Según el Oxford English Dictionary , el nombre inglés Rusia apareció por primera vez en el siglo XIV, tomado del latín medieval : Russia , usado en el siglo XI y frecuentemente en fuentes británicas del siglo XII, a su vez derivado de Russi , 'los rusos' y el sufijo -ia . [22] [23] En la historiografía moderna, este estado generalmente se denota como Kievan Rus' por su ciudad capital. [24] Otro nombre en latín medieval para Rus' era Ruthenia . [25]
En ruso, el nombre actual del país, Россия ( Rossiya ), proviene del nombre griego bizantino para Rus', Ρωσία ( Rosía ). [26] Una nueva forma del nombre Rus ' , Росия ( Rosiya ), fue tomada del término griego y atestiguada por primera vez en 1387. [27] [ verificación fallida ] El nombre Rossiia apareció en fuentes rusas a finales del siglo XV, pero hasta finales del siglo XVII el país era más a menudo referido por sus habitantes como Rus ' , la tierra rusa ( Russkaia zemlia ), o el estado moscovita ( Moskovskoe gosudarstvo ), entre otras variaciones. [28] [29] [30] En 1721, Pedro el Grande cambió el nombre del estado de Zartismo de Rusia ( ruso : Русское царство , romanizado : Russkoye tsarstvo ) o Zarismo de Moscovia ( ruso : Московское царство , romanizado : Moskovskoye tsarstvo ) [31 ] [32] al Imperio Ruso ( Rossiiskaia imperiia ). [28] [30]
Hay varias palabras en ruso que se traducen como "rusos" en español. El sustantivo y adjetivo русский , russkiy se refiere a los rusos étnicos . El adjetivo российский , rossiiskiy denota a los ciudadanos rusos independientemente de su etnia. Lo mismo se aplica al sustantivo acuñado más recientemente россиянин , rossiianyn , "ruso" en el sentido de ciudadano del estado ruso. [29] [33]
Según la Crónica Primaria , la palabra Rus' se deriva del pueblo Rus , que era una tribu sueca , y de donde vinieron los tres miembros originales de la dinastía Rurikid . [34] La palabra finlandesa para suecos, ruotsi , tiene el mismo origen. [35]
Estudios arqueológicos posteriores confirmaron en su mayoría esta teoría. [36] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ]
Entre los siglos III y IV d. C., en el sur de Rusia existía el reino godo de Oium , que más tarde fue invadido por los hunos . Entre los siglos III y VI d. C., el reino del Bósforo , que era una entidad política helenística que sucedió a las colonias griegas, [56] también se vio abrumado por invasiones nómadas lideradas por tribus guerreras como los hunos y los ávaros euroasiáticos . [57] Los jázaros , que eran de origen turco , gobernaron las estepas entre el Cáucaso en el sur, al este más allá de la cuenca del río Volga y al oeste hasta Kiev en el río Dniéper hasta el siglo X. [58] Después de ellos vinieron los pechenegos que crearon una gran confederación, que posteriormente fue tomada por los cumanos y los kipchaks . [59]
Los antepasados de los rusos se encuentran entre las tribus eslavas que se separaron de los protoindoeuropeos, que aparecieron en la parte noreste de Europa hace unos 1500 años. [60] Los eslavos orientales se asentaron gradualmente en Rusia occidental (aproximadamente entre la moderna Moscú y San Petersburgo ) en dos oleadas: una que se trasladó desde Kiev hacia las actuales Súzdal y Múrom y otra desde Pólatsk hacia Nóvgorod y Rostov . [61] Antes de la migración eslava, ese territorio estaba poblado por pueblos finougrios . A partir del siglo VII, los eslavos orientales que llegaron asimilaron lentamente a los finougrios nativos. [62] [63]
Rus de Kiev
El establecimiento de los primeros estados eslavos orientales en el siglo IX coincidió con la llegada de los varegos , los vikingos que se aventuraron a lo largo de las vías fluviales que se extendían desde el Báltico oriental hasta los mares Negro y Caspio . Según la Crónica Primaria , un varego del pueblo rus , llamado Rurik , fue elegido gobernante de Nóvgorod en 862. En 882, su sucesor Oleg se aventuró al sur y conquistó Kiev , que anteriormente había estado pagando tributo a los jázaros . [62] El hijo de Éufrates , Ígor, y el hijo de Éufrates, Sviatoslav, sometieron posteriormente a todas las tribus eslavas orientales locales al gobierno de Kiev, destruyeron el kanato jázaro, [64] y lanzaron varias expediciones militares a Bizancio y Persia . [65] [66]
Entre los siglos X y XI, la Rus de Kiev se convirtió en uno de los estados más grandes y prósperos de Europa. Los reinados de Vladímir el Grande (980-1015) y su hijo Yaroslav el Sabio (1019-1054) constituyen la Edad de Oro de Kiev, que vio la aceptación del cristianismo ortodoxo de Bizancio y la creación del primer código legal escrito eslavo oriental , la Russkaya Pravda . [62] Había llegado la era del feudalismo y la descentralización, marcada por constantes luchas internas entre los miembros de la dinastía Rurik que gobernaban colectivamente la Rus de Kiev. El dominio de Kiev disminuyó, en beneficio de Vladímir-Súzdal en el noreste, la República de Nóvgorod en el norte y Galicia-Volinia en el suroeste. [62] En el siglo XII, Kiev perdió su preeminencia y la Rus de Kiev se había fragmentado en diferentes principados. [67] El príncipe Andrey Bogolyubsky saqueó Kiev en 1169 e hizo de Vladimir su base, [67] lo que llevó a que el poder político se trasladara al noreste. [62]
La Rus de Kiev finalmente cayó ante la invasión mongola de 1237-1240, que resultó en el saqueo de Kiev y otras ciudades, así como en la muerte de una parte importante de la población. [62] Los invasores, más tarde conocidos como tártaros , formaron el estado de la Horda de Oro , que gobernó Rusia durante los siguientes dos siglos. [70] Solo la República de Nóvgorod escapó de la ocupación extranjera después de que acordó pagar tributo a los mongoles. [62] Galicia-Volinia sería absorbida más tarde por Lituania y Polonia , mientras que la República de Nóvgorod continuó prosperando en el norte. En el noreste, las tradiciones bizantino-eslavas de la Rus de Kiev se adaptaron para formar el estado autocrático ruso. [62]
Gran Ducado de Moscú
La destrucción de la Rus de Kiev supuso el surgimiento del Gran Ducado de Moscú , inicialmente parte de Vladimir-Suzdal . [71] : 11–20 Mientras todavía estaba bajo el dominio de los tártaros mongoles y con su connivencia, Moscú comenzó a afirmar su influencia en la región a principios del siglo XIV, [72] convirtiéndose gradualmente en la fuerza líder en la "reunión de las tierras rusas". [73] [74] Cuando la sede del Metropolitano de la Iglesia Ortodoxa Rusa se trasladó a Moscú en 1325, su influencia aumentó. [75] El último rival de Moscú, la República de Nóvgorod , prosperó como el principal centro de comercio de pieles y el puerto más oriental de la Liga Hanseática . [76]
