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Teología cristiana

La teología cristiana es la teología –el estudio sistemático de lo divino y la religión– de la creencia y la práctica cristianas . [1] Se concentra principalmente en los textos del Antiguo Testamento y del Nuevo Testamento , así como en la tradición cristiana . Los teólogos cristianos utilizan la exégesis bíblica , el análisis racional y la argumentación. Los teólogos pueden emprender el estudio de la teología cristiana por diversas razones, como por ejemplo:

La teología cristiana ha permeado gran parte de la cultura occidental no eclesiástica , especialmente en la Europa premoderna , aunque el cristianismo es una religión mundial .

Espectro teológico

Tradiciones cristianas

La teología cristiana varía significativamente entre las principales ramas de la tradición cristiana: católica , ortodoxa y protestante . Cada una de esas tradiciones tiene sus propios enfoques singulares respecto de los seminarios y la formación ministerial.

Teología sistemática

La teología sistemática, como disciplina de la teología cristiana, formula una explicación ordenada, racional y coherente de la fe y las creencias cristianas. [9] La teología sistemática se basa en los textos sagrados fundacionales del cristianismo, al tiempo que investiga el desarrollo de la doctrina cristiana a lo largo de la historia, en particular a través de los concilios ecuménicos de la iglesia primitiva (como el Primer Concilio de Nicea ) y la evolución filosófica . Inherente a un sistema de pensamiento teológico es el desarrollo de un método, que puede aplicarse tanto de manera amplia como particular. La teología sistemática cristiana normalmente explorará:

Prolegómenos: La Escritura como base primaria de la teología cristiana

Revelación bíblica

Políptico de Tomás de Aquino de Valle Romita de Gentile da Fabriano

La revelación es la revelación o el descubrimiento, o el hacer evidente algo a través de una comunicación activa o pasiva con Dios, y puede originarse directamente de Dios o a través de un agente, como un ángel . [10] A una persona a la que se reconoce que ha experimentado dicho contacto a menudo se la llama [¿ por quién? ] profeta . El cristianismo generalmente considera que la Biblia es revelada o inspirada de manera divina o sobrenatural. Tal revelación no siempre requiere la presencia de Dios o de un ángel. Por ejemplo, en el concepto que los católicos llaman locución interior , la revelación sobrenatural puede incluir simplemente una voz interior escuchada por el receptor.

Tomás de Aquino (1225-1274) describió por primera vez dos tipos de revelación en el cristianismo: la revelación general y la revelación especial . [11]

Inspiración bíblica

El evangelista Mateo inspirado por un ángel , de Rembrandt , 1661

La Biblia contiene muchos pasajes en los que los autores afirman que su mensaje tiene inspiración divina o informan de los efectos que dicha inspiración ha tenido en otras personas. Además de los relatos directos de la revelación escrita (como cuando Moisés recibió los Diez Mandamientos escritos en tablas de piedra), los profetas del Antiguo Testamento afirmaron con frecuencia que su mensaje era de origen divino al introducir la revelación con la siguiente frase: “Así dice el Señor” (por ejemplo, 1 R 12:22-24; 1 Cr 17:3-4; Jer 35:13; Ez 2:4; Zac 7:9; etc.). La Segunda Epístola de Pedro afirma que “ninguna profecía de la Escritura... fue traída jamás por voluntad humana, sino que los santos hombres de Dios hablaron siendo inspirados por el Espíritu Santo” [12]. La Segunda Epístola de Pedro también implica que los escritos de Pablo son inspirados (2 P 3:16).

Muchos cristianos citan un versículo de la carta de Pablo a Timoteo, 2 Timoteo 3:16-17, como evidencia de que «toda Escritura es inspirada por Dios y útil...». Aquí San Pablo se refiere al Antiguo Testamento, ya que Timoteo conocía las Escrituras desde la «infancia» (versículo 15). Otros ofrecen una lectura alternativa para el pasaje; por ejemplo, el teólogo CH Dodd sugiere que «probablemente se deba traducir» como: «Toda Escritura inspirada también es útil...». [13] Una traducción similar aparece en la New English Bible , en la Revised English Bible y (como una alternativa con nota al pie) en la New Revised Standard Version . La Vulgata latina puede leerse así. [14] Sin embargo, otros defienden la interpretación «tradicional»; Daniel B. Wallace dice que la alternativa «probablemente no es la mejor traducción». [15]

Algunas versiones modernas de la Biblia en inglés traducen theopneustos como "inspirado por Dios" ( NVI ) o "inspirado por Dios" ( ESV ), evitando la palabra inspiración , que tiene la raíz latina inspīrāre - "soplar o respirar en". [16]

Autoridad bíblica

El cristianismo generalmente considera que las colecciones de libros conocidas como la Biblia tienen autoridad y fueron escritas por autores humanos bajo la inspiración del Espíritu Santo . Algunos cristianos creen que la Biblia es inerrante (totalmente libre de errores y contradicciones, incluidas las partes históricas y científicas) [17] o infalible (inerrante en cuestiones de fe y práctica, pero no necesariamente en cuestiones de historia o ciencia). [18] [ necesita cita para verificar ] [19] [20] [21] [22]

Algunos cristianos infieren que la Biblia no puede decir que es divinamente inspirada y que también es errática o falible. Porque si la Biblia fuera divinamente inspirada, entonces, al ser divina la fuente de inspiración, no estaría sujeta a falibilidad o error en lo que se produce. Para ellos, las doctrinas de la inspiración divina, la infalibilidad y la inerrancia están inseparablemente unidas. La idea de la integridad bíblica es un concepto adicional de infalibilidad, al sugerir que el texto bíblico actual es completo y sin errores, y que la integridad del texto bíblico nunca ha sido corrompida o degradada. [17] Los historiadores [ ¿cuáles? ] señalan, o afirman, que la doctrina de la infalibilidad de la Biblia fue adoptada [ ¿cuándo? ] cientos de años después de que se escribieron los libros de la Biblia. [ disputado (por: atribución errónea de referencia) – discutir ] [23]

Canon bíblico

El contenido del Antiguo Testamento protestante es el mismo que el canon de la Biblia hebrea , con cambios en la división y el orden de los libros, pero el Antiguo Testamento católico contiene textos adicionales, conocidos como los libros deuterocanónicos . Los protestantes reconocen 39 libros en su canon del Antiguo Testamento, mientras que los católicos romanos y los cristianos orientales reconocen 46 libros como canónicos. [ cita requerida ] Tanto los católicos como los protestantes utilizan el mismo canon del Nuevo Testamento de 27 libros.

Los primeros cristianos utilizaron la Septuaginta , una traducción al griego koiné de las escrituras hebreas. Posteriormente, el cristianismo aprobó varios escritos adicionales que se convertirían en el Nuevo Testamento. En el siglo IV, una serie de sínodos , en particular el Sínodo de Hipona en el año 393 d. C., produjo una lista de textos igual al canon de 46 libros del Antiguo Testamento que los católicos usan hoy (y el canon de 27 libros del Nuevo Testamento que todos usan). Una lista definitiva no provino de ningún concilio ecuménico temprano . [24] Alrededor del año 400, Jerónimo produjo la Vulgata , una edición latina definitiva de la Biblia, cuyo contenido, por insistencia del obispo de Roma , concordaba con las decisiones de los sínodos anteriores. Este proceso estableció efectivamente el canon del Nuevo Testamento, aunque existen ejemplos de otras listas canónicas en uso después de esta época. [ cita requerida ]

Durante la Reforma protestante del siglo XVI, algunos reformadores propusieron diferentes listas canónicas del Antiguo Testamento. Los textos que aparecen en la Septuaginta pero no en el canon judío cayeron en desgracia y finalmente desaparecieron de los cánones protestantes. Las Biblias católicas clasifican estos textos como libros deuterocanónicos, mientras que los contextos protestantes los etiquetan como apócrifos .

Teología propiamente dicha: Dios

En el cristianismo , Dios es el creador y preservador del universo . Dios es el único poder supremo del universo, pero es distinto de él. La Biblia nunca habla de Dios como impersonal, sino que se refiere a él en términos personales : que habla, ve, oye, actúa y ama. Se entiende que Dios tiene voluntad y personalidad y es un ser todopoderoso , divino y benévolo . En las Escrituras se le representa como alguien que se preocupa principalmente por las personas y su salvación. [25]

Atributos de Dios

Clasificación

Muchos teólogos reformados distinguen entre los atributos comunicables (aquellos que los seres humanos también pueden tener) y los atributos incomunicables (aquellos que pertenecen sólo a Dios). [26]

Enumeración

Algunos atributos que se le atribuyen a Dios en la teología cristiana [27] son:

Monoteísmo

Cristo en Getsemaní , Heinrich Hofmann , 1890

Algunos cristianos creen que el Dios al que adoraba el pueblo hebreo de la era precristiana siempre se había revelado a través de Jesús , pero que esto nunca fue evidente hasta que nació Jesús (véase Juan 1 ). Además, aunque el Ángel del Señor habló a los Patriarcas y les reveló a Dios, algunos creen que siempre fue sólo a través del Espíritu de Dios que les concedió el entendimiento que los hombres pudieron percibir más tarde que Dios mismo los había visitado.

Esta creencia fue evolucionando gradualmente hasta llegar a la formulación moderna de la Trinidad , que es la doctrina de que Dios es una sola entidad ( Yahvé ), pero que existe una trinidad en el ser único de Dios, cuyo significado siempre ha sido debatido. Esta misteriosa "Trinidad" ha sido descrita como hipóstasis en el idioma griego ( subsistencias en latín ) y "personas" en inglés. No obstante, los cristianos enfatizan que solo creen en un Dios.

La mayoría de las iglesias cristianas enseñan la Trinidad, en contraposición a las creencias monoteístas unitarias. Históricamente, la mayoría de las iglesias cristianas han enseñado que la naturaleza de Dios es un misterio , algo que debe revelarse mediante una revelación especial en lugar de deducirse mediante una revelación general .

Las tradiciones cristianas ortodoxas (católica, ortodoxa oriental y protestante) siguen esta idea, que fue codificada en 381 y alcanzó su pleno desarrollo a través del trabajo de los Padres Capadocios . Consideran a Dios como una entidad trina, llamada Trinidad, que comprende las tres "Personas"; Dios Padre , Dios Hijo y Dios Espíritu Santo , descritos como "de la misma sustancia" ( ὁμοούσιος ). Sin embargo, la verdadera naturaleza de un Dios infinito se describe comúnmente como más allá de toda definición, y la palabra "persona" es una expresión imperfecta de la idea.

Algunos críticos sostienen que, debido a la adopción de una concepción tripartita de la deidad, el cristianismo es una forma de triteísmo o politeísmo . Este concepto data de las enseñanzas arrianas que afirmaban que Jesús, al haber aparecido más tarde en la Biblia que su Padre, tenía que ser un dios secundario, menor y, por lo tanto, distinto. Para los judíos y los musulmanes , la idea de Dios como una trinidad es herética : se considera similar al politeísmo . Los cristianos afirman abrumadoramente que el monoteísmo es central para la fe cristiana, ya que el propio Credo de Nicea (entre otros) que da la definición cristiana ortodoxa de la Trinidad comienza con: "Creo en un solo Dios".

En el siglo III, Tertuliano afirmó que Dios existe como el Padre, el Hijo y el Espíritu Santo, las tres personas de una misma sustancia. [32] Para los cristianos trinitarios, Dios Padre no es en absoluto un dios separado de Dios Hijo (de quien Jesús es la encarnación) y el Espíritu Santo, las otras hipóstasis (Personas) de la Deidad cristiana . [32] Según el Credo de Nicea, el Hijo (Jesucristo) es "eternamente engendrado del Padre", lo que indica que su relación divina Padre-Hijo no está ligada a un evento dentro del tiempo o la historia humana.

En el cristianismo , la doctrina de la Trinidad afirma que Dios es un ser que existe, simultánea y eternamente , como una morada mutua de tres Personas: el Padre, el Hijo (encarnado como Jesús) y el Espíritu Santo (o Holy Ghost). Desde el cristianismo primitivo, la salvación de uno ha estado muy estrechamente relacionada con el concepto de un Dios trino, aunque la doctrina trinitaria no se formalizó hasta el siglo IV. En esa época, el emperador Constantino convocó el Primer Concilio de Nicea , al que fueron invitados a asistir todos los obispos del imperio. El papa Silvestre I no asistió, pero envió a su legado . El concilio, entre otras cosas, decretó el Credo Niceno original.

