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Americanos alemanes

Los estadounidenses de origen alemán ( ‹Ver Tfd› alemán: Deutschamerikaner , pronunciado [ˈdɔʏtʃʔameʁɪˌkaːnɐ] ) son estadounidenses que tienen ascendencia alemana total o parcial.

Según las cifras de la Oficina del Censo de los Estados Unidos de 2022, los estadounidenses de origen alemán representan aproximadamente 41 millones de personas en los EE. UU., lo que representa aproximadamente el 12% de la población. [7] Esto representa una disminución con respecto al censo de 2012 , donde 50,7 millones de estadounidenses se identificaron como alemanes. [8] El censo se lleva a cabo de una manera que permite desglosar este número total en dos categorías. En el censo de 2020, aproximadamente dos tercios de los que se identifican como alemanes también se identificaron como de otra ascendencia, mientras que un tercio se identificó solo como alemán. [9] Los estadounidenses de origen alemán representan aproximadamente un tercio de la población total de personas de ascendencia alemana en el mundo. [10] [11]

Los primeros grupos importantes de inmigrantes alemanes llegaron a las colonias británicas en la década de 1670 y se establecieron principalmente en los estados coloniales de Pensilvania , Nueva York y Virginia .

Posteriormente, entre 1718 y 1750, la Compañía Francesa de Mississippi transportó a miles de alemanes desde Europa a lo que entonces era la costa alemana, el territorio de Orleans, en la actual Luisiana . [12] La inmigración a los EE. UU. aumentó drásticamente durante el siglo XIX.

Existe un cinturón alemán formado por zonas con poblaciones predominantemente germanoamericanas que se extiende a lo largo de Estados Unidos desde el este de Pensilvania, donde se establecieron muchos de los primeros germanoamericanos, hasta la costa de Oregón.

Pensilvania, con 3,5 millones de personas de ascendencia alemana, tiene la mayor población de germano-estadounidenses en los EE. UU. y es el hogar de uno de los asentamientos originales del grupo, la sección Germantown de la actual Filadelfia , fundada en 1683. Germantown es también el lugar de nacimiento del movimiento antiesclavista estadounidense , que surgió allí en 1688.

Germantown también fue la ubicación de la Batalla de Germantown , una batalla de la Guerra de Independencia de los Estados Unidos que se libró entre el Ejército británico , liderado por William Howe , y el Ejército Continental , liderado por George Washington , el 4 de octubre de 1777.

Los estadounidenses de origen alemán se sintieron atraídos por la América británica de la era colonial por su abundancia de tierras y su libertad religiosa, y fueron expulsados ​​de Alemania por la escasez de tierras y la opresión religiosa o política . [13] Muchos llegaron en busca de libertad religiosa o política , otros en busca de oportunidades económicas mayores que las de Europa y otros en busca de la oportunidad de empezar de nuevo en el Nuevo Mundo. Los que llegaron antes de 1850 eran en su mayoría agricultores que buscaban las tierras más productivas, donde sus técnicas de cultivo intensivo darían sus frutos. Después de 1840, muchos llegaron a las ciudades, donde surgieron distritos de habla alemana. [14] [15] [16]

Los estadounidenses de origen alemán establecieron los primeros jardines de infancia en los Estados Unidos, [17] introdujeron la tradición del árbol de Navidad , [18] [19] e introdujeron alimentos populares como los perritos calientes y las hamburguesas en Estados Unidos. [20]

La gran mayoría de las personas con algún ancestro alemán se han americanizado ; menos del cinco por ciento habla alemán. Abundan las sociedades germano-americanas, al igual que las celebraciones que se llevan a cabo en todo el país para celebrar la herencia alemana, de las cuales el desfile germano-estadounidense Steuben en la ciudad de Nueva York es uno de los más conocidos y se lleva a cabo cada tercer sábado de septiembre. Las celebraciones del Oktoberfest y el Día Germano-Americano son festividades populares. Hay importantes eventos anuales en ciudades con herencia alemana, como Chicago, Cincinnati , Milwaukee , Pittsburgh , San Antonio y St. Louis .

Alrededor de 180.000 residentes permanentes de Alemania vivían en Estados Unidos en 2020. [21]

Historia

Los alemanes incluían muchos subgrupos muy distintos con diferentes valores religiosos y culturales. [22] Los luteranos y los católicos generalmente se oponían a los programas moralizadores yanquis como la prohibición de la cerveza, y favorecían familias paternalistas en las que el marido decidía la posición familiar en los asuntos públicos. [23] [24] Generalmente se oponían al sufragio femenino, pero esto se utilizó como argumento a favor del sufragio cuando los estadounidenses de origen alemán se convirtieron en parias durante la Primera Guerra Mundial. [25] Por otro lado, había grupos protestantes que surgieron del pietismo europeo, como los metodistas alemanes y los Hermanos Unidos; se parecían más a los metodistas yanquis en su moralismo. [26]

Era colonial

Los primeros colonos ingleses llegaron a Jamestown, Virginia, en 1607, y fueron acompañados por el primer alemán que se establecería en América del Norte, el médico y botánico Johannes (John) Fleischer (en América del Sur, Ambrosius Ehinger ya había fundado Maracaibo en 1529). Le siguieron en 1608 cinco fabricantes de vidrio y tres carpinteros o constructores de casas. [27] El primer asentamiento alemán permanente en lo que luego sería Estados Unidos fue Germantown, Pensilvania , fundado cerca de Filadelfia el 6 de octubre de 1683. [28]

John Jacob Astor , en una pintura al óleo de Gilbert Stuart , 1794, fue el primero de la dinastía familiar Astor y el primer millonario de los Estados Unidos, haciendo su fortuna en el comercio de pieles y en bienes raíces de la ciudad de Nueva York.

Un gran número de alemanes emigraron entre los años 1680 y 1760, y Pensilvania fue el destino favorito. Emigraron a Estados Unidos por diversas razones. [28] Los factores de expulsión incluyeron el empeoramiento de las oportunidades para la propiedad agrícola en Europa central, la persecución de algunos grupos religiosos y el reclutamiento militar; los factores de atracción fueron las mejores condiciones económicas, especialmente la oportunidad de poseer tierras, y la libertad religiosa. A menudo, los inmigrantes pagaban su pasaje vendiendo su trabajo durante un período de años como sirvientes contratados . [29]

Grandes sectores de Pensilvania, el norte del estado de Nueva York y el valle de Shenandoah en Virginia atrajeron a los alemanes. La mayoría eran luteranos o reformados alemanes ; muchos pertenecían a pequeñas sectas religiosas como los moravos y los menonitas . Los católicos alemanes no llegaron en gran número hasta después de la guerra de 1812. [ 30]

Palatinos

En 1709, los alemanes protestantes de la región del Palatinado o Pfalz de Alemania escaparon de las condiciones de pobreza, viajando primero a Róterdam y luego a Londres. La reina Ana los ayudó a llegar a las colonias americanas. El viaje fue largo y difícil de sobrevivir debido a la mala calidad de los alimentos y el agua a bordo de los barcos y a la enfermedad infecciosa del tifus . Muchos inmigrantes, en particular niños, murieron antes de llegar a América en junio de 1710. [31]

La inmigración palatina de unas 2100 personas que sobrevivieron fue la mayor inmigración a América en el período colonial. La mayoría se establecieron primero a lo largo del río Hudson en campos de trabajo, para pagar su pasaje. En 1711, se habían establecido siete aldeas en Nueva York en la mansión de Robert Livingston . En 1723, los alemanes se convirtieron en los primeros europeos a los que se les permitió comprar tierras en el valle Mohawk al oeste de Little Falls . Se asignaron cien granjas en la patente de Burnetsfield. En 1750, los alemanes ocuparon una franja de unas 12 millas (19 km) de largo a lo largo de ambos lados del río Mohawk . El suelo era excelente; se construyeron unas 500 casas, en su mayoría de piedra, y la región prosperó a pesar de las incursiones indias. Herkimer fue el asentamiento alemán más conocido en una región conocida durante mucho tiempo como las "planicies alemanas". [31]

Se mantuvieron apartados, se casaron con sus propias esposas, hablaban alemán, asistían a iglesias luteranas y conservaron sus propias costumbres y alimentos. Hicieron hincapié en la propiedad de las granjas. Algunos dominaron el inglés para familiarizarse con las oportunidades legales y comerciales locales. Toleraron la esclavitud (aunque pocos eran lo suficientemente ricos como para poseer un esclavo). [32]

El más famoso de los primeros inmigrantes alemanes del Palatinado fue el editor John Peter Zenger , que lideró la lucha en la ciudad colonial de Nueva York por la libertad de prensa en Estados Unidos. Un inmigrante posterior, John Jacob Astor , que vino de Walldorf , Palatinado Electoral , desde 1803 Baden , después de la Guerra de la Independencia, se convirtió en el hombre más rico de Estados Unidos gracias a su imperio de comercio de pieles y sus inversiones inmobiliarias en Nueva York. [33]

Luisiana

John Law organizó la primera colonización de Luisiana con inmigrantes alemanes. De los más de 5.000 alemanes que inicialmente inmigraron principalmente de la región de Alsacia, tan solo 500 constituyeron la primera ola de inmigrantes que abandonaron Francia rumbo a las Américas. Menos de 150 de esos primeros agricultores alemanes contratados llegaron a Luisiana y se establecieron a lo largo de lo que se conocería como la Costa Alemana. Con tenacidad, determinación y el liderazgo de D'arensburg, estos alemanes talaron árboles, limpiaron la tierra y cultivaron el suelo con herramientas manuales simples, ya que no había animales de tiro disponibles. Los colonos alemanes de la costa abastecieron a la floreciente ciudad de Nueva Orleans con maíz, arroz, huevos y carne durante muchos años.

La Compañía de Mississippi instaló a miles de pioneros alemanes en la Luisiana francesa durante 1721. Animó a los alemanes, en particular a los alemanes de la región de Alsacia que habían caído recientemente bajo el dominio francés, y a los suizos a emigrar. Alsacia fue vendida a Francia en el contexto más amplio de la Guerra de los Treinta Años (1618-1648).

El jesuita Charlevoix viajó por Nueva Francia (Canadá y Luisiana) a principios del siglo XVIII. En su carta decía: "Estos 9.000 alemanes, que se habían criado en el Palatinado (la parte francesa de Alsacia), estaban en Arkansas. Los alemanes abandonaron Arkansas en masa. Fueron a Nueva Orleans y exigieron un pasaje a Europa. La Compañía de Mississippi les dio a los alemanes ricas tierras en la margen derecha del río Mississippi, a unas 25 millas (40 km) por encima de Nueva Orleans. La zona ahora se conoce como 'la costa alemana '".

Una próspera población de alemanes vivía río arriba de Nueva Orleans , Luisiana, conocida como la Costa Alemana . Se sintieron atraídos a la zona a través de panfletos como "Luisiana: un hogar para colonos alemanes" de J. Hanno Deiler. [34]

Carl Schurz fue el primer senador estadounidense nacido en Alemania (Misuri, 1868) y más tarde Secretario del Interior de Estados Unidos.