Liderados por el príncipe Dmitri Donskoy de Moscú, el ejército unido de los principados rusos infligió una derrota histórica a los tártaros mongoles en la batalla de Kulikovo en 1380. [62] Moscú absorbió gradualmente a su ducado original y a los principados circundantes, incluidos antiguos rivales fuertes como Tver y Nóvgorod . [73]
En desarrollo de las ideas de la Tercera Roma , el gran duque Iván IV ("el Terrible") fue coronado oficialmente como el primer zar de Rusia en 1547. El zar promulgó un nuevo código de leyes ( Sudebnik de 1550 ), estableció el primer cuerpo representativo feudal ruso (el Zemsky Sobor ), renovó el ejército, frenó la influencia del clero y reorganizó el gobierno local. [73] Durante su largo reinado, Iván casi duplicó el ya grande territorio ruso al anexionarse los tres kanatos tártaros: Kazán y Astracán a lo largo del Volga , [78] y el Kanato de Sibir en el suroeste de Siberia. Finalmente, a fines del siglo XVI, Rusia se expandió al este de los Montes Urales . [79] Sin embargo, el zarismo se vio debilitado por la larga e infructuosa Guerra de Livonia contra la coalición del Reino de Polonia y el Gran Ducado de Lituania (más tarde la Mancomunidad Polaca-Lituana unida ), el Reino de Suecia y Dinamarca-Noruega por el acceso a la costa báltica y el comercio marítimo. [80] En 1572, un ejército invasor de tártaros de Crimea fue derrotado por completo en la crucial Batalla de Molodi . [81]
La muerte de los hijos de Iván marcó el fin de la antigua dinastía Rurik en 1598, y en combinación con la desastrosa hambruna de 1601-1603 , condujo a una guerra civil, al gobierno de pretendientes y a la intervención extranjera durante el Período Tumultuoso a principios del siglo XVII. [82] La Mancomunidad de Polonia-Lituania , aprovechándose, ocupó partes de Rusia, extendiéndose hasta la capital Moscú. [83] En 1612, los polacos fueron obligados a retirarse por el cuerpo de voluntarios rusos, liderado por el comerciante Kuzmá Minin y el príncipe Dmitri Pozharski . [84] La dinastía Romanov accedió al trono en 1613 por decisión del Zemski Sobor, y el país comenzó su recuperación gradual de la crisis. [85]
Rusia continuó su crecimiento territorial durante el siglo XVII, que fue la era de los cosacos . [86] En 1654, el líder ucraniano, Bohdan Khmelnytsky , ofreció poner a Ucrania bajo la protección del zar ruso, Alexis ; cuya aceptación de esta oferta condujo a otra guerra ruso-polaca . Finalmente, Ucrania se dividió a lo largo del Dniéper , dejando la parte oriental ( la orilla izquierda de Ucrania y Kiev ) bajo el dominio ruso. [87] En el este, la rápida exploración y colonización rusa de la vasta Siberia continuó, en busca de valiosas pieles y marfil. Los exploradores rusos avanzaron hacia el este principalmente a lo largo de las rutas fluviales de Siberia , y para mediados del siglo XVII, había asentamientos rusos en Siberia oriental, en la península de Chukchi , a lo largo del río Amur y en la costa del océano Pacífico. [86] En 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov se convirtió en el primer europeo en navegar por el estrecho de Bering . [88]
Rusia imperial
Bajo el reinado de Pedro el Grande , Rusia fue proclamada imperio en 1721 y se estableció como una de las grandes potencias europeas. En su gobierno de 1682 a 1725, Pedro derrotó a Suecia en la Gran Guerra del Norte (1700-1721), asegurando el acceso de Rusia al mar y al comercio marítimo. En 1703, en el mar Báltico, Pedro fundó San Petersburgo como la nueva capital de Rusia. A lo largo de su gobierno, se realizaron reformas radicales que trajeron importantes influencias culturales de Europa occidental a Rusia. [89] Fue sucedido por Catalina I (1725-1727), seguida por Pedro II (1727-1730) y Ana . El reinado de la hija de Pedro I, Isabel, entre 1741 y 1762 vio la participación de Rusia en la Guerra de los Siete Años (1756-1763). Durante el conflicto, las tropas rusas invadieron Prusia Oriental y llegaron a Berlín. [90] Sin embargo, tras la muerte de Isabel, todas estas conquistas fueron devueltas al Reino de Prusia por el pro-prusiano Pedro III de Rusia . [91]
Los oficiales que persiguieron a Napoleón en Europa occidental trajeron ideas del liberalismo a Rusia e intentaron limitar los poderes del zar durante la fallida revuelta decembrista de 1825. [103] Al final del reinado conservador de Nicolás I (1825-1855), un período de apogeo del poder e influencia de Rusia en Europa, fue interrumpido por la derrota en la Guerra de Crimea . [104]
Grandes reformas liberales y capitalismo
El sucesor de Nicolás, Alejandro II (1855-1881), promulgó cambios significativos en todo el país, incluida la reforma de emancipación de 1861. [ 105] Estas reformas estimularon la industrialización y modernizaron el Ejército Imperial Ruso, que liberó gran parte de los Balcanes del dominio otomano después de la guerra ruso-turca de 1877-1878 . [106] Durante la mayor parte del siglo XIX y principios del XX, Rusia y Gran Bretaña se confabularon sobre Afganistán y sus territorios vecinos en Asia central y meridional; la rivalidad entre los dos principales imperios europeos llegó a conocerse como el Gran Juego . [107]
A finales del siglo XIX surgieron varios movimientos socialistas en Rusia. Alejandro II fue asesinado en 1881 por terroristas revolucionarios. [108] El reinado de su hijo Alejandro III (1881-1894) fue menos liberal, pero más pacífico. [109]
Un establishment socialista alternativo coexistió, el Soviet de Petrogrado , que ejercía el poder a través de los consejos de trabajadores y campesinos elegidos democráticamente, llamados soviets . El gobierno de las nuevas autoridades solo agravó la crisis en el país en lugar de resolverla, y finalmente, la Revolución de Octubre , liderada por el líder bolchevique Vladimir Lenin , derrocó al Gobierno Provisional y dio pleno poder de gobierno a los soviets, lo que llevó a la creación del primer estado socialista del mundo . [115] La Guerra Civil Rusa estalló entre el movimiento blanco anticomunista y los bolcheviques con su Ejército Rojo . [118] Después de la firma del Tratado de Brest-Litovsk que concluyó las hostilidades con las Potencias Centrales de la Primera Guerra Mundial ; la Rusia bolchevique entregó la mayor parte de sus territorios occidentales, que albergaban al 34% de su población, el 54% de sus industrias, el 32% de sus tierras agrícolas y aproximadamente el 90% de sus minas de carbón. [119]