Trinidad

"La Santísima Trinidad" de la Galería Tretiakov, Moscú, de Andrei Rublev , c. 1400, aunque se la conoce más propiamente como "La hospitalidad de Abraham". Los tres ángeles simbolizan la Trinidad.

Para la mayoría de los cristianos, las creencias sobre Dios están consagradas en la doctrina del trinitarismo , que sostiene que las tres personas de Dios juntas forman un solo Dios. La visión trinitaria enfatiza que Dios tiene una voluntad y que Dios el Hijo tiene dos voluntades, divina y humana, aunque estas nunca están en conflicto (ver Unión hipostática ). Sin embargo, este punto es disputado por los cristianos ortodoxos orientales, quienes sostienen que Dios el Hijo tiene solo una voluntad de divinidad y humanidad unificadas (ver Miafisitismo ).

La doctrina cristiana de la Trinidad enseña la unidad del Padre , el Hijo y el Espíritu Santo como tres personas en una sola Deidad . [33] La doctrina afirma que Dios es el Dios Trino, que existe como tres personas , o en el griego hipóstasis , [34] pero un solo ser. [35] La personalidad en la Trinidad no coincide con la comprensión occidental común de "persona" tal como se usa en el idioma inglés: no implica un "centro individual, autorrealizado de libre albedrío y actividad consciente". [36] : 185-186.  Para los antiguos, la personalidad "era en cierto sentido individual, pero siempre en comunidad también". [36] : p.186  Se entiende que cada persona tiene una esencia o naturaleza idéntica, no meramente naturalezas similares. Desde principios del siglo III [37] la doctrina de la Trinidad se ha establecido como "el único Dios existe en tres Personas y una sustancia , Padre, Hijo y Espíritu Santo". [38]

El trinitarismo, la creencia en la Trinidad, es una característica del catolicismo , la ortodoxia oriental y oriental , así como de otras sectas cristianas prominentes que surgieron de la Reforma protestante , como el anglicanismo , el metodismo , el luteranismo , el bautismo y el presbiterianismo . El Diccionario Oxford de la Iglesia Cristiana describe la Trinidad como "el dogma central de la teología cristiana". [38] Esta doctrina contrasta con las posiciones no trinitarias que incluyen el unitarismo , la unicidad y el modalismo . Una pequeña minoría de cristianos sostiene puntos de vista no trinitarios, que en gran medida se enmarcan en el unitarismo .

La mayoría de los cristianos, si no todos, creen que Dios es espíritu, [39] un ser increado, omnipotente y eterno, creador y sustentador de todas las cosas, que obra la redención del mundo por medio de su Hijo, Jesucristo. Con este trasfondo, la creencia en la divinidad de Cristo y del Espíritu Santo se expresa como la doctrina de la Trinidad , [40] que describe la única ousia (sustancia) divina que existe como tres hipóstasis (personas) distintas e inseparables: el Padre , el Hijo ( Jesucristo el Logos ) y el Espíritu Santo . [41]

La mayoría de los cristianos consideran que la doctrina trinitaria es un principio fundamental de su fe. Los no trinitarios suelen sostener que Dios, el Padre, es supremo; que Jesús, aunque sigue siendo el Señor y Salvador divino, es el Hijo de Dios ; y que el Espíritu Santo es un fenómeno similar a la voluntad de Dios en la Tierra. Los tres santos están separados, pero aún se considera que el Hijo y el Espíritu Santo tienen su origen en Dios Padre.

El Nuevo Testamento no tiene el término “Trinidad” y en ningún lugar se habla de la Trinidad como tal. Sin embargo, algunos enfatizan que el Nuevo Testamento sí habla repetidamente del Padre, el Hijo y el Espíritu Santo para “obligar a una comprensión trinitaria de Dios”. [42] La doctrina se desarrolló a partir del lenguaje bíblico utilizado en pasajes del Nuevo Testamento como la fórmula bautismal en Mateo 28:19 y hacia fines del siglo IV era ampliamente aceptada en su forma actual.

Dios el Padre

En muchas religiones monoteístas , a Dios se le llama el padre, en parte debido a su interés activo en los asuntos humanos, de la manera en que un padre se interesaría por sus hijos que dependen de él y, como padre, responderá a la humanidad, a sus hijos, actuando en su mejor interés. [43] En el cristianismo, a Dios se le llama "Padre" en un sentido más literal, además de ser el creador y sustentador de la creación, y el proveedor de sus hijos. [44] Se dice que el Padre está en una relación única con su hijo unigénito ( monogenes ), Jesucristo , lo que implica una familiaridad exclusiva e íntima: "Nadie conoce al Hijo sino el Padre, y nadie conoce al Padre sino el Hijo y aquel a quien el Hijo quiera revelarlo". [45]

En el cristianismo, la relación de Dios Padre con la humanidad es la de un padre con sus hijos —en un sentido nunca antes visto— y no sólo la de creador y sustentador de la creación, y proveedor de sus hijos, su pueblo. Así, a los seres humanos, en general, se les llama a veces hijos de Dios . Para los cristianos, la relación de Dios Padre con la humanidad es la de Creador y seres creados, y en ese sentido es el padre de todos. El Nuevo Testamento dice, en este sentido, que la idea misma de familia, dondequiera que aparezca, deriva su nombre de Dios Padre, [46] y, por tanto, Dios mismo es el modelo de la familia.

Sin embargo, existe un sentido "legal" más profundo en el que los cristianos creen que son hechos partícipes de la relación especial entre Padre e Hijo, a través de Jesucristo como su esposa espiritual . Los cristianos se llaman a sí mismos hijos adoptivos de Dios. [47]

En el Nuevo Testamento, Dios Padre tiene un papel especial en su relación con la persona del Hijo, donde se cree que Jesús es su Hijo y su heredero. [48] Según el Credo de Nicea , el Hijo (Jesucristo) es "eternamente engendrado por el Padre", lo que indica que su relación divina Padre-Hijo no está ligada a un evento dentro del tiempo o la historia humana. Véase Cristología . La Biblia se refiere a Cristo, llamado " El Verbo ", como presente al principio de la creación de Dios, [49] no una creación en sí misma, sino igual en la personalidad de la Trinidad.

En la teología ortodoxa oriental , Dios Padre es el "principium" ( principio ), la "fuente" u "origen" tanto del Hijo como del Espíritu Santo, lo que da un énfasis intuitivo a la trilogía de personas; en comparación, la teología occidental explica el "origen" de las tres hipóstasis o personas como estando en la naturaleza divina, lo que da un énfasis intuitivo a la unidad del ser de Dios. [ cita requerida ]

Cristología y Cristo

La cristología es el campo de estudio dentro de la teología cristiana que se ocupa principalmente de la naturaleza, la persona y las obras de Jesucristo , considerado por los cristianos como el Hijo de Dios . La cristología se ocupa del encuentro de lo humano ( Hijo del Hombre ) y lo divino ( Dios el Hijo o Palabra de Dios ) en la persona de Jesús .

Las consideraciones principales incluyen la Encarnación , la relación de la naturaleza y la persona de Jesús con la naturaleza y la persona de Dios, y la obra salvífica de Jesús. Como tal, la cristología generalmente se preocupa menos por los detalles de la vida de Jesús (lo que hizo) o de las enseñanzas que por quién o qué es él. Ha habido y hay varias perspectivas de quienes afirman ser sus seguidores desde que la iglesia comenzó después de su ascensión. Las controversias se centraron en última instancia en si una naturaleza humana y una naturaleza divina pueden coexistir en una persona y cómo. El estudio de la interrelación de estas dos naturalezas es una de las preocupaciones de la tradición mayoritaria.

En el Nuevo Testamento se encuentran enseñanzas sobre Jesús y testimonios sobre lo que él logró durante su ministerio público de tres años . Las enseñanzas bíblicas centrales sobre la persona de Jesucristo pueden resumirse en que Jesucristo fue y es por siempre completamente Dios (divino) y completamente humano en una persona sin pecado al mismo tiempo, [50] y que a través de la muerte y resurrección de Jesús , los humanos pecadores pueden reconciliarse con Dios y, por lo tanto, se les ofrece la salvación y la promesa de vida eterna a través de su Nuevo Pacto . Si bien ha habido disputas teológicas sobre la naturaleza de Jesús, los cristianos creen que Jesús es Dios encarnado y " verdadero Dios y verdadero hombre " (o ambos completamente divino y completamente humano). Jesús, habiéndose convertido en completamente humano en todos los aspectos, sufrió los dolores y las tentaciones de un hombre mortal, pero no pecó. Como completamente Dios, derrotó a la muerte y resucitó a la vida nuevamente. Las Escrituras afirman que Jesús fue concebido por el Espíritu Santo y nació de su madre virgen María sin un padre humano. [51] Los relatos bíblicos del ministerio de Jesús incluyen milagros , predicación, enseñanza, sanidad , muerte y resurrección . El apóstol Pedro, en lo que se ha convertido en una famosa proclamación de fe entre los cristianos desde el siglo I, dijo: "Tú eres el Cristo, el Hijo de Dios viviente". [52] La mayoría de los cristianos ahora esperan la Segunda Venida de Cristo cuando creen que él cumplirá las profecías mesiánicas restantes .

Cristo

Cristo es el término español para el griego Χριστός ( Khristós ) que significa " el ungido ". [53] Es una traducción del hebreo מָשִׁיחַ ‎ ( Māšîaḥ ), generalmente transliterado al español como Mesías . La palabra a menudo se malinterpreta como el apellido de Jesús debido a las numerosas menciones de Jesucristo en la Biblia cristiana . De hecho, la palabra se usa como título , de ahí su uso recíproco común Cristo Jesús , que significa Jesús el Ungido o Jesús el Mesías. Los seguidores de Jesús llegaron a ser conocidos como cristianos porque creían que Jesús era el Cristo, o Mesías, profetizado en el Antiguo Testamento , o Tanaj .

Concilios ecuménicos trinitarios

Las controversias cristológicas llegaron a su punto álgido en torno a las personas de la Divinidad y su relación entre sí. La cristología fue una preocupación fundamental desde el Primer Concilio de Nicea (325) hasta el Tercer Concilio de Constantinopla (680). En este período, las opiniones cristológicas de varios grupos dentro de la comunidad cristiana más amplia dieron lugar a acusaciones de herejía y, con poca frecuencia, a la persecución religiosa posterior . En algunos casos, la cristología única de una secta es su principal característica distintiva; en estos casos es común que la secta sea conocida por el nombre dado a su cristología.

Las decisiones tomadas en el Primer Concilio de Nicea y ratificadas nuevamente en el Primer Concilio de Constantinopla , después de varias décadas de controversias en curso durante las cuales la obra de Atanasio y los Padres Capadocios fueron influyentes. El lenguaje utilizado fue que el único Dios existe en tres personas (Padre, Hijo y Espíritu Santo); en particular se afirmó que el Hijo era homoousios (de una misma sustancia) con el Padre. El Credo del Concilio de Nicea hizo declaraciones sobre la plena divinidad y plena humanidad de Jesús, preparando así el camino para la discusión sobre cómo exactamente lo divino y lo humano se unen en la persona de Cristo (Cristología).

Nicea insistió en que Jesús era totalmente divino y también humano, pero no aclaró cómo una persona podía ser a la vez divina y humana, ni cómo lo divino y lo humano estaban relacionados dentro de esa persona. Esto condujo a las controversias cristológicas de los siglos IV y V de la era cristiana.

El Credo de Calcedonia no puso fin a todo el debate cristológico, pero sí aclaró los términos utilizados y se convirtió en un punto de referencia para todas las demás cristologías. La mayoría de las principales ramas del cristianismo —catolicismo , ortodoxia oriental , anglicanismo , luteranismo y reforma— suscriben la formulación cristológica de Calcedonia, mientras que muchas ramas del cristianismo oriental —ortodoxia siria , iglesia asiria , ortodoxia copta , ortodoxia etíope y apostolicismo armenio— la rechazan.