Sudeste

Dos oleadas de colonos alemanes en 1714 y 1717 fundaron una colonia en Virginia llamada Germanna , [35] ubicada cerca de la actual Culpeper, Virginia . El vicegobernador de Virginia, Alexander Spotswood , aprovechándose del sistema de derechos de propiedad , había comprado tierras en la actual Spotsylvania y alentó la inmigración alemana anunciando en Alemania que buscaban mineros para mudarse a Virginia y establecer una industria minera en la colonia. El nombre "Germanna", seleccionado por el gobernador Alexander Spotswood , reflejaba tanto a los inmigrantes alemanes que navegaron a través del Atlántico hacia Virginia como a la reina británica, Ana , que estaba en el poder en el momento del primer asentamiento en Germanna. En 1721, doce familias alemanas partieron de Germanna para fundar Germantown . Fueron rápidamente reemplazadas por 70 nuevos alemanes que llegaron del Palatinado , el comienzo de una tendencia hacia el oeste y el sur de la migración y el asentamiento alemán a través del Piamonte de Virginia y el valle de Shenandoah alrededor de las Montañas Blue Ridge , donde predominaba el alemán palatino . Mientras tanto, en el suroeste de Virginia , el alemán de Virginia adquirió un acento alemán suabo . [36] [37] [38]

En Carolina del Norte , una expedición de moravos alemanes que vivían alrededor de Belén, Pensilvania , y un grupo de Europa liderado por August Gottlieb Spangenberg , se dirigieron por Great Wagon Road y compraron 98,985 acres (400,58 km² ) a Lord Granville (uno de los lores propietarios británicos) en el Piamonte de Carolina del Norte en 1753. El terreno se denominó Wachau-die-Aue , latinizado Wachovia , porque los arroyos y prados recordaban a los colonos moravos al valle de Wachau en Austria . [39] [40] [41] Establecieron asentamientos alemanes en ese terreno, especialmente en el área alrededor de lo que ahora es Winston-Salem . [42] [43] También fundaron el asentamiento transitorio de Bethabara, Carolina del Norte , traducido como Casa de Paso, la primera comunidad morava planificada en Carolina del Norte, en 1759. Poco después, los moravos alemanes fundaron la ciudad de Salem en 1766 (ahora una sección histórica en el centro de Winston-Salem) y Salem College (una de las primeras universidades femeninas) en 1772.

En la colonia de Georgia , los alemanes, principalmente de la región de Suabia , se establecieron en Savannah, St. Simon's Island y Fort Frederica en las décadas de 1730 y 1740. Fueron reclutados activamente por James Oglethorpe y rápidamente se distinguieron por mejorar la agricultura, la construcción avanzada con tabby (cemento) y dirigir servicios religiosos conjuntos luteranos, anglicanos y reformados para los colonos.

Los inmigrantes alemanes también se establecieron en otras áreas del sur de Estados Unidos , incluso alrededor del área de Dutch (Deutsch) Fork de Carolina del Sur , [30] y Texas, especialmente en las áreas de Austin y San Antonio .

Nueva Inglaterra

Entre 1742 y 1753, aproximadamente 1000 alemanes se establecieron en Broad Bay, Massachusetts (hoy Waldoboro, Maine ). Muchos de los colonos huyeron a Boston , Maine, Nueva Escocia y Carolina del Norte después de que sus casas fueran quemadas y sus vecinos asesinados o llevados al cautiverio por los nativos americanos. Los alemanes que se quedaron encontraron difícil sobrevivir con la agricultura y finalmente se volcaron a las industrias naviera y pesquera. [44]

Pensilvania

La marea de inmigración alemana a Pensilvania aumentó entre 1725 y 1775, con inmigrantes que llegaban como redentores o sirvientes contratados. En 1775, los alemanes constituían aproximadamente un tercio de la población del estado. Los agricultores alemanes eran famosos por su cría de animales y prácticas agrícolas altamente productivas. Políticamente, generalmente estuvieron inactivos hasta 1740, cuando se unieron a una coalición liderada por los cuáqueros que tomó el control de la legislatura, que más tarde apoyó la Revolución estadounidense . A pesar de esto, muchos de los colonos alemanes fueron leales durante la Revolución, posiblemente porque temían que un nuevo gobierno republicano les quitara sus concesiones de tierras reales, o por lealtad a una monarquía alemana británica que les había brindado la oportunidad de vivir en una sociedad liberal. [45] Los alemanes, que comprendían a luteranos , reformados , menonitas , amish y otras sectas, desarrollaron una rica vida religiosa con una fuerte cultura musical. Colectivamente, llegaron a ser conocidos como los holandeses de Pensilvania (del alemán ). [46] [47]

Etimológicamente, la palabra holandés se origina de la palabra del alto alemán antiguo "diutisc" (de "diot", "pueblo"), que hace referencia al "idioma del pueblo" germánico en contraposición al latín, el idioma de los eruditos (véase también theodiscus ). Con el tiempo, la palabra pasó a referirse a las personas que hablan una lengua germánica, y solo en los últimos siglos a la gente de los Países Bajos. Otras variantes de la lengua germánica para "deutsch/deitsch/dutch" son: "Duits" y " Diets " en holandés, "daytsh" en yiddish, "tysk" en danés/noruego o " tyska " en sueco . El "ドイツ" japonés (/doitsu/) también deriva de las variantes "holandesas" mencionadas anteriormente.

Los hermanos Studebaker , antepasados ​​de los fabricantes de carros y automóviles, llegaron a Pensilvania en 1736 procedentes de la famosa ciudad de Solingen , donde se fabricaban cuchillas . Con sus habilidades, fabricaron carros que transportaron a los colonos hacia el oeste; sus cañones proporcionaron artillería al Ejército de la Unión durante la Guerra Civil estadounidense , y su empresa de automóviles se convirtió en una de las más grandes de Estados Unidos, aunque nunca eclipsó a las "tres grandes", y fue un factor en el esfuerzo bélico y en las bases industriales del Ejército. [48]

Revolución americana

Gran Bretaña, cuyo rey Jorge III también era elector de Hannover en Alemania, contrató a 18.000 hessianos . Eran soldados mercenarios alquilados por los gobernantes de varios pequeños estados alemanes como Hesse para luchar del lado británico. Muchos fueron capturados; permanecieron como prisioneros durante la guerra, pero algunos se quedaron y se convirtieron en ciudadanos estadounidenses. [49] En la Revolución estadounidense, los menonitas y otras pequeñas sectas religiosas eran pacifistas neutrales. Los luteranos de Pensilvania estaban del lado patriota . [50] La familia Muhlenberg, liderada por el reverendo Henry Muhlenberg, fue especialmente influyente en el lado patriota. [51] Su hijo Peter Muhlenberg , un clérigo luterano en Virginia, se convirtió en general mayor y más tarde en congresista. [52] [53] Sin embargo, en el norte del estado de Nueva York, muchos alemanes eran neutrales o apoyaban la causa leal .

A partir de los nombres del censo estadounidense de 1790, los historiadores estiman que los alemanes constituían casi el 9% de la población blanca de Estados Unidos. [54]

Población germano-estadounidense colonial por estado

La breve Rebelión de Fries fue un movimiento antiimpuestos entre los alemanes en Pensilvania entre 1799 y 1800. [56]

Siglo XIX

Densidad de población alemana en Estados Unidos, 1872

El mayor flujo de inmigración alemana a Estados Unidos se produjo entre 1820 y la Primera Guerra Mundial  , durante la cual casi seis millones de alemanes emigraron a los Estados Unidos. De 1840 a 1880, fueron el grupo más grande de inmigrantes. Después de las revoluciones de 1848 en los estados alemanes , una ola de refugiados políticos huyó a Estados Unidos, que se hicieron conocidos como los Forty-Eighters . Incluían profesionales, periodistas y políticos. Entre los Forty-Eighters destacados se encontraban Carl Schurz y Henry Villard . [58]

"Del Viejo al Nuevo Mundo" muestra a emigrantes alemanes subiendo a un barco de vapor en Hamburgo rumbo a Nueva York. Harper's Weekly, (Nueva York), 7 de noviembre de 1874

"Granjero latino" o "Asentamiento latino " es la denominación de varios asentamientos fundados por algunos de los Dreissiger y otros refugiados de Europa después de rebeliones como la Frankfurter Wachensturm que comenzó en la década de 1830, predominantemente en Texas y Missouri, pero también en otros estados de EE. UU., en los que los intelectuales alemanes ( librepensadores , ‹Ver Tfd› alemán: Freidenker y latinistas ) se reunían para dedicarse a la literatura alemana , la filosofía , la ciencia, la música clásica y la lengua latina . Un representante destacado de esta generación de inmigrantes fue Gustav Koerner , que vivió la mayor parte del tiempo en Belleville, Illinois, hasta su muerte.

Judíos alemanes

Algunos judíos alemanes llegaron en la era colonial . La mayor cantidad llegó después de 1820, especialmente a mediados del siglo XIX. [59] Se extendieron por el norte y el sur (y California, donde Levi Strauss llegó en 1853). Formaron pequeñas comunidades judías alemanas en ciudades y pueblos. Por lo general, eran comerciantes locales y regionales que vendían ropa; otros eran comerciantes de ganado, comerciantes de productos agrícolas, banqueros y operadores de negocios locales. Henry Lehman , quien fundó Lehman Brothers en Alabama, fue un ejemplo particularmente destacado de un inmigrante judío alemán de este tipo. Formaron sinagogas reformistas [60] y patrocinaron numerosas organizaciones filantrópicas locales y nacionales, como B'nai B'rith . [61] Este grupo de habla alemana es bastante distinto de los judíos de Europa del Este de habla yiddish que llegaron en cantidades mucho mayores a partir de fines del siglo XIX y se concentraron en Nueva York.

Ciudades del noreste

Las ciudades portuarias de Nueva York y Baltimore tenían grandes poblaciones, al igual que Hoboken, Nueva Jersey .

Ciudades del medio oeste

En el siglo XIX, los inmigrantes alemanes se establecieron en el Medio Oeste, donde había tierra disponible. Las ciudades a lo largo de los Grandes Lagos, el río Ohio y los ríos Misisipi y Misuri atrajeron un gran elemento alemán. Las ciudades del Medio Oeste de Milwaukee , Cincinnati , St. Louis y Chicago fueron destinos favoritos de los inmigrantes alemanes. El área del norte de Kentucky y Louisville a lo largo del río Ohio también fue un destino favorito. Para 1900, las poblaciones de las ciudades de Cleveland , Milwaukee y Cincinnati eran más del 40% germano-estadounidenses. Dubuque y Davenport, Iowa tenían proporciones aún mayores, al igual que Omaha , Nebraska, donde la proporción de germano-estadounidenses era del 57% en 1910. En muchas otras ciudades del Medio Oeste , como Fort Wayne, Indiana , los germano-estadounidenses eran al menos el 30% de la población. [44] [62] Para 1850 había 5.000 alemanes, en su mayoría subacianos viviendo en Ann Arbor, Michigan y sus alrededores . [63]

Muchas concentraciones adquirieron nombres distintivos que sugerían su herencia, como el distrito " Over-the-Rhine " en Cincinnati, " Dutchtown " en South St Louis y " German Village " en Columbus, Ohio. [64]

Un destino particularmente atractivo era Milwaukee , que llegó a ser conocida como "la Atenas alemana ". Los alemanes radicales formados en política en el viejo país dominaban a los socialistas de la ciudad . Los trabajadores cualificados dominaban muchas artesanías, mientras que los empresarios creaban la industria cervecera; las marcas más famosas incluían Pabst , Schlitz , Miller y Blatz . [65]

Mientras que la mitad de los inmigrantes alemanes se establecieron en ciudades, la otra mitad estableció granjas en el Medio Oeste . Desde Ohio hasta los estados de las llanuras, una fuerte presencia persiste en las zonas rurales hasta el siglo XXI. [30] [66]

Sur profundo

Pocos inmigrantes alemanes se establecieron en el sur profundo , aparte de Nueva Orleans , la costa alemana y Texas. [67]

Texas

La Casa Wahrenberger en Austin sirvió como escuela germano-estadounidense. [68]

Texas atrajo a muchos alemanes que llegaron a través de Galveston e Indianola , tanto los que vinieron a trabajar en la agricultura como los inmigrantes posteriores que rápidamente aceptaron trabajos industriales en ciudades como Houston. Al igual que en Milwaukee , los alemanes de Houston construyeron la industria cervecera. En la década de 1920, la primera generación de estadounidenses de origen alemán con educación universitaria se estaba trasladando a las industrias química y petrolera. [30]

En la década de 1850, Texas contaba con unos 20.000 germano-estadounidenses. No formaban un bloque uniforme, sino que eran muy diversos y provenían de zonas geográficas y de todos los sectores de la sociedad europea, con la excepción de unos pocos aristócratas o empresarios de clase media alta. En este sentido, la germania de Texas era un microcosmos de la germania nacional.