Las potencias aliadas lanzaron una intervención militar fallida en apoyo de las fuerzas anticomunistas. [120] Mientras tanto, tanto los bolcheviques como el movimiento blanco llevaron a cabo campañas de deportaciones y ejecuciones entre sí, conocidas respectivamente como el Terror Rojo y el Terror Blanco . [121] Al final de la violenta guerra civil, la economía y la infraestructura de Rusia resultaron gravemente dañadas y hasta 10 millones de personas perecieron durante la guerra, en su mayoría civiles. [122] Millones se convirtieron en emigrados blancos , [123] y la hambruna rusa de 1921-1922 se cobró hasta cinco millones de víctimas. [124]
Unión Soviética
Economía de comando y sociedad soviética
El 30 de diciembre de 1922, Lenin y sus ayudantes formaron la Unión Soviética , uniendo la RSFS de Rusia en un solo estado con las repúblicas de Bielorrusia , Transcaucasia y Ucrania . [125] Finalmente, los cambios en las fronteras internas y las anexiones durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial crearon una unión de 15 repúblicas ; la más grande en tamaño y población fue la RSFS de Rusia, que dominó la unión política, cultural y económicamente. [126]
Bajo el liderazgo de Stalin, el gobierno lanzó una economía de comando , la industrialización del país mayoritariamente rural y la colectivización de su agricultura . Durante este período de rápido cambio económico y social, millones de personas fueron enviadas a campos de trabajo penal , incluidos muchos convictos políticos por su oposición sospechada o real al gobierno de Stalin; [131] y millones fueron deportados y exiliados a áreas remotas de la Unión Soviética. [132] La desorganización transitoria de la agricultura del país, combinada con las duras políticas estatales y una sequía, [133] condujo a la hambruna soviética de 1932-1933 ; que mató a 5,7 [134] a 8,7 millones, 3,3 millones de ellos en la SFSR rusa. [135] La Unión Soviética, en última instancia, realizó la costosa transformación de una economía en gran parte agraria a una importante potencia industrial en un corto período de tiempo. [136]
Finalmente, unos 5 millones de soldados del Ejército Rojo fueron capturados por los nazis; [144] : 272 estos últimos deliberadamente hicieron morir de hambre o mataron de otra manera a 3,3 millones de prisioneros de guerra soviéticos y a un gran número de civiles, ya que el " Plan del Hambre " buscaba cumplir con el Generalplan Ost . [145] : 175–186 Aunque la Wehrmacht tuvo un éxito inicial considerable, su ataque se detuvo en la Batalla de Moscú . [146] Posteriormente, los alemanes sufrieron importantes derrotas primero en la Batalla de Stalingrado en el invierno de 1942-1943, [147] y luego en la Batalla de Kursk en el verano de 1943. [148] Otro fracaso alemán fue el Sitio de Leningrado , en el que la ciudad fue bloqueada completamente por tierra entre 1941 y 1944 por fuerzas alemanas y finlandesas, y sufrió hambre y más de un millón de muertes, pero nunca se rindió. [149] Las fuerzas soviéticas arrasaron Europa central y oriental entre 1944 y 1945 y capturaron Berlín en mayo de 1945. [150] En agosto de 1945, el Ejército Rojo invadió Manchuria y expulsó a los japoneses del noreste de Asia, contribuyendo a la victoria aliada sobre Japón. [151]
Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, según la Conferencia de Potsdam , el Ejército Rojo ocupó partes de Europa central y oriental, incluidas Alemania del Este y las regiones orientales de Austria . [158] Se instalaron gobiernos comunistas dependientes en los estados satélite del Bloque del Este . [159] Después de convertirse en la segunda potencia nuclear del mundo , [160] la Unión Soviética estableció la alianza del Pacto de Varsovia , [161] y entró en una lucha por el dominio global, conocida como la Guerra Fría , con los rivales Estados Unidos y la OTAN . [162]
Las reformas del deshielo de Jruschov y el desarrollo económico
A partir de 1985, el último líder soviético , Mijail Gorbachov , que intentó promulgar reformas liberales en el sistema soviético, introdujo las políticas de glasnost (apertura) y perestroika (reestructuración) en un intento de poner fin al período de estancamiento económico y democratizar el gobierno . [171] Esto, sin embargo, condujo al surgimiento de fuertes movimientos nacionalistas y separatistas en todo el país. [172] Antes de 1991, la economía soviética era la segunda más grande del mundo, pero durante sus últimos años, entró en crisis. [173]
Transición a una economía de mercado y crisis políticas
El colapso económico y político de la Unión Soviética llevó a Rusia a una depresión profunda y prolongada. Durante y después de la desintegración de la Unión Soviética, se llevaron a cabo amplias reformas que incluyeron privatizaciones y liberalización del mercado y el comercio , incluidos cambios radicales en la línea de la " terapia de choque ". [179] La privatización transfirió en gran medida el control de las empresas de las agencias estatales a individuos con conexiones internas en el gobierno, lo que llevó al ascenso de los oligarcas rusos . [180] Muchos de los nuevos ricos trasladaron miles de millones de dólares en efectivo y activos fuera del país en una enorme fuga de capitales . [181] La depresión de la economía llevó al colapso de los servicios sociales: la tasa de natalidad se desplomó mientras que la tasa de mortalidad se disparó, [182] [183] y millones de personas se hundieron en la pobreza; [184] mientras que la corrupción extrema, [185] así como las bandas criminales y el crimen organizado aumentaron significativamente. [186]
A fines de 1993, las tensiones entre Yeltsin y el parlamento ruso culminaron en una crisis constitucional que terminó violentamente mediante la fuerza militar. Durante la crisis, Yeltsin recibió el apoyo de los gobiernos occidentales y más de 100 personas fueron asesinadas. [187]
Constitución liberal moderna, cooperación internacional y estabilización económica
Después de la disolución de la Unión Soviética, Rusia asumió la responsabilidad de saldar las deudas externas de esta última. [192] En 1992, la mayoría de los controles de precios al consumidor fueron eliminados, causando una inflación extrema y devaluando significativamente el rublo. [193] Los altos déficits presupuestarios, junto con la creciente fuga de capitales y la incapacidad de pagar las deudas, causaron la crisis financiera rusa de 1998 , que resultó en una mayor caída del PIB. [194]
Movimiento hacia una economía modernizada, centralización política y retroceso democrático