Atributos de Cristo

Dios como Hijo

Según la Biblia, la segunda Persona de la Trinidad, debido a su relación eterna con la primera Persona (Dios como Padre), es el Hijo de Dios . Los trinitarios lo consideran coigual al Padre y al Espíritu Santo. Es todo Dios y todo humano : el Hijo de Dios en cuanto a su naturaleza divina, mientras que en cuanto a su naturaleza humana es del linaje de David. [54] [55] El núcleo de la autointerpretación de Jesús fue su "conciencia filial", su relación con Dios como hijo con padre en un sentido único [25] (ver la controversia del Filioque ). Su misión en la tierra resultó ser la de permitir a las personas conocer a Dios como su Padre, lo que los cristianos creen que es la esencia de la vida eterna . [56]

Dios Hijo es la segunda persona de la Trinidad en la teología cristiana. La doctrina de la Trinidad identifica a Jesús de Nazaret como Dios Hijo, unido en esencia pero distinto en persona con respecto a Dios Padre y Dios Espíritu Santo (la primera y tercera personas de la Trinidad). Dios Hijo es coeterno con Dios Padre (y el Espíritu Santo), tanto antes de la Creación como después del Fin (véase Escatología ). Por lo tanto, Jesús siempre fue "Dios Hijo", aunque no se reveló como tal hasta que también se convirtió en el "Hijo de Dios" a través de la encarnación . "Hijo de Dios" llama la atención sobre su humanidad, mientras que "Dios Hijo" se refiere de manera más general a su divinidad, incluida su existencia preencarnada. Por lo tanto, en la teología cristiana, Jesús siempre fue Dios Hijo, [57] aunque no se reveló como tal hasta que también se convirtió en el Hijo de Dios a través de la encarnación .

La frase exacta "Dios el Hijo" no se encuentra en el Nuevo Testamento. El uso teológico posterior de esta expresión refleja lo que llegó a ser la interpretación estándar de las referencias del Nuevo Testamento, entendidas como implicando la divinidad de Jesús, pero la distinción de su persona con la del único Dios al que llamó su Padre. Como tal, el título se asocia más con el desarrollo de la doctrina de la Trinidad que con los debates cristológicos . Hay más de 40 lugares en el Nuevo Testamento donde a Jesús se le da el título de "el Hijo de Dios", pero los eruditos no consideran que esta sea una expresión equivalente. "Dios el Hijo" es rechazado por los antitrinitarios, que ven esta inversión del término más común para Cristo como una perversión doctrinal y como una tendencia hacia el triteísmo .

Mateo cita a Jesús diciendo: «Bienaventurados los pacificadores, porque ellos serán llamados hijos de Dios» (5:9). Los evangelios continúan documentando una gran cantidad de controversias sobre la identidad de Jesús como Hijo de Dios, de una manera única. Sin embargo, el libro de los Hechos de los Apóstoles y las cartas del Nuevo Testamento registran las enseñanzas tempranas de los primeros cristianos, aquellos que creían que Jesús era el Hijo de Dios, el Mesías, un hombre designado por Dios, así como Dios mismo. Esto es evidente en muchos lugares, sin embargo, la primera parte del libro de Hebreos aborda el tema en un argumento deliberado y sostenido, citando las escrituras de la Biblia hebrea como autoridades. Por ejemplo, el autor cita el Salmo 45:6 como dirigido por el Dios de Israel a Jesús.

La descripción que hace el autor de Hebreos de Jesús como la representación exacta del Padre divino tiene paralelos en un pasaje de Colosenses .

El evangelio de Juan cita extensamente a Jesús en relación con su Padre celestial. También contiene dos famosas atribuciones de divinidad a Jesús.

Las referencias más directas a Jesús como Dios se encuentran en varias cartas.

La base bíblica para las declaraciones trinitarias posteriores en los credos es la fórmula del bautismo primitivo que se encuentra en Mateo 28.

Persona de Cristo
Las diversas posiciones cristológicas y sus nombres
¿Solo divino?

El docetismo (del verbo griego parecer ) enseñaba que Jesús era completamente divino y que su cuerpo humano era solo ilusorio. En una etapa muy temprana, surgieron varios grupos docetistas; en particular, las sectas gnósticas que florecieron en el siglo II d. C. tendían a tener teologías docetistas. Las enseñanzas docetistas fueron atacadas por San Ignacio de Antioquía (principios del siglo II), y parecen ser el blanco de las epístolas canónicas de Juan (las fechas son discutidas, pero van desde fines del siglo I entre los eruditos tradicionalistas hasta fines del siglo II entre los eruditos críticos).

El Concilio de Nicea rechazó las teologías que descartaban por completo cualquier humanidad en Cristo, afirmando en el Credo Niceno la doctrina de la Encarnación como parte de la doctrina de la Trinidad , es decir, que la segunda persona de la Trinidad se encarnó en la persona de Jesús y fue plenamente humana.

¿Solo humanos?

En los primeros siglos de la historia cristiana también hubo grupos que se situaron en el otro extremo del espectro, argumentando que Jesús era un mortal común y corriente. Los adopcionistas enseñaban que Jesús nació plenamente humano y fue adoptado como Hijo de Dios cuando Juan el Bautista lo bautizó [58] debido a la vida que vivió . Otro grupo, conocido como los ebionitas , enseñaba que Jesús no era Dios, sino el profeta humano Moshiach (mesías, ungido) prometido en la Biblia hebrea .

Algunas de estas opiniones podrían describirse como unitarismo (aunque ese es un término moderno) por su insistencia en la unicidad de Dios. Estas opiniones, que afectaban directamente la manera en que uno entendía la Divinidad, fueron declaradas herejías por el Concilio de Nicea. A lo largo de gran parte del resto de la historia antigua del cristianismo, las cristologías que negaban la divinidad de Cristo dejaron de tener un impacto importante en la vida de la iglesia.

¿Cómo puede ser ambas cosas?
¿Qué clase de divinidad?

El arrianismo afirmaba que Jesús era divino, pero enseñaba que, no obstante, era un ser creado ( hubo [un tiempo] en que no [existía] ), y, por lo tanto, era menos divino que Dios Padre. La cuestión se reducía a un ápice; el arrianismo enseñaba Homo i ousia —la creencia de que la divinidad de Jesús es similar a la de Dios Padre— en oposición a Homoousia —la creencia de que la divinidad de Jesús es la misma que la de Dios Padre—. Los oponentes de Arrio incluyeron además en el término arrianismo la creencia de que la divinidad de Jesús es diferente de la de Dios Padre ( Heteroousia ).

El arrianismo fue condenado por el Concilio de Nicea, pero siguió siendo popular en las provincias del norte y el oeste del imperio y continuó siendo la opinión mayoritaria en Europa occidental hasta bien entrado el siglo VI. De hecho, incluso la leyenda cristiana del bautismo de Constantino en su lecho de muerte incluye a un obispo que, según la historia registrada, era arriano.

En la era moderna, varias denominaciones han rechazado la doctrina nicena de la Trinidad, incluidos los Cristadelfianos y los Testigos de Jehová . [59]

¿Qué tipo de fusión?

Los debates cristológicos posteriores al Concilio de Nicea buscaron dar sentido a la interacción de lo humano y lo divino en la persona de Cristo, al tiempo que defendían la doctrina de la Trinidad. Apolinar de Laodicea (310-390) enseñó que en Jesús, el componente divino tomó el lugar del nous humano ( pensamiento , que no debe confundirse con thelis , que significa intención ). Sin embargo, esto fue visto como una negación de la verdadera humanidad de Jesús, y la visión fue condenada en el Primer Concilio de Constantinopla .

Posteriormente, Nestorio de Constantinopla (386-451) inició una visión que efectivamente separó a Jesús en dos personas: una divina y otra humana; el mecanismo de esta combinación se conoce como hipóstasis , y contrasta con la hipóstasis , la visión de que no hay separación. La teología de Nestorio fue considerada herética en el Primer Concilio de Éfeso (431). Aunque, como se ve en los escritos de Babai el Grande , la cristología de la Iglesia de Oriente es muy similar a la de Calcedonia, muchos cristianos ortodoxos (particularmente en Occidente) consideran que este grupo es la perpetuación del nestorianismo ; la moderna Iglesia asiria de Oriente ha rechazado en ocasiones este término, ya que implica la aceptación de toda la teología de Nestorio.

Varias formas de monofisismo enseñaron que Cristo tenía una sola naturaleza: que la divina se había disuelto ( eutiquianismo ), o que la divina se había unido con la humana como una sola naturaleza en la persona de Cristo ( miafisitismo ). Un notable teólogo monofisita fue Eutiques ( c.  380-456 ). El monofisismo fue rechazado como herejía en el Concilio de Calcedonia en 451, que afirmó que Jesucristo tenía dos naturalezas (divina y humana) unidas en una persona, en unión hipostática (véase Credo calcedoniano ). Mientras que el eutiquianismo fue suprimido hasta el olvido por los calcedonios y los miafisitas, los grupos miafisitas que disintieron de la fórmula calcedonia han persistido como la Iglesia Ortodoxa Oriental .

A medida que los teólogos continuaron buscando un compromiso entre la definición calcedonia y los monofisitas , se desarrollaron otras cristologías que rechazaban parcialmente la humanidad plena de Cristo. El monotelismo enseñaba que en la persona única de Jesús había dos naturalezas, pero solo una voluntad divina. Estrechamente relacionado con esto está el monoenergismo , que sostenía la misma doctrina que los monotelitas, pero con diferente terminología. Estas posiciones fueron declaradas herejía por el Tercer Concilio de Constantinopla (el Sexto Concilio Ecuménico , 680-681).

Encarnación

La encarnación es la creencia en el cristianismo de que la segunda persona de la divinidad cristiana , también conocida como Dios Hijo o el Logos (Verbo), "se hizo carne" cuando fue concebida milagrosamente en el vientre de la Virgen María . La palabra encarnar deriva del latín (in=en o dentro, caro, carnis=carne) que significa "hacer carne" o "convertirse en carne". La encarnación es una enseñanza teológica fundamental del cristianismo ortodoxo (niceno) , basada en su comprensión del Nuevo Testamento . La encarnación representa la creencia de que Jesús, que es la segunda hipóstasis no creada del Dios trino , tomó un cuerpo y una naturaleza humanos y se convirtió en hombre y Dios . En la Biblia su enseñanza más clara está en Juan 1:14: "Y el Verbo se hizo carne, y habitó entre nosotros". [60]

Jesús, considerado a la vez hombre y Dios, cuadro de Carl Heinrich Bloch

En la Encarnación, tal como se define tradicionalmente, la naturaleza divina del Hijo se unió, pero no se mezcló, con la naturaleza humana [61] en una sola Persona divina, Jesucristo , que era a la vez «verdaderamente Dios y verdaderamente hombre». La Encarnación se conmemora y celebra cada año en Navidad , y también se puede hacer referencia a la Fiesta de la Anunciación ; en Navidad y en la Anunciación se celebran «diferentes aspectos del misterio de la Encarnación». [62]

Este es un aspecto central de la fe tradicional de la mayoría de los cristianos. A lo largo de los siglos se han propuesto puntos de vista alternativos sobre el tema (véase Los ebionitas y el Evangelio según los hebreos ) (véase más adelante), pero todos fueron rechazados por los principales organismos cristianos .

En las últimas décadas, una doctrina alternativa conocida como " Unicidad " ha sido adoptada entre varios grupos pentecostales (ver más abajo), pero ha sido rechazada por el resto de la cristiandad .

Descripción y desarrollo de la doctrina tradicional

En la era cristiana primitiva , existía un considerable desacuerdo entre los cristianos sobre la naturaleza de la Encarnación de Cristo. Si bien todos los cristianos creían que Jesús era en verdad el Hijo de Dios , se discutía la naturaleza exacta de su filiación, junto con la relación precisa de " Padre ", "Hijo" y " Espíritu Santo " a la que se hace referencia en el Nuevo Testamento. Aunque Jesús era claramente el "Hijo", ¿qué significaba esto exactamente? El debate sobre este tema se extendió sobre todo durante los primeros cuatro siglos del cristianismo, en el que participaron cristianos judíos , gnósticos , seguidores del presbítero Arrio de Alejandra y seguidores de San Atanasio el Grande , entre otros.

Finalmente, la Iglesia cristiana aceptó la enseñanza de San Atanasio y sus aliados, de que Cristo era la encarnación de la segunda persona eterna de la Trinidad , que era completamente Dios y completamente hombre simultáneamente. Todas las creencias divergentes fueron definidas como herejías . Esto incluía el docetismo , que decía que Jesús era un ser divino que tomó apariencia humana pero no carne; el arrianismo , que sostenía que Cristo era un ser creado; y el nestorianismo , que sostenía que el Hijo de Dios y el hombre, Jesús, compartían el mismo cuerpo pero conservaban dos naturalezas separadas . La creencia de la Unicidad sostenida por ciertas iglesias pentecostales modernas también es vista como herética por la mayoría de los organismos cristianos convencionales.