Los alemanes que se asentaron en Texas eran diversos en muchos aspectos. Entre ellos había campesinos e intelectuales, protestantes, católicos, judíos y ateos, prusianos, sajones y hessianos, abolicionistas y propietarios de esclavos, granjeros y habitantes de las ciudades, gente frugal y honesta y asesinos a hacha. Se diferenciaban en dialecto, costumbres y rasgos físicos. La mayoría habían sido agricultores en Alemania y la mayoría llegó en busca de oportunidades económicas. Unos pocos intelectuales disidentes que huyeron de las revoluciones de 1848 buscaron la libertad política, pero pocos, salvo quizás los wendos, optaron por la libertad religiosa. Los asentamientos alemanes en Texas reflejaban su diversidad. Incluso en la limitada zona de Hill Country, cada valle ofrecía un tipo diferente de alemán. El valle de Llano tenía metodistas alemanes severos y abstemios que renunciaban al baile y a las organizaciones fraternales; el valle de Pedernales tenía luteranos y católicos amantes de la diversión y trabajadores que disfrutaban de beber y bailar; y el valle de Guadalupe tenía alemanes librepensadores descendientes de refugiados políticos intelectuales. Las islas étnicas alemanas dispersas también eran diversas. Estos pequeños enclaves incluían a Lindsay en el condado de Cooke, mayoritariamente católica de Westfalia; Waka en el condado de Ochiltree, menonita del Medio Oeste; Hurnville en el condado de Clay, bautista ruso-alemana; y Lockett en el condado de Wilbarger, luterana wendish. [69]

Alemanes de Rusia

Alojamiento temporal para alemanes del Volga en el centro de Kansas, 1875

Los alemanes de Rusia fueron los que llegaron de habla alemana más tradicionales. Eran alemanes que habían vivido durante generaciones en todo el Imperio ruso , pero especialmente a lo largo del río Volga y el mar Negro . Sus antepasados ​​habían llegado de todo el mundo de habla alemana, invitados por Catalina la Grande en 1762 y 1763 para establecerse e introducir métodos agrícolas alemanes más avanzados en la Rusia rural. Se les había prometido en el manifiesto de su asentamiento la capacidad de practicar sus respectivas denominaciones cristianas, conservar su cultura y su idioma y conservar la inmunidad del reclutamiento para ellos y sus descendientes. Con el paso del tiempo, la monarquía rusa erosionó gradualmente la autonomía relativa de la población étnica alemana. El reclutamiento finalmente se restableció; esto fue especialmente perjudicial para los menonitas, que practican el pacifismo. A lo largo del siglo XIX, aumentó la presión del gobierno ruso para asimilarse culturalmente. Muchos alemanes de Rusia consideraron necesario emigrar para evitar el reclutamiento y preservar su cultura. En 1900, unas 100.000 personas inmigraron y se establecieron principalmente en las Grandes Llanuras .

Influenciados negativamente por la violación de sus derechos y la persecución cultural por parte del zar , los alemanes de Rusia que se establecieron en el norte del Medio Oeste se vieron a sí mismos como un grupo étnico oprimido separado de los estadounidenses de origen ruso y que tenían una experiencia completamente diferente de la de los estadounidenses de origen alemán que habían emigrado de tierras alemanas. Se establecieron en comunidades muy unidas que conservaron su lengua y cultura alemanas. Criaron familias numerosas, construyeron iglesias de estilo alemán, enterraron a sus muertos en cementerios distintivos utilizando lápidas de hierro fundido y cantaron himnos alemanes. Muchos agricultores se especializaron en la producción de remolacha azucarera y trigo, que siguen siendo cultivos importantes en las Grandes Llanuras superiores. Durante la  Primera Guerra Mundial, su identidad fue cuestionada por el sentimiento antialemán . Al final de la  Segunda Guerra Mundial, el idioma alemán, que siempre se había utilizado junto con el inglés para asuntos públicos y oficiales, estaba en grave declive. Hoy en día, el alemán se conserva principalmente a través de grupos de canto, recetas y entornos educativos. Si bien la mayoría de los descendientes de alemanes de Rusia hablan principalmente inglés, muchos eligen aprender alemán en un intento de reconectarse con su herencia. Los alemanes de Rusia suelen utilizar préstamos lingüísticos , como "kuchen" (pastel). A pesar de la pérdida de su lengua, el grupo étnico sigue siendo distinto y ha dejado una huella duradera en el Oeste americano. [70]

El músico Lawrence Welk (1903-1992) se convirtió en una figura icónica en la comunidad germano-rusa de las Grandes Llanuras del norte: su historia de éxito personificó el sueño americano. [71]

Guerra civil

El sentimiento entre los germano-estadounidenses era en gran medida antiesclavista, especialmente entre los Forty-Eighters. [72] El notable Forty-Eighter Hermann Raster escribió apasionadamente contra la esclavitud y fue muy pro-Lincoln. Raster publicó panfletos antiesclavistas y fue el editor del periódico en idioma alemán más influyente en Estados Unidos en ese momento. [73] Ayudó a asegurar los votos de los germano-estadounidenses en todo Estados Unidos para Abraham Lincoln. Cuando Raster murió, el Chicago Tribune publicó un artículo sobre su servicio como corresponsal de Estados Unidos en los estados alemanes diciendo: "Sus escritos durante y después de la Guerra Civil hicieron más para crear comprensión y apreciación de la situación estadounidense en Alemania y para hacer flotar bonos estadounidenses en Europa que los esfuerzos combinados de todos los ministros y cónsules estadounidenses". [74] Cientos de miles de germano-estadounidenses se ofrecieron como voluntarios para luchar por la Unión en la Guerra Civil estadounidense (1861-1865). [75] Los alemanes fueron el grupo de inmigrantes más grande que participó en la Guerra Civil; Más de 176.000 soldados estadounidenses nacieron en Alemania. [76] Un comandante de la Unión popular entre los alemanes, el mayor general Franz Sigel fue el oficial alemán de mayor rango en el Ejército de la Unión , y muchos inmigrantes alemanes afirmaron alistarse para "luchar con Sigel". [77]

El voto alemán en 1900 estaba en duda; se oponían a la política de "repudio" de Bryan (cartel de la derecha), pero también les disgustaba la expansión en el extranjero que había llevado a cabo McKinley (cartel de la izquierda).

Aunque sólo uno de cada cuatro alemanes luchó en regimientos exclusivamente alemanes, crearon la imagen pública del soldado alemán. Pensilvania contaba con cinco regimientos alemanes, Nueva York con once y Ohio con seis. [75]

Agricultores

Los ferrocarriles occidentales, que contaban con grandes concesiones de tierras para atraer a los agricultores, establecieron agencias en Hamburgo y otras ciudades alemanas, prometiendo transporte barato y ventas de tierras agrícolas en condiciones favorables. Por ejemplo, el ferrocarril de Santa Fe contrató a su propio comisionado para la inmigración y vendió más de 300.000 acres (1.200 km2 ) a agricultores de habla alemana. [78]

A lo largo de los siglos XIX y XX, los germano-estadounidenses mostraron un gran interés en convertirse en agricultores y en mantener a sus hijos y nietos en la tierra. Si bien necesitaban ganancias para seguir operando, las utilizaban como una herramienta "para mantener la continuidad de la familia". [79] Utilizaban estrategias de aversión al riesgo y planificaban cuidadosamente sus herencias para mantener la tierra en la familia. Sus comunidades mostraban un tamaño medio de explotación agrícola menor, una mayor igualdad, menos propiedad ausente y una mayor persistencia geográfica. Como explicó un agricultor, "proteger a tu familia ha resultado ser lo mismo que proteger tu tierra". [80]

Alemania era un país grande con muchas subregiones diversas que aportaban inmigrantes. Dubuque fue la base de Ostfriesische Nachrichten ("Noticias de Frisia Oriental") desde 1881 hasta 1971. Conectó a los 20.000 inmigrantes de Frisia Oriental (Ostfriesland), Alemania, entre sí a través del Medio Oeste y con su antigua patria. En Alemania, Frisia Oriental era a menudo un tema de burla en relación con los rústicos atrasados, pero el editor Leupke Hündling combinó astutamente historias de recuerdos orgullosos de Ostfriesland. El editor reclutó una red de corresponsales locales. Al mezclar noticias locales estadounidenses y alemanas, cartas, poesía, ficción y diálogos, el periódico en idioma alemán permitió a los inmigrantes honrar sus orígenes y celebrar su nueva vida como agricultores altamente prósperos con granjas mucho más grandes de lo que era posible en la empobrecida Ostfriesland. Durante las guerras mundiales, cuando Germania sufrió duros ataques, el periódico destacó su papel humanitario, movilizando a los lectores para ayudar a la gente de Frisia Oriental con fondos de socorro. Las generaciones más jóvenes normalmente podían hablar alemán, pero no leerlo, por lo que la base de suscriptores disminuyó a medida que el público objetivo se americanizaba. [81]

Política

Relativamente pocos estadounidenses de origen alemán ocuparon cargos públicos, pero los hombres votaban una vez que se convertían en ciudadanos. En general, durante el sistema del tercer partido (década de 1850-1890), los protestantes y los judíos se inclinaban hacia el partido republicano y los católicos eran fuertemente demócratas . Cuando la prohibición estaba en la boleta, los alemanes votaron firmemente en contra. Desconfiaban fuertemente de los cruzados moralistas, a quienes llamaban "puritanos", incluidos los reformadores de la templanza y muchos populistas . La comunidad alemana se opuso firmemente a Free Silver y votó en gran medida contra el cruzado William Jennings Bryan en 1896. En 1900, muchos demócratas alemanes regresaron a su partido y votaron por Bryan, tal vez debido a la política exterior del presidente William McKinley . [82]

A nivel local, los historiadores han explorado el cambio en el comportamiento electoral de la comunidad germano-estadounidense y uno de sus principales bastiones, St. Louis, Missouri. Los germano-estadounidenses habían votado en un 80 por ciento por Lincoln en 1860 y apoyaban firmemente el esfuerzo bélico. Eran un bastión del Partido Republicano en St. Louis y en los bastiones inmigrantes cercanos en Missouri y el sur de Illinois. Los germano-estadounidenses estaban enojados por una constitución propuesta para el estado de Missouri que discriminaba a los católicos y los librepensadores. El requisito de un juramento de lealtad especial para sacerdotes y ministros era problemático. A pesar de su fuerte oposición, la constitución fue ratificada en 1865. Empezaron a surgir tensiones raciales con los negros, especialmente en términos de competencia por puestos de trabajo no cualificados. Germania estaba nerviosa por el sufragio negro en 1868, temiendo que los negros apoyaran leyes puritanas, especialmente en lo que respecta a la prohibición de los jardines de cerveza los domingos. Las tensiones dividieron a un gran elemento alemán en 1872, liderado por Carl Schurz. Apoyaron al Partido Republicano Liberal liderado por Benjamin Gratz Brown para gobernador en 1870 y por Horace Greeley para presidente en 1872. [83]

Muchos alemanes en las ciudades de finales del siglo XIX eran comunistas; los alemanes desempeñaron un papel importante en el movimiento sindical. [84] [85] Unos pocos eran anarquistas. [86] Ocho de los cuarenta y dos acusados ​​anarquistas en el caso Haymarket de 1886 en Chicago eran alemanes.

Guerras mundiales

Intelectuales

Hugo Münsterberg, profesor de psicología de Harvard

Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916), psicólogo alemán, se trasladó a Harvard en la década de 1890 y se convirtió en un líder de la nueva profesión. Fue presidente de la Asociación Estadounidense de Psicología en 1898 y de la Asociación Estadounidense de Filosofía en 1908, y desempeñó un papel importante en muchas otras organizaciones estadounidenses e internacionales. [87]

Arthur Preuss (1871-1934) fue un destacado periodista y teólogo, laico en St. Louis. Su Fortnightly Review (en inglés) fue una importante voz conservadora leída con atención por los líderes de la iglesia y los intelectuales desde 1894 hasta 1934. Fue intensamente leal al Vaticano. Preuss defendió a la comunidad católica alemana, denunció la herejía del "americanismo", promovió la Universidad Católica de América y se angustió por la histeria anti-alemana en Estados Unidos durante la  Primera Guerra Mundial. Proporcionó extensos comentarios sobre la Conferencia Nacional Católica de Bienestar, el factor anticatólico en la campaña presidencial de 1928, las dificultades de la Gran Depresión y el liberalismo del New Deal. [88] [89]

Sentimiento antialemán durante la Primera Guerra Mundial

Mapa de los lugares de internamiento de los estadounidenses de origen alemán durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, los estadounidenses de origen alemán fueron acusados ​​a menudo de ser demasiado comprensivos con la Alemania imperial. El expresidente Theodore Roosevelt denunció el " americanismo con guion ", insistiendo en que las lealtades duales eran imposibles en tiempos de guerra. Una pequeña minoría se manifestó a favor de Alemania, como HL Mencken . De manera similar, el profesor de psicología de Harvard Hugo Münsterberg abandonó sus esfuerzos por mediar entre Estados Unidos y Alemania y volcó sus esfuerzos en la causa alemana. [90] [91] También hubo cierta histeria antialemana como el asesinato del pastor Edmund Kayser .