El 31 de diciembre de 1999, el presidente Yeltsin renunció inesperadamente, [195] entregando el puesto al recientemente nombrado primer ministro y su sucesor elegido, Vladimir Putin . [196] Putin ganó entonces las elecciones presidenciales de 2000 , [197] y derrotó a la insurgencia chechena en la Segunda Guerra Chechena . [198]
En una importante escalada del conflicto, Rusia lanzó una invasión a gran escala de Ucrania el 24 de febrero de 2022. [212] La invasión marcó la guerra convencional más grande en Europa desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial, [213] y fue recibida con condena internacional , [214] así como con sanciones ampliadas contra Rusia. [215]
Como resultado, Rusia fue expulsada del Consejo de Europa en marzo, [216] y fue suspendida del Consejo de Derechos Humanos de las Naciones Unidas en abril. [217] En septiembre, tras las exitosas contraofensivas ucranianas, [218] Putin anunció una " movilización parcial ", la primera movilización de Rusia desde la Operación Barbarroja . [219] A finales de septiembre, Putin proclamó la anexión de cuatro regiones ucranianas , la mayor anexión en Europa desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [220] Putin y los líderes instalados por Rusia firmaron tratados de adhesión, internacionalmente no reconocidos y ampliamente denunciados como ilegales , a pesar del hecho de que las fuerzas rusas no han podido ocupar completamente ninguna de las cuatro regiones. [220] Varios parlamentos supranacionales y nacionales aprobaron resoluciones que declaraban a Rusia como un estado patrocinador del terrorismo . [221] Además, Rusia fue declarada un estado terrorista por Letonia, Lituania y Estonia. [222] Se estima que cientos de miles de personas murieron o resultaron heridas como resultado de la invasión. [223] [224] La guerra en Ucrania ha exacerbado aún más la crisis demográfica de Rusia . [225]
En junio de 2023, el Grupo Wagner , un contratista militar privado que luchaba por Rusia en Ucrania, declaró una rebelión abierta contra el Ministerio de Defensa ruso , capturando Rostov del Don , antes de comenzar una marcha hacia Moscú. Sin embargo, después de las negociaciones entre Wagner y el gobierno bielorruso, la rebelión fue cancelada. [226] [227] El líder de la rebelión, Yevgeny Prigozhin , murió más tarde en un accidente aéreo . [228]
Geografía
La vasta masa continental de Rusia se extiende sobre la parte más oriental de Europa y la parte más septentrional de Asia. [229] Se extiende por el borde más septentrional de Eurasia ; y tiene la cuarta costa más larga del mundo , con más de 37.653 km (23.396 mi). [f] [231] Rusia se encuentra entre las latitudes 41° y 82° N , y las longitudes 19° E y 169° O , extendiéndose unos 9.000 km (5.600 mi) de este a oeste, y de 2.500 a 4.000 km (1.600 a 2.500 mi) de norte a sur. [232] Rusia, por masa continental, es más grande que tres continentes, [g] y tiene la misma superficie que Plutón . [233]
Rusia, hogar de más de 100.000 ríos, [229] tiene uno de los mayores recursos de agua superficial del mundo, con sus lagos que contienen aproximadamente una cuarta parte del agua dulce líquida del mundo . [235] El lago Baikal , el más grande y más destacado entre los cuerpos de agua dulce de Rusia, es el lago de agua dulce más profundo, puro, antiguo y espacioso del mundo, y contiene más de una quinta parte del agua dulce superficial del mundo. [242] Ládoga y Onega en el noroeste de Rusia son dos de los lagos más grandes de Europa . [229] Rusia es el segundo país después de Brasil por recursos hídricos renovables totales . [243] El Volga en el oeste de Rusia, ampliamente considerado como el río nacional de Rusia, es el río más largo de Europa; y forma el delta del Volga , el delta fluvial más grande del continente. [244] Los ríos siberianos Ob , Yenisey , Lena y Amur se encuentran entre los ríos más largos del mundo . [245]
Clima
El tamaño de Rusia y la lejanía de muchas de sus áreas del mar dan como resultado el predominio del clima continental húmedo en la mayor parte del país, a excepción de la tundra y el extremo suroeste. Las cadenas montañosas en el sur y el este obstruyen el flujo de masas de aire cálido de los océanos Índico y Pacífico, mientras que la llanura europea que se extiende por su oeste y norte la abre a la influencia de los océanos Atlántico y Ártico. [246] La mayor parte del noroeste de Rusia y Siberia tienen un clima subártico , con inviernos extremadamente severos en las regiones interiores del noreste de Siberia (principalmente Sakha , donde se encuentra el Polo Norte del Frío con la temperatura mínima récord de −71,2 °C o −96,2 °F), [239] e inviernos más moderados en otros lugares. La vasta costa de Rusia a lo largo del océano Ártico y las islas árticas rusas tienen un clima polar . [246]
La parte costera del Krai de Krasnodar en el Mar Negro, más notablemente Sochi , y algunas franjas costeras e interiores del Cáucaso Norte poseen un clima subtropical húmedo con inviernos suaves y húmedos. [246] En muchas regiones de Siberia Oriental y el Lejano Oriente ruso, el invierno es seco en comparación con el verano; mientras que otras partes del país experimentan precipitaciones más uniformes a lo largo de las estaciones. Las precipitaciones invernales en la mayor parte del país suelen caer en forma de nieve. Las partes más occidentales del Óblast de Kaliningrado y algunas partes en el sur del Krai de Krasnodar y el Cáucaso Norte tienen un clima oceánico . [246] La región a lo largo de la costa del Bajo Volga y el Mar Caspio, así como algunas franjas más al sur de Siberia, poseen un clima semiárido . [247]
En gran parte del territorio, sólo hay dos estaciones diferenciadas, invierno y verano; la primavera y el otoño suelen ser breves. [246] El mes más frío es enero (febrero en la costa); el más cálido suele ser julio. Son típicas las grandes oscilaciones térmicas. En invierno, las temperaturas se enfrían tanto de sur a norte como de oeste a este. Los veranos pueden ser bastante calurosos, incluso en Siberia. [248] El cambio climático en Rusia está provocando incendios forestales más frecuentes , [249] y descongelando la gran extensión de permafrost del país . [250]
Biodiversidad
Rusia, debido a su gigantesco tamaño, tiene diversos ecosistemas, incluidos desiertos polares , tundra , tundra forestal, taiga , bosques mixtos y latifolios , estepas forestales , estepas , semidesiertos y subtrópicos . [251] Aproximadamente la mitad del territorio de Rusia está cubierto de bosques, [9] y tiene la mayor superficie forestal del mundo, [252] que secuestra algunas de las mayores cantidades de dióxido de carbono del mundo . [252] [253]