Las definiciones más ampliamente aceptadas de la Encarnación y la naturaleza de Jesús que la Iglesia cristiana primitiva hizo en el Primer Concilio de Nicea en 325, el Concilio de Éfeso en 431 y el Concilio de Calcedonia en 451. Estos concilios declararon que Jesús era a la vez completamente Dios: engendrado, pero no creado por el Padre; y completamente hombre: tomó su carne y naturaleza humana de la Virgen María . Estas dos naturalezas, humana y divina, estaban hipostáticamente unidas en la única persona de Jesucristo. [63]

Encarnación fortuita y necesaria

El vínculo entre la Encarnación y la Expiación dentro del pensamiento teológico sistemático es complejo. Dentro de los modelos tradicionales de la Expiación, como la Sustitución , la Satisfacción o el Christus Victor , Cristo debe ser Divino para que el Sacrificio de la Cruz sea eficaz, para que los pecados humanos sean "eliminados" o "vencidos". En su obra La Trinidad y el Reino de Dios , Jürgen Moltmann diferenció entre lo que llamó una Encarnación "fortuita" y una "necesaria". La última da un énfasis soteriológico a la Encarnación: el Hijo de Dios se hizo hombre para poder salvarnos de nuestros pecados. El primero, por otro lado, habla de la Encarnación como un cumplimiento del Amor de Dios , de su deseo de estar presente y vivir en medio de la humanidad, de "caminar en el jardín" con nosotros.

Moltmann favorece la encarnación "fortuita" principalmente porque considera que hablar de una encarnación "necesaria" es hacerle una injusticia a la vida de Cristo . El trabajo de Moltmann, junto con otros teólogos sistemáticos, abre caminos para la cristología de la liberación .

Unión hipostática
Una representación de Jesús y María, la Theotokos de Vladimir (siglo XII)

En resumen, esta doctrina afirma que dos naturalezas, una humana y otra divina, están unidas en la única persona de Cristo. El Concilio enseñó además que cada una de estas naturalezas, la humana y la divina, era distinta y completa. Esta visión es a veces llamada diofisita (que significa dos naturalezas) por quienes la rechazan.

La unión hipostática (del griego sustancia) es un término técnico de la teología cristiana empleado en la cristología convencional para describir la unión de dos naturalezas, la humanidad y la divinidad, en Jesucristo. Una breve definición de la doctrina de las dos naturalezas puede darse como: "Jesucristo, que es idéntico al Hijo, es una persona y una hipóstasis en dos naturalezas: una humana y una divina". [64]

El Primer Concilio de Éfeso reconoció esta doctrina y afirmó su importancia, afirmando que la humanidad y la divinidad de Cristo se hacen una según la naturaleza y la hipóstasis en el Logos .

El Primer Concilio de Nicea declaró que el Padre y el Hijo son de la misma sustancia y coeternos. Esta creencia se expresó en el Credo Niceno.

Apolinar de Laodicea fue el primero en utilizar el término hipóstasis al intentar comprender la Encarnación . [65] Apolinar describió la unión de lo divino y lo humano en Cristo como una sola naturaleza y con una sola esencia: una sola hipóstasis.

El nestoriano Teodoro de Mopsuestia fue en la dirección opuesta, argumentando que en Cristo había dos naturalezas ( diofisita ) (humana y divina) y dos hipóstasis (en el sentido de "esencia" o "persona") que coexistían. [66]

El Credo de Calcedonia coincidía con Teodoro en que había dos naturalezas en la Encarnación . Sin embargo, el Concilio de Calcedonia también insistió en que se utilizara hipóstasis tal como estaba en la definición trinitaria: para indicar la persona y no la naturaleza como en el caso de Apolinar.

Así, pues, el Concilio declaró que en Cristo hay dos naturalezas, cada una de las cuales conserva sus propias propiedades y juntas están unidas en una sola subsistencia y en una sola persona. [67]

Como se considera que la naturaleza precisa de esta unión desafía la comprensión humana finita, la unión hipostática también se conoce con el término alternativo de "unión mística".

Las Iglesias ortodoxas orientales , que habían rechazado el credo de Calcedonia, eran conocidas como monofisitas porque sólo aceptaban una definición que caracterizara al Hijo encarnado como poseedor de una sola naturaleza. La fórmula calcedonia de "dos naturalezas" se consideraba derivada de la cristología nestoriana y afín a ella . [68] Por el contrario, los calcedonios veían a los ortodoxos orientales como tendientes al monofisismo eutiquiano . Sin embargo, los ortodoxos orientales han especificado en el diálogo ecuménico moderno que nunca han creído en las doctrinas de Eutiques, que siempre han afirmado que la humanidad de Cristo es consustancial con la nuestra, y por ello prefieren el término "miafisita" para referirse a sí mismos (una referencia a la cristología ciriliana, que utilizaba la frase "mia physis tou theou logou sesarkomene").

En los últimos tiempos, los líderes de las Iglesias Ortodoxa Oriental y Ortodoxa Oriental han firmado declaraciones conjuntas en un intento de trabajar por la reunificación.

Otras preocupaciones cristológicas
La impecabilidad de Cristo

Aunque la ortodoxia cristiana sostiene que Jesús era plenamente humano, la Epístola a los Hebreos , por ejemplo, afirma que Cristo era “santo y sin maldad” (7:26). La cuestión relativa a la impecabilidad de Jesucristo se centra en esta aparente paradoja. ¿Ser plenamente humano requiere que uno participe en la “caída” de Adán , o podría Jesús existir en un estado “no caído” como lo hicieron Adán y Eva antes de la “caída”, según Génesis 2-3?

Tipos de impecabilidad

El escritor evangélico Donald Macleod sugiere que la naturaleza sin pecado de Jesucristo implica dos elementos. “Primero, Cristo estaba libre de pecado actual” [69] . Al estudiar los evangelios no hay ninguna referencia a que Jesús orara por el perdón de los pecados ni a que los confesara. La afirmación es que Jesús no cometió pecado, ni se le podía probar que era culpable de pecado; no tenía vicios. De hecho, se le cita preguntando: “¿Puede alguno de ustedes probar que soy culpable de pecado?” en Juan 8:46. “Segundo, estaba libre de pecado inherente (“ pecado original ” o “ pecado ancestral ”)”. [69]

La tentación de Cristo

La tentación de Cristo que se muestra en los evangelios confirma que fue tentado. De hecho, las tentaciones fueron genuinas y de una intensidad mayor que la que normalmente experimentan los seres humanos. [70] Experimentó todas las frágiles debilidades de la humanidad. Jesús fue tentado por el hambre y la sed, el dolor y el amor de sus amigos. Así, las debilidades humanas podían engendrar tentaciones. [71] Sin embargo, MacLeod señala que "un aspecto crucial en el que Cristo no era como nosotros es que no fue tentado por nada dentro de sí mismo". [71]

Las tentaciones que Cristo enfrentó se centraron en su persona e identidad como el Hijo encarnado de Dios. MacLeod escribe: “Cristo podía ser tentado a través de su condición de hijo”. La tentación en el desierto y nuevamente en Getsemaní ejemplifica este ámbito de tentación . Con respecto a la tentación de realizar una señal que afirmara su condición de hijo arrojándose desde el pináculo del templo, MacLeod observa: “La señal era para sí mismo: una tentación de buscar seguridad, como si dijera: ‘La verdadera cuestión es mi propia condición de hijo. Debo olvidar todo lo demás y a todos los demás y todo servicio posterior hasta que eso esté claro ” . [72] MacLeod coloca esta lucha en el contexto de la encarnación: “… se ha convertido en un hombre y debe aceptar no solo la apariencia sino la realidad”. [72]

Comunicación de atributos

La comunión de atributos ( Communicatio idiomatum ) de las naturalezas divina y humana de Cristo se entiende, según la teología calcedonia, como que ambas existen juntas sin que ninguna prevalezca sobre la otra. Es decir, ambas se conservan y coexisten en una sola persona. Cristo tenía todas las propiedades de Dios y de la humanidad. Dios no dejó de ser Dios para convertirse en hombre. Cristo no era mitad Dios y mitad humano. Las dos naturalezas no se mezclaron en una nueva tercera clase de naturaleza. Aunque independientes, actuaron en completo acuerdo; cuando una naturaleza actuaba, también lo hacía la otra. Las naturalezas no se mezclaron, fusionaron, se infundieron entre sí ni se reemplazaron entre sí. Una no se convirtió en la otra. Permanecieron distintas (pero actuaron de común acuerdo).

Nacimiento virginal
Puertas Santas del Monasterio de Santa Catalina , Monte Sinaí, que representan la Anunciación ,  siglo XII aproximadamente

El Evangelio según Mateo y el Evangelio según Lucas sugieren un nacimiento virginal de Jesucristo. Algunos hoy en día hacen caso omiso de esta "doctrina" a la que se adhieren la mayoría de las denominaciones del cristianismo o incluso la rechazan. Esta sección analiza las cuestiones cristológicas en torno a la creencia o no en el nacimiento virginal.

Un nacimiento no virginal parecería requerir alguna forma de adopcionismo , ya que una concepción y un nacimiento humanos parecerían producir un Jesús completamente humano, con algún otro mecanismo necesario para que Jesús sea divino también.

Un nacimiento no virginal parecería apoyar la plena humanidad de Jesús. William Barclay afirma: “El problema supremo del nacimiento virginal es que indudablemente diferencia a Jesús de todos los hombres; nos deja con una encarnación incompleta”. [73]

Barth habla del nacimiento virginal como del signo divino «que acompaña e indica el misterio de la encarnación del Hijo». [74]

Donald MacLeod [75] ofrece varias implicaciones cristológicas de un nacimiento virginal:

Relación de personas

La discusión sobre si las tres personas distintas en la Deidad de la Trinidad eran mayores, iguales o menores en comparación también fue, como muchas otras áreas de la cristología primitiva, un tema de debate. En los escritos de Atenágoras de Atenas ( c.  133-190 ) encontramos una doctrina trinitaria muy desarrollada. [76] [77] En un extremo del espectro estaba el modalismo , una doctrina que afirmaba que las tres personas de la Trinidad eran iguales hasta el punto de borrar sus diferencias y distinciones. En el otro extremo del espectro estaban el triteísmo , así como algunas opiniones radicalmente subordinacionistas , las últimas de las cuales enfatizaban la primacía del Padre de la Creación sobre la deidad de Cristo y la autoridad de Jesús sobre el Espíritu Santo. Durante el Concilio de Nicea, los obispos modalistas de Roma y Alejandría se alinearon políticamente con Atanasio; mientras que los obispos de Constantinopla (Nicomedia), Antioquía y Jerusalén se pusieron del lado de los subordinacionistas como punto medio entre Arrio y Atanasio.