El Departamento de Justicia preparó una lista de todos los extranjeros alemanes, contando aproximadamente 480.000 de ellos, más de 4.000 de los cuales fueron encarcelados entre 1917 y 1918. Las acusaciones incluían espiar para Alemania o respaldar el esfuerzo bélico alemán. [92] Miles fueron obligados a comprar bonos de guerra para mostrar su lealtad. [93] La Cruz Roja prohibió a las personas con apellidos alemanes unirse por miedo al sabotaje. Una persona fue asesinada por una turba; en Collinsville, Illinois , Robert Prager, nacido en Alemania, fue sacado de la cárcel como sospechoso de espionaje y linchado. [94] Un ministro de Minnesota fue alquitranado y emplumado cuando se le escuchó rezar en alemán con una mujer moribunda. [95] Las cuestiones sobre la lealtad germano-estadounidense aumentaron debido a eventos como el bombardeo alemán de la isla Black Tom [96] y la entrada de los EE. UU. en la Primera Guerra Mundial; muchos germano-estadounidenses fueron arrestados por negarse a ser leales a los EE. UU. [97] La ​​histeria de guerra llevó a la eliminación de nombres alemanes en público, nombres de cosas como calles [98] y negocios. [99] Las escuelas también comenzaron a eliminar o desalentar la enseñanza del idioma alemán. [100]

En Chicago, Frederick Stock renunció temporalmente como director de la Orquesta Sinfónica de Chicago hasta que finalizara sus documentos de naturalización. Las orquestas reemplazaron la música del compositor alemán Wagner por la del compositor francés Berlioz . En Cincinnati , se le pidió a la biblioteca pública que retirara todos los libros alemanes de sus estantes. [101] Las calles con nombres alemanes fueron renombradas. La ciudad, Berlín, Michigan, fue cambiada a Marne, Michigan (en honor a aquellos que lucharon en la Batalla de Marne). En Iowa, en la Proclamación de Babel de 1918 , el gobernador prohibió todos los idiomas extranjeros en las escuelas y lugares públicos. Nebraska prohibió la instrucción en cualquier idioma excepto inglés, pero la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos dictaminó que la prohibición era ilegal en 1923 ( Meyer v. Nebraska ). [102] La respuesta de los estadounidenses de origen alemán a estas tácticas fue a menudo " americanizar " los nombres (por ejemplo, Schmidt a Smith, Müller a Miller) y limitar el uso del idioma alemán en lugares públicos, especialmente iglesias. [103]

Segunda Guerra Mundial

Marlene Dietrich firmando el yeso de un soldado (Bélgica, 1944)

Entre 1931 y 1940, 114.000 alemanes se mudaron a los Estados Unidos, muchos de los cuales, incluido el ganador del premio Nobel Albert Einstein y el autor Erich Maria Remarque , eran alemanes judíos o antinazis que huían de la opresión del gobierno. [104] Alrededor de 25.000 personas se convirtieron en miembros pagantes del Bund Alemán Americano pronazi durante los años anteriores a la guerra. [105] Los extranjeros alemanes fueron objeto de sospechas y discriminación durante la guerra, aunque los prejuicios y la gran cantidad significaron que sufrieron como grupo generalmente menos que los estadounidenses de origen japonés . La Ley de Registro de Extranjeros de 1940 requirió que 300.000 extranjeros residentes nacidos en Alemania que tenían ciudadanía alemana se registraran en el gobierno federal y restringió sus derechos de viaje y propiedad. [106] [107] Bajo la todavía activa Ley de Enemigos Extranjeros de 1798 , el gobierno de los Estados Unidos internó a casi 11.000 ciudadanos alemanes entre 1940 y 1948. Ocurrieron violaciones de los derechos civiles. [108] Un número desconocido de "internados voluntarios" se unieron a sus cónyuges y padres en los campos y no se les permitió salir. [109] [110] [111] Muchos estadounidenses de ascendencia alemana tuvieron altos cargos en la guerra, incluidos el general Dwight D. Eisenhower , el almirante Chester W. Nimitz y el general de la USAAF Carl Andrew Spaatz . Roosevelt nombró al republicano Wendell Willkie (quien irónicamente se postuló contra Roosevelt en las elecciones presidenciales de 1940 ) como representante personal. Los estadounidenses de origen alemán que tenían habilidades fluidas en el idioma alemán fueron un activo importante para la inteligencia en tiempos de guerra, y sirvieron como traductores y espías para los Estados Unidos. [112] La guerra evocó fuertes sentimientos patrióticos pro-estadounidenses entre los estadounidenses de origen alemán, pocos de los cuales en ese entonces tenían contactos con parientes lejanos en el viejo país. [30] [113]

Periodo contemporáneo

Un inspector de parquímetros se encuentra junto a su vehículo policial, que lleva impresa la palabra alemana para policía (Polizei). Es una forma de destacar el origen étnico alemán de la ciudad. New Ulm, Minnesota , julio de 1974.
Edificio de jardín de infantes germano-estadounidense en Galveston, Texas

Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, millones de alemanes étnicos fueron expulsados ​​por la fuerza de sus hogares dentro de las fronteras redefinidas de Europa central y oriental, incluida la Unión Soviética, Polonia, Checoslovaquia, Rumania, Hungría y Yugoslavia. La mayoría se reasentó en Alemania, pero otros llegaron como refugiados a los Estados Unidos a fines de la década de 1940 y establecieron centros culturales en sus nuevos hogares. Algunos suabos del Danubio , por ejemplo, alemanes étnicos que habían conservado el idioma y las costumbres después de establecerse en Hungría y los Balcanes, emigraron a los Estados Unidos después de la guerra.

Después de 1970, el sentimiento antialemán despertado por la Segunda Guerra Mundial se desvaneció. [119] Hoy, los estadounidenses de origen alemán que inmigraron después de la  Segunda Guerra Mundial comparten las mismas características que cualquier otro grupo de inmigrantes de Europa occidental en los EE. UU. [120]

Ascendencia estadounidense por condado, Alemania en azul claro, según el censo de 2000

La comunidad germano-estadounidense apoyó la reunificación en 1990. [121]

En el censo de Estados Unidos de 1990 , 58 millones de estadounidenses afirmaron ser total o parcialmente de ascendencia alemana. [122] Según la Encuesta sobre la Comunidad Estadounidense de 2005, 50 millones de estadounidenses tienen ascendencia alemana. Los estadounidenses de origen alemán representan el 17% de la población total de Estados Unidos y el 26% de la población blanca no hispana. [123]

En 2015, la revista The Economist entrevistó a Petra Schürmann, directora del Museo del Patrimonio Alemán-Americano de Washington DC, para un importante artículo sobre los germano-americanos. Schürmann señala que en todo Estados Unidos han surgido celebraciones como los festivales alemanes y los Oktoberfests.

Demografía

Distribución de los estadounidenses que afirman tener ascendencia alemana por condado en 2018

Los estados con las mayores proporciones de estadounidenses de origen alemán tienden a ser los del Medio Oeste superior, incluidos Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Wisconsin y las Dakotas ; todos con más del 30%. [124]

De las cuatro principales regiones de Estados Unidos, la ascendencia alemana fue la más reportada en el Medio Oeste , la segunda en el Oeste y la tercera tanto en el Noreste como en el Sur . La ascendencia alemana fue la más reportada en 23 estados, y fue una de las cinco más reportadas en todos los estados, excepto Maine y Rhode Island. [124]

Hablantes de alemán y estadounidenses de color de origen alemán

Durante el siglo XIX, había una gran cantidad de afroamericanos de habla alemana, incluidos los holandeses de Pensilvania negros . Algunos afroamericanos de habla alemana eran judíos . Algunos afroamericanos de habla alemana fueron adoptados por familias germanoamericanas blancas. Otros germanoamericanos negros eran inmigrantes de Alemania . En el censo de 1870 , se registró a 15 inmigrantes negros de Alemania que vivían en Nueva Orleans. También se registró a inmigrantes afroalemanes que vivían en Memphis, la ciudad de Nueva York, Charleston y Cleveland. [125]

En Texas, muchos tejanos tienen ascendencia alemana. [126] La cultura tejana, en particular la música tejana, ha sido profundamente influenciada por los inmigrantes alemanes en Texas y México. [127] En las partes de habla alemana de Texas durante los siglos XIX y XX, muchos afroamericanos hablaban alemán. Muchas personas negras que fueron esclavizadas por los germanoamericanos blancos, así como sus descendientes, aprendieron a hablar alemán. [128]

Población germano-estadounidense por estado

Estadounidenses con ascendencia alemana por estado según la Encuesta sobre la comunidad estadounidense de la Oficina del Censo de EE. UU. en 2020

A partir de 2020, la distribución de los estadounidenses de origen alemán en los 50 estados y el Distrito de Columbia se presenta en la siguiente tabla:

Comunidades germano-americanas

En la actualidad, la mayoría de los estadounidenses de origen alemán se han asimilado hasta el punto de que ya no tienen comunidades étnicas fácilmente identificables, aunque todavía hay muchas áreas metropolitanas donde el alemán es la etnia más reportada, como Cincinnati , el norte de Kentucky , Cleveland , Columbus , Indianápolis , Milwaukee , Minneapolis – Saint Paul , Pittsburgh y St. Louis . [130] [131]

Comunidades con mayores porcentajes de personas de ascendencia alemana

Las 25 comunidades estadounidenses con el mayor porcentaje de residentes que afirman tener ascendencia alemana son: [132]

  1. Monterey, Ohio 83,6%
  2. Municipio de Granville, Ohio 79,6 %
  3. San Henry, Ohio 78,5 %
  4. Municipio de Germantown, Illinois 77,6 %
  5. Jackson, Indiana 77,3%
  6. Municipio de Washington, Ohio 77,2 %
  7. Santa Rosa, Illinois 77,1%
  8. Mayordomo, Ohio 76,4%
  9. Municipio de Marion, Ohio 76,3 %
  10. Jennings, Ohio y Germantown, Illinois (pueblo) 75,6 %
  11. Agua fría, Ohio 74,9%
  12. Jackson, Ohio 74,6%
  13. Unión, Ohio 74,1%
  14. Minster, Ohio y Kalida, Ohio 73,5%
  15. Greensburg, Ohio 73,4%
  16. Aviston, Illinois 72,5%
  17. Teutopolis, Illinois (pueblo) 72,4%
  18. Teutopolis, Illinois (municipio) y Cottonwood, Minnesota 72,3 %
  19. Dallas, Michigan 71,7%
  20. Municipio de Gibson, Ohio 71,6 %
  21. Ciudad de Marshfield, condado de Fond du Lac, Wisconsin 71,5 %
  22. Santa Fe, Illinois 70,8%
  23. Municipio de recuperación, Ohio 70,4 %
  24. Ciudad de Brothertown, Wisconsin 69,9%
  25. Ciudad de Herman, condado de Dodge, Wisconsin 69,8 %

Grandes comunidades con altos porcentajes de personas de ascendencia alemana

Las grandes comunidades estadounidenses [ definición necesaria ] con un alto porcentaje de residentes que afirman tener ascendencia alemana son: [133]

  1. Bismarck, Dakota del Norte 56,1%
  2. Dubuque, Iowa 43%
  3. St. Cloud, Minnesota 38,8 %
  4. Fargo, Dakota del Norte 31%
  5. Madison, Wisconsin 29%
  6. Green Bay, Wisconsin 29%
  7. Levittown, Pensilvania 22%
  8. Erie, Pensilvania 22%
  9. Cincinnati , Ohio 19,8%
  10. Pittsburgh , Pensilvania 19,7%
  11. Colón, Ohio 19,4%
  12. Beaverton, Oregón 17%

