172] Irán tiene profundas relaciones económicas y alianzas con Irak , Líbano y Siria, con Siria a menudo descrita como el "aliado más cercano" de Irán. [173] [174] [175]
Rusia es un socio comercial clave, especialmente en lo que respecta a sus reservas excedentes de petróleo. [176] [177] Ambos comparten una estrecha alianza económica y militar, y están sujetos a fuertes sanciones por parte de las naciones occidentales. [178] [179] [180] [181] Irán es el único país de Asia occidental que ha sido invitado a unirse a la OTSC , la organización de tratados internacionales con sede en Rusia que es paralela a la OTAN . [182]
Las relaciones entre Irán y China son sólidas en el plano económico; han desarrollado una relación amistosa, económica y estratégica. En 2021, Irán y China firmaron un acuerdo de cooperación de 25 años que fortalecerá las relaciones entre los dos países e incluirá componentes "políticos, estratégicos y económicos". [183] Las relaciones entre Irán y China se remontan al menos al año 200 a. C. y posiblemente antes. [184] [185] Irán es uno de los pocos países del mundo que tiene una buena relación tanto con Corea del Norte como con Corea del Sur . [186]
Irán tiene más de 610.000 tropas activas y alrededor de 350.000 reservistas, totalizando más de 1 millón de personal militar, uno de los porcentajes más altos del mundo de ciudadanos con entrenamiento militar . [190] [191] [192] [193] El Basij , una milicia paramilitar voluntaria dentro del CGRI, tiene más de 20 millones de miembros, 600.000 disponibles para ser llamados a filas de inmediato, 300.000 reservistas y un millón que podrían ser movilizados cuando sea necesario. [194] [195] [196] [197] Faraja, la fuerza policial uniformada iraní , tiene más de 260.000 efectivos activos. La mayoría de las organizaciones estadísticas no incluyen al Basij y Faraja en su informe de calificaciones.
Excluyendo a Basij y Faraja, Irán ha sido identificado como una gran potencia militar, debido al tamaño y las capacidades de sus fuerzas armadas. Posee el 14º ejército más fuerte del mundo. [198] Ocupa el puesto 13 a nivel mundial en términos de fuerza militar general, el 7º en número de personal militar activo, [199] y el 9º en tamaño tanto de su fuerza terrestre como de su fuerza blindada. Las fuerzas armadas de Irán son las más grandes de Asia occidental y comprenden la mayor flota de aviación del ejército en Oriente Medio . [200] [201] [202] Irán se encuentra entre los 15 primeros países en términos de presupuesto militar. [203] En 2021, su gasto militar aumentó por primera vez en cuatro años, a 24.600 millones de dólares, el 2,3% del PIB nacional. [204] La financiación del CGRI representó el 34% del gasto militar total de Irán en 2021. [205]
El programa nuclear de Irán se remonta a la década de 1950. [224] Irán lo revivió después de la Revolución, y su extenso ciclo de combustible nuclear, incluidas las capacidades de enriquecimiento, se convirtió en objeto de intensas negociaciones y sanciones internacionales. [225] Muchos países han expresado su preocupación de que Irán pueda desviar tecnología nuclear civil hacia un programa de armas . [226] En 2015, Irán y el P5+1 acordaron el Plan de Acción Integral Conjunto (JCPOA), con el objetivo de poner fin a las sanciones económicas a cambio de la restricción en la producción de uranio enriquecido . [227]
Sin embargo, en 2018, bajo la administración Trump , Estados Unidos se retiró del acuerdo y volvió a imponer sanciones, lo que se encontró con la resistencia de Irán y otros miembros del P5+1. [228] [229] [230] Un año después, Irán comenzó a disminuir su cumplimiento. [231] En 2020, Irán anunció que ya no observaría ningún límite establecido por el acuerdo. [232] [233] Los avances desde entonces han llevado a Irán al estatus de umbral nuclear . [234] [235] [236] En noviembre de 2023 , Irán había enriquecido uranio hasta un 60% de contenido fisible, cercano al grado de armamento. [237] [238] [239] [240] Algunos analistas ya consideran a Irán como una potencia nuclear de facto. [241] [242] [243][update]
Influencia regional
Irán y su esfera de influencia
La importante influencia y presencia de Irán, a veces caracterizada como el "amanecer de un nuevo imperio persa". [244] [245] [246] [247] Algunos analistas asocian la influencia iraní al orgulloso legado nacional , el imperio y la historia de la nación . [248] [249] [250]
Desde la Revolución , Irán ha aumentado su influencia en toda la región y más allá de ella. [251] [252] [253] [254] Ha construido fuerzas militares con una amplia red de actores estatales y no estatales, empezando por Hezbolá en el Líbano en 1982. [255] [256] El CGRI ha sido clave para la influencia iraní, a través de su Fuerza Quds . [257] [258] [259] La inestabilidad en el Líbano (desde la década de 1980), [260] Irak (desde 2003) [261] y Yemen (desde 2014) [262] ha permitido a Irán construir fuertes alianzas y puntos de apoyo más allá de sus fronteras. Irán tiene una influencia destacada en los servicios sociales, la educación, la economía y la política del Líbano, [263] [264] y el Líbano proporciona a Irán acceso al mar Mediterráneo . [265] [266] Los éxitos estratégicos de Hezbolá contra Israel, como su victoria simbólica durante la guerra entre Israel y Hezbolá de 2006 , elevaron la influencia de Irán en el Levante y fortalecieron su atractivo en todo el mundo musulmán . [267] [268]
Desde la invasión estadounidense de Irak en 2003 y la llegada de ISIS a mediados de la década de 2010, Irán ha financiado y entrenado a grupos de milicianos en Irak. [269] [270] [271] Desde la guerra entre Irán e Irak en la década de 1980 y la caída de Saddam Hussein , Irán ha dado forma a la política de Irak. [272] [273] [274] Después de la lucha de Irak contra ISIS en 2014, empresas vinculadas al CGRI, como Khatam al-Anbiya , comenzaron a construir carreteras, plantas de energía, hoteles y negocios en Irak, creando un corredor económico por un valor de alrededor de $ 9 mil millones antes de COVID-19 . [275] Se espera que esto crezca a $ 20 mil millones. [276] [277]
En Siria , Irán ha apoyado al presidente Bashar al-Assad ; [289] [290] los dos países son aliados de larga data. [291] [292] Irán ha brindado un apoyo militar y económico significativo al gobierno de Assad, [293] [294] por lo que tiene una presencia considerable en Siria. [295] [296] Irán ha apoyado durante mucho tiempo a los frentes antiisraelíes en el norte de África en países como Argelia y Túnez , abrazando a Hamas en parte para ayudar a socavar la popularidad de la Organización para la Liberación de Palestina (OLP). [297] El apoyo de Irán a Hamas emergió más claramente en años posteriores. [298] [299] [300] [301] Según la inteligencia estadounidense, Irán no tiene control total sobre estos grupos estatales y no estatales. [302]
Derechos humanos y censura
La entrada a la prisión de Evin , fundada en 1972. VICE describe la prisión como el "legendario y aterrador lugar en el que nadie quiere acabar". [303]
El gobierno iraní ha sido denunciado por varias organizaciones internacionales y gobiernos por violar los derechos humanos. [304] El gobierno ha perseguido y arrestado con frecuencia a los críticos del gobierno. La ley iraní no reconoce las orientaciones sexuales . La actividad sexual entre miembros del mismo sexo es ilegal y se castiga con la muerte . [305] [306] La pena capital es un castigo legal y, según la BBC, Irán "lleva a cabo más ejecuciones que cualquier otro país, excepto China". [307] El relator especial de la ONU, Javaid Rehman, ha informado de la discriminación contra varias minorías étnicas en Irán. [308] Un grupo de expertos de la ONU instó en 2022 a Irán a detener la "persecución sistemática" de las minorías religiosas, y agregó que los miembros de la Fe Baháʼí fueron arrestados, excluidos de las universidades o vieron sus casas demolidas. [309] [310]
La censura en Irán está clasificada entre las más extremas del mundo. [311] [312] [313] Irán tiene una estricta censura en Internet , y el gobierno bloquea persistentemente las redes sociales y otros sitios. [314] [315] [316] Desde enero de 2021, las autoridades iraníes han bloqueado una lista de plataformas de redes sociales; Instagram , WhatsApp , Facebook , Telegram , Twitter y YouTube . [317]
Los resultados de las elecciones de 2006 fueron ampliamente disputados, lo que resultó en protestas . [318] [319] [320] [321] Las protestas iraníes de 2017-18 se extendieron por todo el país en respuesta a la situación económica y política. [322] Se confirmó formalmente que miles de manifestantes fueron arrestados. [323] Las protestas iraníes de 2019-20 comenzaron el 15 de noviembre en Ahvaz y se extendieron por todo el país después de que el gobierno anunciara aumentos en los precios del combustible de hasta el 300%. [324] Un apagón total de Internet de una semana marcó uno de los apagones de Internet más severos en cualquier país y la represión gubernamental más sangrienta de los manifestantes. [325] Decenas de miles fueron arrestados y cientos fueron asesinados en pocos días según múltiples observadores internacionales, incluida Amnistía Internacional . [326]
Teherán es la potencia económica de Irán. [336] Alrededor del 30% de la fuerza laboral del sector público de Irán y el 45% de sus grandes empresas industriales se encuentran allí, y la mitad de los empleados de esas empresas trabajan para el gobierno. [337] El Banco Central de Irán es responsable del desarrollo y mantenimiento de la moneda : el rial iraní . El gobierno no reconoce a los sindicatos que no sean los consejos laborales islámicos , que están sujetos a la aprobación de los empleadores y los servicios de seguridad. [338] El desempleo fue del 9% en 2022. [339]
Los déficits presupuestarios han sido un problema crónico, debido principalmente a los grandes subsidios estatales , que incluyen alimentos y especialmente gasolina, por un total de $100 mil millones en 2022 solo para energía. [341] [342] En 2010, el plan de reforma económica era recortar gradualmente los subsidios y reemplazarlos con asistencia social específica. El objetivo es avanzar hacia precios de libre mercado y aumentar la productividad y la justicia social . [343] La administración continúa con la reforma e indica que diversificará la economía dependiente del petróleo. Irán ha desarrollado una industria de biotecnología , nanotecnología y farmacéutica . [344] El gobierno está privatizando industrias .
Irán tiene industrias manufactureras líderes en la fabricación de automóviles, transporte, materiales de construcción, electrodomésticos, alimentos y productos agrícolas, armamentos, productos farmacéuticos, tecnología de la información y petroquímicos en el Medio Oriente. [345] Irán se encuentra entre los cinco principales productores mundiales de albaricoques , cerezas , pepinos y pepinillos , dátiles , higos , pistachos , membrillos , nueces , kiwis y sandías . [346] Las sanciones internacionales contra Irán han dañado la economía. [347]
Turismo
Alrededor de 12 millones de turistas visitan la isla de Kish anualmente. [348]
El turismo había estado creciendo rápidamente antes de la pandemia de COVID-19 , alcanzando casi 9 millones de visitantes extranjeros en 2019, el tercer destino turístico de más rápido crecimiento del mundo. [349] [350] En 2022 amplió su participación al 5% de la economía. [351] El turismo de Irán experimentó un crecimiento del 43% en 2023, atrayendo a 6 millones de turistas extranjeros. [352] El gobierno puso fin a los requisitos de visa para 60 países en 2023. [353]
El 98% de las visitas son por ocio, mientras que el 2% son por negocios, lo que indica el atractivo del país como destino turístico. [354] Junto a la capital, los destinos turísticos más populares son Isfahán , Shiraz y Mashhad . [355] Irán está emergiendo como un destino preferido para el turismo médico . [356] [357] Los viajeros de otros países de Asia occidental crecieron un 31% en los primeros siete meses de 2023, superando a Bahréin , Kuwait , Irak y Arabia Saudita . [358] El turismo interno es uno de los más grandes del mundo; los turistas iraníes gastaron $ 33 mil millones en 2021. [359] [360] [361] Irán proyecta una inversión de $ 32 mil millones en el sector turístico para 2026. [362]
Aproximadamente un tercio de la superficie total de Irán es apta para tierras de cultivo. Sólo el 12% de la superficie total de tierra está bajo cultivo, pero menos de un tercio de la superficie cultivada es irrigada ; el resto se dedica a la agricultura de secano . Alrededor del 92% de los productos agrícolas dependen del agua. [363] Las porciones occidental y noroccidental del país tienen los suelos más fértiles. El índice de seguridad alimentaria de Irán se sitúa en torno al 96 por ciento. [364] [365] El 3% de la superficie total de tierra se utiliza para el pastoreo y la producción de forraje. La mayor parte del pastoreo se realiza en pastizales en su mayoría semisecos en zonas montañosas y en zonas que rodean los grandes desiertos del centro de Irán. Los esfuerzos e incentivos gubernamentales progresistas durante la década de 1990 mejoraron la productividad agrícola, ayudando a Irán a alcanzar su objetivo de restablecer la autosuficiencia nacional en la producción de alimentos.