Aproximaciones a la cristología

Teólogos como Jürgen Moltmann y Walter Kasper han caracterizado las cristologías como antropológicas o cosmológicas. Estas también se denominan "cristología desde abajo" y "cristología desde arriba", respectivamente. Una cristología antropológica comienza con la persona humana de Jesús y trabaja a partir de su vida y ministerio hacia lo que significa para él ser divino; mientras que una cristología cosmológica trabaja en la dirección opuesta. Partiendo del Logos eterno, una cristología cosmológica trabaja hacia su humanidad. Los teólogos suelen empezar por un lado o por el otro y su elección inevitablemente colorea la cristología resultante. Como punto de partida, estas opciones representan enfoques "diversos pero complementarios"; cada uno plantea sus propias dificultades. Tanto la cristología "desde arriba" como la "desde abajo" deben llegar a un acuerdo con las dos naturalezas de Cristo: humana y divina. Así como la luz puede percibirse como una onda o como una partícula, así Jesús debe ser pensado en términos tanto de su divinidad como de su humanidad. No se puede hablar de "o esto o aquello", sino que se debe hablar de "ambos y". [78]

Enfoques cosmológicos

Las cristologías desde arriba parten del Logos, la segunda Persona de la Trinidad, establecen su eternidad, su acción en la creación y su filiación económica. La unidad de Jesús con Dios se establece mediante la Encarnación, cuando el Logos divino asume una naturaleza humana. Este enfoque era común en la iglesia primitiva, por ejemplo, San Pablo y San Juan en los Evangelios. La atribución de plena humanidad a Jesús se resuelve afirmando que las dos naturalezas comparten mutuamente sus propiedades (un concepto denominado communicatio idiomatum ). [79]

Enfoques antropológicos

Las cristologías desde abajo parten del ser humano Jesús como representante de la nueva humanidad, no del Logos preexistente. Jesús vive una vida ejemplar, a la que aspiramos en la experiencia religiosa. Esta forma de cristología se presta al misticismo, y algunas de sus raíces se remontan al surgimiento del misticismo de Cristo en Oriente en el siglo VI, pero en Occidente floreció entre los siglos XI y XIV. Un teólogo reciente, Wolfhart Pannenberg, sostiene que el Jesús resucitado es el "cumplimiento escatológico del destino humano de vivir en proximidad a Dios". [80]

Enfoques políticos

La fe cristiana es inherentemente política porque la lealtad a Jesús como Señor resucitado relativiza todo gobierno y autoridad terrenales. A Jesús se lo llama “Señor” más de 230 veces en las epístolas de Pablo solamente, y es por lo tanto la principal confesión de fe en las epístolas paulinas. Además, NT Wright sostiene que esta confesión paulina es el núcleo del evangelio de salvación. El talón de Aquiles de este enfoque es la pérdida de la tensión escatológica entre esta era presente y el gobierno divino futuro que está por venir. Esto puede suceder cuando el estado coopta la autoridad de Cristo, como fue a menudo el caso en la cristología imperial. Las cristologías políticas modernas buscan superar las ideologías imperialistas. [81]

Obras de Cristo

Resurrección de Jesús
La resurrección de Cristo de Carl Heinrich Bloch , 1875.

La resurrección es quizás el aspecto más controvertido de la vida de Jesucristo. El cristianismo se apoya en este punto de la cristología, tanto como respuesta a una historia particular como respuesta confesional. [82] Algunos cristianos afirman que, debido a que resucitó, el futuro del mundo cambió para siempre. La mayoría de los cristianos creen que la resurrección de Jesús trae la reconciliación con Dios (2 Corintios 5:18), la destrucción de la muerte (1 Corintios 15:26) y el perdón de los pecados para los seguidores de Jesucristo.

Después de que Jesús murió y fue enterrado, el Nuevo Testamento afirma que se apareció a otros en forma corporal. Algunos escépticos dicen que sus apariciones solo fueron percibidas por sus seguidores en mente o espíritu. Los evangelios afirman que los discípulos creyeron haber presenciado el cuerpo resucitado de Jesús y eso condujo al comienzo de la fe. Anteriormente se habían escondido por temor a la persecución después de la muerte de Jesús. Después de ver a Jesús, proclamaron con valentía el mensaje de Jesucristo a pesar del tremendo riesgo. Obedecieron el mandato de Jesús de reconciliarse con Dios mediante el arrepentimiento (Lucas 24:47), el bautismo y la obediencia (Mateo 28:19-20).

Oficios de profeta, sacerdote y rey

Jesucristo, el Mediador de la humanidad, cumple los tres oficios de Profeta, Sacerdote y Rey . Eusebio , de la iglesia primitiva, elaboró ​​esta triple clasificación, que durante la Reforma desempeñó un papel sustancial en la cristología luterana escolástica y en la cristología de Juan Calvino [83] y Juan Wesley [84] .

Neumatología: Espíritu Santo

La pneumatología es el estudio del Espíritu Santo . Pneuma (πνεῦμα) es la palabra griega para " aliento ", que describe metafóricamente un ser o influencia no material. En la teología cristiana, la pneumatología se refiere al estudio del Espíritu Santo . En el cristianismo , el Espíritu Santo (o Espíritu Santo) es el Espíritu de Dios . Dentro de las creencias cristianas dominantes (trinitarias), es la tercera persona de la Trinidad . Como parte de la Deidad , el Espíritu Santo es igual a Dios Padre y a Dios Hijo . La teología cristiana del Espíritu Santo fue la última pieza de la teología trinitaria en desarrollarse por completo.

Dentro del cristianismo convencional (trinitario), el Espíritu Santo es una de las tres personas de la Trinidad que conforman la única sustancia de Dios. Como tal, el Espíritu Santo es personal y, como parte de la Deidad , es plenamente Dios, coigual y coeterno con Dios Padre e Hijo de Dios . [85] [86] [87] Es diferente del Padre y del Hijo en que procede del Padre (o del Padre y del Hijo ) como se describe en el Credo de Nicea . [86] Su santidad se refleja en los evangelios del Nuevo Testamento [88] que proclaman la blasfemia contra el Espíritu Santo como imperdonable .

La palabra inglesa proviene de dos palabras griegas: πνευμα ( pneuma , espíritu) y λογος ( logos , enseñanza acerca de). La pneumatología normalmente incluiría el estudio de la persona del Espíritu Santo y las obras del Espíritu Santo. Esta última categoría normalmente incluiría las enseñanzas cristianas sobre el nuevo nacimiento , los dones espirituales (charismata), el bautismo en el Espíritu , la santificación , la inspiración de los profetas y la morada de la Santísima Trinidad (que en sí misma cubre muchos aspectos diferentes). Diferentes denominaciones cristianas tienen diferentes enfoques teológicos.

Los cristianos creen que el Espíritu Santo conduce a las personas a la fe en Jesús y les da la capacidad de vivir un estilo de vida cristiano . El Espíritu Santo habita dentro de cada cristiano, siendo el cuerpo de cada uno su templo. [89] Jesús describió al Espíritu Santo [90] como paracletus en latín , derivado del griego . La palabra se traduce de diversas formas como Consolador, Consejero, Maestro, Abogado, [91] guiando a las personas en el camino de la verdad. Se cree que la acción del Espíritu Santo en la vida de uno produce resultados positivos, conocidos como el Fruto del Espíritu Santo . El Espíritu Santo permite a los cristianos, que todavía experimentan los efectos del pecado, hacer cosas que nunca podrían hacer por sí mismos. Estos dones espirituales no son habilidades innatas "desbloqueadas" por el Espíritu Santo, sino habilidades completamente nuevas, como la capacidad de expulsar demonios o simplemente el habla atrevida. A través de la influencia del Espíritu Santo, una persona ve más claramente el mundo que lo rodea y puede usar su mente y su cuerpo de maneras que exceden su capacidad anterior. Una lista de dones que pueden ser otorgados incluye los dones carismáticos de profecía , lenguas , sanidad y conocimiento. Los cristianos que sostienen una perspectiva conocida como cesacionismo creen que estos dones fueron otorgados solo en tiempos del Nuevo Testamento. Los cristianos casi universalmente están de acuerdo en que ciertos " dones espirituales " todavía están vigentes hoy, incluyendo los dones de ministerio, enseñanza, generosidad, liderazgo y misericordia. [92] La experiencia del Espíritu Santo a veces se conoce como ser ungido .

Después de su resurrección , Cristo dijo a sus discípulos que serían « bautizados con el Espíritu Santo» y recibirían poder de este acontecimiento, [93] promesa que se cumplió en los acontecimientos relatados en el segundo capítulo de los Hechos. En el primer Pentecostés , los discípulos de Jesús estaban reunidos en Jerusalén cuando se oyó un fuerte viento y aparecieron lenguas de fuego sobre sus cabezas. Una multitud multilingüe escuchó hablar a los discípulos, y cada uno de ellos los oyó hablar en su lengua materna .

Se cree que el Espíritu Santo desempeña funciones divinas específicas en la vida del cristiano o de la iglesia, entre ellas:

También se cree que el Espíritu Santo está activo especialmente en la vida de Jesucristo , permitiéndole cumplir su obra en la tierra. Algunas de las acciones particulares del Espíritu Santo son:

Fruto del Espíritu

Los cristianos creen que el “ fruto del Espíritu ” consiste en características virtuosas engendradas en el cristiano por la acción del Espíritu Santo. Son las que se enumeran en Gálatas 5:22-23: “Mas el fruto del Espíritu es amor , gozo , paz , paciencia , benignidad , bondad , fe , mansedumbre y templanza .” [100] La Iglesia Católica Romana añade a esta lista la generosidad , la modestia y la castidad . [101]

Dones del Espíritu

Los cristianos creen que el Espíritu Santo da "dones" a los cristianos. Estos dones consisten en habilidades específicas otorgadas al cristiano individual. [95] Con frecuencia se los conoce por la palabra griega para don, Charisma , de la cual se deriva el término carismático . El Nuevo Testamento proporciona tres listas diferentes de tales dones que van desde los sobrenaturales (curación, profecía, lenguas ) pasando por los asociados con llamamientos específicos (enseñanza) hasta los que se esperan de todos los cristianos en algún grado (fe). La mayoría considera que estas listas no son exhaustivas, y otros han compilado sus propias listas. San Ambrosio escribió sobre los siete dones del Espíritu Santo derramados sobre un creyente en el bautismo: 1. Espíritu de sabiduría; 2. Espíritu de entendimiento; 3. Espíritu de consejo; 4. Espíritu de fortaleza; 5. Espíritu de conocimiento; 6. Espíritu de piedad; 7. Espíritu de santo temor . [102]

Es sobre la naturaleza y ocurrencia de estos dones, particularmente los dones sobrenaturales (a veces llamados dones carismáticos), que existe el mayor desacuerdo entre los cristianos con respecto al Espíritu Santo.

Una de las opiniones es que los dones sobrenaturales fueron una dispensación especial para las eras apostólicas, otorgados debido a las condiciones únicas de la iglesia en ese momento, y que son extremadamente raramente otorgados en el tiempo presente. [103] Esta es la opinión de algunos en la Iglesia Católica [87] y muchos otros grupos cristianos tradicionales. La opinión alternativa, adoptada principalmente por las denominaciones pentecostales y el movimiento carismático, es que la ausencia de los dones sobrenaturales se debió a la negligencia del Espíritu Santo y su obra por parte de la iglesia. Aunque algunos grupos pequeños, como los montanistas , practicaron los dones sobrenaturales, eran raros hasta el crecimiento del movimiento pentecostal a fines del siglo XIX. [103]

Los creyentes en la relevancia de los dones sobrenaturales a veces hablan de un bautismo del Espíritu Santo o de una llenura del Espíritu Santo que el cristiano necesita experimentar para recibir esos dones. Muchas iglesias sostienen que el bautismo del Espíritu Santo es idéntico a la conversión, y que todos los cristianos son, por definición, bautizados en el Espíritu Santo. [103]

Cosmología: Cosas creadas

Y dijo Dios: Sea la luz; y fue la luz. Y vio Dios que la luz era buena; y separó Dios la luz de las tinieblas. Y llamó Dios a la luz Día, y a las tinieblas llamó Noche. Y fue la tarde y la mañana un día. Génesis 1:3-5

Los distintos autores del Antiguo y Nuevo Testamento nos ofrecen una visión de su visión de la cosmología . El cosmos fue creado por Dios por orden divina, según el relato más conocido y completo de la Biblia, el de Génesis 1.

Mundo

Sin embargo, dentro de este amplio entendimiento hay una serie de puntos de vista sobre cómo exactamente debe interpretarse esta doctrina.

Es un principio de la fe cristiana (católica, ortodoxa oriental y protestante) que Dios es el creador de todas las cosas de la nada y ha hecho a los seres humanos a imagen de Dios , quien por inferencia directa es también la fuente del alma humana . En la cristología calcedonia , Jesús es la Palabra de Dios , que era en el principio y, por lo tanto, es increada, y por lo tanto es Dios , y en consecuencia idéntico al Creador del mundo ex nihilo .

Roman Catholicism uses the phrase special creation to refer to the doctrine of immediate or special creation of each human soul. In 2004, the International Theological Commission, then under the presidency of Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, published a paper in which it accepts the current scientific accounts of the history of the universe commencing in the Big Bang about 15 billion years ago and of the evolution of all life on earth including humans from the micro organisms commencing about 4 billion years ago.[104] The Roman Catholic Church allows for both a literal and allegorical interpretation of Genesis, so as to allow for the possibility of Creation by means of an evolutionary process over great spans of time, otherwise known as theistic evolution.[dubiousdiscuss] It believes that the creation of the world is a work of God through the Logos, the Word (idea, intelligence, reason and logic):

"In the beginning was the Word...and the Word was God...all things were made through him, and without him was not anything made that was made."