Comunidades con más residentes nacidos en Alemania

Las 25 comunidades estadounidenses con más residentes nacidos en Alemania son:

  1. Lely Resort, Florida 6,8%
  2. Pemberton Heights, Nueva Jersey 5,0 %
  3. Kempner, Texas 4,8%
  4. Cedar Glen Lakes, Nueva Jersey 4,5 %
  5. Alamogordo, Nuevo México 4.3%
  6. Sunshine Acres, Florida y Leisureville, Florida 4,2%
  7. Wakefield, Kansas 4,1%
  8. Quantico, Virginia 4,0%
  9. Crestwood Village, Nueva Jersey 3,8 %
  10. Shandaken, Nueva York 3,5%
  11. Vine Grove, Kentucky 3,4%
  12. Burnt Store Marina, Florida y Boles Acres, Nuevo México 3,2 %
  13. Allenhurst, Georgia , Security-Widefield, Colorado , Grandview Plaza, Kansas y Fairbanks Ranch, California 3,0 %
  14. Pino en pie, Mississippi 2,9%
  15. Millers Falls, Massachusetts , Marco Island, Florida , Daytona Beach Shores, Florida , Radcliff, Kentucky , Beverly Hills, Florida , Davilla, Texas , Annandale, Nueva Jersey y Holiday Heights, Nueva Jersey 2,8 %
  16. Fort Riley North, Kansas , Copperas Cove, Texas y Cedar Glen West, Nueva Jersey 2,7 ​​%
  17. Pelican Bay, Florida , Masaryktown, Florida , Highland Beach, Florida , Milford, Kansas y Langdon, New Hampshire 2,6 %
  18. Forest Home, Nueva York , Southwest Bell, Texas, Vineyards, Florida , South Palm Beach, Florida y Basye-Bryce Mountain, Virginia 2,5 %
  19. Sausalito, California , Bovina, Nueva York , Fanwood, Nueva Jersey , Fountain, Colorado , Rye Brook, Nueva York y Desoto Lakes, Florida 2,4 %
  20. Ogden, Kansas , Blue Berry Hill, Texas , Lauderdale-by-the-Sea, Florida , Sherman, Connecticut , Leisuretowne, Nueva Jersey , Killeen, Texas , White House Station, Nueva Jersey , Junction City, Kansas , Ocean Ridge, Florida , Viola, Nueva York , Waynesville, Misuri y Mill Neck, Nueva York 2,3 %
  21. Level Plains, Alabama , Kingsbury, Nevada , Tega Cay, Carolina del Sur , Margaretville, Nueva York , White Sands, Nuevo México , Stamford, Nueva York , Point Lookout, Nueva York y Terra Mar, Florida 2,2 %
  22. Rifton, Nueva York , Manasota Key, Florida , Del Mar, California , Yuba Foothills, California, Daleville, Alabama , Tesuque, Nuevo México , Plainsboro Center, Nueva Jersey , Silver Ridge, Nueva Jersey y Palm Beach, Florida 2,1 %
  23. Oriental, Carolina del Norte , Holiday City-Berkeley, Nueva Jersey , Mar del Norte, Nueva York , Ponce Inlet, Florida , Woodlawn-Dotsonville, Tennessee , West Hurley, Nueva York , Littlerock, California , Felton, California , Laguna Woods, California , Leisure Village, Nueva Jersey , Readsboro, Vermont , Nolanville, Texas y Groveland-Big Oak Flat, California 2,0 %
  24. Rotonda, Florida , Grayson, California , Shokan, Nueva York , The Meadows, Florida , Southeast Comanche, Oklahoma, Lincolndale, Nueva York , Fort Johnson South, Luisiana y Townsend, Massachusetts 1,9 %
  25. Pine Ridge, Florida , Boca Pointe, Florida , Rodney Village, Delaware , Palenville, Nueva York y Topsfield, Massachusetts 1,8 %

Cultura

El monumento de Hermann Heights en New Ulm, Minnesota . Erigido por los Hijos de Hermann , es la tercera estatua de cobre más grande de los Estados Unidos después de la Estatua de la Libertad y Portlandia . Los historiadores han considerado la victoria de Hermann  sobre las tropas romanas en el año 9 d. C. como la mayor derrota de Roma, [134] y en el siglo XIX se convirtió en un símbolo de unidad para los inmigrantes alemanes que se enfrentaban al sentimiento antialemán en los Estados Unidos. [135]

The Germans worked hard to maintain and cultivate their language, especially through newspapers and classes in elementary and high schools. German Americans in many cities, such as Milwaukee, brought their strong support of education, establishing German-language schools and teacher training seminaries (Töchter-Institut) to prepare students and teachers in German language training. By the late 19th century, the Germania Publishing Company was established in Milwaukee, a publisher of books, magazines, and newspapers in German.[136]

"Germania" was the common term for German American neighborhoods and their organizations.[137] Deutschtum was the term for transplanted German nationalism, both culturally and politically. Between 1875 and 1915, the German American population in the United States doubled, and many of its members insisted on maintaining their culture. German was used in local schools and churches, while numerous Vereine, associations dedicated to literature, humor, gymnastics, and singing, sprang up in German American communities. German Americans tended to support the German government's actions, and, even after the United States entered World War I, they often voted for antidraft and antiwar candidates. 'Deutschtum' in the United States disintegrated after 1918.[138]

Music

Beginning in 1741, the German-speaking Moravian Church Settlements of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Lititz, Pennsylvania, and Wachovia in North Carolina had highly developed musical cultures. Choral music, Brass and String Music and Congregational singing were highly cultivated. The Moravian Church produced many composers and musicians. Haydn's Creation had its American debut in Bethlehem in the early 19th century.

The spiritual beliefs of Johann Conrad Beissel (1690–1768) and the Ephrata Cloister—such as the asceticism and mysticism of this Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, group – are reflected in Beissel's treatises on music and hymns, which have been considered the beginning of America's musical heritage.[139]

In most major cities, Germans took the lead in creating a musical culture, with popular bands, singing societies, operas and symphonic orchestras.[140]

A small city, Wheeling, West Virginia could boast of 11 singing societies—Maennerchor, Harmonie, Liedertafel, Beethoven, Concordia, Liederkranz, Germania, Teutonia, Harmonie-Maennerchor, Arion, and Mozart. The first began in 1855; the last folded in 1961. An important aspect of Wheeling social life, these societies reflected various social classes and enjoyed great popularity until anti-German sentiments during World War I and changing social values dealt them a death blow.[141]

The Liederkranz, a German-American music society, played an important role in the integration of the German community into the life of Louisville, Kentucky. Started in 1848, the organization was strengthened by the arrival of German liberals after the failure of the revolution of that year. By the mid-1850s the Germans formed one-third of Louisville's population and faced nativist hostility organized in the Know-Nothing movement. Violent demonstrations forced the chorus to suppress publicity of its performances that included works by composer Richard Wagner. The Liederkranz suspended operations during the Civil War, but afterward grew rapidly, and was able to build a large auditorium by 1873. An audience of 8,000 that attended a performance in 1877 demonstrated that the Germans were an accepted part of Louisville life.[142]

The Imperial government in Berlin promoted German culture in the U.S., especially music. A steady influx of German-born conductors, including Arthur Nikisch and Karl Muck, spurred the reception of German music in the United States, while German musicians seized on Victorian Americans' growing concern with 'emotion'. The performance of pieces such as Beethoven's Ninth Symphony established German serious music as the superior language of feeling.[143]

Turners

Turner societies in the United States were first organized during the mid-19th century so German American immigrants could visit with one another and become involved in social and sports activities. The National Turnerbund, the head organization of the Turnvereine, started drilling members as in militia units in 1854. Nearly half of all Turners fought in the Civil War, mostly on the Union side, and a special group served as bodyguards for President Lincoln.

By the 1890s, Turners numbered nearly 65,000. At the turn of the 21st century, with the ethnic identity of European Americans in flux and Americanization a key element of immigrant life, there were few Turner groups, athletic events were limited, and non-Germans were members. A survey of surviving groups and members reflects these radical changes in the role of Turner societies and their marginalization in 21st-century American society, as younger German Americans tended not to belong, even in strongholds of German heritage in the Midwest.[144]

Media

German newspapers in North America, 1922

As for any immigrant population, the development of a foreign-language press helped immigrants more easily learn about their new home, maintain connections to their native land, and unite immigrant communities.[145] By the late 19th century, Germania published over 800 regular publications. The most prestigious daily newspapers, such as the New Yorker Staats-Zeitung, the Anzeiger des Westens in St. Louis, and the Illinois Staats-Zeitung in Chicago, promoted middle-class values and encouraged German ethnic loyalty among their readership.[146] The Germans were proud of their language, supported many German-language public and private schools, and conducted their church services in German.[147] They published at least two-thirds of all foreign language newspapers in the U.S. The papers were owned and operated in the U.S., with no control from Germany. As Wittke emphasizes, press. it was "essentially an American press published in a foreign tongue". The papers reported on major political and diplomatic events involving Germany, with pride but from the viewpoint of its American readers.[148][149] For example, during the latter half of the 19th century, at least 176 different German-language publications began operations in the city of Cincinnati alone. Many of these publications folded within a year, while a select few, such as the Cincinnati Freie Presse, lasted nearly a century.[150] Other cities experienced similar turnover among immigrant publications, especially from opinion press, which published little news and focused instead on editorial commentary.[151]

By the end of the 19th century, there were over 800 German-language publications in the United States.[152] German immigration was on the decline, and with subsequent generations integrating into English-speaking society, the German language press began to struggle.[153] The periodicals that managed to survive in immigrant communities faced an additional challenge with anti-German sentiment during World War I[154] and with the Espionage and Sedition Acts, which authorized censorship of foreign language newspapers.[155] Prohibition also had a destabilizing impact on the German immigrant communities upon which the German-language publications relied.[153] By 1920, there were only 278 German language publications remaining in the country.[156] After 1945, only a few publications have been started. One example is Hiwwe wie Driwwe (Kutztown, PA), the nation's only Pennsylvania German newspaper, which was established in 1997.

Athletics

Germans brought organized gymnastics to America, and were strong supporters of sports programs. They used sport both to promote ethnic identity and pride and to facilitate integration into American society. Beginning in the mid-19th century, the Turner movement offered exercise and sports programs, while also providing a social haven for the thousands of new German immigrants arriving in the United States each year. Another highly successful German sports organization was the Buffalo Germans basketball team, winners of 762 games (against only 85 losses) in the early years of the 20th century. These examples, and others, reflect the evolving place of sport in the assimilation and socialization of much of the German-American population.[157] Notable German Americans include Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig, both native German speakers.

Religion

This 1850 census map shows the Lutheran population. Nearly all were German, since few Scandinavians had arrived yet.

German immigrants who arrived before the 19th century tended to have been members of the Evangelical Lutheran Churches in Germany, and created the Lutheran Synods of Pennsylvania, North Carolina and New York. The largest Lutheran denominations in the U.S. today—the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod—are all descended from churches started by German immigrants among others. Calvinist Germans founded the Reformed Church in the United States (especially in New York and Pennsylvania), and the Evangelical Synod of North America (strongest in the Midwest), which is now part of the United Church of Christ. Many immigrants joined different churches from those that existed in Germany. Protestants often joined the Methodist church.[30] In the 1740s, Count Nicolas von Zinzendorf tried to unite all the German-speaking Christians—(Lutheran, Reformed, and Separatists)—into one "Church of God in the Spirit". The Moravian Church in America is one of the results of this effort, as are the many "Union" churches in rural Pennsylvania.