El acceso al mar Caspio, al golfo Pérsico, al golfo de Omán y a muchas cuencas fluviales proporciona a Irán la posibilidad de desarrollar excelentes pesquerías. El gobierno asumió el control de la pesca comercial en 1952. La expansión de la infraestructura pesquera permitió al país capturar unas 700.000 toneladas de pescado al año en las aguas del sur. Desde la Revolución, se ha prestado mayor atención a la producción de pescado de aguas continentales. Entre 1976 y 2004, la captura combinada de aguas continentales por parte de los sectores estatal y privado aumentó de 1.100 toneladas a 110.175 toneladas. [366] Irán es el mayor productor y exportador de caviar del mundo , exportando más de 300 toneladas al año. [367] [368]
Irán ocupa el puesto 16 a nivel mundial en fabricación de automóviles, por delante del Reino Unido , Italia y Rusia. [370] [371] Ha producido 1,188 millones de automóviles en 2023, un crecimiento del 12% en comparación con los años anteriores. Irán ha exportado varios automóviles a países como Venezuela, Rusia y Bielorrusia. De 2008 a 2009, Irán saltó al puesto 28 desde el 69 en tasa de crecimiento anual de la producción industrial. [372] Los contratistas iraníes han obtenido varios contratos de licitación extranjeros en diferentes campos de construcción de presas , puentes, carreteras , edificios , ferrocarriles , generación de energía e industrias de gas, petróleo y petroquímica . En 2011, unas 66 empresas industriales iraníes están llevando a cabo proyectos en 27 países. [373] Irán exportó más de 20 mil millones de dólares en servicios técnicos y de ingeniería durante 2001-2011. La disponibilidad de materias primas locales, ricas reservas minerales y mano de obra experimentada han desempeñado un papel crucial a la hora de ganar las licitaciones. [374]
El 45% de las grandes empresas industriales se encuentran en Teherán , y casi la mitad de sus trabajadores trabajan para el gobierno. [375] La industria minorista iraní está en gran parte en manos de cooperativas , muchas de ellas patrocinadas por el gobierno, y de minoristas independientes en los bazares . La mayor parte de las ventas de alimentos se producen en los mercados callejeros, donde la Oficina Principal de Estadísticas fija los precios. [376] Las principales exportaciones de Irán son a Irak , Afganistán , Turkmenistán , Tayikistán , Rusia , Ucrania , Bielorrusia , Pakistán , Arabia Saudita , Kuwait , Emiratos Árabes Unidos , Qatar , Omán , Siria , Alemania , España , Países Bajos , Francia , Canadá , Venezuela , Japón , Corea del Sur y Turquía . [377] [378] La industria automotriz de Irán es la segunda industria más activa del país, después de su industria de petróleo y gas. Iran Khodro es el mayor fabricante de automóviles en el Medio Oriente, e ITMCO es el mayor fabricante de tractores. Irán es el duodécimo mayor fabricante de automóviles del mundo . La construcción es uno de los sectores más importantes de Irán y representa entre el 20% y el 50% de la inversión privada total.
Irán es uno de los productores de minerales más importantes del mundo y se encuentra entre los 15 países con mayor riqueza mineral. [379] [380] Irán se ha vuelto autosuficiente en el diseño, construcción y operación de represas y plantas de energía. Irán es uno de los seis países del mundo que fabrican turbinas impulsadas por gas y vapor. [381]
Transporte
Iran Air es la aerolínea de bandera de Irán. En el país se la conoce como Huma , que es el nombre de un pájaro mítico iraní y el símbolo de las aerolíneas.
En 2011, Irán tenía 173.000 kilómetros (107.000 mi) de carreteras, de los cuales el 73% estaban pavimentados. [382] En 2008 había casi 100 automóviles de pasajeros por cada 1.000 habitantes. [383] El metro de Teherán es el más grande de Oriente Medio, [384] [385] transporta más de 3 millones de pasajeros diariamente y en 2018, 820 millones de viajes. [386] [387] Los trenes operan en 11.106 km (6.901 mi) de vías. [388] El principal puerto de entrada del país es Bandar Abbas en el estrecho de Ormuz . Los bienes importados se distribuyen por todo el país en camiones y trenes de mercancías. El ferrocarril Teherán -Bandar Abbas conecta Bandar-Abbas con el sistema ferroviario de Asia Central, a través de Teherán y Mashhad . Otros puertos importantes incluyen Bandar e-Anzali y Bandar e-Torkeman en el Mar Caspio y Khorramshahr y Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni en el Golfo Pérsico .
Decenas de ciudades tienen aeropuertos que dan servicio a aviones de pasajeros y de carga. Iran Air , la aerolínea nacional, opera vuelos nacionales e internacionales. Todas las grandes ciudades tienen sistemas de transporte público que utilizan autobuses, y empresas privadas proporcionan servicios de autobús entre ciudades. Más de un millón de personas trabajan en el transporte, lo que representa el 9% del PIB. [389]
Irán es una superpotencia energética y el petróleo juega un papel clave. [391] [392] A partir de 2023 , Irán produjo el 4% del petróleo crudo[update] del mundo (3,6 millones de barriles (570.000 m 3 ) por día), [393] que genera US$36 mil millones [394] de ingresos de exportación y es la principal fuente de divisas . [395] Las reservas de petróleo y gas se estiman en 1,2 billones de barriles; [396] Irán posee el 10% de las reservas mundiales de petróleo y el 15% de gas. Ocupa el tercer lugar en reservas de petróleo [397] y es el segundo mayor exportador de la OPEP . Tiene las segundas mayores reservas de gas , [398] y la tercera mayor producción de gas natural . En 2019, Irán descubrió un yacimiento petrolífero en el sur con 50 mil millones de barriles [399] [400] [401] [402] y en abril de 2024, el NIOC descubrió 10 depósitos gigantes de petróleo de esquisto, con un total de 2.6 mil millones de barriles. [403] [404] [405] Irán planea invertir 500 mil millones de dólares en petróleo para 2025. [406]
Irán fabrica entre el 60% y el 70% de su equipo industrial en el país, incluidas turbinas, bombas, catalizadores, refinerías , petroleros , plataformas de perforación , plataformas marinas , torres, tuberías e instrumentos de exploración. [407] La incorporación de nuevas centrales hidroeléctricas y la racionalización de las centrales convencionales de carbón y petróleo aumentaron la capacidad instalada a 33 GW; alrededor del 75% se basó en gas natural, el 18% en petróleo y el 7% en energía hidroeléctrica. En 2004, Irán abrió sus primeras plantas eólicas y geotérmicas, y la primera planta solar térmica comenzó en 2009. Irán es el tercer país del mundo en desarrollar tecnología GTL . [408]
El cardiólogo Tofy Mussivand inventó y desarrolló la primera bomba cardíaca artificial, precursora del corazón artificial . Para promover la investigación sobre la diabetes, Samuel Rahbar descubrió la HbA1c . En Irán se publican muchos artículos sobre teoría de cuerdas . [418] En 2014, la matemática iraní Maryam Mirzakhani se convirtió en la primera mujer, y de nacionalidad iraní, en recibir la Medalla Fields , el máximo galardón en matemáticas. [419]
Irán aumentó su producción de publicaciones casi diez veces entre 1996 y 2004, y ocupó el primer lugar en tasa de crecimiento de la producción, seguido de China. [420] Según un estudio de SCImago en 2012, Irán ocuparía el cuarto lugar en producción de investigación para 2018, si la tendencia persistía. [421] El robot humanoide iraní Sorena 2 , que fue diseñado por ingenieros de la Universidad de Teherán , fue presentado en 2010. El Instituto de Ingenieros Eléctricos y Electrónicos (IEEE) ha colocado el nombre de Surena entre los cinco robots más destacados, después de analizar su rendimiento. [422]
En enero de 2024, Irán lanzó el satélite Soraya a su órbita más alta hasta el momento (750 km), [427] [428] un nuevo hito en el lanzamiento espacial para el país. [429] [430] Fue lanzado por el cohete Qaem 100. [ 431] [432] Irán también lanzó con éxito 3 satélites autóctonos, Mahda, Kayan y Hatef, [433] en órbita utilizando el cohete portador Simorgh. [434] [435] Fue la primera vez en la historia del país que envió simultáneamente tres satélites al espacio. [436] [437] Los tres satélites están diseñados para probar subsistemas satelitales avanzados, tecnología de posicionamiento basada en el espacio y comunicación de banda estrecha. [438]
En febrero de 2024, Irán puso en órbita su satélite de imágenes desarrollado en el país, Pars 1, desde Rusia. [439] [440] Esta fue la segunda vez desde agosto de 2022, cuando Rusia puso en órbita otro satélite iraní de teledetección, el Khayyam , desde Kazajstán , lo que refleja una profunda cooperación científica entre los países. [441] [442]
La industria de telecomunicaciones de Irán es casi en su totalidad de propiedad estatal, dominada por la Compañía de Telecomunicaciones de Irán (TCI). En 2020, 70 millones de iraníes utilizan Internet móvil de alta velocidad. Irán se encuentra entre los primeros cinco países que han tenido una tasa de crecimiento de más del 20 por ciento y el mayor nivel de desarrollo en telecomunicaciones. [444] Irán ha recibido el certificado especial de la UNESCO por proporcionar servicios de telecomunicaciones a las zonas rurales.
A nivel mundial, Irán ocupa el puesto 75 en velocidad de Internet móvil y el 153 en velocidad de Internet fija. [445]
Demografía
Población de las provincias y condados de Irán en 2021
La población de Irán creció rápidamente de unos 19 millones en 1956 a unos 85 millones en febrero de 2023. [446] Sin embargo, la tasa de fertilidad de Irán ha disminuido drásticamente, de 6,5 hijos nacidos por mujer a aproximadamente 1,7 dos décadas después, [447] [448] [449] lo que lleva a una tasa de crecimiento de la población de alrededor del 1,39% a partir de 2018. [450] Debido a su población joven, los estudios proyectan que el crecimiento continuará desacelerándose hasta que se estabilice alrededor de 105 millones para 2050. [451] [452] [453]
Irán alberga una de las mayores poblaciones de refugiados , con casi un millón, [454] en su mayoría procedentes de Afganistán e Irak . [455] Según la Constitución iraní , el gobierno está obligado a proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos acceso a la seguridad social , que cubre la jubilación, el desempleo, la vejez, la discapacidad , los accidentes, las calamidades, la salud y los servicios de tratamiento y atención médica. [456] Esto se cubre con los ingresos fiscales y los ingresos derivados de las contribuciones públicas. [457]
El país tiene una de las tasas de crecimiento urbano más altas del mundo. Entre 1950 y 2002, la proporción urbana de la población aumentó del 27% al 60%. [458] La población de Irán se concentra en su mitad occidental, especialmente en el norte, noroeste y oeste. [459]
Teherán, con una población de alrededor de 9,4 millones, es la capital y la ciudad más grande de Irán. La segunda ciudad más poblada del país, Mashhad , tiene una población de alrededor de 3,4 millones y es la capital de la provincia de Razavi Khorasan . Isfahán tiene una población de alrededor de 2,2 millones y es la tercera ciudad más poblada de Irán. Es la capital de la provincia de Isfahán y también fue la tercera capital del Imperio safávida .
La Biblioteca del Congreso publicó estimaciones ligeramente diferentes: 65% persas (incluidos mazenderanis, gilaks y talysh), 16% azerbaiyanos, 7% kurdos, 6% lurs, 2% baluchis, 1% grupos tribales turcos (incluidos qashqai y turcomanos ) y grupos no iraníes ni turcos (incluidos armenios, georgianos, asirios, circasianos y árabes) menos del 3%. [461] [462]
El Islam chiita duodecimano es la religión del Estado , a la que se adhieren entre el 90 y el 95% de los iraníes; [471] [472] [473] [474] alrededor del 5 al 10% pertenecen a las ramas sunita y sufí del Islam. [475] El 96% de los iraníes creen en el Islam , pero el 14% se identifican como no religiosos. [476] [ página necesaria ]
Hay una gran población de seguidores del yarsanismo , una religión indígena kurda , que se estima que tiene entre medio millón y un millón de seguidores. [477] [478] [479] [480] [481] La fe baháʼí no está oficialmente reconocida y ha sido objeto de persecución oficial. [482] Desde la Revolución, la persecución de los baháʼís ha aumentado. [483] [484] La irreligión no es reconocida por el gobierno.
El cristianismo , el judaísmo , el zoroastrismo y la rama sunita del Islam están oficialmente reconocidos por el gobierno y tienen escaños reservados en el Parlamento. [485] Irán es el hogar de la comunidad judía más grande del mundo musulmán y Oriente Medio , fuera de Israel. [486] [487] Alrededor de 250.000 a 370.000 cristianos residen en Irán , y el cristianismo es la religión minoritaria reconocida más grande del país, la mayoría son de origen armenio, así como una minoría considerable de asirios. [488] [489] [490] [491] El gobierno iraní ha apoyado la reconstrucción y renovación de iglesias armenias, y ha apoyado a los Conjuntos Monásticos Armenios de Irán . En 2019, el gobierno registró la Catedral de Vank , en Isfahán , como Patrimonio de la Humanidad . Actualmente, tres iglesias armenias en Irán han sido incluidas en la Lista del Patrimonio Mundial. [492] [493]
La educación está altamente centralizada. La educación primaria y secundaria está supervisada por el Ministerio de Educación , y la educación superior está supervisada por el Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología . La alfabetización entre las personas de 15 años o más era del 86% en 2016 [update], y los hombres (90%) tenían un nivel educativo significativamente mayor que las mujeres (81%). El gasto público en educación es de alrededor del 4% del PIB. [494]
La atención sanitaria es proporcionada por el sistema público-gubernamental, el sector privado y las ONG . [498]
Irán es el único país del mundo con un comercio legal de órganos . [499] Irán ha podido ampliar los servicios preventivos de salud pública mediante el establecimiento de una extensa red de atención primaria de salud . Como resultado, las tasas de mortalidad infantil y materna han disminuido significativamente y la esperanza de vida al nacer ha aumentado. El conocimiento médico de Irán ocupa el puesto 17 a nivel mundial y el primero en Oriente Medio y el norte de África. En términos del índice de producción de ciencia médica, Irán ocupa el puesto 16 en el mundo. [500] Irán está emergiendo rápidamente como un destino preferido para el turismo médico . [356]
El país se enfrenta al problema común de otras naciones demográficamente jóvenes de la región, que es mantener el ritmo de crecimiento de una demanda ya enorme de diversos servicios públicos. Un aumento previsto en la tasa de crecimiento demográfico aumentará la necesidad de infraestructuras y servicios de salud pública . [501] Alrededor del 90% de los iraníes tienen seguro médico . [502]
A partir del Imperio aqueménida (550-330 a. C.), las cortes de las dinastías sucesivas lideraron el estilo del arte persa, y el arte patrocinado por la corte dejó muchas de las piezas más impresionantes que aún se conservan. El estilo islámico de decoración densa, dispuesta geométricamente, se desarrolló en Irán hasta convertirse en un estilo elegante y armonioso, que combinaba motivos derivados de plantas con motivos chinos, como la banda de nubes, y a menudo animales representados a menor escala. Durante el Imperio safávida en el siglo XVI, este estilo se utilizó en una variedad de medios y se difundió a partir de los artistas de la corte del rey, la mayoría de los cuales eran pintores. [504]
By the time of the Sasanians, Iranian art had a renaissance.[505] During the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of European and Asian mediaeval art.[506][507][508][509]The Safavid era is known as the Golden Age of Iranian art.[510]Safavid art exerted noticeable influences upon the Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Deccans, and was influential through its fashion and garden architecture on 11th–17th-century Europe.