Los ecosistemas completamente naturales de Rusia se conservan en casi 15.000 territorios naturales especialmente protegidos de diversos estados, que ocupan más del 10% del área total del país. [251] Incluyen 45 reservas de la biosfera , [255] 64 parques nacionales y 101 reservas naturales . [256] Aunque está en declive, el país todavía tiene muchos ecosistemas que todavía se consideran bosques intactos ; principalmente en las áreas de taiga del norte y la tundra subártica de Siberia. [257] Rusia tuvo una puntuación media del Índice de Integridad del Paisaje Forestal de 9,02 en 2019, ocupando el décimo lugar entre 172 países; y la primera nación importante clasificada a nivel mundial. [258]
Ejecutivo: El presidente es el comandante en jefe de las Fuerzas Armadas y nombra al Gobierno de Rusia (Gabinete) y otros oficiales, que administran y hacen cumplir las leyes y políticas federales. [259] El presidente puede emitir decretos de alcance ilimitado , siempre que no contradigan la constitución o la ley federal. [262]
Poder judicial : El Tribunal Constitucional , la Corte Suprema y los tribunales federales inferiores, cuyos jueces son designados por el Consejo de la Federación por recomendación del presidente, [260] interpretan las leyes y pueden revocar las leyes que consideren inconstitucionales . [263]
El presidente es elegido por voto popular por un período de seis años y no puede ser elegido más de dos veces. [264] [i] Los ministerios del gobierno están compuestos por el primer ministro y sus adjuntos, ministros y otras personas seleccionadas; todos son nombrados por el presidente por recomendación del primer ministro (mientras que el nombramiento de este último requiere el consentimiento de la Duma Estatal). Rusia Unida es el partido político dominante en Rusia , y ha sido descrito como " gran carpa " y el " partido del poder ". [266] [267] Bajo las administraciones de Vladimir Putin , Rusia ha experimentado un retroceso democrático , [268] [269] y ha sido descrita como una dictadura autoritaria . [11] [12] [270] Las políticas de Putin generalmente se conocen como putinismo . [271]
Divisiones políticas
Rusia, según la Constitución de 1993, es una federación simétrica (con posibilidad de configuración asimétrica) . A diferencia del modelo asimétrico soviético de la RSFSR, donde sólo las repúblicas eran "sujetos de la federación", la constitución actual elevó el estatus de las demás regiones al nivel de repúblicas y equiparó a todas las regiones con el título de "sujetos de la federación". Las regiones de Rusia tienen áreas de competencia reservadas, pero ninguna región tiene soberanía, no tienen el estatus de estado soberano, no tienen derecho a indicar soberanía alguna en sus constituciones y no tienen derecho a separarse del país. Las leyes de las regiones no pueden contradecir las leyes federales. [272]
Los sujetos federales [j] tienen una representación igualitaria (dos delegados cada uno) en el Consejo de la Federación , la cámara alta de la Asamblea Federal. [273] Sin embargo, difieren en el grado de autonomía del que gozan. [274] Los distritos federales de Rusia fueron establecidos por Putin en 2000 para facilitar el control del gobierno central sobre los sujetos federales. [275] Originalmente eran siete, pero actualmente hay ocho distritos federales, cada uno encabezado por un enviado designado por el presidente. [276]
Rusia mantiene estrechas relaciones con su vecina Bielorrusia , que forma parte del Estado de la Unión , una confederación supranacional de los dos estados. [294] Serbia ha sido un aliado históricamente cercano de Rusia, ya que ambos países comparten una fuerte afinidad cultural, étnica y religiosa mutua. [295] India es el mayor cliente de equipamiento militar ruso, y los dos países comparten una fuerte relación estratégica y diplomática desde la era soviética. [296] Rusia ejerce influencia en el Cáucaso Sur y Asia Central, de importancia geopolítica ; y las dos regiones han sido descritas como el "patio trasero" de Rusia. [297] [298]
En el siglo XXI, Rusia ha seguido una política exterior agresiva destinada a asegurar el dominio regional y la influencia internacional, así como a aumentar el apoyo interno al gobierno. La intervención militar en los estados postsoviéticos incluye una guerra con Georgia en 2008 y una guerra con Ucrania a partir de 2014. Rusia también ha buscado aumentar su influencia en Medio Oriente , más significativamente a través de la intervención militar en la guerra civil siria . La guerra cibernética y las violaciones del espacio aéreo , junto con la interferencia electoral, se han utilizado para aumentar las percepciones del poder ruso. [299] Las relaciones de Rusia con la vecina Ucrania y el mundo occidental, especialmente Estados Unidos , la Unión Europea , las Naciones Unidas y la OTAN , se han derrumbado; especialmente desde la anexión de Crimea en 2014 y el comienzo de una invasión a gran escala en 2022. [300] [301] Las relaciones entre Rusia y China se han fortalecido significativamente a nivel bilateral y económico ; debido a intereses políticos compartidos. [302] Turquía y Rusia comparten una compleja relación estratégica, energética y de defensa . [303] Rusia mantiene relaciones cordiales con Irán, ya que es un aliado estratégico y económico. [304] Rusia también ha presionado cada vez más para expandir su influencia en el Ártico , [305] Asia-Pacífico, [306] África, [307] Oriente Medio, [308] y América Latina. [309] Según la Economist Intelligence Unit, dos tercios de la población mundial vive en países como China o India que son neutrales o se inclinan hacia Rusia. [310] [311]
Los musulmanes, especialmente los salafistas , han enfrentado persecución en Rusia. [333] [334] Para sofocar la insurgencia en el Cáucaso Norte , las autoridades rusas han sido acusadas de asesinatos indiscriminados, [335] arrestos, desapariciones forzadas y tortura de civiles. [336] [337] En Daguestán , algunos salafistas, además de enfrentar el acoso del gobierno basado en su apariencia, han visto sus casas volar por los aires en operaciones de contrainsurgencia. [338] [339] Según se informa, los chechenos e ingusetios en las cárceles rusas sufren más abusos que otros grupos étnicos. [340] Durante la invasión de Ucrania de 2022, Rusia ha establecido campos de filtración donde muchos ucranianos son sometidos a abusos y enviados a la fuerza a Rusia; los campos han sido comparados con los utilizados en las guerras de Chechenia . [341] [342] La represión política también aumentó tras el inicio de la invasión, con leyes adoptadas que establecen castigos por "desacreditar" a las fuerzas armadas. [343]