Before 1800, communities of Amish, Mennonites, Schwarzenau Brethren and Moravians had formed and are still in existence today. The Old Order Amish and a majority of the Old Order Mennonites still speak dialects of German, including Pennsylvania German, informally known as Pennsylvania Dutch. The Amish, who were originally from southern Germany and Switzerland, arrived in Pennsylvania during the early 18th century. Amish immigration to the United States reached its peak between the years 1727 and 1770. Religious freedom was perhaps the most pressing cause for Amish immigration to Pennsylvania, which became known as a haven for persecuted religious groups.[158]

The Hutterites are another example of a group of German Americans who continue a lifestyle similar to that of their ancestors. Like the Amish, they fled persecution for their religious beliefs, and came to the United States between 1874 and 1879. Today, Hutterites mostly reside in Montana, the Dakotas, and Minnesota, and the western provinces of Canada. Hutterites continue to speak Hutterite German. Most are able to understand Standard German in addition to their dialect.[159] The German speaking "Russian" Mennonites migrated during the same time as the Hutterites, but assimilated relatively quickly in the United States, whereas groups of "Russian" Mennonites in Canada resisted assimilation.[160]

Immigrants from Germany in the mid-to-late-19th century brought many different religions with them. The most numerous were Lutheran or Catholic, although the Lutherans were themselves split among different groups. The more conservative Lutherans comprised the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Other Lutherans formed various synods, most of which merged with Scandinavian-based synods in 1988, forming the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.[161] Catholic Germans started immigrating in large numbers in the mid to latter 19th century, spurred in particular by the Kulturkampf.

Some 19th-century immigrants, especially the "Forty-Eighters", were secular, rejecting formal religion. About 250,000 German Jews had arrived by the 1870s, and they sponsored reform synagogues in many small cities across the country. About two million Central and Eastern European Jews arrived from the 1880s to 1924, bringing more traditional religious practices.[162]

Language

After two or three generations, most German Americans adopted mainstream American customs – some of which they heavily influenced – and switched their language to English. As one scholar concludes, "The overwhelming evidence ... indicates that the German-American school was a bilingual one much (perhaps a whole generation or more) earlier than 1917, and that the majority of the pupils may have been English-dominant bilinguals from the early 1880s on."[169] By 1914, the older members attended German-language church services, while younger ones attended English services (in Lutheran, Evangelical and Catholic churches). In German parochial schools, the children spoke English among themselves, though some of their classes were in German. In 1917–18, after the American entry into World War I on the side of the Allies, nearly all German language instruction ended, as did most German-language church services.[103]

About 1.5 million Americans speak German at home, according to the 2000 census. From 1860 to 1917, German was widely spoken in German neighborhoods; see German in the United States. There is a false claim, called the Muhlenberg legend, that German was almost the official language of the U.S. There was never any such proposal. The U.S. has no official language, but use of German was strongly discouraged during World War I and fell out of daily use in many places.[170]

There were fierce battles in Wisconsin and Illinois around 1890 regarding proposals to stop the use of German as the primary language in public and parochial schools. The Bennett Law was a highly controversial state law passed in Wisconsin in 1889 that required the use of English to teach major subjects in all public and private elementary and high schools. It affected the state's many German-language private schools (and some Norwegian schools), and was bitterly resented by German American communities. The German Catholics and Lutherans each operated large networks of parochial schools in the state. Because the language used in the classroom was German, the law meant the teachers would have to be replaced with bilingual teachers, and in most cases shut down. The Germans formed a coalition between Catholics and Lutherans, under the leadership of the Democratic Party, and the language issue produced a landslide for the Democrats, as Republicans dropped the issue until World War I. By 1917, almost all schools taught in English, but courses in German were common in areas with large German populations. These courses were permanently dropped.[171]

Assimilation

The apparent disappearance of German American identity

German Americans are no longer a conspicuous ethnic group.[172] As Melvin G. Holli puts it, "Public expression of German ethnicity is nowhere proportionate to the number of German Americans in the nation's population. Almost nowhere are German Americans as a group as visible as many smaller groups. Two examples suffice to illustrate this point: when one surveys the popular television scene of the past decade, one hears Yiddish humor done by comedians; one sees Polish, Greek, and East European detective heroes; Italian-Americans in situation comedies; and blacks such as the Jeffersons and Huxtables. But one searches in vain for quintessentially German-American characters or melodramas patterned after German-American experiences. ... A second example of the virtual invisibility is that, though German Americans have been one of the largest ethnic groups in the Chicago area (numbering near one-half million between 1900 and 1910), no museum or archive exists to memorialize that fact. On the other hand, many smaller groups such as Lithuanians, Poles, Swedes, Jews, and others have museums, archives, and exhibit halls dedicated to their immigrant forefathers".[173]: 93–94 [a]

But this inconspicuousness was not always the case. By 1910, German Americans had created their own distinctive, vibrant, prosperous German-language communities, referred to collectively as "Germania". According to historian Walter Kamphoefner, a "number of big cities introduced German into their public school programs".[175] Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Cleveland and other cities "had what we now call two-way immersion programs: school taught half in German, half in English".[175] This was a tradition which continued "all the way down to World War I".[175] According to Kamphoefner, German "was in a similar position as the Spanish language is in the 20th and 21st century"; it "was by far the most widespread foreign language, and whoever was the largest group was at a definite advantage in getting its language into the public sphere".[175] Kamphoefner has come across evidence that as late as 1917, a German version of "The Star-Spangled Banner" was still being sung in public schools in Indianapolis.[175]

Cynthia Moothart O'Bannon, writing about Fort Wayne, Indiana, states that before World War I "German was the primary language in the homes, churches and parochial schools"[176] of German American settlers. She states that "Many street signs were in German. (Main Street, for instance, was Haupt Strasse.) A large portion of local industry and commercial enterprises had at its roots German tooling and emigres. (An entire German town was moved to Fort Wayne when Wayne Knitting Mills opened.) Mayors, judges, firefighters and other community leaders had strong German ties. Social and sporting clubs and Germania Park in St. Joseph Township provided outlets to engage in traditional German activities".[176] She goes on to state that "The cultural influences were so strong, in fact, that the Chicago Tribune in 1893 declared Fort Wayne a 'most German town'."[176] Melvin G. Holli states that "No continental foreign-born group had been so widely and favorably received in the United States, or had won such high marks from its hosts as had the Germans before World War I. Some public opinion surveys conducted before the war showed German Americans were even more highly regarded than immigrants from the mother culture, England".[173]: 106  Holli states that the Chicago Symphony Orchestra once "had so many German-American musicians that the conductor often addressed them in the German language",[173]: 101  and he states that "No ethnic theater in Chicago glittered with such a classy repertory as did the German-American theater, or served to introduce so many European classical works to American audiences".[173]: 102 

Impact of World War I on German Americans

The transition to the English language was abrupt, forced by federal, state and local governments, and by public opinion, when the U.S. was at war with Germany in 1917–18. After 1917, the German language was seldom heard in public; most newspapers and magazines closed; churches and parochial schools switched to English. Melvin G. Holli states, "In 1917, the Missouri Synod's Lutheran Church conference minutes appeared in English for the first time, and the synod's new constitution dropped its insistence on using the language of Luther only and instead suggested bilingualism. Dozens of Lutheran schools also dropped instruction in the German language. English-language services also intruded themselves into parishes where German had been the lingua franca. Whereas only 471 congregations nationwide held English services in 1910, the number preaching in English in the synod skyrocketed to 2,492 by 1919. The German Evangelical Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other states also anglicized its name by dropping German from the title".[173]: 106  Writing about Fort Wayne, Indiana, Cynthia Moothart O'Bannon states that, in the First World War, "Local churches were forced to discontinue sermons in German, schools were pressured to stop teaching in German, and the local library director was ordered to purchase no more books written in German. The library shelves also were purged of English-language materials deemed sympathetic to or neutral on Germany. Anti-German sentiment forced the renaming of several local institutions. Teutonia Building, Loan & Savings became Home Loan & Savings, and The German-American bank became Lincoln National Bank & Trust Co."[176] She continues that "in perhaps the most obvious bend to prevailing trends, Berghoff Brewery changed its motto from "A very German brew" to "A very good brew," according to "Fort Wayne: A Most German Town," a documentary produced by local public television station WFWA, Channel 39".[176] Film critic Roger Ebert wrote how "I could hear the pain in my German-American father's voice as he recalled being yanked out of Lutheran school during World War I and forbidden by his immigrant parents ever to speak German again".[177]

Melvin G. Holli states, regarding Chicago, that "After the Great War it became clear that no ethnic group was so de-ethnicized in its public expression by a single historic event as German Americans. While Polish Americans, Lithuanian Americans, and other subject nationalities underwent a great consciousness raising, German ethnicity fell into a protracted and permanent slump. The war damaged public expression of German ethnic, linguistic, and cultural institutions almost beyond repair".[173]: 106  He states that, after the war, German ethnicity "would never regain its prewar public acclaim, its larger-than-life public presence, with its symbols, rituals, and, above all, its large numbers of people who took pride in their Teutonic ancestry and enjoyed the role of Uncle Sam's favored adopted son".[173]: 107  He states "A key indicator of the decline of "Deutschtum" in Chicago was the census: the number identifying themselves to the census-taker as German-born plummeted from 191,000 in 1910 to 112,000 in 1920. This drop far exceeds the natural mortality rate or the number who might be expected to move. Self-identifiers had found it prudent to claim some nationality other than German. To claim German nationality had become too painful an experience".[173]: 106  Along similar lines, Terrence G. Wiley states that, in Nebraska, "around 14 percent of the population had identified itself as being of German-origin in 1910; however, only 4.4 percent made comparable assertions in 1920. In Wisconsin, the decline in percentage of those identifying themselves as Germans was even more obvious. The 1920 census reported only 6.6. percent of the population as being of German-origin, as opposed to nearly 29 percent ten years earlier ... These statistics led Burnell ... to conclude that: "No other North American ethnic group, past or present, has attempted so forcefully to officially conceal their ... ethnic origins. One must attribute this reaction to the wave of repression that swept the Continent and enveloped anyone with a German past"".[178]

The Catholic high schools were deliberately structured to commingle ethnic groups so as to promote ethnic (but not interreligious) intermarriage.[179] German-speaking taverns, beer gardens and saloons were all shut down by Prohibition; those that reopened in 1933 spoke English.

Impact of World War II on German Americans

Anastasy Vonsyatsky marching with the German American Bund in 1939

While its impact appears to be less well-known and studied than the impact which World War I had on German Americans, World War II was likewise difficult for them and likewise had the impact of forcing them to drop distinctive German characteristics and assimilate into the general U.S. culture.[180][181] According to Melvin G. Holli, "By 1930, some German American leaders in Chicago felt, as Dr. Leslie Tischauser put it, 'the damage done by the wartime experience had been largely repaired'. The German language was being taught in the schools again; the German theater still survived; and German Day celebrations were drawing larger and larger crowds. Although the assimilation process had taken its toll of pre-1914 German immigrants, a smaller group of newer postwar arrivals had developed a vocal if not impolitic interest in the rebuilding process in Germany under Nazism. As the 1930s moved on, Hitler's brutality and Nazi excesses made Germanism once again suspect. The rise of Nazism, as Luebke notes, 'transformed German ethnicity in America into a source of social and psychological discomfort, if not distress. The overt expression of German-American opinion consequently declined, and in more recent years, virtually disappeared as a reliable index of political attitudes ...'"[173]: 108 

Holli goes on to state that "The pain increased during the late 1930s and early 1940s, when Congressman Martin Dies held public hearings about the menace of Nazi subversives and spies among the German Americans. In 1940, the Democratic party's attack on anti-war elements as disloyal and pro-Nazi, and the advent of the war itself, made German ethnicity too heavy a burden to bear. As Professor Tischauser wrote, "The notoriety gained by those who supported the German government between 1933 and 1941 cast a pall over German-Americans everywhere. Leaders of the German-American community would have great difficulty rebuilding an ethnic consciousness ... Few German-Americans could defend what Hitler ... had done to millions of people in pursuit of the 'final solution', and the wisest course for German-Americans was to forget any attachment to the German half of their heritage.""[173]: 108–109 

A notable example which highlights the generational effect of this de-germanization on German-American cultural identity is U.S. President Donald Trump's erroneous assertion of Swedish heritage as late as 1987 in The Art of the Deal.[182][183][184] This error stems from Donald Trump's father, Fred Trump, who was of German heritage but attempted to pass himself off as Swedish amid the anti-German sentiment sparked by World War II, a claim which would continue to mislead his family for decades.[182]