Iran's contemporary art traces its origins to Kamal-ol-molk, a prominent realist painter at the court of the Qajar Empire who affected the norms of painting and adopted a naturalistic style that would compete with photographic works. A new Iranian school of fine art was established by him in 1928, and was followed by the so-called "coffeehouse" style of painting. Iran's avant-garde modernists emerged by the arrival of new western influences during World War II. The contemporary art scene originates in the late 1940s, and Tehran's first modern art gallery, Apadana, was opened in 1949 by Mahmud Javadipur, Hosein Kazemi, and Hushang Ajudani.[511] The new movements received official encouragement by the 1950s,[512] which led to the emergence of artists such as Marcos Grigorian.[513]
The history of architecture in Iran dates back to at least 5,000 BC, with characteristic examples distributed over an area from what is now Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar. The Iranians made early use of mathematics, geometry and astronomy in their architecture, yielding a tradition with structural and aesthetic variety.[514] The guiding motif is its cosmic symbolism.[515]
Without sudden innovations, and despite the trauma of invasions and cultural shocks, it developed a recognizable style distinct from other regions of the Muslim world. Its virtues are "a marked feeling for form and scale; structural inventiveness, especially in vault and dome construction; a genius for decoration with a freedom and success not rivalled in any other architecture".[citation needed] In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as Tehran has brought a wave of construction. Iran ranks 7th among UNESCO's list of countries with the most archaeological ruins and attractions from antiquity.[516]
Iran's carpet-weaving has its origins in the Bronze Age and is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Iranian art. Carpet weaving is an essential part of Persian culture and Iranian art. Persian rugs and carpets were woven in parallel by nomadic tribes in village and town workshops, and by royal court manufactories. As such, they represent simultaneous lines of tradition, and reflect the history of Iran, Persian culture, and its various peoples. Although the term "Persian carpet" most often refers to pile-woven textiles, flat-woven carpets and rugs like Kilim, Soumak, and embroidered tissues like Suzani are part of the manifold tradition of Persian carpet weaving.
Iran produces three-quarters of the world's handmade carpets, and has 30% of export markets.[519][520] In 2010, the "traditional skills of carpet weaving" in Fars Province and Kashan were inscribed to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List.[521][522][523] Within the Oriental rugs produced by the countries of the "rug belt", the Persian carpet stands out by the variety and elaborateness of its manifold designs.[524]
Carpets woven in towns and regional centres like Tabriz, Kerman, Ravar, Neyshabour, Mashhad, Kashan, Isfahan, Nain and Qom are characterized by their specific weaving techniques and use of high-quality materials, colours and patterns. Hand-woven Persian rugs and carpets have been regarded as objects of high artistic value and prestige, since they were mentioned by ancient Greek writers.
Described as one of the great literatures of humanity,[528] including Goethe's assessment of it as one of the four main bodies of world literature,[529] Persian literature has its roots in surviving works of Middle Persian and Old Persian, the latter of which dates back as far as 522 BCE, the date of the earliest surviving Achaemenid inscription, the Behistun Inscription. The bulk of surviving Persian literature, however, comes from the times following the Muslim conquest in c. 650 CE. After the Abbasids came to power (750 CE), the Iranians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the Islamic Caliphate and, increasingly, also its writers and poets. The New Persian language literature arose and flourished in Khorasan and Transoxiana because of political reasons, early Iranian dynasties of post-Islamic Iran such as the Tahirids and Samanids being based in Khorasan.[530]
Iranian philosophy can be traced back as far as Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient Indo-Iranian roots and were influenced by Zarathustra's teachings. Throughout Iranian history and due to remarkable political and social changes such as the Arab and Mongol invasions, a wide spectrum of schools of thoughts showed a variety of views on philosophical questions, extending from Old Iranian and mainly Zoroastrianism-related traditions, to schools appearing in the late pre-Islamic era such as Manicheism and Mazdakism as well as post-Islamic schools.
The Cyrus Cylinder is seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zoroaster and developed in Zoroastrian schools of the Achaemenid era.[531] Post-Islam Iranian philosophy is characterized by different interactions with the Old Iranian philosophy, the Greek philosophy and with the development of Islamic philosophy. The Illumination School and the Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Iran. Contemporary Iranian philosophy has been limited in its scope by intellectual repression.[532]
Storytelling has an significant presence in Iranian folklore and culture.[534] In classical Iran, minstrels performed for their audiences at royal courts and in public theatres.[535] A minstrel was referred to by the Parthians as gōsān, and by the Sasanians as huniyāgar.[536] Since the Safavid Empire, storytellers and poetry readers appeared at coffeehouses.[537][538] After the Iranian Revolution, it took until 1985 to found the MCHTH (Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts),[539] a now heavily centralized organization, supervising all kinds of cultural activities. It held the first scientific meeting on anthropology and folklore in 1990.[540]
The National Museum of Iran in Tehran is the country's most important cultural institution.[541] As the first and biggest museum in Iran, the institution includes the Museum of Ancient Iran and the Museum of the Islamic Era. The National Museum is the world's most important museum in terms of preservation, display and research of archaeological collections of Iran,[542] and ranks as one of the few most prestigious museums globally in terms of volume, diversity and quality of its monuments.[543]
Iran is the apparent birthplace of the earliest complex instruments, dating to the third millennium BC.[546] The use of angular harps have been documented at Madaktu and Kul-e Farah, with the largest collection of Elamite instruments documented at Kul-e Farah. Xenophon's Cyropaedia mentions singing women at the court of the Achaemenid Empire. Under the Parthian Empire, the gōsān (Parthian for "minstrel") had a prominent role.[547][548]
The history of Sasanian music is better documented than earlier periods and is especially more evident in Avestan texts.[549] By the time of Khosrow II, the Sasanian royal court hosted prominent musicians, namely Azad, Bamshad, Barbad, Nagisa, Ramtin, and Sarkash. Iranian traditional musical instruments include string instruments such as chang (harp), qanun, santur, rud (oud, barbat), tar, dotar, setar, tanbur, and kamanche, wind instruments such as sorna (zurna, karna) and ney, and percussion instruments such as tompak, kus, daf (dayere), and naqare.
Iran's first symphony orchestra, the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, was founded in 1933. By the late 1940s, Ruhollah Khaleqi founded the country's first national music society and established the School of National Music in 1949.[550]Iranian pop music has its origins in the Qajar era.[551] It was significantly developed since the 1950s, using indigenous instruments and forms accompanied by electric guitar and other imported characteristics. Iranian rock emerged in the 1960s and hip hop in the 2000s.[552][553]
Iran has known dance in the forms of music, play, drama or religious rituals since at least the 6th millennium BC. Artifacts with pictures of dancers were found in archaeological prehistoric sites.[554] Genres of dance vary depending on the area, culture, and language of the local people, and can range from sophisticated reconstructions of refined court dances to energetic folk dances.[555] Each group, region, and historical epoch has specific dance styles associated with it. The earliest researched dance from historic Iran is a dance worshipping Mithra. Ancient Persian dance was significantly researched by Greek historian Herodotus. Iran was occupied by foreign powers, causing a slow disappearance of heritage dance traditions.
The Qajar period had an important influence on Persian dance. In this period, a style of dance began to be called "classical Persian dance". Dancers performed artistic dances in court for entertainment purposes such as coronations, marriage celebrations, and Norouz celebrations. In the 20th century, the music came to be orchestrated and dance movement and costuming gained a modernistic orientation to the West.
Fashion and clothing
The exact date of the emergence of weaving in Iran is not yet known, but it is likely to coincide with the emergence of civilization. Ferdowsi and many historians have considered Keyumars to be first to use animals' skin and hair as clothing, while others propose Hushang.[556] Ferdowsi considers Tahmuras to be a kind of textile initiator in Iran. The clothing of ancient Iran took an advanced form, and the fabric and colour of clothing became very important. Depending on the social status, eminence, climate of the region and the season, Persian clothing during the Achaemenian period took various forms. This clothing, in addition to being functional, had an aesthetic role.[556]
A third-millennium BC earthen goblet discovered at the Burnt City in southeast Iran depicts what could be the world's oldest example of animation.[558] The earliest attested Iranian examples of visual representations, however, are traced back to the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, the ritual centre of the Achaemenid Empire.[559]
The first Iranian filmmaker was probably Mirza Ebrahim (Akkas Bashi), the court photographer of Mozaffar-ed-Din of the Qajar Empire. Mirza Ebrahim obtained a camera and filmed the Qajar ruler's visit to Europe. In 1904, Mirza Ebrahim (Sahhaf Bashi) opened the first public cinema in Tehran.[560] The first Iranian feature film, Abi and Rabi, was a silent comedy directed by Ovanes Ohanian in 1930. The first sound one, Lor Girl, was produced by Ardeshir Irani and Abd-ol-Hosein Sepanta in 1932. Iran's animation industry began by the 1950s and was followed by the establishment of the influential Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults in 1965.[561][562]With the screening of the films Qeysar and The Cow, directed by Masoud Kimiai and Dariush Mehrjui respectively in 1969, alternative films set out to establish their status in the film industry and Bahram Beyzai's Downpour and Nasser Taghvai's Tranquility in the Presence of Others followed. Attempts to organise a film festival, which had begun in 1954 within the Golrizan Festival, resulted in the festival of Sepas in 1969. It also resulted in the formation of Tehran's World Film Festival in 1973.[563]
Following the Cultural Revolution, a new age emerged in Iranian cinema, starting with Long Live! by Khosrow Sinai and followed by other directors, such as Abbas Kiarostami and Jafar Panahi. Kiarostami, an acclaimed director, planted Iran firmly on the map of world cinema when he won the Palme d'Or for Taste of Cherry in 1997.[565] The presence of Iranian films in prestigious international festivals, such as Cannes, Venice and Berlin, attracted attention to Iranian films.[566] In 2006, 6 films represented Iranian cinema at Berlin; critics considered this a remarkable event in Iranian cinema.[567][568]Asghar Farhadi, an Iranian director, has received a Golden Globe Award and two Academy Awards, representing Iran for Best Foreign Language Film in 2012 and 2017, with A Separation and The Salesman.[569][570][571] In 2020, Ashkan Rahgozar's "The Last Fiction" became the first representative of Iranian animated cinema in the competition section, in Best Animated Feature and Best Picture categories at the Academy Awards.[572][573][574][575]
The oldest Iranian initiation of theatre can be traced to ancient epic ceremonial theatres such as Sug-e Siāvuڑ ("mourning of Siāvaڑ"), as well as dances and theatre narrations of Iranian mythological tales reported by Herodotus and Xenophon. Iran's traditional theatrical genres include Baqqāl-bāzi ("grocer play", a form of slapstick comedy), Ruhowzi (or Taxt-howzi, comedy performed over a courtyard pool covered with boards), Siāh-bāzi (the central comedian appears in blackface), Sāye-bāzi (shadow play), Xeyme-ڑab-bāzi (marionette), and Arusak-bāzi (puppetry), and Ta'zie (religious tragedy plays).[576]
Iran ranks 17th among countries by number of Internet users. Google Search is Iran's most widely used search engine and Instagram is the most popular online social networking service.[578] Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, including Facebook, which has been blocked since 2009. About 90% of Iran's e-commerce takes place on the Iranian online store Digikala, which has around 750,000 visitors per day and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.[579]
Iranian main dishes include varieties of kebab, pilaf, stew (khoresh), soup and āsh, and omelette. Lunch and dinner meals are commonly accompanied by side dishes such as plain yogurt or mast-o-khiar, sabzi, salad Shirazi, and torshi, and might follow dishes such as borani, Mirza Qasemi, or kashk e bademjan. In Iranian culture, tea is widely consumed.[580][581] Iran is the world's seventh major tea producer.[582] One of Iran's most popular desserts is the falude.[583] There is also the popular saffron ice cream, known as Bastani Sonnati ("traditional ice cream"),[584] which is sometimes accompanied with carrot juice.[585] Iran is also famous for its caviar.[586]
Iran is the most likely birthplace of polo,[587][588][589] locally known as Chogan, with its earliest records attributed to the ancient Medes.[590]Freestyle wrestling is traditionally considered the national sport, and Iran's wrestlers have been world champions many times. Iran's traditional wrestling, called koڑti e pahlevāni ("heroic wrestling"), is registered on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.[591] Iran's National Olympic Committee was founded in 1947. Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country's highest records at the Olympics. In 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the Asian Games.[592][593][594]
As a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing,[595] and mountain climbing.[596][597] It is home to ski resorts, the most famous being Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak.[598] Dizin is the largest, and authorised by FIS to administer international competitions.[599]
Iran's official New Year begins with Nowruz, an ancient Iranian tradition celebrated annually on the vernal equinox and described as the Persian New Year.[606] It was registered on the UNESCO's list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2009.[607][608][609][610] On the eve of the last Wednesday of the preceding year, as a prelude to Nowruz, the ancient festival of بārڑanbe Suri celebrates Ātar ("fire") by performing rituals such as jumping over bonfires and lighting fireworks.[611][612]
Yaldā, another ancient tradition,[613] commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (usually on 20 or 21 December),[614][615] during which families gather to recite poetry and eat fruits.[616][617] In some regions of Mazanderan and Markazi,[618][619][620][621] there is a midsummer festival, Tirgān,[622] which is observed on Tir 13 (2 or 3July) as a celebration of water.[623][624]
Islamic annual events such as Ramezān, Eid e Fetr, and Ruz e Āڑurā are marked by the country's population, Christian traditions such as Noel,[625]elle ye Ruze, and Eid e Pāk are observed by the Christian communities, Jewish traditions such as Hanukā[626] and Eid e Fatir (Pesah)[627][628] are observed by the Jewish communities, and Zoroastrian traditions such as Sade[629] and Mehrgān are observed by the Zoroastrians.
Public holidays
With 26, Iran has one of the world's highest number of public holidays.[630][631] It ranks 1st in the world with the most paid leave days: 52.[632][633] Iran's official calendar is the Solar Hejri calendar, beginning at the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere.[634] Each of the 12 months of the Solar Hejri calendar correspond with a zodiac sign, and the length of each year is solar.[634] Alternatively, the Lunar Hejri calendar is used to indicate Islamic events, and the Gregorian calendar marks international events.