The New Testament claims that God created everything by the eternal Word, Jesus Christ his beloved Son. In him

"all things were created, in heaven and on earth.. . all things were created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all things hold together."[105]

Anthropology: Humanity

Christian anthropology is the study of humanity, especially as it relates to the divine. This theological anthropology refers to the study of the human ("anthropology") as it relates to God. It differs from the social science of anthropology, which primarily deals with the comparative study of the physical and social characteristics of humanity across times and places.

One aspect studies the innate nature or constitution of the human, known as the nature of mankind. It is concerned with the relationship between notions such as body, soul and spirit which together form a person, based on their descriptions in the Bible. There are three traditional views of the human constitution– trichotomism, dichotomism and monism (in the sense of anthropology).[106]

Components

Soul

The semantic domain of Biblical soul is based on the Hebrew word nepes, which presumably means "breath" or "breathing being".[107] This word never means an immortal soul[108] or an incorporeal part of the human being[109] that can survive death of the body as the spirit of dead.[110] This word usually designates the person as a whole[111] or its physical life. In the Septuagint nepes is mostly translated as psyche (ψυχή) and, exceptionally, in the Book of Joshua as empneon (ἔμπνεον), that is "breathing being".[112]

The New Testament follows the terminology of the Septuagint, and thus uses the word psyche with the Hebrew semantic domain and not the Greek,[113] that is an invisible power (or ever more, for Platonists, immortal and immaterial) that gives life and motion to the body and is responsible for its attributes.

In Patristic thought, towards the end of the 2nd century psyche was understood in more a Greek than a Hebrew way, and it was contrasted with the body. In the 3rd century, with the influence of Origen, there was the establishing of the doctrine of the inherent immortality of the soul and its divine nature.[114] Origen also taught the transmigration of the souls and their preexistence, but these views were officially rejected in 553 in the Fifth Ecumenical Council. Inherent immortality of the soul was accepted among western and eastern theologians throughout the middle ages, and after the Reformation, as evidenced by the Westminster Confession.

Spirit

The spirit (Hebrew ruach, Greek πνεῦμα, pneuma, which can also mean "breath") is likewise an immaterial component. It is often used interchangeably with "soul", psyche, although trichotomists believe that the spirit is distinct from the soul.

"When Paul speaks of the pneuma of man he does not mean some higher principle within him or some special intellectual or spiritual faculty of his, but simply his self, and the only questions is whether the self is regarded in some particular aspect when it is called pneuma. In the first place, it apparently is regarded in the same way as when it is called psyche– viz. as the self that lives in man's attitude, in the orientation of his will."[115]
Body, Flesh

The body (Greek σῶμα soma) is the corporeal or physical aspect of a human being. Christians have traditionally believed that the body will be resurrected at the end of the age.

Flesh (Greek σάρξ, sarx) is usually considered synonymous with "body", referring to the corporeal aspect of a human being. The apostle Paul contrasts flesh and spirit in Romans 7–8.

Origin of humanity

The Bible teaches in the book of Genesis the humans were created by God. Some Christians believe that this must have involved a miraculous creative act, while others are comfortable with the idea that God worked through the evolutionary process.

The book of Genesis also teaches that human beings, male and female, were created in the image of God. The exact meaning of this has been debated throughout church history.

Death and afterlife

Christian anthropology has implications for beliefs about death and the afterlife. The Christian church has traditionally taught that the soul of each individual separates from the body at death, to be reunited at the resurrection. This is closely related to the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. For example, the Westminster Confession (chapter XXXII) states:

"The bodies of men, after death, return to dust, and see corruption: but their souls, which neither die nor sleep, having an immortal subsistence, immediately return to God who gave them"
Intermediate state

The question then arises: where exactly does the disembodied soul "go" at death? Theologians refer to this subject as the intermediate state. The Old Testament speaks of a place called sheol where the spirits of the dead reside. In the New Testament, hades, the classical Greek realm of the dead, takes the place of sheol. In particular, Jesus teaches in Luke 16:19–31 (Lazarus and Dives) that hades consists of two separate "sections", one for the righteous and one for the unrighteous. His teaching is consistent with intertestamental Jewish thought on the subject.[116]

Fully developed Christian theology goes a step further; on the basis of such texts as Luke 23:43 and Philippians 1:23, it has traditionally been taught that the souls of the dead are received immediately either into heaven or hell, where they will experience a foretaste of their eternal destiny prior to the resurrection. (Roman Catholicism teaches a third possible location, Purgatory, though this is denied by Protestants and Eastern Orthodox.)

"the souls of the righteous, being then made perfect in holiness, are received into the highest heavens, where they behold the face of God, in light and glory, waiting for the full redemption of their bodies. And the souls of the wicked are cast into hell, where they remain in torments and utter darkness, reserved to the judgment of the great day." (Westminster Confession)

Some Christian groups which stress a monistic anthropology deny that the soul can exist consciously apart from the body. For example, the Seventh-day Adventist Church teaches that the intermediate state is an unconscious sleep; this teaching is informally known as "soul sleep".

Final state

In Christian belief, both the righteous and the unrighteous will be resurrected at the last judgment. The righteous will receive incorruptible, immortal bodies (1 Corinthians 15), while the unrighteous will be sent to hell. Traditionally, Christians have believed that hell will be a place of eternal physical and psychological punishment. In the last two centuries, annihilationism has become popular.

Mariology

The study of the Blessed Virgin Mary, doctrines about her, and how she relates to the Church, Christ, and the individual Christian is called Mariology. Catholic Mariology is the Marian study specifically in the context of the Catholic Church. Examples of Mariology include the study of and doctrines regarding her Perpetual Virginity, her Motherhood of God (and by extension her Motherhood/Intercession for all Christians), her Immaculate Conception, and her Assumption into heaven.

Angelology

Most descriptions of angels in the Bible describe them in military terms. For example, in terms such as encampment (Gen.32:1–2), command structure (Ps.91:11–12; Matt.13:41; Rev.7:2), and combat (Jdg.5:20; Job 19:12; Rev.12:7).

Its specific hierarchy differs slightly from the Hierarchy of Angels as it surrounds more military services, whereas the Hierarchy of angels is a division of angels into non-military services to God.

Members of the heavenly host

Cherubim are depicted as accompanying God's chariot-throne (Ps.80:1). Exodus 25:18–22 refers to two Cherub statues placed on top of the Ark of the Covenant, the two cherubim are usually interpreted as guarding the throne of God. Other guard-like duties include being posted in locations such as the gates of Eden (Gen.3:24). Cherubim were mythological winged bulls or other beasts that were part of ancient Near Eastern traditions.[117]

This angelic designation might be given to angels of various ranks. An example would be Raphael who is ranked variously as a Seraph, Cherub, and Archangel .[118] This is usually a result of conflicting schemes of hierarchies of angels.

It is not known how many angels there are but one figure given in Revelation 5:11 for the number of "many angels in a circle around the throne, as well as the living creatures and the elders" was "ten thousand times ten thousand", which would be 100 million.

Demonology: Fallen angels

Statue of the Fallen Angel, Retiro Park (Madrid, Spain).

In most of Christianity, a fallen angel is an angel who has been exiled or banished from Heaven. Often such banishment is a punishment for disobeying or rebelling against God (see War in Heaven). The best-known fallen angel is Lucifer. Lucifer is a name frequently given to Satan in Christian belief. This usage stems from a particular interpretation, as a reference to a fallen angel, of a passage in the Bible (Isaiah 14:3–20) that speaks of someone who is given the name of "Day Star" or "Morning Star" (in Latin, Lucifer) as fallen from heaven. The Greek etymological synonym of Lucifer, Φωσφόρος (Phosphoros, "light-bearer").[119][120] is used of the morning star in 2 Peter 1:19 and elsewhere with no reference to Satan. But Satan is called Lucifer in many writings later than the Bible, notably in Milton's Paradise Lost (7.131–134, among others), because, according to Milton, Satan was "brighter once amidst the host of Angels, than that star the stars among."

Allegedly, fallen angels are those which have committed one of the seven deadly sins. Therefore, are banished from heaven and suffer in hell for all eternity. Demons from hell would punish the fallen angel by ripping out their wings as a sign of insignificance and low rank.[121]

Heaven

Dante and Beatrice gaze upon the highest heavens; from Gustave Doré's illustrations to the Divine Comedy.

Christianity has taught Heaven as a place of eternal life, in that it is a shared plane to be attained by all the elect (rather than an abstract experience related to individual concepts of the ideal). The Christian Church has been divided over how people gain this eternal life. From the 16th to the late 19th century, Christendom was divided between the Catholic view, the Eastern Orthodox view, the Coptic view, the Jacobite view, the Abyssinian view and Protestant views. See also Christian denominations.

Heaven is the English name for a transcendental realm wherein human beings who have transcended human living live in an afterlife. in the Bible and in English, the term "heaven" may refer to the physical heavens, the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the universe beyond, the traditional literal meaning of the term in English.

Christianity maintains that entry into Heaven awaits such time as, "When the form of this world has passed away." (*JPII) One view expressed in the Bible is that on the day Christ returns the righteous dead are resurrected first, and then those who are alive and judged righteous will be brought up to join them, to be taken to heaven. (I Thess 4:13–18)

Two related and often confused concepts of heaven in Christianity are better described as the "resurrection of the body", which is exclusively of biblical origin, as contrasted with the "immortality of the soul", which is also evident in the Greek tradition. In the first concept, the soul does not enter heaven until the last judgement or the "end of time" when it (along with the body) is resurrected and judged. In the second concept, the soul goes to a heaven on another plane such as the intermediate state immediately after death. These two concepts are generally combined in the doctrine of the double judgement where the soul is judged once at death and goes to a temporary heaven, while awaiting a second and final physical judgement at the end of the world.(*" JPII, also see eschatology, afterlife)

One popular medieval view of Heaven was that it existed as a physical place above the clouds and that God and the Angels were physically above, watching over man. Heaven as a physical place survived in the concept that it was located far out into space, and that the stars were "lights shining through from heaven".

Many of today's biblical scholars, such as N. T. Wright, in tracing the concept of Heaven back to its Jewish roots, see Earth and Heaven as overlapping or interlocking. Heaven is known as God's space, his dimension, and is not a place that can be reached by human technology. This belief states that Heaven is where God lives and reigns whilst being active and working alongside people on Earth. One day when God restores all things, Heaven and Earth will be forever combined into the New Heavens and New Earth[122] of the World to Come.

Religions that teach about heaven differ on how (and if) one gets into it, typically in the afterlife. In most, entrance to Heaven is conditional on having lived a "good life" (within the terms of the spiritual system). A notable exception to this is the 'sola fide' belief of many mainstream Protestants, which teaches that one does not have to live a perfectly "good life," but that one must accept Jesus Christ as one's Lord and Saviour, and then Jesus Christ will assume the guilt of one's sins; believers are believed to be forgiven regardless of any good or bad "works" one has participated in.[123]

Many religions state that those who do not go to heaven will go to a place "without the presence of God", Hell, which is eternal (see annihilationism). Some religions believe that other afterlives exist in addition to Heaven and Hell, such as Purgatory. One belief, universalism, believes that everyone will go to Heaven eventually, no matter what they have done or believed on earth. Some forms of Christianity believe Hell to be the termination of the soul.

Various saints have had visions of heaven (2 Corinthians 12:2–4). The Eastern Orthodox concept of life in heaven is described in one of the prayers for the dead: "...a place of light, a place of green pasture, a place of repose, whence all sickness, sorrow and sighing are fled away."[124]

The Church bases its belief in Heaven on some main biblical passages in the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures (Old and New Testaments) and collected church wisdom. Heaven is the Realm of the Blessed Trinity, the angels[125] and the saints.[126]

The essential joy of heaven is called the beatific vision, which is derived from the vision of God's essence. The soul rests perfectly in God, and does not, or cannot desire anything else than God. After the Last Judgment, when the soul is reunited with its body, the body participates in the happiness of the soul. It becomes incorruptible, glorious and perfect. Any physical defects the body may have laboured under are erased. Heaven is also known as paradise in some cases. The Great Gulf separates heaven from hell.

Upon dying, each soul goes to what is called "the particular judgement" where its own afterlife is decided (i.e. Heaven after Purgatory, straight to Heaven, or Hell.) This is different from "the general judgement" also known as "the Last judgement" which will occur when Christ returns to judge all the living and the dead.