Rusia ha introducido varias restricciones a los derechos LGBT , incluida la prohibición en 2020 del matrimonio entre personas del mismo sexo y la designación de organizaciones LGBT+ como la Red LGBT de Rusia como " agentes extranjeros ". [344] [345]
Rusia tiene el segundo mayor mercado de tráfico ilegal de armas del mundo, después de Estados Unidos, ocupa el primer puesto en Europa y el 32º a nivel mundial en el Índice Global de Crimen Organizado, y está entre los países con el mayor número de personas en prisión. [362] [363] [364]
Rusia es el decimotercer mayor exportador del mundo y el vigésimo primer mayor importador . [373] [374] Depende en gran medida de los ingresos procedentes de los impuestos y aranceles a las exportaciones relacionados con el petróleo y el gas, que representaron el 45% de los ingresos del presupuesto federal de Rusia en enero de 2022, [375] y hasta el 60% de sus exportaciones en 2019. [376] Rusia tiene uno de los niveles más bajos de deuda externa entre las principales economías, [377] y tenía las quintas mayores reservas de divisas , valoradas en más de 601 mil millones de dólares, [378] aunque la mitad de eso está congelada en el extranjero, y se cree que una cantidad significativa se ha gastado en la guerra de Ucrania. La desigualdad de los ingresos y la riqueza de los hogares se encuentra entre las más altas entre los países desarrollados, [379] y existen considerables disparidades regionales en el desarrollo económico. [380] [381]
Después de más de una década de rápido crecimiento económico postsoviético, respaldado por altos precios del petróleo y un aumento en las reservas de divisas y la inversión, [200] la economía de Rusia se vio dañada por una ola de sanciones internacionales impuestas en 2014 tras la guerra ruso-ucraniana y la anexión de Crimea . [382] A raíz de la invasión rusa de Ucrania en 2022, el país se ha enfrentado a sanciones renovadas y boicots corporativos , [383] convirtiéndose en el país más sancionado del mundo, [384] en una medida descrita como una "guerra económica y financiera total" para aislar la economía rusa del sistema financiero occidental. [215] Debido al impacto negativo resultante , el gobierno ruso ha dejado de publicar una serie de datos económicos desde abril de 2022. [385] Aunque Rusia ha mantenido una relativa estabilidad económica e incluso un crecimiento, impulsado principalmente por un alto gasto militar, consumo de los hogares e inversión de capital, los economistas sugieren que las sanciones tendrán un efecto a largo plazo sobre la economía rusa. [386] [387] [388]
A mediados de la década de 2000, la participación del sector del petróleo y el gas en el PIB rondaba el 20%, y en 2013 era del 20-21% del PIB. [407] La participación del petróleo y el gas en las exportaciones de Rusia (alrededor del 50%) y los ingresos del presupuesto federal (alrededor del 50%) es grande, y la dinámica del PIB de Rusia depende en gran medida de los precios del petróleo y el gas, [408] pero la participación en el PIB es mucho menor del 50%. Según la primera evaluación integral de este tipo publicada por la agencia de estadísticas rusa Rosstat en 2021, la participación total máxima del sector del petróleo y el gas en el PIB de Rusia (incluida la extracción, refinación, transporte, venta de petróleo y gas, todos los bienes y servicios utilizados y todas las actividades de apoyo) asciende al 19,2% en 2019 y al 15,2% en 2020; esto es comparable a la participación del PIB en Noruega y Kazajstán, y mucho menor que la participación del PIB en Arabia Saudita y los Emiratos Árabes Unidos. [409] [410] [411] [412] [413]
Russia is the world's fourth-largest electricity producer.[414] Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of all primary energy and 42% of electricity consumption.[415][416] Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's first nuclear power plant in 1954;[417] it remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in fast neutron reactors.[418] Russia is the world's fourth-largest nuclear energy producer, which accounts for one-fourth of total electricity generation.[416][419] Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.[418]
Russia ratified the Paris Agreement in 2019.[420] The country's greenhouse gas emissions are the world's fourth-largest.[421] Coal still accounts for nearly one-fifth of electricity generation (17.64%).[416] Russia is the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer as of 2022,[422] with hydro power also contributing to almost a fifth of total electricity generation (17.54%).[416] The use and development of other renewable energy resources remains negligible, as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for expanding these energy resources.[419]
Agriculture and fishery
Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.[423] It has the world's third-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is agricultural,[9] with an additional 7.4% being arable.[424] The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "breadbasket" of Europe.[425] More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits.[423] The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland.[423] Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat,[426][427] the largest producer of barley and buckwheat, among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, and the leading producer of fertilizer.[428]
Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.[429] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's sixth-largest fishing industry; capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.[430] It is home to the world's finest caviar, the beluga; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.[423]
In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard Sputnik 2.[455] In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial body, the Moon.[456] In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.[457] In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, Venus.[458] In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars.[459]: 34–60 During the same period, Lunokhod 1 became the first space exploration rover,[460] while Salyut 1 became the world's first space station.[461]
Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third-highest.[462] Between the final flight of the Space Shuttle program in 2011 and the 2020 SpaceX's first crewed mission, Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the ISS.[463]Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.[464]
Tourism
According to the World Tourism Organization, Russia was the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits.[465] According to Federal Agency for Tourism, the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.[466] Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 totaled $11.6 billion.[465] In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP.[467] In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism declined precipitously in 2020, to just over 6.3 million foreign visitors.[468]
Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern megacity; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and modern skyscrapers.[472]Saint Petersburg, the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, white nights, crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.[473] Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the State Russian, the State Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery; and for theatres such as the Bolshoi and the Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.[474]
Demographics
Ethnic groups across Russia
Russia had a population of 144.7 million in 2021 (excluding Crimea and Sevastopol),[17] growing from 142.8 million in 2010.[475] It is the most populous country in Europe and ninth most populous in the world.[476] With a population density of 8 inhabitants per square kilometre (21 inhabitants/sq mi), Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries,[9] with the vast majority of its people concentrated within its western part.[477] The country is highly urbanised, with two-thirds of the population living in towns and cities,
Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, which some analysts have called a demographic crisis.[478] In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates, and increased immigration.[479] However, these population gains have been reversed since 2020, as excessive deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history.[480] Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the demographic crisis has deepened,[481] owing to reportedly high military fatalities and renewed emigration caused by Western mass-sanctions and boycotts.[482]
Russia is a multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.[485] There are over 193 ethnic groups nationwide. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians, and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities;[486] while over four-fifths of Russia's population was of European descent—of whom the vast majority were Slavs,[487] with a substantial minority of Finno-Ugric and Germanic peoples.[488][489] According to the United Nations, Russia's immigrant population is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million;[490] most of which are from post-Soviet states, mainly from Central Asia.[491]
Russia is a multilingual nation; approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.[496][497] According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 4.3 million spoke Tatar, and 1.1 million spoke Ukrainian.[498] The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.[499] However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages becoming endangered.[500][501]
Religion
Russia is constitutionally a secular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion.[502] The largest religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church,[503] which is legally recognised for its "special role" in the country's "history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture."[502]Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".[504][505]
Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority of peoples in the North Caucasus and some Turkic peoples in the Volga-Ural region.[503] Large populations of Buddhists are found in Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, and they are the vast majority of the population in Tuva.[503] Many Russians practise other religions, including Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism),[506]Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),[507] other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism,[508] various movements of Hinduism,[509]Siberian shamanism[510] and Tengrism, various Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism, and other faiths.[511][512] Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country;[513] notably, in 2017 the Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.[514]
In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of Justice, published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% Old Believers, Catholics or Protestants—25% were believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims,[k] 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[503]
Education
Russia has an adult literacy rate of 100%,[516] and has compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.[517] It grants free education to its citizens by constitution.[518] The Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education; while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.[517] Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated countries, and has the sixth-highest proportion of tertiary-level graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.[519] It spent roughly 4.7% of its GDP on education in 2018.[520]
Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[521] some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.[517] An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.[522]
Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:[518] first-degree courses usually take five years.[522] The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University.[523] There are ten highly prestigious federal universities across the country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for international students in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.[524]
Health
Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program.[526] The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.[527]
Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.[528] Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.[529] Russia has one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female,[9] due to its high male mortality rate.[530] In 2021, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth was 70.06 years (65.51 years for males and 74.51 years for females),[531] and it had a very low infant mortality rate (5 per 1,000 live births).[532]