Lunar Islamic public holidays include Tasua (Muharram 9), Ashura (Muharram 10), Arba'een (Safar 20), Muhammad's death (Safar 28), the death of Ali al-Ridha (Safar 29 or 30), the birthday of Muhammad (Rabi-al-Awwal 17), the death of Fatimah (Jumada-al-Thani 3), the birthday of Ali (Rajab 13), Muhammad's first revelation (Rajab 27), the birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi (Sha'ban 15), the death of Ali (Ramadan 21), Eid al-Fitr (Shawwal 1–2), the death of Ja'far al-Sadiq (Shawwal 25), Eid al-Qurban (Zulhijja 10), and Eid al-Qadir (Zulhijja 18).[635]
^Jeroen Temperman (2010). State-Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance. Brill. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-90-04-18148-9. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015. The official motto of Iran is [the] Takbir ('God is the Greatest' or 'God is Great'). Transliteration Allahu Akbar. As referred to in art. 18 of the constitution of Iran (1979). The de facto motto however is: 'Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic.'
^"Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
^"Iran Population (2024) – Worldometer". Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2024.
^ a b c d"World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Iran)". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 16 April 2024. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
^"Gini Index coefficient". The World Factbook. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
^"Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. p. 289. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
^ a b"Definition of IRAN". merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
^ a bMacKenzie 1998.
^Schmitt 1987.
^Laroche. 1957. Proto-Iranian *arya- descends from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *ar-yo-, a yo-adjective to a root *ar "to assemble skillfully", present in Greek harma "chariot", Greek aristos, (as in "aristocracy"), Latin ars "art", etc.
^Shahbazi 2004.
^Wilson, Arnold (2012). "The Middle Ages: Fars". The Persian Gulf (RLE Iran A). Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-136-84105-7.
^Borjian, Maryam; Borjian, Habib (2011). "Plights of Persian in the Modernization Era". In Fishman, Joshua A; García, Ofelia (eds.). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: Volume 2: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 266. ISBN 978-0-19-539245-6. 'Iran' and 'Persia' are synonymous. The former has always been used by Iranian-speaking peoples themselves, while the latter has served as the international name of the country in various languages, ever since it was introduced by the Greeks some twenty-five centuries ago. In 1935, however, the nationalist administration under Reza Shah Pahlavi (see below) made a successful effort to replace 'Persia' with 'Iran,' apparently to underline the nation's 'Aryan' pedigree to the international community. The latter term used to signify all branches of the Indo-European language family (and even the 'race' of their speakers), but was practically abandoned after World War II.
^Lewis, Geoffrey (1984). "The naming of names". British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin. 11 (2): 121–124. doi:10.1080/13530198408705394. ISSN 0305-6139.
^Persia Archived 15 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica, "The term Persia was used for centuries... [because] use of the name was gradually extended by the ancient Greeks and other peoples to apply to the whole Iranian plateau."
^ a b"Your Gateway to Knowledge". Knowledge Zone. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
^"Fars Province, Iran". Persia Advisor. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
^"Eight Thousand Years of History in Fars Province, Iran". Research Gate. 12 May 2005. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
^"From Cyrus to Alexander : a history of the Persian Empire | WorldCat.org". search.worldcat.org. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
^Austin, Peter (2008). One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25560-9.
^Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09172-6.
^"Persia Changes Its Name; To Be 'Iran' From Mar. 22". The New York Times. 1 January 1935. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
^"Persia or Iran, a brief history". Art-arena.com. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^Christoph Marcinkowski (2010). Shi'ite Identities: Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 83. ISBN 978-3-643-80049-7. Retrieved 21 June 2013. The 'historical lands of Iran' – 'Greater Iran' – were always known in the Persian language as Irānshahr or Irānzamīn.
^Frye, Richard Nelson (October 1962). "Reitzenstein and Qumrân Revisited by an Iranian". The Harvard Theological Review. 55 (4): 261–268. doi:10.1017/S0017816000007926. JSTOR 1508723. S2CID 162213219. I use the term Iran in an historical context [...] Persia would be used for the modern state, more or less equivalent to "western Iran". I use the term "Greater Iran" to mean what I suspect most Classicists and ancient historians really mean by their use of Persia – that which was within the political boundaries of States ruled by Iranians.
^Richard Frye (2012). Persia (RLE Iran A). Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-136-84154-5. Retrieved 21 June 2013. This 'greater Iran' included and still includes part of the Caucasus Mountains, Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iraq; for Kurds, Baluchis, Afghans, Tajiks, Ossetes, and other smaller groups are Iranians
^Farrokh, Kaveh. Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. ISBN 1-84603-108-7
^"Iran". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
^"Iran". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
^"How do you say Iran?". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
^People, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007 Archived 24 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 1 October 2007
^Azadpour, M. "HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 11 April 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
^https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371723 Archived 2008-04-29 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopædia Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Article: Media
^Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
^"The Islamic World to 1600", Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary, 1998 Archived 2008-06-12 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 1 October 2007
^Dowling, Timothy C. (2014). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. 2 volumes. ABC-CLIO. pp. 728–729. ISBN 978-1-59884-948-6.
^"Iran Islamic Republic", Archived 2006-03-16 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 23 January 2008
^"International relations / The Iranian revolution". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 January 2008. Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 26 September 2024. (subscription required)
^"Ahmadinejad critic Larijani re-elected Iran speaker". BBC News. 5 June 2012. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
^Borger, Julian; Dehghan, Saeed Kamali (19 September 2013). "Hassan Rouhani sets out his vision for a new and free Iran". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
^Kutsch, Tom (14 July 2015). "Iran, world powers strike historic nuclear deal". Aljazeera America. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 15 July 2015.
^Brewer, Eric (25 June 2024). "Iran's New Nuclear Threat". Foreign Affairs. ISSN 0015-7120. Retrieved 2 July 2024.
^"U.S. killing of Iran's second most powerful man risks regional conflagration". Reuters. 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 18 April 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
^Carolien Roelants, Iran expert of NRC Handelsblad, in a debate on Buitenhof on Dutch television, 5 January 2020.
^Never-before-seen video of the attack on Al Asad Airbase, 28 February 2021, archived from the original on 23 February 2022, retrieved 8 January 2024
^"109 US troops diagnosed with brain injuries from Iran attack". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
^"Pentagon admits 109 brain injuries in Iran attack – DW – 02/10/2020". dw.com. Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
^Starr, Barbara (10 February 2020). "Over 100 US troops have been diagnosed with traumatic brain injuries following Iran strike | CNN Politics". CNN. Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
^"Several killed in Israeli strike on Iranian consulate in Damascus". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Israeli strike on Iran's consulate in Syria killed 2 generals and 5 other officers, Iran says". AP News. 1 April 2024. Archived from the original on 19 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^center, This aerial view shows Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion International Airport in the; April 5, the surrounding urban areas in Lodin central Israel on; Images, 2024-ROY ISSA/AFP via Getty (15 April 2024). "How Iran's attack on Israel is disrupting air traffic – Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East". www.al-monitor.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Toossi, Sina (2 May 2024). "Iran Has Defined Its Red Line With Israel". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"What was in wave of Iranian attacks and how were they thwarted?". 14 April 2024. Archived from the original on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Borger, Julian (14 April 2024). "US and UK forces help shoot down Iranian drones over Jordan, Syria and Iraq". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Macron: France intercepted Iranian drones 'at Jordan's request'". POLITICO. 15 April 2024. Archived from the original on 15 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"The largest drone attack in history". iranpress.com. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Motamedi, Maziar. "'True Promise': Why and how did Iran launch a historic attack on Israel?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Iran launches first-ever direct attack on Israel". ABC7 New York. 13 April 2024. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"How Israel could respond to Iran's drone and missile assault". France 24. 18 April 2024. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Johny, Stanly (14 April 2024). "Analysis | By attacking Israel, Iran turns shadow war into direct conflict". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Masoud Pezeshkian, a heart surgeon who rose to power in parliament, now Iran's president-elect". AP News. 6 July 2024. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
^Fassihi, Farnaz; Vinograd, Cassandra (6 July 2024). "Reformist Candidate Wins Iran's Presidential Election". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
^"Iran's Strategy in the Strait of Hormuz". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
^"CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
^"Which country has the most earthquakes?". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 22 May 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
^"هر ده سال، یک زلزله ۷ ریشتری در کشور رخ میدهد | خبرگزاری ایلنا". Ilna.news. 13 October 2012. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
^"The 5 Hottest Deserts in the World". MapQuest Travel. 9 November 2009. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
^"Where Is the Hottest Place on Earth?". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 5 April 2012. Archived from the original on 3 November 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
^"The hottest place on earth – Secret Compass". 22 February 2017. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
^Sand-boarding.com (10 August 2023). "The Hottest Deserts on Earth Are Too Hot to Handle". Surf the Sand. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
^"Geography | Iranian Student Organization (IrSO) | Nebraska". unl.edu. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"IRAN TODAY – Geography..." allventure.com. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iran ecotourism | Iran Ecotour guide training course". arasbaran.org. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iran Islands Tours, Top 10 Islands You Must See in Iran – Iran Travel Information". Archived from the original on 13 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^Motamedi, Maziar. "Iran's IRGC runs military drills on disputed islands claimed by UAE". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iran's Revolutionary Guard Runs Drill on Disputed Islands in Persian Gulf". Voice of America. 2 August 2023. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Strait of Hormuz – About the Strait". The Strauss Center. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"Why is the Strait of Hormuz so strategically important?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"The Strait of Hormuz Is at the Center of Iran Tensions Again. Here's How the Narrow Waterway Gained Wide Importance". TIME. 23 July 2019. Archived from the original on 14 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"Strait of Hormuz: the world's most important oil artery". Routers. 23 January 2024. Archived from the original on 5 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"The Strait of Hormuz is the world's most important oil transit chokepoint – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"UAE demands return of three islands seized by Iran". Arab News. 25 September 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"United Arab Emirates calls on Iran to take dispute over islands to UN court | UN News". news.un.org. 26 September 2011. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"UAE official calls for international action to end "Iranian occupation" of disputed islands". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"Iran summons Russian envoy over statement on Persian Gulf disputed islands". AP News. 24 December 2023. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"Spokesman: Iran's Sovereignty over Three Persian Gulf Islands Undeniable | Farsnews Agency". www.farsnews.ir. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"Tehran dismisses UAE claim to three Iranian islands". Tehran Times. 25 September 2023. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"UAE-Iran islands dispute complicates regional diplomacy | Responsible Statecraft". responsiblestatecraft.org. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"Hormozgan Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts & Tourism Organization". Hormozgan Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts & Tourism Organization. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Qeshm Island Geopark Becomes Global After Receiving UNESCO Green Card – Iran Front Page". ifpnews.com. 6 May 2017. Archived from the original on 2 June 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"Qeshm island Geopark – Home". www.qeshmgeopark.ir. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^Visit of Qeshm UNESCO Global Geopark, 12 August 2021, archived from the original on 27 June 2022, retrieved 22 January 2024
^"Namakdan Salt Cave | One of the Longest | Qeshm Attraction | Apochi.com". Apochi. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"Namakdan Salt Cave". IUGS. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^"Namakdan Salt Cave: Qeshm's World-Famous Wonder |TAP Persia". 13 April 2023. Archived from the original on 2 June 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^www.sirang.com, Sirang Rasaneh. "Namakdan Salt Cave 2024 | Qeshm Island, Hormozgan | Sights – ITTO". itto.org | Iran Tourism & Touring. Archived from the original on 11 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
^Kiyanoosh Kiyani Haftlang; Kiyānūsh Kiyānī Haft Lang (2003). The Book of Iran: A Survey of the Geography of Iran. Alhoda UK. p. 17. ISBN 978-964-94491-3-5.
^"Weather and Climate: Iran, average monthly Rainfall, Sunshine, Temperature, Humidity, Wind Speed". World Weather and Climate Information. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
^Moghtader, Michelle (3 August 2014). "Farming reforms offer hope for Iran's water crisis". Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 August 2014. Retrieved 4 August 2014.
^Sharon E. Nicholson (2011). Dryland Climatology. Cambridge University Press. p. 367. ISBN 978-1-139-50024-1.
^R. Nagarajan (2010). Drought Assessment. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 383. ISBN 978-90-481-2500-5.
^"Iranian Journal of Forest – 4th National Forest Conference of Iran". www.ijf-isaforestry.ir. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^Kernan, Henry S. (1957). "Forest Management in Iran". Middle East Journal. 11 (2): 198–202. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 4322899. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^Sotoudeh Foumani, B.; Rostami Shahraji, T.; Mohammadi Limaei, S. (1 June 2017). "Role of political power in forest administration policy of Iran". Caspian Journal of Environmental Sciences. 15 (2): 181–199. doi:10.22124/cjes.2017.2374. ISSN 1735-3033. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"Iran Wildlife and Nature – including flora and fauna and their natural habitats". www.aitotours.com. Archived from the original on 5 May 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
^April Fast (2005). Iran: The Land. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7787-9315-1.
^Eskandar Firouz (2005). The Complete Fauna of Iran. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-946-2.
^Guggisberg, C.A.W. (1961). Simba: The Life of the Lion. Howard Timmins, Cape Town.
^Firouz, Eskander (14 October 2005). The Complete Fauna of Iran. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-85043-946-2.
^Humphreys, Patrick; Kahrom, Esmail (31 December 1997). The Lion and the Gazelle: The Mammals and Birds of Iran. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-86064-229-6.
^"In jab at rivals, Rouhani says Iran protests about more than economy". Reuters. 8 January 2018. Archived from the original on 13 January 2018. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
^Al-awsat, Asharq (25 September 2017). "Khamenei Orders New Supervisory Body to Curtail Government – ASHARQ AL-AWSAT English Archive". Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
^"Khamenei orders controversial retirement law amended". Al-Monitor. 5 December 2018. Archived from the original on 7 December 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
^"Reuters Investigates – Assets of the Ayatollah". Reuters. 11 November 2013. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^Steve Stecklow, Babak Dehghanpisheh (22 January 2014). "Exclusive: Khamenei's business empire gains from Iran sanctions relief". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
^Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. "Iran – The Constitution". Archived from the original on 23 September 2006. Retrieved 14 April 2006.
^Al-awsat, Asharq (15 December 2015). "Controversy in Iran Surrounding the Supervision of the Supreme Leader's Performance – ASHARQ AL-AWSAT". Archived from the original on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
^"Myths and Realities of Iran's Parliamentary Elections". The Atlantic. 23 February 2016. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
^"Anomalies in Iran's Assembly of Experts Election – The Washington Institute for Near East Policy". Washingtoninstitute.org. 22 March 2016. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
^Majid Rafizadeh (24 June 2016). "Why Khamenei wants the next Supreme Leader to be 'revolutionary'". AlArabiya News. Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
^"Constitution of Iran". Switzerland: University of Bern. Archived from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
^"Democracy Index 2022: Frontline democracy and the battle for Ukraine" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
^Juan José Linz, Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes Archived 2020-07-26 at the Wayback Machine (Lynne Rienner, 2000), p. 36.