The term Heaven (which differs from "The Kingdom of Heaven" see note below) is applied by the biblical authors to the realm in which God currently resides. Eternal life, by contrast, occurs in a renewed, unspoilt and perfect creation, which can be termed Heaven since God will choose to dwell there permanently with his people, as seen in Revelation 21:3. There will no longer be any separation between God and man. The believers themselves will exist in incorruptible, resurrected and new bodies; there will be no sickness, no death and no tears. Some teach that death itself is not a natural part of life, but was allowed to happen after Adam and Eve disobeyed God (see original sin) so that mankind would not live forever in a state of sin and thus a state of separation from God.

Many evangelicals understand this future life to be divided into two distinct periods: first, the Millennial Reign of Christ (the one thousand years) on this earth, referred to in Revelation 20:1–10; secondly, the New Heavens and New Earth, referred to in Revelation 21 and 22. This millennialism (or chiliasm) is a revival of a strong tradition in the Early Church[127] that was dismissed by Saint Augustine of Hippo and the Roman Catholic Church after him.

Not only will the believers spend eternity with God, they will also spend it with each other. John's vision recorded in Revelation describes a New Jerusalem which comes from Heaven to the New Earth, which is seen to be a symbolic reference to the people of God living in community with one another. 'Heaven' will be the place where life will be lived to the full, in the way that the designer planned, each believer 'loving the Lord their God with all their heart and with all their soul and with all their mind' and 'loving their neighbour as themselves' (adapted from Matthew 22:37–38, the Great Commandment)—a place of great joy, without the negative aspects of earthly life. See also World to Come.

Purgatory

Purgatory is the condition or temporary punishment[33] in which, it is believed, the souls of those who die in a state of grace are made ready for Heaven. This is a theological idea that has ancient roots and is well-attested in early Christian literature, while the poetic conception of purgatory as a geographically situated place is largely the creation of medieval Christian piety and imagination.[33]

The notion of purgatory is associated particularly with the Latin Church of the Catholic Church (in the Eastern Catholic Churches it is a doctrine, though often without using the name "Purgatory"); Anglicans of the Anglo-Catholic tradition generally also hold to the belief.[citation needed] John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, believed in an intermediate state between death and the final judgment and in the possibility of "continuing to grow in holiness there."[128][129] The Eastern Orthodox Churches believe in the possibility of a change of situation for the souls of the dead through the prayers of the living and the offering of the Divine Liturgy,[130] and many Eastern Orthodox, especially among ascetics, hope and pray for a general apocatastasis.[131] A similar belief in at least the possibility of a final salvation for all is held by Mormonism.[132] Judaism also believes in the possibility of after-death purification[133] and may even use the word "purgatory" to present its understanding of the meaning of Gehenna.[134] However, the concept of soul "purification" may be explicitly denied in these other faith traditions.

Hell

Hell as depicted in Hieronymus Bosch's triptych The Garden of Earthly Delights (c. 1504).

Hell in Christian beliefs, is a place or a state in which the souls of the unsaved will suffer the consequences of sin. The Christian doctrine of Hell derives from the teaching of the New Testament, where Hell is typically described using the Greek words Gehenna or Tartarus. Unlike Hades, Sheol, or Purgatory it is eternal, and those damned to Hell are without hope. In the New Testament, it is described as the place or state of punishment after death or last judgment for those who have rejected Jesus.[135] In many classical and popular depictions it is also the abode of Satan and of Demons.[136] Such is not the case in the Book of Revelation, where Satan is thrown into Hell only at the end of Christ's millennium long reign on this Earth.[137]

Hell is generally defined as the eternal fate of unrepentant sinners after this life.[138] Hell's character is inferred from biblical teaching, which has often been understood literally.[138] Souls are said to pass into Hell by God's irrevocable judgment, either immediately after death (particular judgment) or in the general judgment.[138] Modern theologians generally describe Hell as the logical consequence of the soul using its free will to reject the will of God.[138] It is considered compatible with God's justice and mercy because God will not interfere with the soul's free choice.[138]

Only in the King James Version of the bible is the word "Hell" used to translate certain words, such as sheol (Hebrew) and both hades and Gehenna(Greek). All other translations reserve Hell only for use when Gehenna is mentioned. It is generally agreed that both sheol and hades do not typically refer to the place of eternal punishment, but to the underworld or temporary abode of the dead.[139]

Traditionally, the majority of Protestants have held that Hell will be a place of unending conscious torment, both physical and spiritual,[140] although some recent writers (such as C. S. Lewis[141] and J.P. Moreland[142]) have cast Hell in terms of "eternal separation" from God. Certain biblical texts have led some theologians to the conclusion that punishment in Hell, though eternal and irrevocable, will be proportional to the deeds of each soul (e.g. Matthew 10:15, Luke 12:46–48).[143]

Another area of debate is the fate of the unevangelized (i.e. those who have never had an opportunity to hear the Christian gospel), those who die in infancy, and intellectually disabled people. Some Protestants agree with Augustine that people in these categories will be damned to Hell for original sin, while others believe that God will make an exception in these cases.[140]

A "significant minority" believe in the doctrine of conditional immortality,[144] which teaches that those sent to Hell will not experience eternal conscious punishment, but instead will be extinguished or annihilated after a period of "limited conscious punishment".[145] Prominent evangelical theologians who have adopted conditionalist beliefs include John Wenham, Edward Fudge, Clark Pinnock and John Stott (although the latter has described himself as an "agnostic" on the issue of annihilationism).[140] Conditionalists typically reject the traditional concept of the immortality of the soul.

Some Protestants (such as George MacDonald, Karl Randall, Keith DeRose and Thomas Talbott), also, however, in a minority, believe that after serving their sentence in Gehenna, all souls are reconciled to God and admitted to heaven, or ways are found at the time of death of drawing all souls to repentance so that no "hellish" suffering is experienced. This view is often called Christian universalism—its conservative branch is more specifically called 'Biblical or Trinitarian Universalism'—and is not to be confused with Unitarian Universalism. See universal reconciliation, apocatastasis and the problem of Hell.

Theodicy: Allowance of evil

Theodicy can be said to be defense of God's goodness and omnipotence in view of the existence of evil. Specifically, Theodicy is a specific branch of theology and philosophy which attempts to reconcile belief in God with the perceived existence of evil.[146] As such, theodicy can be said to attempt to justify the behaviour of God (at least insofar as God allows evil).

Responses to the problem of evil have sometimes been classified as defenses or theodicies. However, authors disagree on the exact definitions.[147][148][149] Generally, a defense attempts to show that there is no logical incompatibility between the existence of evil and the existence of God. A defense need not argue that this is a probable or plausible explanation, only that the defense is logically possible. A defense attempts to answer the logical problem of evil.

A theodicy, on the other hand, is a more ambitious attempt to provide a plausible justification for the existence of evil. A theodicy attempts to answer the evidential problem of evil.[148] Richard Swinburne maintains that it does not make sense to assume there are greater goods, unless we know what they are, i.e., we have a successful theodicy.[150]

As an example, some authors see arguments including demons or the fall of man as not logically impossible but not very plausible considering our knowledge about the world. Thus they are seen as defenses but not good theodicies.[148] C. S. Lewis writes in his book The Problem of Pain:

We can, perhaps, conceive of a world in which God corrected the results of this abuse of free will by His creatures at every moment: so that a wooden beam became soft as grass when it was used as a weapon, and the air refused to obey me if I attempted to set up in it the sound waves that carry lies or insults. But such a world would be one in which wrong actions were impossible, and in which, therefore, freedom of the will would be void; nay, if the principle were carried out to its logical conclusion, evil thoughts would be impossible, for the cerebral matter which we use in thinking would refuse its task when we attempted to frame them.[151]

Another possible answer is that the world is corrupted due to the sin of mankind. Some answer that because of sin, the world has fallen from the grace of God, and is not perfect. Therefore, evils and imperfections persist because the world is fallen.[citation needed] William A. Dembski argues that the effects of Adam's sin recorded in the Book of Genesis were 'back-dated' by God, and hence applied to the earlier history of the universe.[152]

Evil is sometimes seen as a test or trial for humans. Irenaeus of Lyons and more recently John Hick have argued that evil and suffering are necessary for spiritual growth. This is often combined with the free will argument by arguing that such spiritual growth requires free will decisions. A problem with this is that many evils do not seem to cause any kind of spiritual growth, or even permit it, as when a child is abused from birth and becomes, seemingly inevitably, a brutal adult.

The problem of evil is often phrased in the form: Why do bad things happen to good people?. Christianity teach that all people are inherently sinful due to the fall of man and original sin; for example, Calvinist theology follows a doctrine called federal headship, which argues that the first man, Adam, was the legal representative of the entire human race. A counterargument to the basic version of this principle is that an omniscient God would have predicted this, when he created the world, and an omnipotent God could have prevented it.

The Book of Isaiah clearly claims that God is the source of at least some natural disasters, but Isaiah doesn't attempt to explain the motivation behind the creation of evil.[153] In contrast, the Book of Job is one of the most widely known formulations of the problem of evil in Western thought. In it, Satan challenges God regarding his servant Job, claiming that Job only serves God for the blessings and protection that he receives from him. God allows Satan to plague Job and his family in a number of ways, with the limitation that Satan may not take Job's life (but his children are killed). Job discusses this with three friends and questions God regarding his suffering which he finds to be unjust. God responds in a speech and then more than restores Job's prior health, wealth, and gives him new children.

Bart D. Ehrman argues that different parts of the Bible give different answers. One example is evil as punishment for sin or as a consequence of sin. Ehrman writes that this seems to be based on some notion of free will although this argument is never explicitly mentioned in the Bible. Another argument is that suffering ultimately achieves a greater good, possibly for persons other than the sufferer, that would not have been possible otherwise. The Book of Job offers two different answers: suffering is a test, and you will be rewarded later for passing it; another that God in his might chooses not to reveal his reasons. Ecclesiastes sees suffering as beyond human abilities to comprehend. Apocalyptic parts, including the New Testament, see suffering as due to cosmic evil forces, that God for mysterious reasons has given power over the world, but which will soon be defeated and things will be set right.[154]

Hamartiology: Sin

The Greek word in the New Testament that is translated in English as "sin" is hamartia, which literally means missing the target. 1 John 3:4 states: "Everyone who sins breaks the law; in fact, sin is lawlessness". Jesus clarified the law by defining its foundation: "Jesus replied: 'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.' This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments." (Matthew 22:36–40)

Hamartiology (Greek: ἁμαρτία, hamartia, "missing the mark," "sin," + -λογια, -logia, "sayings" or "discourse") is the branch of Christian theology, more specifically, systematic theology, which is the study of sin with a view to articulating a doctrine of it.

Substantial branches of hamartiological understanding subscribe to the doctrine of original sin, which was taught by the Apostle Paul in Romans 5:12–19 and popularized by Saint Augustine. Augustine taught that all the descendants of Adam and Eve are guilty of Adam's sin without their own personal choice.[155]

In contrast, Pelagius argued that humans enter life as essentially tabulae rasae. The fall that occurred when Adam and Eve disobeyed God was held by his group to have affected humankind only minimally. But few theologians continue to hold this hamartiological viewpoint.

A third branch of thinking takes an intermediate position, arguing that after the fall of Adam and Eve, humans are born impacted by sin such that they have very decided tendencies toward sinning (which by personal choice all accountable humans but Jesus soon choose to indulge).

The degree to which a Christian believes humanity is impacted by either a literal or metaphorical "fall" determines their understanding of related theological concepts like salvation, justification, and sanctification.

Christian views on sin are mostly understood as legal infraction or contract violation, and so salvation tends to be viewed in legal terms, similar to Jewish thinking.

Sin

A Sistine Chapel fresco depicts the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the garden of Eden for their sin of eating from the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil.

In religion, sin is the concept of acts that violate a rule of God. The term sin may also refer to the state of having committed such a violation. Commonly, the moral code of conduct is decreed by a divine entity, i.e. Divine law.

Sin is often used to mean an action that is prohibited or considered wrong; in some religions (notably some sects of Christianity), sin can refer not only to physical actions taken, but also to thoughts and internalized motivations and feelings. Colloquially, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, shameful, harmful, or alienating might be termed "sinful".

An elementary concept of "sin" regards such acts and elements of Earthly living that one cannot take with them into transcendental living. Food, for example is not of transcendental living and therefore its excessive savoring is considered a sin. A more developed concept of "sin" deals with a distinction between sins of death (mortal sin) and the sins of human living (venial sin). In that context, mortal sins are said to have the dire consequence of mortal penalty, while sins of living (food, casual or informal sexuality, play, inebriation) may be regarded as essential spice for transcendental living, even though these may be destructive in the context of human living (obesity, infidelity).