The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.[533]Obesity is a prevalent health issue in Russia; most adults are overweight or obese.[534] However, Russia's historically high alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country,[535] as it remains one of the world's highest, despite a stark decrease in the last decade.[536]Smoking is another health issue in the country.[537] The country's high suicide rate, although on the decline,[538] remains a significant social issue.[539]
Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[553] The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[554]Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.[555]International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that Moscow's flower vendors often see profits of "15 times" more than other holidays.[556]Spring and Labour Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[557]
There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.[562]Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[563]Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.[564] Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[565]
Art and architecture
Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early 15th century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.[566] The Russian Academy of Arts, which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.[89] In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential.[567] The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known for Romantic historical canvases.[568][569]Ivan Aivazovsky, another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.[570]
After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century; Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov, created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.[566] During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture.[581] Under Alexander I, Empire style became the de facto architectural style.[582] The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style.[583] In the early 20th century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.[584] Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were Art Nouveau,[585]Constructivism,[586] and Socialist Classicism.[587]
During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,[591] and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.[593] Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.[591] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium,[594] DDT,[595] and Kino;[596] the latter's leader Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure.[597]Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.[598]
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style.[615]Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[616]Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov,[617] and Isaac Asimov; who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.[618] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.[619]
Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties,[629] is very popular across Russia.[630] Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.[631][632]Pirozhki,[633]blini,[634] and syrniki are native types of pancakes.[635]Beef Stroganoff,[636]: 266 Chicken Kiev,[636]: 320 pelmeni,[637] and shashlyk are popular meat dishes.[638] Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat.[639] Salads include Olivier salad,[640]vinegret,[641] and dressed herring.[642]
Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[643] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century.[644] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[645] while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[646] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[647]Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.[648]
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.[546] The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[659][660] In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[546] In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.[661] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.[662]
Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games.[544] Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics; and Russian synchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best.[678]Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing.[679] Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.[680]Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.[681] The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[682] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[683][684] However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to doping violations, which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.[685]
^Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[230]
^Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.
^In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.[265]
^The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely Chechnya and Ingushetia, which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.[503]
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^Keh, Andrew; Panja, Tariq (8 December 2019). "Will Russia Be Thrown Out of the Olympics on Monday? A Primer". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
Sources
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security, International Energy Agency, the International Energy Agency.
Further reading
Bartlett, Roger P. A history of Russia (2005) online
Breslauer, George W. and Colton, Timothy J. 2017. Russia Beyond Putin (Daedalus) online
Brown, Archie, ed. The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1982) online
Dutkiewicz, P.; Richard, S.; Vladimir, K. (2016). The Social History of Post-Communist Russia. Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-32846-9. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
Florinsky, Michael T. ed. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (1961).
Frye, Timothy. Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia (2021) excerpt
Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia (Yale UP, 2019) excerpt
Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia and the Russians: a history (2011) online
Kort, Michael. A Brief History of Russia (2008) online