^"Council of Guardians | Definition, Role, Selection, & History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 9 June 2024. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
^Gladstone, Rick (5 August 2021). "Is Iran's Supreme Leader Truly Supreme? Yes, but President Is No Mere Figurehead". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
^"Iran The Presidency". Photius.com. Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"Leadership in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran". Leader.ir. Archived from the original on 12 June 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^"Iran's Khamenei hits out at Rafsanjani in rare public rebuke". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
^"Asking for a Miracle: Khamenei's Economic Plan". IranWire | خانه. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
^"Iranian lawmakers warn Ahmadinejad to accept intelligence chief as political feud deepens". CP. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
^"BBC NEWS – Middle East – Iranian vice-president 'sacked'". BBC. 25 July 2009. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
^Amir Saeed Vakil, Pouryya Askary (2004). constitution in now law like order. p. 362.
^"Iran – The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers". Countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"The Structure of Power in Iran". Iranchamber.com. 24 June 2005. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^Chibli Mallat (2004). The Renewal of Islamic Law: Muhammad Baqer As-Sadr, Najaf and the Shi'i International. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53122-1. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^and agencies (24 May 2005). "Iran reverses ban on reformist candidates". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
^Article 98 of the constitution
^Articles 96 and 94 of the constitution.
^"THE GUARDIAN COUNCIL". Iran Data Portal. Political Institutions. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
^"Iran's Multifaceted Foreign Policy". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"Supreme National Security Council of Iran | The Iran Primer". iranprimer.usip.org. 1 April 2019. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"Inside Iran – The Structure Of Power In Iran". pbs.org. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^Thaler, David E.; Nader, Alireza; Chubin, Shahram; Green, Jerrold D.; Lynch, Charlotte; Wehrey, Frederic (2010), "Formal Structures of the Islamic Republic", Mullahs, Guards, and Bonyads, An Exploration of Iranian Leadership Dynamics, RAND Corporation, pp. 21–36, ISBN 978-0-8330-4773-1, JSTOR 10.7249/mg878osd.10, archived from the original on 8 May 2024, retrieved 8 May 2024
^"Iran's president appoints new official in powerful security post, replacing longtime incumbent". AP News. 22 May 2023. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"Deep Dive: Reshuffle at Iran's Supreme National Security Council". Amwaj.media. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"Iran's switch of top security official hints at end of nuclear talks". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"Iranian Supreme National Security Council: Latest News, Photos, Videos on Iranian Supreme National Security Council". NDTV.com. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"IFES Election Guide". Electionguide.org. Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"Iran – The Council of Guardians". Countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^IRANIAN LEGISLATURE APPROVES FUNDS FOR GASOLINE IMPORTS Archived 1 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine provides an example the need for approval of the Guardian Council.
^Dehghan, Saeed Kamali (15 April 2016). "Iran bars female MP for 'shaking hands with unrelated man'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
^"Minoo Khaleghi summoned to court". 15 May 2016. Archived from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
^"خانه ملت". mellat.majlis.ir. Archived from the original on 5 July 2009. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
^"Expediency council". BBC News. Archived from the original on 5 March 2008. Retrieved 3 February 2008.
^Article 112 Archived 9 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
^Axel Tschentscher, LL.M. "ICL > Iran > Constitution". Servat.unibe.ch. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
^"Iran Chamber Society: The Structure of Power in Iran". Iranchamber.com. 24 June 2005. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^IRNA, Online Edition. "Paris for further cultural cooperation with Iran". Archived from the original on 23 October 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2007.
^Seyed Hossein Mousavian; Shahir Shahidsaless (2014). Iran and the United States: An Insider's View on the Failed Past and the Road to Peace. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-62892-870-9.
^Qaed, Anas Al (25 September 2023). "Unseen Tensions: The Undercurrents of Iran-Turkey Relations in the South Caucasus". Gulf International Forum. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"The Cold War Between Turkey and Iran – Foreign Policy Research Institute". www.fpri.org. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Azizi, Hamidreza; اevik, Salim (2022). "Turkish and Iranian Involvement in Iraq and Syria". SWP Comment (in German). doi:10.18449/2022c58. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Iran and Turkey Agree on Opposing Kurdish Independence, but Not Much More". FDD. 25 August 2017. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Five things to know about the blockade against Qatar". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"A New Phase in Cooperation between Tajikistan and Iran". Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^Lal, Rollie (2006), "Iran", Central Asia and Its Asian Neighbors, Security and Commerce at the Crossroads (1 ed.), RAND Corporation, pp. 11–18, ISBN 978-0-8330-3878-4, JSTOR 10.7249/mg440af.10, archived from the original on 8 May 2024, retrieved 8 May 2024
^uz, Daryo (11 June 2023). "Iranian President to visit to Tajikistan to bolster bilateral relations". Daryo.uz. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"Iran Extends Influence in Central Asia's Tajikistan". Voice of America. 1 November 2011. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^Bakri, Nada (27 August 2011). "Iran Calls on Syria to Recognize Citizens' Demands". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Syria and Iran: What's Behind the Enduring Alliance?". Brookings. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^Yan, Holly (29 August 2013). "Syria allies: Why Russia, Iran and China are standing by the regime". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"Why Iran and Russia can dodge Western sanctions – DW – 04/26/2024". dw.com. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Iran, Russia discuss developing oil, gas fields". Mehr News Agency. 3 March 2024. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"US asks Iran to stop selling drones to Russia". www.ft.com. Archived from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Bertrand, Natasha (25 July 2023). "Iran helping Russia build drone stockpile that is expected to be 'orders of magnitude larger' than previous arsenal, US says | CNN Politics". CNN. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Timeline: Iran-Russia Collaboration on Drones | The Iran Primer". iranprimer.usip.org. 1 March 2023. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Iddon, Paul. "Iran Might Receive Its First Su-35 Flanker Fighters From Russia Next Week". Forbes. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Valvo, Giovanni (14 December 2012). "Syria, Iran And The Future Of The CSTO – Analysis". Eurasia Review. Archived from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Iran-China to sign 25-year cooperation pact: Tehran". Arab News. 27 March 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Garver, John W. (11 December 2006). "Twenty Centuries of Friendly Cooperation: The Sino-Iranian Relationship". The Globalist. Archived from the original on 29 May 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Fishberg, Maurice (1907). Materials for the Physical Anthropology of the Eastern European Jews. New Era Print. Company.
^Azad, Shirzad (2012). "Iran and the Two Koreas: A Peculiar Pattern of Foreign Policy". The Journal of East Asian Affairs. 26 (2): 163–192. ISSN 1010-1608. JSTOR 23595522. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Profile: Iran's Revolutionary Guards" Archived 27 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News. 18 October 2009.
^"اخبار سیاسی ۲۶ اسفند؛ کمک رهبرانقلاب به زندانیان نیازمند/تایید کاهش مدت سربازی". ایسنا (in Persian). 16 March 2024. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 16 March 2024.
^روزبهی, محدثه (16 March 2024). "تایید مصوبه کاهش مدت سربازی در شورای نگهبان". پایگاه خبری اختبار (in Persian). Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 16 March 2024.
^Hussain, Murtaza. "Why war with Iran would spell disaster". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^Jones, Seth G. (2020). Regular Military Power (Report). Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). pp. 19–27. JSTOR resrep29480.7. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
^"The Largest Armies in the World". WorldAtlas. 12 February 2024. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
^Kaskanis, Angelos (2 December 2023). "Iran's Military Capabilities: Exploring the Power of the". Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
^Aryan, Hossein (5 February 2009). "Pillar Of The State". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^"ارتش بیست میلیونی". www.imam-khomeini.ir. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^"Iran's Revolutionary Guards: Powerful group with wide regional reach". DH. 3 April 2024. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^"Iran's Basij Force – The Mainstay Of Domestic Security". Radio Free Europe. 15 June 2024. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^"2024 Iran Military Strength". globalfirepower.com. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
^Spirlet, Sinéad Baker, Thibault. "The world's most powerful militaries in 2023, ranked". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 24 December 2023. Retrieved 28 December 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"General Ghorbani: Iran helicopter fleet, strongest in Middle East". iranpress.com. Archived from the original on 24 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
^"سازمان صنایع دریایی – پایگاه اطلاعات دریایی ایران". 13 August 2021. Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
^"Iran – Army Navy Air Force | budget, equipment, personnel". ArmedForces. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
^"Iran Boosts Military Budget To Stand Among Top 15". Iran International. 26 April 2022. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
^"Iran Military Spending=Defense Budget 1960–2023". Macrotrends. 10 December 2023. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
^"World military expenditure passes $2 trillion for first time". Sipri. 25 April 2022. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
^Hossein Askari; Amin Mohseni; Shahrzad Daneshvar (2010). The Militarization of the Persian Gulf: An Economic Analysis. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-84980-186-7.
^"Iran tests new long-range missile". BBC. 12 November 2008. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
^Motamedi, Maziar (6 June 2023). "Fattah: Iran unveils its first hypersonic missile". Aljazeera. Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
^"Are the Iran nuclear talks heading for a deal?" Archived 17 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News Online. Retrieved: 4 August 2016.
^"Ex-official: Iran is world's 6th missile power". AP News. 18 August 2013. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
^"Iran becoming global drone producer on back of Ukraine war, says US". The Guardian. 8 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
^"Iran is becoming a drone superpower". The Hill. 17 March 2024. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
^"Iran's Better, Stealthier Drones Are Remaking Global Warfare". Bloomberg.com. 8 April 2024. Archived from the original on 10 April 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
^"رادیو زمانه هک شد". BBC. 21 December 2023. Archived from the original on 20 December 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
^"How Iran's political battle is fought in cyberspace". BBC. 21 December 2023. Archived from the original on 14 February 2010. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
^"What rules apply in cyber-wars". BBC. 21 December 2023.
^"How Iran's Revived Weapons Exports Could Boost Its Proxies". The Washington Institute. Archived from the original on 14 June 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
^"Inside the Russian effort to build 6,000 attack drones with Iran's help". Washington Post. 17 August 2023. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
^Nissenbaum, Dion; Strobel, Warren P. (5 February 2023). "WSJ News Exclusive | Moscow, Tehran Advance Plans for Iranian-Designed Drone Facility in Russia". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
^"Russia aims to obtain more attack drones from Iran after depleting stockpile, White House says". AP News. 15 May 2023. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
^"Iran finalises deal buy russian fighter jets". Reuters. 11 January 2024. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
^"Iran Finalizes Deal to Buy Russian Fighter Jets – Tasnim". Voice of America. 28 November 2023. Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
^"China, Russia, Iran hold joint naval drills in Gulf of Oman". AP News. 15 March 2023. Archived from the original on 2 January 2024. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
^"An atomic threat made in America". Chicago Tribune. 28 January 2007. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
^"Iran's Nuclear Program – Council on Foreign Relations". 20 February 2012. Archived from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Iran Could Make Fuel for Nuclear Bomb in Less Than 2 Weeks, Milley Says". Voice of America. 23 March 2023. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Iran Deal". The White House. Archived from the original on 27 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Fox, Kara (8 May 2018). "European leaders 'disappointed' in Trump's withdrawal from Iran deal". CNN. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Sparks, Grace (8 May 2018). "Majority say US should not withdraw from Iran nuclear agreement | CNN Politics". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Schumann, Anna (11 May 2020). "A worthless withdrawal: Two years since President Trump abandoned the JCPOA". Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^Lynch, Colum (2 May 2024). "Despite U.S. Sanctions, Iran Expands Its Nuclear Stockpile". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Iran abandons enrichment limits in further step back from nuclear deal". France 24. 5 January 2020. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Iran nuclear deal: Government announces enrichment breach". 7 July 2019. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Iran approaches the nuclear threshold". IISS. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Motamedi, Maziar. "Five years after Trump's exit, no return to the Iran nuclear deal". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 7 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^Lynch, Colum (16 May 2024). "Despite U.S. Sanctions, Iran Expands Its Nuclear Stockpile". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^Murphy, Francois (15 November 2023). "Iran's nuclear enrichment advances as it stonewalls UN, IAEA reports show". Reuters. Archived from the original on 6 December 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
^"Iran advances nuclear enrichment while still barring inspectors; IAEA". Aljazeera. 15 November 2023. Archived from the original on 20 December 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
^"Iran Resumes Pace of 60% Uranium Enrichment, IAEA Says". Voice of America. 26 December 2023. Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
^"Watchdog Report: Iran Has Further Increased Its Total Stockpile of Uranium". Voice of America. 26 February 2024. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
^"Does Iran already have nuclear weapons?". The Washington Times. 19 April 2024. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^Pletka, Danielle (18 April 2024). "Whatever Happened to Biden's Iran Policy?". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
^Cohen, Avner (21 March 2024). "Has Iran become a de facto nuclear state?". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 4 June 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"Are We Witnessing The Dawn Of A New Persian Empire?". en.radiofarda.com. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^Qatar, Middle East, politics, GCC, Iran, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Nuclear deal, Yemen, Trump, MENA, Turkey, Gulf Crisis. "Future Center – Can Iran turn itself into a "neo-Persian Empire"?". Futureuae. Retrieved 31 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Handberg, Hjalte (1 January 2019). "Understanding Iranian Proxy Warfare: A Historical Analysis of the Relational Development of the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraqi Insurgencies" (PDF). Diva Portal.
^"China, Russia and Iran Are Reviving the Age of Empires". Bloomberg.com. 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Aaberg, John (15 September 2019). "Understanding Iranian Proxy Warfare: A Historical Analysis of the Relational Development of the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraqi Insurgencies" (PDF). Diva Portal. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
^"The Rise of the Iranian Empire". The Tower. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^Dagres, Holly (28 January 2019). "Persia is back, but in a different form". Atlantic Council. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^"The Challenge of Iran | The Iran Primer". iranprimer.usip.org. 1 August 2015. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Iran, a Geopolitical Player in the Middle East". www.iemed.org. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^Team, G. P. F. (16 February 2018). "Iranian Expansion Spreads Beyond the Middle East". Geopolitical Futures. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^"New report reveals extent of Iran's growing Middle East influence". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^Kane, J. Robert (2018). "A Life Cycle Analysis of Hezbollah: Where the Group Came from and Where It Is Going". American Intelligence Journal. 35 (2): 67–73. ISSN 0883-072X. JSTOR 26566567. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Hezbollah's Record on War & Politics | Wilson Center". wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Profile: Iran's Revolutionary Guards". 8 April 2019. Archived from the original on 16 March 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Hezbollah's Regional Activities in Support of Iran's Proxy Networks". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^DeVore, Marc R. (2012). "Exploring the Iran-Hezbollah Relationship: A Case Study of how State Sponsorship affects Terrorist Group Decision-Making". Perspectives on Terrorism. 6 (4/5): 85–107. ISSN 2334-3745. JSTOR 26296878. Archived from the original on 25 December 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^Kliot, N. (1987). "The Collapse of the Lebanese State". Middle Eastern Studies. 23 (1): 54–74. doi:10.1080/00263208708700688. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 4283154.