By the 1940s, Germania had largely vanished outside some rural areas and the Germans were thoroughly assimilated.[185] According to Melvin G. Holli, by the end of World War II, German Americans "were ethnics without any visible national or local leaders. Not even politicians would think of addressing them explicitly as an ethnic constituency as they would say, Polish Americans, Jewish Americans, or African Americans."[173]: 109  Holli states that "Being on the wrong side in two wars had a devastating and long-term negative impact on the public celebration of German-American ethnicity".[173]: 106 

Historians have tried to explain what became of the German Americans and their descendants. Kazal (2004) looks at Germans in Philadelphia, focusing on four ethnic subcultures: middle-class Vereinsdeutsche, working-class socialists, Lutherans, and Catholics. Each group followed a somewhat distinctive path toward assimilation. Lutherans, and the better situated Vereinsdeutsche with whom they often overlapped, after World War I abandoned the last major German characteristics and redefined themselves as old stock or as "Nordic" Americans, stressing their colonial roots in Pennsylvania and distancing themselves from more recent immigrants. On the other hand, working-class and Catholic Germans, groups that heavily overlapped, lived and worked with Irish and other European ethnics; they also gave up German characteristics but came to identify themselves as White ethnics, distancing themselves above all from African American recent arrivals in nearby neighborhoods. Well before World War I, women in particular were becoming more and more involved in a mass consumer culture that lured them out of their German-language neighborhood shops and into English-language downtown department stores. The 1920s and 1930s brought English-language popular culture via movies and radio that drowned out the few surviving German language venues.[186]

Factors making German-Americans susceptible to assimilation

Kazal points out that German Americans have not had an experience that is especially typical of immigrant groups. "Certainly, in a number of ways, the German-American experience was idiosyncratic. No other large immigrant group was subjected to such strong, sustained pressure to abandon its ethnic identity for an American one. None was so divided internally, a characteristic that made German Americans especially vulnerable to such pressure. Among the larger groups that immigrated in the country after 1830, none – despite regional variations – appears to have muted its ethnic identity to so great an extent."[186]: 273  This quote from Kazal identifies both external pressures on German Americans and internal dividedness among them as reasons for their high level of assimilation.

Regarding the external pressures, Kazal writes: "The pressure imposed on German Americans to forsake their ethnic identity was extreme in both nature and duration. No other ethnic group saw its 'adoptive fatherland' twice enter a world war against its country of origin. To this stigma, the Third Reich added the lasting one of the Holocaust. In her study of ethnic identity in the 1980s, sociologist Mary Waters noted that the 'effect of the Nazi movement and World War II was still quite strong' in shaping 'popular perceptions of the German-American character', enough so that some individuals of mixed background often would acknowledge only the non-German part of their ancestry."[186]: 273 [b] Kazal contrasts this experience with the experiences of the Japanese, Poles, Czechs, Lithuanians, Italians, east European Jews, and Irish. "Japanese Americans, of course, suffered far more during the Second World War",[186]: 273  but until at least the 1950s, the pressure on Japanese Americans "ran toward exclusion from, rather than inclusion in, the nation".[186]: 273  "The state and many ordinary European Americans refused to recognize Asians as potentially American. In contrast, they pressured Germans to accept precisely that American identity in place of a German one".[186]: 273 

Kazal goes on to state "The burden of "enemy" status made those pressures far greater for Germans than for other European ethnic groups. To some extent, American intervention in World War I actually helped fuel ethnic nationalism in the United States among Poles, Czechs, Lithuanians, Italians, and east European Jews, who felt their desires for existing or prospective homelands stood to gain from an Allied victory. Indeed, some historians have depicted the following decade as one when immigrants transcended local or regional homeland affiliations to craft or further consolidate national identities as Poles, Czechs, and Italians. Such groups escaped the fury of "100 percent Americanism" during the war, in part because of their obvious stake in the defeat of the Central Powers".[186]: 273–274  As for Irish Americans, Kazal states that the lack of enthusiasm of many of them for helping England made them "vulnerable to the wartime "antihyphen" climate",[186]: 274  but that "Irish nationalist activity intensified during and immediately after that war, as many Irish Americans became swept up in the events leading to the creation of the Irish Free State",[186]: 274  and that "It made a difference for the long-term viability of Irish-American identity that the Irish homeland not only did not go to war with the United States but, in fact, emerged during the interwar years as a sovereign nation".[186]: 274 

Kazal then goes on to discuss the internal dividedness. He writes: "German-American identity fell victim not only to a peculiar set of events, but also to an extraordinarily high level of internal diversity. All ethnic groups have internal divides, whether of class, religion, gender, politics, or homeland region. What distinguished German America was that it incorporated not just some but all of these divisions. Irish Americans, for example, had lost their status as primarily a proletarian group by 1900, yet they were united by religion and politics. "Irish American" had come to mean Irish Catholic; the vast majority of Irish Americans subscribed to some form of Irish nationalism conflated with American patriotism; and Irish-American voters were overwhelmingly Democrats.

The power of this synthesis, Kerby Miller argued, explains the survival of Irish-American identity despite the ebbing of organized Irish-American nationalism after the Free State's founding. For German Americans, religion and party politics were sources of division rather than of unity".[186]: 274  Kazal goes on to state that "The subcultures of German America, meanwhile, had ample opportunity for contact, however testy, with non-German counterparts. The latter beckoned as destinations when the cost of being German-American rose too high".[186]: 274  It is not just Kazal who has pointed out the internal dividedness of the German American community. Kathleen Neils Conzen has pointed it out; David Peterson states that Conzen, "along with many others, concludes that German-Americans' heterogeneity, particularly in religion, hampered their ability to build socially and politically stable ethnic communities",[188]: 27  and that Conzen "stresses that German Americans assimilated relatively rapidly and that their diversity played a key role in that assimilation".[188]: 47 [c] (Conzen is also drawn upon by Joy Kristina Adams, who cites Conzen when she (Adams) states that "The diversity and size of the German settlements made them susceptible to long-term Americanization by fostering factionalism, increasing contacts between Germans and non-Germans, and weakening unified leadership".)[189] The Encyclopedia of the Great Plains also stresses the internal dividedness, stating "One of the distinguishing characteristics of the German population in North America (especially in comparison to other immigrant groups) has been its relative degree of cultural diversity, reflected especially in the number of Christian denominations to which Germans belonged. In part this reflects patterns that had developed over centuries in Germany, whose population came to include nearly every variety of Christianity–from Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed groups to more radical Anabaptist pietistic movements such as Amish, Mennonites, Schwenkfelders, and the Moravian church. It is not surprising, then, that nearly all of these denominations were represented among the German immigrant population in North America."[190]

Robert Paul McCaffery points out that "Despite their numbers ... and unlike many immigrant groups, Germans never united as a powerful ethnic block. Religious disputes brought from the old country prevented them from uniting in the new. The two strongest denominations, Catholics and Lutherans, could not come together; and the Free Thinkers distrusted and shunned them both."[191]: 4  "These divisions ran so deep that German-Americans could neither unite to fend off attacks engendered by World War I, nor elect German candidates for political office".[191]: 4  McCaffery states that "Discussions of the disunity of the Germans are many",[191]: 15  giving a work by Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan and a work by Kathleen Neils Conzen as examples,[191]: 15  and he states that Leslie V. Tischauser "maintains that neither World War I, political questions of importance to Germans, nor German candidates could unite the German-Americans of Chicago".[191]: 16  Jason Todd Baker, meanwhile, writes that "Divided by imported regional prejudices, religious differences, political affiliations, and spread in pockets across the city, the Germans in nineteenth-century St. Louis comprised the city's largest immigrant ethnicity and possibly its least cohesive".[192]: 95 

He goes on to state that German Americans in St. Louis "could not be relied upon to do much of anything as a group. St. Louis served (and still does) as the seat of the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod, a conservative American Lutheran confession, and their local strength led to friction with Germans of other faiths. These Lutherans did not traffic much with the sizable German Catholic population of the city, who often shared their houses of worship and political stances with the Irish. The small rabbinical German Jewish community remained insular. The Freethinkers, atheists, socialists, et al., had little use for any of these groups. In addition, the Germans, while heavily concentrated in a few pockets of north and south St. Louis, were spread across the city proper and into the larger countryside".[192]: 99  And according to the Max Kade Institute for German-American Studies, "The diversity of religious expression among German-speaking immigrants was paralleled by a high degree of heterogeneity stemming from differences in regional and linguistic origins. This situation differed from that of other nineteenth-century immigrant groups, notably the Irish, but also Italians and people of other European backgrounds. The resulting lack of a unified and clearly definable German-American community explains in part why only few Americans, including those of German descent, have any idea when Steuben Day or German-American Day falls, whereas the Irish St. Patrick's Day is one of America's most popular celebrations, and Columbus Day, named after the Italian explorer, is a federal holiday".[193][d]

Persistence of German language

Despite the remarkable level of language assimilation reached by German Americans, distinct German usage survived well into the mid-to-late-20th century in some places. Writing about the town of Hustisford, Wisconsin, Jennifer Ludden discusses Mel Grulke, who was born in 1941, with German his first language at home; "Grulke's great-grandparents immigrated to the U.S. in the late 1880s, yet three generations later, his farmer parents still spoke German at home, attended German language church services and chatted in German with shopkeepers when they brought their farm eggs into town to sell".[175]

To this day, German speakers can be found in the United States among long-established Anabaptist groups – the Old Order Amish and most Old Order Mennonites speak Pennsylvania Dutch (or Bernese German or Alsatian by a minority of Amish) along with High German to various degrees (though they are generally fluent in English).[196] All Hutterites speak Hutterite German and many "Russian" Mennonites speak Plautdietsch, a Low German dialect coming originally from the area around Danzig. The three Amish dialects as well as Hutterite German are still learned by all children of the group, whereas Plautdietsch-speakers tend much more to switch to English. Another group of German-speakers can be found in the Amana Colonies in Iowa; according to the website Statistical Atlas, all the residents of East Amana speak German at home, and only 67.7% can speak English "very well".[197]

It has been shown that cultural differences between the attitudes towards farming of German Americans, on the one hand, and of British-ancestry "Yankees", on the other, lasted into the 1980s and have to some extent lasted into the 21st century; German Americans have tended to see farming in a more family-oriented manner than Yankees.[198]

German-American influence

Late-19th-century German-American buildings in Manhattan

Cuisine and beers

The influence of German cuisine is seen in the cuisine of the United States throughout the country, especially regarding pastries, meats and sausages, and above all, beer. Frankfurters (or "wieners", originating from Frankfurt am Main and Vienna, respectively), hamburgers, bratwurst, sauerkraut, and strudel are common dishes. German bakers introduced the pretzel, which is popular across the United States. Germans introduced America to lager, the most-produced beer style in the United States, and have been the dominant ethnic group in the beer industry since 1850.[30][199]

The oldest extant brewery in the United States is D. G. Yuengling & Son of Pottsville, Pennsylvania (approximately 80 miles northwest of Philadelphia), founded in 1829 by an immigrant from Aldingen in what is today Baden-Württemberg; the brewery's flagship product remains a 19th-century German-style amber lager.[200] By the late 19th century, Milwaukee, with a large population of German origin, was once the home to four of the world's largest breweries owned by ethnic Germans (Schlitz, Blatz, Pabst, and Miller) and was the number one beer producing city in the world for many years. Almost half of all current beer sales in the United States can be attributed to German immigrants, Capt. A. Pabst, Eberhard Anheuser, and Adolphus Busch, who founded Anheuser-Busch in St. Louis in 1860.[201] Later German immigrants figured prominently in the rebirth of craft brews following Prohibition, culminating in the microbrew movement that swept the U.S. beginning in the late 1980s.