^"War, insurgency, IS and instability: Iraq since the 2003 US invasion". The Guardian. 19 March 2023. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"The Saudi-led War in Yemen: Frequently Asked Questions | Friends Committee On National Legislation". www.fcnl.org. 17 October 2023. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^Ali, Mohanad Hage (30 January 2024). "Hezbollahʼs Intervention in the Syrian Conflict". Power Points Defining the Syria-Hezbollah Relationship: 8–13. JSTOR resrep20960.6.
^Akbar, Ali (8 August 2023). "Iran's soft power in the Middle East via the promotion of the Persian language". Contemporary Politics. 29 (4): 424–445. doi:10.1080/13569775.2023.2169305. ISSN 1356-9775.
^"Tehran's Corridor to the Mediterranean Sea – EUROPolitika" (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Iran Threatens Mediterranean Closure Over Gaza Without Saying How". Voice of America. 23 December 2023. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Iran Thrives In The Levant On Weakened States Threatened By Sunni Radicalism". Hoover Institution. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^How to Contain Iranian Influence in the Levant (Report). Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Institute for the Study of War". Institute for the Study of War. Archived from the original on 25 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
^Feyli, Luca Nevola, Miran (23 May 2023). "The Muqawama and Its Enemies: Shifting Patterns in Iran-Backed Shiite Militia Activity in Iraq". ACLED. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Knights, Crispin Smith, Michael (20 March 2023). "Remaking Iraq: How Iranian-Backed Militias Captured the Country". Just Security. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"How Much Influence Does Iran Have in Iraq?". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Iran is still the main foreign power in Iraq". ISPI. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^Motamedi, Maziar. "Where does Iran stand on neighbouring Iraq's political turmoil?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"افزایش صادرات ایران به عراق تا 9 میلیارد دلار/ در تجارت با منطقه جایگاه مناسبی نداریم". KhabarFarsi.com (in Persian). Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Iran-Iraq $20b trade target not out of reach: CBI governor". Tehran Times. 23 July 2019. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Iran, Iraq targeting annual trade vol. $20b". Mehr News Agency. 16 November 2020. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"The Houthis, Iran, and tensions in the Red Sea". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"How Iran Helped Houthis Expand Their Reach". War on the Rocks. 23 August 2021. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^Lester, Stephanie (19 December 2019). "Media Guide: Iran and the Yemeni Civil War". American Iranian Council. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"5 Things to Know About the Houthis, Their Attacks on Israel and the U.S., and Their Treatment of Yemen's Jews | AJC". www.ajc.org. 29 December 2023. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^Ignatius, David (16 January 2024). "Opinion | The Houthis sink an arrow into the West's Achilles' heel". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 17 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Yemen's Houthi rebels seize cargo ship in Red Sea". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 24 March 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
^"A ship earlier hit by Yemen's Houthi rebels sinks in the Red Sea, the first vessel lost in conflict". AP News. 2 March 2024. Archived from the original on 23 March 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
^Clinch, Matt (25 March 2022). "Yemen's Houthis claim attack on Aramco facility after reports of a huge fire in Saudi city of Jeddah". CNBC. Archived from the original on 26 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
^"Mission Accomplished? What's Next for Iran's Afghan Fighters in Syria". War on the Rocks. 13 February 2018. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
^"Meet the Zainebiyoun Brigade: An Iranian Backed Pakistani Shia Militia Fighting in Syria – The OSINT Blog". 2 May 2016. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016. Retrieved 25 March 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^"Iran's Tricky Balancing Act in Afghanistan". War on the Rocks. 28 July 2021. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
^Terrill, W. Andrew (2015). "Iran's Strategy for Saving Asad". Middle East Journal. 69 (2): 222–236. doi:10.3751/69.2.1. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 43698235. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Iran's Evolving Policy on Syria | The Iran Primer". iranprimer.usip.org. 30 July 2012. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^Samii, Abbas William (2008). "A Stable Structure on Shifting Sands: Assessing the Hizbullah-Iran-Syria Relationship". Middle East Journal. 62 (1): 32–53. doi:10.3751/62.1.12. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 25482471. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Institute for the Study of War". Institute for the Study of War. Archived from the original on 25 March 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Why is Iran Involved in Syria: A Look at Multifaceted Reasons". 30 December 2023. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Iran Update, September 20, 2023". Critical Threats. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"After 7 years of war, Assad has won in Syria. What's next for Washington?". Brookings. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Syria's Stalemate Has Only Benefitted Assad and His Backers". United States Institute of Peace. Archived from the original on 18 March 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Iran and Hamas beyond the borders of the Middle East". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^Skare, Erik (18 December 2023). "Iran, Hamas, and Islamic Jihad: A marriage of convenience". ECFR. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"The Hamas-Iran Relationship | The Washington Institute". www.washingtoninstitute.org. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^"Hamas And Israel: Iran's Role | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
^Lillis, Jake Tapper, Katie Bo (14 November 2023). "Found document suggests Iran sought to help Hamas make its own weapons ahead of attack, sources say | CNN Politics". CNN. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"US intelligence officials estimate Tehran does not have full control of its proxy groups". Politico. 2 January 2024. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^VICE (15 April 2020). VICE Guide to Iran with Suroosh Alvi. Retrieved 17 May 2024 – via YouTube.
^"Iran". freedomhouse.org. 30 January 2019. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
^Avery, Daniel (4 April 2019). "71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 17 August 2019.
^"Iran defends execution of gay people". Deutsche Welle. 12 June 2019. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2019.
^"Iran halts execution of three protesters after online campaign". BBC. Archived from the original on 7 September 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
^"Rights experts urge Iran to end 'systematic persecution' of religious minorities". UN News. 22 August 2022. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
^"UN Rights Experts Call On Iran To Stop Persecution Of Baha'is, Other Religious Minorities". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
^"Iran". Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^"The World Press Freedom Index". Reporters Without Borders. 19 April 2016. Archived from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
^"Freedom in the World 2019, Iran". Freedom House. 30 January 2019. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
^Taylor, Chloe (21 November 2019). "Iran's internet blackout enters fifth day as government claims victory over protesters". CNBC. Archived from the original on 22 November 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
^Mihalcik, Carrie. "Iran's internet has been shut down for days amid protests". CNET. Archived from the original on 26 November 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
^"Iran shuts down country's internet in the wake of fuel protests". TechCrunch. 17 November 2019. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
^MacLellan, Stephanie (9 January 2018). "What You Need to Know about Internet Censorship in Iran". Centre for International Governance Innovation. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
^Landry, Carole (25 June 2009). "G8 calls on Iran to halt election violence". Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^Tait, Robert; Black, Ian; Tran, Mark (17 June 2009). "Iran protests: Fifth day of unrest as regime cracks down on critics". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
^"Iran clerics defy election ruling". BBC News. 5 July 2009. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"Is this government legitimate?". BBC. 7 September 2009. Archived from the original on 9 April 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^Erdbrink, Thomas (4 August 2018). "Protests Pop Up Across Iran, Fueled by Daily Dissatisfaction". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 October 2023. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
^"Iran arrested 7,000 in crackdown on dissent during 2018 – Amnesty". BBC News. 24 January 2019. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
^"In Pictures: Iranians protest against the increase in fuel prices". Al-Jazeera. 17 November 2019. Archived from the original on 19 November 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
^Shutdown, Iran Internet. "A web of impunity: The killings Iran's internet shutdown hid — Amnesty International". Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
^"Special Report: Iran's leader ordered crackdown on unrest – 'Do whatever it takes to end it'". Reuters. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
^"Ukrainian airplane with 180 aboard crashes in Iran: Fars". Reuters. 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
^"Demands for justice after Iran's plane admission". BBC. 11 January 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2020.
^"Who are Iran's 'morality police'? – DW – 12/04/2022". dw.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
^"Protests flare across Iran in violent unrest over woman's death". Reuters. 20 September 2022. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022.
^Leonhardt, David (26 September 2022). "Iran's Ferocious Dissent". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
^Strzy؟yٌska, Weronika (16 September 2022). "Iranian woman dies 'after being beaten by morality police' over hijab law". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
^"Iran economy". Traveldocs.com. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^Iran Investment Monthly Archived 31 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Turquoise Partners (April 2012). Retrieved 24 July 2012.
^"Overview". World Bank. Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
^"Tehran (Iran) : People – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 November 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
^Cordesman, Anthony H. (23 September 2008). "The US, Israel, the Arab States and a Nuclear Iran. Part One: Iranian Nuclear Programs" (PDF). Center for Strategic and International Studies. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 25 September 2010.
^"Iran's banned trade unions: Aya-toiling". The Economist. 20 April 2013. Archived from the original on 23 June 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
^"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^"Monthly Report". 14 June 2012. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
^"Senior Official Says Iran Paying $100 Billion In Energy Subsidies". Iran International. 9 May 2022. Archived from the original on 4 June 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
^"Ahmadinejad's Achilles Heel: The Iranian Economy". Payvand.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"Iran – Country Brief". Go.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
^"List of Iranian Nanotechnology companies". Archived from the original on 14 November 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^"UK Trade & Investment". 13 February 2006. Archived from the original on 13 February 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^"FAOSTAT". www.fao.org. Archived from the original on 12 November 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
^"Iran and sanctions: When will it ever end?". The Economist. 18 August 2012. Archived from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
^"Kish Island, Hormozgan province – ITTO". itto.org. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
^"Iran's tourist arrivals grow to over 8 Million: Minister". Irna. 18 August 2019. Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
^"Iran Third Fastest Growing Tourism Destination In 2019: UNWTO". MCTH. 7 December 2023. Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
^"Iran's tourism industry up by 21% in 2023". Mehr News Agency. 29 April 2024. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^"بازدید ۶ میلیون گردشگر خارجی از ایران در یک سال/ صعود ۶ پلهای ایران در ردهبندی گردشگری". IRNA. 28 May 2024. Archived from the original on 28 May 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
^Kryeziu, Alza (17 April 2024). "Half of the World Now Granted Visa-Free Access to Iran". VisaGuide.News. Archived from the original on 18 April 2024. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
^"Revival rhythm: Iran's tourism blooms by 21%". Tehran Times. 29 April 2024. Archived from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
^Sightseeing and excursions in Iran Archived 18 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Tehran Times, 28 September 2010. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
^ a b"Medical Tourism in Iran". Medical Tourism. 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
^"Iran Welcomes Millions of Medical Tourists Every Year". Financial Tribune. 18 July 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
^"Foreign arrivals in Iran reach 4.4 million in 8 months, up by 48.5% y/y". Tehran Times. 12 December 2023. Archived from the original on 16 December 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
^"Iran's tourism among the top 20 countries". Iran Daily. 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
^ a bAyse, Valentine; Nash, Jason John; Leland, Rice (2013). The Business Year 2013: Iran. London: The Business Year. p. 166. ISBN 978-1-908180-11-7. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
^Brian Boniface, MA; Chris Cooper; Robyn Cooper (2012). Worldwide Destinations: The geography of travel and tourism. Routledge. p. 362. ISBN 978-1-136-00113-0.
^"Iran sets up funds for tourism development". Tehran Times. 10 January 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
^"Agriculture in Iran". Archived from the original on 4 August 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
^"Iran Food security". 7 August 2014. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
^Seyf, Ahmad (1984). "Technical Changes in Iranian Agriculture, 1800–1906". Middle Eastern Studies. 20 (4): 142–154. doi:10.1080/00263208408700603. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 4283034. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"About this Collection | Country Studies | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
^"Crunch time for Caspian caviar". BBC News. 19 June 2001. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
^"Iransaga – Iran The Country, The Land". Art-arena.com. Archived from the original on 26 October 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
^"Iran Khodro Rail Industries Factory Inaugurated". 13 May 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
^"Iran takes world's 16th place in car manufacturing: OICA". Mehr News Agency. 30 March 2024. Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
^"Iran takes world's 16th place in car manufacturing: OICA". nournews. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
^"Iran advances 41 places in industrial production". Tehran Times. 27 February 2010. Archived from the original on 10 January 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"Iran doing industrial projects in 27 countries". Mehr News Agency. 1 April 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"سازمان توسعه تجارت ایران". 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"The US, Israel, the Arab States and a Nuclear Iran" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"SCT – Shopping Centers Today Online". 3 April 2012. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"Iran's foodstuff exports near $1b". Tehran Times. 23 February 2010. Archived from the original on 10 January 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"Iran Daily – Domestic Economy – 06/11/09". 14 June 2009. Archived from the original on 14 June 2009. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"MINING.COM". MINING.COM. Archived from the original on 10 January 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"Atieh Bahar – Resources – Iran's Automotive Industry Overview". 7 July 2011. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"Official: Iran now among world's 6 turbine manufacturers – Tehran Times". 12 October 2012. Archived from the original on 12 October 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
^"The Business Year – Moving Around". Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
^"Iran Daily | Domestic Economy". iran-daily.com. Archived from the original on 18 June 2009.
^Rohde, Michael. "World Metro Database - metrobits.org". mic-ro.com. Archived from the original on 23 September 2010. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
^"Tehran Metro". Railway Technology. Archived from the original on 22 December 2010. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
^Limited, Alamy. "March 18, 2023, Tehran, Tehran, Iran: A view of the Tehran metro station during the opening ceremony of 5 new stations of the Tehran Metro in the presence of Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi. The Tehran Metro is a rapid transit system serving Tehran, the capital of Iran. It is the most extensive metro system in the Middle East. The system is owned and operated by Tehran Urban and Suburban Railway. It consists of six operational metro lines (and an additional commuter rail line), with construction underway on three lines, including the west extension of line 4, line 6 and the north and east exte Stock Photo – Alamy". alamy.com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2023. Retrieved 30 December 2023. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
^"Tehran Urban & Suburban Railway Co (TUSRC)". Railway Gazette International. Archived from the original on 4 June 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
^"Islamic Republic Of Iran Railroads :: راه آهن جمهوري اسلامي ايران". Rai.ir. Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2012.
^"Iran Daily | Domestic Economy". iran-daily.com. Archived from the original on 3 June 2009.
^"Gas compression at South Pars". Shana. 18 May 2023. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
^"The Rising might of the Middle East super power – Council on Foreign Relations". 3 March 2016. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
^"International - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
^"Iran's Foreign Trade Regime Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2013. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
^"Iran's oil and gas reserves estimated at 1.2 trillion barrels: NIOC chief | Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide". www.hellenicshippingnews.com. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^"Iran ranks 2nd, 3rd in gas, oil reserves in world". IRNA. 2 June 2024. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^"BP Cuts Russia, Turkmenistan Natural Gas Reserves Estimates". The Wall Street Journal.com. 12 June 2013. Archived from the original on 19 June 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
^Robinson, Nada Altaher,Matthew (10 November 2019). "Iran has discovered an oil field with an estimated 53 billion barrels of crude, Rouhani says | CNN Business". CNN. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"Iran discovers new oil field with over 50 billion barrels". AP News. 10 November 2019. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^"Iran says new oilfield found with 53 billion barrels". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^"Iran oil: New field with 53bn barrels found – Rouhani". 10 November 2019. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^"Iran discovers giant shale oil reserves in several regions". Mehr News Agency. 2 April 2024. Archived from the original on 10 April 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^Dooley, Kenny (2 April 2024). "Iran discovers giant shale oil reserves in several regions". www.ogv.energy. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^Ugal, Nishant (9 October 2023). "Four new oil and gas discoveries unveiled by Iran with potential 2.6 billion barrels of reserves". upstreamonline.com. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^SHANA: Share of domestically made equipments on the rise Archived 9 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
^"Iran, Besieged by Gasoline Sanctions, Develops GTL to Extract Gasoline from Natural Gas". Oilprice.com. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
^"Iran" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 January 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^Daniel Müller; Professor Harald Müller (2015). WMD Arms Control in the Middle East: Prospects, Obstacles and Options. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 140. ISBN 978-1-4724-3593-4.
^"Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics". Ibb.ut.ac.ir. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"The first successfully cloned animal in Iran". Middle-east-online.com. 30 September 2006. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^"Iranian Studies Group at MIT" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
^"INIC – News – 73% of Tehran's Students Acquainted with Nanotechnology". En.nano.ir. 18 January 2010. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
^"Iran Ranks 15th in Nanotech Articles". Bernama. 9 November 2009. Archived from the original on 10 December 2011. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
^"Iran daily: Iranian Technology From Foreign Perspective". Archived from the original on 15 April 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^"Project Retired – EECS at UC Berkeley" (PDF). berkeley.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2007.
^Vali Nasr (2007). The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future. W.W. Norton. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-393-06640-1.
^Ben Mathis-Lilley (12 August 2014). "A Woman Has Won the Fields Medal, Math's Highest Prize, for the First Time". Slate. Graham Holdings Company. Archived from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
^Expert:VSR.Subramaniam (18 October 2006). "Economics: economic, medical uses of alcohol, uses of alcohol". Experts.about.com. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"Forecasting Exercise" (PDF). SCImago. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
^"No. 3817 | Front page | Page 1". Irandaily. Archived from the original on 12 November 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
^Fathi, Nazila; Broad, William J. (3 February 2009). "Iran Launches Satellite in a Challenge for Obama". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
^Brian Harvey; Henk H. F. Smid; Theo Pirard (2011). Emerging Space Powers: The New Space Programs of Asia, the Middle East and South-America. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 293. ISBN 978-1-4419-0874-2.
^"The 6th International Conference on Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning" (PDF). Hvac-conference.ir. 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
^Stephen Clark (2 February 2009). "Iran Launches Omid Satellite Into Orbit". Space.com. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
^"Iran Launches Soraya Satellite Into Orbit 750 Km Above Earth – Iran Front Page". ifpnews.com. 20 January 2024. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^"Iran says it launched a satellite despite Western concerns – DW – 01/20/2024". dw.com. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^"Iran says launches satellite in new aerospace milestone". phys.org. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^Presse, AFP-Agence France. "Iran Says Launches Satellite In New Aerospace Milestone". barrons.com. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^"Iran's Soraya satellite signals received on earth". Mehr News Agency. 21 January 2024. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^"Iran successfully launches Soraya satellite using Qa'im 100 carrier". iranpress.com. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
^"Iran says it launches 3 satellites into space-Xinhua". english.news.cn. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iran launches three satellites simultaneously for first time – DW – 01/28/2024". dw.com. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iran launches 3 satellites into space that are part of a Western-criticized program as tensions rise". AP News. 28 January 2024. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iran simultaneously launches three satellites – state media". The Economic Times. 28 January 2024. ISSN 0013-0389. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iran Conducts Second Controversial Satellite Launch In One Week". Iran International. 28 January 2024. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iran launches three satellites amid rising tensions with Western powers". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iran launches 'domestically developed' imaging satellite from Russia". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^Online |, E. T. (29 February 2024). "Iran launches Pars 1 satellite from Russia amidst Western concern over Moscow-Tehrain ties". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^Motamedi, Maziar. "Russia launches Iranian satellite into space from Kazakhstan base". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^"Russia launches Soyuz rocket into space carrying Iranian satellite Pars-I". WION. 29 February 2024. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
^"Iran says it controls entire nuclear fuel cycle". USA Today. 11 April 2009. Archived from the original on 19 December 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
^"National Security and the Internet in the Persian Gulf: Iran". 3 July 2007. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
^"Internet Speed in Iran is at Regional Bottom". Iran Open Data. 8 March 2024. Retrieved 5 July 2024.
^"درگاه ملی آمار". درگاه ملی آمار ایران. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
^Latest Statistical Center of Iran fertility rate statistics (published February 2023). xlsx Archived 22 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine at page Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
^Roser, Max (19 February 2014). "Fertility Rate". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
^"Children per woman". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 3 July 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
^"Population growth (annual %) – Iran, Islamic Rep. | Data". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
^U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2005. Unpublished work tables for estimating Iran's mortality. Washington, D.C.:
Population Division, International Programs Center
^Iran News, Payvand.com. "Iran's population growth rate falls to 1.5 percent: UNFP". Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2006.
^"World Population Prospects – Population Division – United Nations". esa.un.org. Archived from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
^"Refugee population by country or territory of asylum – Iran, Islamic Rep. | Data". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
^"Afghanistan-Iran: Iran says it will deport over one million Afghans". Irinnews.org. 4 March 2008. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^"Iran Social Security System" (PDF). World Bank. 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
^Aurelio Mejيa (2013). "Is tax funding of health care more likely to be regressive than systems based on social insurance in low and middle-income countries?". Universidad de Antioquia (78): 229–239. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
^"Iran: Focus on reverse migration". Payvand. Archived from the original on 26 March 2006. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
^"Population distribution – The World Factbook". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
^J. Harmatta in "History of Civilizations of Central Asia", Chapter 14, The Emergence of Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages, ed. by A. H. Dani & V.N. Masson, 1999, p. 357
^"Country Profile: Iran" (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. May 2008. p. xxvi. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 May 2020. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
^"World Heritage List". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 1 November 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
^"Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran, Chapter II: The Official Language, Script, Calendar, and Flag of the Country, Article 15". Iran Chamber Society. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2023.
^Annika Rabo, Bo Utas. The Role of the State in West Asia Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2005 ISBN 91-86884-13-1
^Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East Archived 2 April 2024 at the Wayback Machine Facts On File, Incorporated ISBN 1-4381-2676-X p. 141
^Oberling, Pierre (7 February 2012). "Georgia viii: Georgian communities in Persia". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
^"Circassian". Official Circassian Association. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
^Chardin, Sir John (June 1997). "Persians: Kind, hospitable, tolerant flattering cheats?". The Iranian. Archived from the original on 20 June 1997. Retrieved 9 June 2014. Excerpted from:
Chardin, Sir John (1988). "Book 2, Chapter XI: Of the Temper, Manners, and Customs of the Persians: A XVII th. Century Viewpoint". Travels in Persia, 1673–1677. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 183–197. ISBN 978-0-486-25636-8. OCLC 798310290. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
^"Iran". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (United States). Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
^"Selected Findings of the 2011 National Population and Housing Census" (PDF). United Nations. Statistical Center of Iran. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 May 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
^Walter Martin (2003). Kingdom of the Cults, The. Baker Books. p. 421. ISBN 978-0-7642-2821-6. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2013. Ninety-five percent of Iran's Muslims are Shi'ites.
^Bhabani Sen Gupta (1987). The Persian Gulf and South Asia: prospects and problems of inter-regional cooperation. South Asian Publishers. p. 158. ISBN 978-81-7003-077-5. Shias constitute seventy-five percent of the population of the Gulf. Of this, ninety-five percent of Iranians and sixty of Iraqis are Shias.
^"Iran". Archived from the original on 25 December 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
^Smyth, Gareth (29 September 2016). "Removal of the heart: how Islam became a matter of state in Iran". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2024.
^"The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
^"WVS Database". Archived from the original on 3 July 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
^Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2004) p. 82
^Hamzeh'ee (1990), p. 39.
^"In pictures: Inside Iran's secretive Yarsan faith". 13 November 2019. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
^Monazzami, Ardeshir (20 February 2022). "Rereading the Religiosity of Yarsan". Religious Research. 9 (18): 143–167. doi:10.22034/jrr.2021.261350.1805. ISSN 2345-3230. Archived from the original on 24 March 2024. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
^"'Men and women have equal rights in the Yarsan community'". JINHAGENCY News. Archived from the original on 24 March 2024. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
^International Federation for Human Rights (1 August 2003). "Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran" (PDF). fdih.org. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2006. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
^Iran Human Rights Documentation Center (2007). "A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Bahل'يs of Iran" (PDF). Iran Human Rights Documentation Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
^Kamali, Saeed (27 February 2013). "Bahل'ي student expelled from Iranian university 'on grounds of religion'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^Colin Brock, Lila Zia Levers. Aspects of Education in the Middle East and Africa Symposium Books Ltd., 7 mei 2007 ISBN 1-873927-21-5 p. 99
^"Jewish Population of the World". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived from the original on 13 October 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
^"In Iran, Mideast's largest Jewish population outside Israel finds new acceptance by officials". Fox News. Archived from the original on 14 October 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
^U.S. State Department (26 October 2009). "Iran – International Religious Freedom Report 2009". The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affair. Archived from the original on 29 October 2009.
^2011 General Census Selected Results (PDF), Statistical Center of Iran, 2012, p. 26, ISBN 978-964-365-827-4, archived (PDF) from the original on 24 June 2019, retrieved 27 January 2017
^"Iran Population 2015". World Population Review. 2015. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
^Country Information and Guidance "Christians and Christian converts, Iran" December 2014. p.9
^"Iran to Register Armenian Cathedral in Isfahan as UNESCO World Heritage Site" Archived 25 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Armenian National Committee of America. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
^"Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran". Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
^"Iran (Islamic Republic of)". uis.unesco.org. 27 November 2016. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
^Peter Krol. "Study in Iran :: Iran Educational System". arabiancampus.com. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^"WEP-Iran". Wes.org. Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
^سایت, مدیر (28 December 2023). "گفتگو با استادی که مبتکروآغاز کننده روش های جدید جراحی مغز در دانشگاه علوم پزشکی مشهد است". بیمارستان رضوی (in Persian). Retrieved 27 January 2024.
^"Filepool – Detail | Organization for Investment Economic and Technical Assistance of Iran". 10 October 2016. Archived from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
^Movassagh, Hooman (24 April 2016). "Human Organ Donations under the "Iranian Model": A Rewarding Scheme for U.S. Regulatory Reform?". Indiana Health Law Review. 13 (1): 82–118. doi:10.18060/3911.0013. ISSN 2374-2593. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
^kental_tour (24 January 2023). "Iran health care ranking". Kental Travel. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
^"Payvand". Payvand. 1 January 2024. Archived from the original on 29 November 2011. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
^"Iran Health Insurance in Brief". 17 August 2016. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
^"Kamāl-al-Molk, Moḥammad Ḡaffāri". Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. XV. pp. 417–433. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
^Komaroff, Authors: Suzan Yalman, Linda. "The Art of the Safavids before 1600 | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 6 July 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"Sāsānian dynasty". Encyclopوdia Britannica. 18 July 2017. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2017. Under the Sāsānians Iranian art experienced a general renaissance.
^"Iran – A country study". Parstimes.com. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"History of Islamic Science 5". Levity.com. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^Afary, Janet (2006). "Iran". Encyclopوdia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2 November 2007. Retrieved 29 October 2007.
^"Art in Iran" [xii. Iranian Pre-Islamic Elements in Islamic Art]. Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. II. pp. 549–646. Archived from the original on 23 July 2017. Retrieved 15 July 2017.
^Canby, Sheila R. (2002). The Golden Age of Persian Art: 1501–1722. British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-2404-9.
^Gumpert, Lynn; Balaghi, Shiva (2002). Picturing Iran [Art, Society and Revolution]. I.B. Tauris. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-86064-883-0.
^"Art in Iran" [xi. Post-Qajar (Painting)]. Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. II. pp. 640–646. Archived from the original on 28 July 2017. Retrieved 15 July 2017.
^"Art in America: Modernity and revolution: a recent show of Iranian art focused on the turbulent time from 1960 to 1980, juxtaposing formally inventive works of art with politically charged photographs and posters – Art & Politics – Between Word and Image: Modern Iranian Visual Culture". looksmart. 25 November 2004. Archived from the original on 25 November 2004.
^Ardalan, Nader; Bakhtiar, Laleh. (2000). The Sense of Unity: The Sufi Tradition in Persian Architecture. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-1-871031-78-2.
^"Virtual Conference". American.edu. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"Iran secures 5th place worldwide for UNESCO-listed intangible treasures". Tehran Times. 8 December 2023. Archived from the original on 14 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
^asadian (6 December 2023). "Iran Reached 5th in UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage list". International Shia News Agency. Archived from the original on 12 January 2024. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
^K K Goswami (2009). Advances in Carpet Manufacture. Elsevier. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-84569-585-9.
^Khalaj, Mehrnosh (10 February 2010). "Iran's oldest craft left behind". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
^"UNESCO – Traditional skills of carpet weaving in Fars". ich.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 8 December 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
^"UNESCO – Traditional skills of carpet weaving in Kashan". ich.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 8 December 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
^"Iran's carpet washing ritual registered on UNESCO representative list". Mehr News Agency. 8 December 2012. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
^Team, SURFIRAN Editorial (6 February 2016). "Persian Carpets Return to the US Market". SURFIRAN Mag. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
^Malandra, W.W. (1973). "A Glossary of Terms for Weapons and Armor in Old Iranian". Indo-Iranian Journal. 15 (4). Philadelphia: Brill: 264–289. doi:10.1163/000000073790079071. JSTOR 24651454. S2CID 162194727.