Festivals

German and German-American celebrations, such as Oktoberfest, Rhenish Carnival, German-American Day, and Von Steuben Day are held regularly throughout the country. One of the largest is the German-American Steuben Parade in New York City, held every third Saturday in September. There are also major annual events in Chicago's Lincoln Square neighborhood, a traditional a center of the city's German population, in Cincinnati, where its annual Oktoberfest Zinzinnati[202] is the largest Oktoberfest outside of Germany[203] and in Milwaukee, which celebrates its German heritage with an annual German Fest.[130] Many of the immigrants from Germany and other German-speaking countries came to Pennsylvania to what was then "Allegheny City" (now part of the North Side of the City of Pittsburgh). So many German speakers arrived, the area became known as "Deutschtown" and has been revived as such.[204][205] Within Deutschtown and since 1854, The Teutonia Männerchor has been promoting and furthering German cultural traditions.[206]

Skat, the most popular card game in Germany, is also played in areas of the United States with large German American populations, such as Wisconsin and Texas.[130]

Education

The following German international schools are in operation in the United States, serving German citizens, Americans, and other U.S. residents:

Notable people

German Americans have been influential in almost every field in American society, including science, architecture, business, sports, entertainment, theology, politics, and the military.

German American general/flag military officers Baron von Steuben, George Armstrong Custer, John Pershing, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Chester W. Nimitz, Carl Andrew Spaatz and Norman Schwarzkopf commanded the United States Army in the American Revolutionary War, American Civil War, Indian Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Persian Gulf War, respectively.

German Americans were famous American politicians, including Carl Schurz, Friedrich Hecker, Frederick Muhlenberg, Henry Morgenthau, Sr., Henry Morgenthau Jr., John Boehner, and Donald Trump. Henry Kissinger was a famous diplomat.

Many German Americans have played a prominent role in American industry and business, including Henry J. Heinz (H. J. Heinz Company), Harvey S. Firestone (Firestone Tire and Rubber Company), Frank Seiberling (Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company), Walt Disney (Disney), John D. Rockefeller (Standard Oil), William Boeing (The Boeing Company and United Airlines), Walter Chrysler (Chrysler Corporation), Frederick and August Duesenberg (Duesenberg Automobile Corporation), Studebaker brothers (Studebaker Automobile Corporation), George Westinghouse (Westinghouse Electric Corporation), Levi Strauss (Levi Strauss & Co.), Charles Guth (PepsiCo Inc.), Bill Gates (Microsoft Corporation), Jawed Karim (YouTube), Elon Musk (SolarCity, SpaceX and Tesla Motors), James L. Kraft (Kraft Foods Inc.), Henry E. Steinway (Steinway & Sons), Charles Pfizer (Pfizer, Inc.), John Jacob Astor (Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts), Conrad Hilton (Hilton Hotels & Resorts), Guggenheim family (Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation), (Guggenheim Partners), Marcus Goldman and Samuel Sachs (The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc.), Lehman Brothers (Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc.), Charles Diebold (Diebold Nixdorf), Bernard Kroger (Kroger), Carl Laemmle (Universal Studios), Marcus Loew (Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc.), Harry Cohn (Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.), Herman Hollerith (International Business Machines Corporation (IBM)), Steve Jobs (Apple Inc.),[207] Michael Dell (Dell Inc.), Eric Schmidt (Google Inc. and Alphabet Inc.), Peter Thiel (PayPal Inc.), Adolph Simon Ochs and Arthur Ochs Sulzberger (The New York Times), Charles Bergstresser (The Wall Street Journal), Al Neuharth (USA Today), Eugene Meyer (The Washington Post) etc.

German Americans were pioneers and dominated beer brewing for much of American history, beginning with breweries founded in the 19th century by German immigrants August Schell (August Schell Brewing Company), Christian Moerlein (Christian Moerlein Brewing Co.), Eberhard Anheuser and Adolphus Busch (Anheuser-Busch, currently part of AB InBev), Adolph Coors (Molson Coors Brewing Company), Frederick Miller (Miller Brewing Company), Frederick Pabst (Pabst Brewing Company), Bernhard Stroh (Stroh Brewery Company) and Joseph Schlitz (Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company).[201]

Brooklyn Bridge engineer John A. Roebling and architects Walter Gropius and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, left behind visible landmarks. Thomas Ustick Walter designed the famous United States Capitol dome.

American literature have been greatly enriched by German-American authors such as William Dean Howells, Theodore Dreiser, Wallace Stevens, Henry Miller, Pearl S. Buck, Thomas Wolfe, John Steinbeck, Charles Bukowski, Patricia Highsmith, Kurt Vonnegut, and Sylvia Plath. L. Frank Baum and Dr. Seuss were popular children's authors, while H. L. Mencken, Walter Lippmann, and Lee Miller were famous journalists.

David Rittenhouse was an important scientist, inventor and astronomer of colonial Pennsylvania. His nephew Benjamin Smith Barton, was an early naturalist and publisher of the first botanical textbook in the United States. Adam Kuhn, Michael Leib, and Caspar Wistar were noted physicians. The 19th century saw pioneering inventions by Isaac Singer (sewing machines), Ottmar Mergenthaler (Linotype), Herman Hollerith (tabulating machine), and John Froelich (gasoline-powered tractor). Howard H. Aiken, George Stibitz, Claude Shannon, Joseph Weizenbaum, Douglas Engelbart, and Donald Knuth made significant contributions to the field of computing. The Wright brothers invented the world's first successful airplane in 1903.[208] Famous German-American scientists include Albert A. Michelson, Albert Einstein, Joseph Erlanger, Herbert Spencer Gasser, Otto Stern, Hermann Joseph Muller, John H. Northrop, Arthur H. Compton, Harold C. Urey, Charles Richter, Linus Pauling, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Hans Bethe, Paul Flory, Polykarp Kusch, and Norman Ramsey Jr., among others.

After World War II, Wernher von Braun, and most of the leading engineers from the former German V-2 rocket base at Peenemünde, were brought to the U.S. They contributed decisively to the development of U.S. military rockets, as well as rockets for the NASA space program and the initiation of the Apollo program to land on the Moon. Similarly, fellow German aviation technologist Siegfried Knemeyer, the former top aviation technologist within the Reich Air Ministry during World War II, was brought to the United States through a similar path to von Braun, and served as a civilian employee of the USAF for over twenty years. Neil Armstrong was the first human to land on the moon.[209]

There were many celebrities. Bruce Willis, George Eyser, Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Johnny Depp, Jack Nicklaus, Michael Keaton, Dale Earnhardt, Doris Mary Ann Kappelhoff (Doris Day), Grace Kelly, Clark Gable, Marlene Dietrich, Johnny Weissmuller, Ernst Lubitsch, Walter Damrosch, Henry John Deutschendorf (John Denver), John Kay, Heidi Klum, Meryl Streep, Marlon Brando, Kim Basinger, Kevin Costner, Michelle Pfeiffer, Bryan Cranston, Sandra Bullock, David Hasselhoff, Leonardo DiCaprio, Kirsten Dunst, Evan Peters, Zazie Beetz and Kevin George Knipfing (Kevin James) became prominent athletes, actors, film directors or artists.[210]

German-American presidents

There have been three presidents whose fathers were of German descent: Dwight D. Eisenhower (original family name Eisenhauer and maternal side is also German/Swiss), Herbert Hoover (original family name Huber), and Donald Trump (original family name Drumpf;[211][212] his paternal grandparents, Frederick Trump and Elizabeth Christ Trump immigrated from Kallstadt in 1902).

Presidents with maternal German ancestry include Harry Truman, whose maternal grandfather Solomon Young was a descendant of Johann Georg Jung and Hans Michael Gutknecht, who emigrated from Germany together in 1752,[213] Richard Milhous Nixon, whose maternal ancestors were Germans who anglicized Melhausen to Milhous,[214] and Barack Obama, whose maternal family's ancestry includes German immigrants from the South German town of Besigheim[215] and from Bischwiller in the historically culturally Germanic Alsace region that is now part of France; both families came to America around 1750.[216]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ Similarly, W. Bruce Leslie has written that "German American invisibility in contemporary society and in history is an anomaly deserving attention. By standard statistical measurement, the Germans were the largest immigrant group. Yet historians have been far more interested in Italian, Irish, Polish, and Eastern European Jewish immigration and culture. Irish bars, Italian restaurants, and Jewish humor abound. German language is rarely studied in high schools or colleges and German restaurants are an endangered culinary species. The blending of so many millions into the American mainstream with barely a trace is one of the major untold stories in American history".[174]: 294 
  2. ^ In the book that Kazal appears to be quoting here, Waters states "Many people cited various political or social events as having an effect on their consciousness and degree of ethnic identity. I have already noted Laurie Jablonski's stronger identification with her Polish than with her German ancestry, a fact she attributed to the influence her surname had on how others reacted to her. When I asked about times when the relative influence of one or the other side might be stronger, she revealed that political events in Germany and Poland had a lot to do with how she chose to identify herself".[187]: 83  Waters goes on to state that "The association of being German with being a Nazi is still strong for Laurie, forty years after World War II. A similar story to Laurie's is related in a description by Hinda Winawer-Steiner and Norbert Wetzel of a workshop for family therapists on ethnicity and family therapy. The therapists were supposed to talk about their ethnicity and how it might influence their work. A discussion of a German-American family revealed that two of the therapists who had identified themselves as Polish-American at the beginning of the workshop were, in fact, half German. It turned out that they were suppressing their German identity because of the negative connotations associated with being German. "When asked, one explained that she simply considered herself Polish. The other, after some reflection, said that in a group that was half Jewish, she had been reluctant to acknowledge her German heritage" (Winawer-Steiner and Wetzel 1982, 253)".[187]: 84 
  3. ^ Peterson himself seems not to fully agree with this, stating "Most community studies have examined very large, heterogeneous German-American urban populations that assimilated relatively quickly or, less commonly, large, homogeneous rural ones that did not. Hence, German-Americans' diversity has emerged as perhaps the crucial variable accounting for their assimilationist propensities. Otter Tail County, certainly a rural area, had German-American communities that were diverse and small, and these communities succeeded in maintaining crucial ethnic boundaries into the twentieth century. The persistence of these heterogeneous, lightly populated German-American communities suggest that place of residence was the key factor in the rate of German-American assimilation. Urban orientation may have corroded German-American ethnic boundaries more than diversity did, though the two variables were not unrelated".[188]: 47–48 
  4. ^ A similar statement about the diversity of German Americans has been made by Andrew R. L. Cayton: "In the process of participating in the public culture of Ohio, some Germans struggled to keep connections with their birthplaces. A coherent community was difficult to maintain, however. Proud as they were of 'Deutschthum', or the sum of Germanness, it became increasingly vague. Germans were too diverse in terms of religion and politics. 'Wherever four Germans gathered,' observed the Deutsche Pionier in 1879, 'they will find four different ideas.'"[194]: 155  Another similar statement about the diversity of German Americans has been made by Randall M. Miller. Writing about New Orleans, Miller states "During the nineteenth century, the Irish and Germans provided the largest numbers of mmigrants and gave the city its immigrant cast. The Irish and Germans differed in their ethnic cohesiveness and interactions with the host culture(s)".[195]: 129  Miller then states that "German immigrants ... lacked sufficient cultural and social unity to impose a single powerful German imprint on the city. They were widely dispersed throughout the Second and Third Municipalities, and in Carrollton and Lafayette, and they were fragmented by differences in religion, region of origin, and class. The proliferation of German clubs, associations, and institutions bespoke the Germans' numerical significance in the city, but it also attested to their divisions, for such organizations tended to cater to very specific groups rather than bind the various German strands together. To be sure, distinct concentrations of Germans existed in various parts of the city, wherein various German cultural values survived and influenced the culture of non-Germans in their midst, and German Gemütlichkeit was easily accommodated in the city's genial public culture. But, overall, Germans were too diverse and divided to dominate the city".[195]: 129  Miller contrasts this situation with the situation of Irish Americans in New Orleans: "Irish immigrants had greater cohesion and wider influence than the Germans. In the great waves of late antebellum immigration, the vast majority of Irish immigrants entering New Orleans came from a few select counties in Ireland. They shared a common faith, poverty, and national identity. ... New Orleans was small enough so that dispersal did not diminish Irish power; in fact, Irish immigrants everywhere shared so many common cultural and class interests that dispersion served to broaden Irish influence on the city's culture".[195]: 129 

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Further reading

Historiography

Primary sources

In German

External links

German-American history and culture

German-American organizations

Local German-American history and culture