^David Levinson; Karen Christensen (2002). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia: Iaido to Malay. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-684-80617-4.
^François de Blois (April 2004). Persian Literature: A Bio-bibliographical Survey. Vol. 5. Routledge. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-947593-47-6. Retrieved 21 June 2013. Nizami Ganja'i, whose personal name was Ilyas, is the most celebrated native poet of the Persians after Firdausi.
^Arthur John Arberry, The Legacy of Persia, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953, ISBN 0-19-821905-9, p. 200.
^Von David Levinson; Karen Christensen, Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002, vol. 4, p. 480
^Frye, R.N., "Darī", The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Brill Publications, CD version.
^Carr, Brian; Mahalingam, Indira (2009). "The Origins of Zoroastrian Philosophy" in "Persian Philosophy". In Boyce, Mary (ed.). Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. Routledge.
^Ayatollahy, Hamidreza (2006). "Philosophy in Contemporary Iran". Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia. 62 (2/4): 811–816. JSTOR 40419494.
^Boyle, John Andrew. "Ferdowsī". Encyclopوdia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
^"UNESCO – Naqqāli, Iranian dramatic story-telling". ich.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^"Persian Poetry and Its Evolution in Pre-Islamic Royal Courts". old.saednews.com (in Persian). 20 January 2021. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^"MYTHOLOGIES OF PERSIA (IRAN)". Indigenous Peoples Literature. 15 February 2023. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
^Khandwala, Anoushka (30 March 2021). "From the Grounds Up: Coffeeshops and the History of Iranian Art". ELEPHANT. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
^"Iran Cultural Heritage, Handcraft and Tourism Organization". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 14 January 2024. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
^"Iran Cultural Heritage, Handcraft and Tourism Organization". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
^"National Museum of Iran". letsgoiran.com. Archived from the original on 22 December 2023. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
^"National Museum of Iran – Official Site For National Museum Of Iran" (in Persian). Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
^"National Museum of Iran". UNESCO. 7 January 2024. Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
^"25 million people visited museums last year". IRNA. 7 January 2024. Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
^"25 million visited Iran's heritage museums in calendar year". Tehran Times. 21 May 2019. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
^Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Music History" [i. Third Millennium B.C.E.]. Encyclopوdia Iranica. Archived from the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
^"GŌSĀN". Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. Xi. pp. 167–170. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 15 July 2017.
^Farrokh, Dr Kaveh. "Parthian and Central Asian Martial Music". Dr. Kaveh Farrokh. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
^(Lawergren 2009) iv. First millennium C.E. (1) Sasanian music, 224–651.
^"BBCPersian.com". BBC. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^"Iran Chamber Society: Music of Iran: Pop Music in Iran". iranchamber.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^'اسکورپیو' در آپارات. BBC Persian. Archived from the original on 13 March 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
^"Rebels of rap reign in Iran". SFGate. 16 April 2008. Archived from the original on 22 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
^"A Brief Introduction to Iranian Dance". Laurel Victoria Gray. 12 January 2024. Archived from the original on 18 November 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
^ a bپوشاک در ایران باستان، فریدون پوربهمن/ت: هاجر ضیاء سیکارودی، امیرکبیر. 2007. pp. 24, 25, 57.
^"کهنترین انیمیشن جهان کجاست؟". ایسنا (in Persian). 19 March 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
^"Oldest Animation Discovered in Iran". Animation Magazine. 12 March 2008. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 4 August 2014.
^Honour, Hugh and John Fleming, The Visual Arts: A History. New Jersey, Prentice Hall Inc., 1992. Page: 96.
^"Massoud Mehrabi – Articles". massoudmehrabi.com. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^"Tehran International Animation Festival (1st Festival 1999 )". tehran-animafest.ir. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
^"Tehran International Animation Festival (TIAF)". animation-festivals.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^Shahab Esfandiary (2012). Iranian Cinema and Globalization: National, Transnational, and Islamic Dimensions. Intellect Books. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-84150-470-4.
^Corliss, Richard (18 April 2012). "Asghar Farhadi - The World's 100 Most Influential People: 2012 - TIME". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 24 May 2024.
^Hamid Dabashi (2007). Masters & Masterpieces of Iranian Cinema. Mage Publishers. p. intro. ISBN 978-0-934211-85-7.
^Peter Decherney; Blake Atwood (2014). Iranian Cinema in a Global Context: Policy, Politics, and Form. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-317-67520-4.
^"Iran's strong presence in 2006 Berlin International Film Festival". BBC. Archived from the original on 12 April 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
^"BBC NEWS – Entertainment – Iran films return to Berlin festival". BBC. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^Coates, Tyler (11 December 2021). "Hollywood Flashback: Asghar Farhadi's 'A Separation' Won Iran's First Oscar in 2012". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
^Shoard, Catherine (27 February 2017). "The Salesman wins best foreign language Oscar". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 1 March 2017. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
^"The Salesman". Golden Globes. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
^"'The Last Fiction' qualified for Oscar". ifilm-آیفیلم. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
^"Iran to contend for 2020 Best Picture Oscar with 'The Last Fiction'". Mehr News Agency. 21 December 2019. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
^"Oscars 2020: 'Last Fiction' First Iranian Film To Run For Best Animated Feature – Iran Front Page". ifpnews.com. 20 October 2019. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
^mhfard (1 October 2019). "'The Last Fiction' is First Iranian Animated Feature to Qualify for Oscars". Hoorakhsh Studios. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
^"DRAMA". Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. VII. pp. 529–535. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^"Iran's Minister of Culture and Islamic Guidance calls for expansion of ties with UNESCO". UNESCO. 15 December 2014. Archived from the original on 8 February 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
^"Top Sites in Iran". Alexa Internet. Archived from the original on 10 December 2010. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
^Kamali Dehghan, Saeed (13 May 2015). "From Digikala to Hamijoo: the Iranian startup revolution, phase two". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
^Williams, Stuart. (October 2008). "DRINKING". Iran – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture. Kuperard. ISBN 978-1-85733-598-9. Iranians are obsessive tea drinkers
^Maslin, Jamie. (2009). Iranian Rappers and Persian Porn: A Hitchhiker's Adventures in the New Iran. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-60239-791-0. Iran is a nation of obsessive tea drinkers
^Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations—Production FAOSTAT Archived 15 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
^Foodspotting (18 March 2014). "24 / Dessert: Faloodeh". The Foodspotting Field Guide. Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-1-4521-3008-8.
^Henninger, Danya (7 February 2017). "Franklin Fountain has an ImPeach sundae with 'nuts from the cabinet'". BillyPenn.com. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^Duguid, Naomi (6 September 2016). Taste of Persia: A Cook's Travels Through Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Kurdistan. Artisan. p. 353. ISBN 978-1-57965-727-7. ...havij bastani, a kind of ice cream float, made with Persian ice cream and carrot juice
^"Sturgeon Stocks Slump". Iran-daily.com. Archived from the original on 16 July 2005. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
^"The History of Polo". Polomuseum.com. Archived from the original on 17 July 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
^Ben Johnson. "The origins and history of Polo". Historic-uk.com. Archived from the original on 28 February 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
^"Iran Chamber Society: Sport in Iran: History of Chogân (Polo)". www.iranchamber.com. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
^Singh, Jaisal (2007). Polo in India. London: New Holland. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-84537-913-1.
^"Zurkhaneh Traditional Sports". traditionalsportsgames.org. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
^"History of Asian Games". www.insidethegames.biz. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Iranian Great Power Ambitions and China's Return to the Olympic Movement, 1973–74 | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Teenagers won titles in the Tehran 1974 Asian Games where South Korea and Iran were the bests". ASBCNEWS. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
^"Rock Climbing Routes, Gear, Photos, Videos & Articles". Rockclimbing.com. 27 October 2009. Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"Iran Mountain Zone (IMZ)". Mountainzone.ir. 11 June 1966. Archived from the original on 9 December 2002. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"Mountaineering in Iran". Abc-of-mountaineering.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
^"Iran – Guide to Skiing and Snowboarding". Snowseasoncentral.com. 2015. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
^"Dizi (IRI)". FIS. 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
^"Iran: FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking". FIFA.com. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
^Hayward, Joshua. "Ranking the Top 20 Stadiums in World Football". Bleacher Report. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
^"AIPS Web Site – USA Volleyball president tips Iran to qualify for Rio". aipsmedia.com. 2 December 2011. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^"WorldofVolley :: Volleyball pioneer Ahmad Masajedi says Iran's rise to the top won't stop". worldofvolley.com. 2 December 2011. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
^Alipour, Sam (21 April 2012). "Mission Improbable". ESPN. Archived from the original on 24 November 2012. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
^parisa; Bakhtiari, Parisa (24 August 2019). "All About Haft-Sin: The 7 'S' of Iranian New Year". SURFIRAN Mag. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
^"Norouz Persian New Year". British Museum. 25 March 2010. Archived from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
^"Proclamation of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity (2001–2005) – intangible heritage – Culture Sector – UNESCO". Unesco.org. 2000. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
^"General Assembly Fifty-fifth session 94th plenary meeting Friday, 9 March 2001, 10 a.m. New York" (PDF). United Nations General Assembly. 9 March 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 August 2006. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
^"Nowrooz, a Persian New Year Celebration, Erupts in Iran – Yahoo!News". News.yahoo.com. 16 March 2010. Archived from the original on 22 March 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
^"US mulls Persian New Year outreach". Washington Times. 19 March 2010. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
^"Call for Safe Yearend Celebration". Financial Tribune. 12 March 2017. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2017. The ancient tradition has transformed over time from a simple bonfire to the use of firecrackers...
^"Light It Up! Iranians Celebrate Festival of Fire". NBC News. 19 March 2014. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^Rezaian, Lachin (20 December 2015). "Yalda: Iranian celebration of winter solstice". Mehr News Agency. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^Roessing, Lesley (2012). No More "us" and "them": Classroom Lessons and Activities to Promote Peer Respect. R&L Education. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-61048-812-9.
^Hamedy, Saba (20 December 2013). "In ancient tradition, Iranians celebrate winter solstice". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^Foltz, Richard (2013). Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-78074-307-3.
^Alavi, Nasrin (8 November 2015). We Are Iran: The Persian Blogs. Soft Skull Press. p. 135.[permanent dead link]
^"Historical ceremonies of Iran". IRIB English Radio. 29 April 2013. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. ...people in Mazandaran province celebrate Tirgan.
^Ahmadzadeh, Fatemeh; Mohandespour, Farhad (February 2017). "Examining the Social Function of Dramatic Rituals of Mazandaran with Emphasis on Three Rituals of tir mā sizeŝu, bisto ڑeڑe aydimā, and èake se mā". Journal of History Culture and Art Research: 839. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017. ...Tirgan called tir mā sizeŝu (thirteen night of Tir) is still held in Mazandaran.
^Mehraby, Rahman (22 March 2010). "Ceremonies in Iran". DestinationIran.com. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017. ...people in Mazandaran province celebrate Tirgan.
^"Tirgan Festival in Markazi Province" (PDF). Iran Daily. 22 June 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^Leviton, Richard (16 July 2014). The Mertowney Mountain Interviews. iUniverse. p. 252. ISBN 978-1-4917-4129-0. ...the summer solstice festival, called Tiregan,...
^Hobson, Sarah; Lubchenco, Jane (5 August 1997). Revelation and the Environment, AD 95-1995. World Scientific. p. 151. ISBN 978-981-4545-69-3. Tirgan, is a joyous celebration of water in the height of summer,...
^"In Iran, Muslim youth are 'even more excited about Christmas than Christians'". France 24. 23 December 2013. Archived from the original on 19 June 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^"Iranian Jews observe Hanukkah". Al-Monitor. 28 November 2013. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
^"Iran Jews Celebrate Passover, Persian-style". Haaretz. 25 April 2011. Archived from the original on 29 May 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^Holzel, David (24 May 2013). "Persian Passover". Washington Jewish Week. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^Dareini, Ali Akbar (31 January 2010). "Iranians celebrate ancient Persian fire fest". NBC News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^"Ranking of the countries with the most public holidays". HR Dive. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
^soheil (9 February 2022). "The Total Count of Public Holidays in Iran". Iran Tours IranAmaze. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
^"Which countries have the most vacation days?". www.hcamag.com. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
^Soltani, Zahra (23 March 2023). "Iran Holiday: National & Public Holidays in Iran (Persian Holidays)". IranOnTour. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
^ a b"Calendars" [The solar Hejrī (ٹ. = ٹamsī) and ٹāhanڑāhī calendars]. Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
^ a b"Iran Public Holidays 2017". Mystery of Iran. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
Bibliography
Axworthy, Michael (2008). A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09876-7.
Foltz, Richard (2016). Iran in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-933550-3.
Hamzeh'ee, M. Reza (1990). The Yaresan: a sociological, historical, and religio-historical study of a Kurdish community. Berlin: K. Schwarz. ISBN 3-922968-83-X. OCLC 23438701. Archived from the original on 13 October 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
MacKenzie, David Niel (1998). "Ērān, Ērānڑahr". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 8. Costa Mesa: Mazda. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1.
Moin, Baqer (2000). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-26490-9.
Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G.R.G; Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20095-0.
Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
Schmitt, Rüdiger (1987). "Aryans". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 684–687. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
Shahbazi, Alireza Shapour (2004). "IRAJ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
Tohidi, Nayareh (2009). "Ethnicity and Religious Minority Politics in Iran". In Gheissari, Ali (ed.). Contemporary Iran: Economy, Society, Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537849-8.
External links
The e-office of the Supreme Leader of Iran Archived 6 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
The President of Iran Archived 27 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
Iran.ir Archived 17 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine(in Persian)
.JPG/1280px-Choqa_Zanbil_Darafsh_1_(36).JPG)
.jpg/1280px-Sejjil_missile_launch_-_November_2008_(21).jpg)
.png/1280px-Iranian_Influence_(2).png)
.jpg/1280px-South_Pars_Onshore_Facilities_(8).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Persian_Scholar_pavilion_in_Viena_UN_(Rhazes&Khayyam).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Asghar_Farhadi_in_2018-2_(cropped).jpg)
Wikimedia Atlas of Iran