Common ideas surrounding sin in various religions include:

In Western Christianity, "sin is lawlessness" (1 John 3:4) and so salvation tends to be understood in legal terms, similar to Jewish law. Sin alienates the sinner from God. It has damaged, and completely severed, the relationship of humanity to God. That relationship can only be restored through acceptance of Jesus Christ and his death on the cross as a sacrifice for mankind's sin (see Salvation and Substitutionary atonement).

In Eastern Christianity, sin is viewed in terms of its effects on relationships, both among people and between people and God. Sin is seen as the refusal to follow God's plan, and the desire to be like God and thus in direct opposition to him (see the account of Adam and Eve in the Book of Genesis). To sin is to want control of one's destiny in opposition to the will of God, to do some rigid beliefs.

In the Russian variant of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, sin sometimes is regarded as any mistake made by people in their life. From this point of view every person is sinful because every person makes mistakes during his life. When person accuses others in sins he always must remember that he is also sinner and so he must have mercy for others remembering that God is also merciful to him and to all humanity.

Fall of man

The fall of man or simply the fall refers in Christian doctrine to the transition of the first humans from a state of innocent obedience to God, to a state of guilty disobedience to God. In the Book of Genesis chapter 2, Adam and Eve live at first with God in a paradise, but are then deceived or tempted by the serpent to eat fruit from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, which had been forbidden to them by God. After doing so they become ashamed of their nakedness, and God consequently expelled them from paradise. The fall is not mentioned by name in the Bible, but the story of disobedience and expulsion is recounted in both Testaments in different ways. The Fall can refer to the wider theological inferences for all humankind as a consequence of Eve and Adam's original sin. Examples include the teachings of Paul in Romans 5:12–19 and 1 Cor. 15:21–22.

Some Christian denominations believe the fall corrupted the entire natural world, including human nature, causing people to be born into original sin, a state from which they cannot attain eternal life without the gracious intervention of God. Protestants hold that Jesus' death was a "ransom" by which humanity was offered freedom from the sin acquired at the fall. In other religions, such as Judaism, Islam, and Gnosticism, the term "the fall" is not recognized and varying interpretations of the Eden narrative are presented.

Christianity interprets the fall in a number of ways. Traditional Christian theology accepts the teaching of St Paul in his letter to the Romans[156][better source needed] "For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" and of St John's Gospel that "God so loved the world that he sent his only son (Jesus Christ) that whoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life".[157][better source needed]

The doctrine of original sin, as articulated by Augustine of Hippo's interpretation of Paul of Tarsus, provides that the fall caused a fundamental change in human nature, so that all descendants of Adam are born in sin, and can only be redeemed by divine grace. Sacrifice was the only means by which humanity could be redeemed after the fall. Jesus, who was without sin, died on the cross as the ultimate redemption for the sin of humankind.

Original sin

Thus, the moment Adam and Eve ate the fruit from the tree—which God had commanded them not to do—sinful death was born; it was an act of disobedience, thinking they could become like gods, that was the sin. Since Adam was the head of the human race, he is held responsible for the evil that took place, for which reason the fall of man is referred to as the "sin of Adam". This sin caused Adam and his descendants to lose unrestricted access to God Himself. The years of life were limited. "Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned" (Romans 5:12). In Christian theology, the death of Jesus on the cross is the atonement to the sin of Adam. "For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive." (1 Corinthians 15:22). As a result of that act of Christ, all who put their trust in Christ alone now have unrestricted access to God through prayer and in presence.

Original sin, which Eastern Christians usually refer to as ancestral sin,[158] is, according to a doctrine proposed in Christian theology, humanity's state of sin resulting from the fall of man.[159] This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred to as a "sin nature," to something as drastic as total depravity or automatic guilt by all humans through collective guilt.[160]

Those who uphold the doctrine look to the teaching of Paul the Apostle in Romans 5:12–21 and 1 Corinthians 15:22 for its scriptural base,[38] and see it as perhaps implied in Old Testament passages such as Psalm 51:5 and Psalm 58:3.

Augustine of Hippo wrote that original sin is transmitted by concupiscence and enfeebles freedom of the will without destroying it.[38]

The Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists mostly dealt with topics other than original sin.[38] The doctrine of original sin was first developed in 2nd-century Bishop of Lyon Irenaeus's struggle against Gnosticism.[38] The Greek Fathers emphasized the cosmic dimension of the fall, namely that since Adam human beings are born into a fallen world, but held fast to belief that man, though fallen, is free.[38] It was in the West that precise definition of the doctrine arose.[38]Augustine of Hippo taught that original sin was both an act of foolishness (insipientia) and of pride and disobedience to the God of Adam and Eve. He thought it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: self-centeredness or failure in seeing truth.[161] The sin would not have taken place, if satan hadn't sown into their senses "the root of evil" (radix Mali).[162] The sin of Adam and Eve wounded their nature, affecting human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire. The consequences of the fall were transmitted to their descendants in the form of concupiscence, which is a metaphysical term, and not a psychological one. Thomas Aquinas explained Augustine's doctrine pointing out that the libido (concupiscence), which makes the original sin pass from parents to children, is not a libido actualis, i.e. sexual lust, but libido habitualis, i.e. a wound of the whole of human nature.[163] Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not a being but bad quality, the privation of good or a wound.[164] The bishop of Hippo admitted that sexual concupiscence (libido) might have been present in the perfect human nature in the paradise, and that only later it had become disobedient to human will as a result of the first couple's disobedience to God's will in the original sin.[165] The original sin have made humanity a massa damnata[38] (mass of perdition, condemned crowd). In Augustine's view (termed "Realism"), all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all humans inherit. As sinners, humans are utterly depraved in nature, lack the freedom to do good, and cannot respond to the will of God without divine grace. Grace is irresistible, results in conversion, and leads to perseverance.[166]

Augustine's formulation of original sin was popular among Protestant reformers, such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, and also, within Roman Catholicism, in the Jansenist movement, but this movement was declared heretical by the Catholic Church.[167] There are wide-ranging disagreements among Christian groups as to the exact understanding of the doctrine about a state of sinfulness or absence of holiness affecting all humans, even children, with some Christian groups denying it altogether.

The notion of original sin as interpreted by Augustine of Hippo was affirmed by the Protestant Reformer John Calvin. Calvin believed that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state of sin from the moment of conception. This inherently sinful nature (the basis for the Calvinistic doctrine of "total depravity") results in a complete alienation from God and the total inability of humans to achieve reconciliation with God based on their own abilities. Not only do individuals inherit a sinful nature due to Adam's fall, but since he was the federal head and representative of the human race, all whom he represented inherit the guilt of his sin by imputation.

New Testament

The scriptural basis for the doctrine is found in two New Testament books by Paul the Apostle, Romans 5:12–21 and 1 Corinthians 15:22, in which he identifies Adam as the one man through whom death came into the world.[38][168]

Total depravity

Total depravity (also called absolute inability and total corruption) is a theological doctrine that derives from the Augustinian concept of original sin. It is the teaching that, as a consequence of the fall of man, every person born into the world is enslaved to the service of sin and, apart from the efficacious or prevenient grace of God, is utterly unable to choose to follow God or choose to accept salvation as it is freely offered.

It is also advocated to various degrees by many Protestant confessions of faith and catechisms, including those of Lutheranism,[169] Arminianism,[170] and Calvinism.[171]

Total depravity is the fallen state of man as a result of original sin. The doctrine of total depravity asserts that people are by nature not inclined or even able to love God wholly with heart, mind, and strength, but rather all are inclined by nature to serve their own will and desires and to reject the rule of God. Even religion and philanthropy are wicked to God to the extent that these originate from a human imagination, passion, and will and are not done to the glory of God. Therefore, in Reformed theology, if God is to save anyone He must predestine, call, elect individuals to salvation since fallen man does not want to, indeed is incapable of choosing God.[172]

Total depravity does not mean, however, that people are as evil as possible. Rather, it means that even the good which a person may intend is faulty in its premise, false in its motive, and weak in its implementation; and there is no mere refinement of natural capacities that can correct this condition. Thus, even acts of generosity and altruism are in fact egoist acts in disguise. All good, consequently, is derived from God alone, and in no way through man.[173]

Comparison among Protestants

This table summarizes three Protestant beliefs on depravity.

Soteriology: Salvation

Christian soteriology is the branch of Christian theology that deals with one's salvation.[183] It is derived from the Greek sōtērion (salvation) (from sōtēr savior, preserver) + English -logy.[184]

Atonement is a doctrine that describes how human beings can be reconciled to God. In Christian theology the atonement refers to the forgiving or pardoning of one's sin through the death of Jesus Christ by crucifixion, which made possible the reconciliation between God and creation. Within Christianity there are three main theories for how such atonement might work: the ransom theory, the satisfaction theory and the moral influence theory. Christian soteriology is unlike and not to be confused with collective salvation.

Traditional focus

Christian soteriology traditionally focuses on how God ends the separation people have from him due to sin by reconciling them with himself. (Rom. 5:10–11). Many Christians believe they receive the forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38), life (Rom. 8:11), and salvation (1 Thess. 5:9) bought by Jesus through his innocent suffering, death, and resurrection from the dead three days later (Matt. 28).

Christ's death, resurrection, ascension, and sending of the Holy Spirit, is called The Paschal Mystery. Christ's human birth is called the Incarnation. Either or both are considered in different versions of soteriology.

While not neglecting the Paschal Mystery, many Christians believe salvation is brought through the Incarnation itself, in which God took on human nature so that humans could partake in the divine nature (2 Peter 1.4). As St. Athanasius put it, God became human so that we might become divine (St. Athanasius, De inc. 54, 3: PG 25, 192B.). This grace in Christ (1 Cor. 1:4) is received as a gift of God that cannot be merited by works done prior to one's conversion to Christianity (Eph. 2:8–9), which is brought about by hearing God's Word (Rom. 10:17) and harkening to it. This involves accepting Jesus Christ as the personal saviour and Lord over one's life.

Distinct schools

Protestant teaching, originating with Martin Luther, teaches that salvation is received by grace alone and that one's sole necessary response to this grace is faith alone. Older Christian teaching, as found in Catholic and Orthodox theology, is that salvation is received by grace alone, but that one's necessary response to this grace comprises both faith and works (James 2:24, 26; Rom 2:6–7; Gal 5:6).

Catholic soteriology

Human beings exists because God wanted to share His life with them. In this sense, every human being is God's child. In a fuller sense, to come to salvation is to be reconciled to God through Christ and to be united with His divine Essence via Theosis in the beatific vision of the Godhead. The graces of Christ's passion, death, and resurrection are found in the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church.

Comparison among Protestants


Ecclesiology: Church

Ecclesiology (from Greek ἐκκλησίᾱ, ekklēsiā, "congregation, church"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of the theological understanding of the Christian church, including the institutional structure, sacraments and practices (especially the worship of God) thereof. Specific areas of concern include the church's role in salvation, its origin, its relationship to the historical Christ, its discipline, its destiny, and its leadership. Ecclesiology is, therefore, the study of the church as a thing in, and of, itself.

Different ecclesiologies give shape to very different institutions. Thus, in addition to describing a broad discipline of theology, ecclesiology may be used in the specific sense of a particular church or denomination's character, self-described or otherwise. This is the sense of the word in such phrases as Roman Catholic ecclesiology, Lutheran ecclesiology, and ecumenical ecclesiology.

Issues addressed by ecclesiology

Ecclesiology asks the questions:

Ecclesiastical polity

Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a church or Christian denomination. It also denotes the ministerial structure of the church and the authority relationships between churches. Polity is closely related to Ecclesiology, the study of doctrine and theology relating to church organization.

Issues of church governance appear in the first chapters of the Acts of the Apostles; the first act recorded after the ascension is the election of Matthias to replace Judas Iscariot. Over the years a system of episcopal polity developed.

During the Protestant Reformation, arguments were made that the New Testament prescribed structures quite different from that of the Catholic Church of the day, and different Protestant bodies used different types of polity. It was during this period that Richard Hooker wrote Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity to defend the polity of the Church of England against the Puritans.

Episcopal polity is used in several closely related senses. Most commonly it refers to the field of church governance in the abstract, but it also can refer to the governance of a particular Christian body. In this sense it is used as a term in civil law. "Polity" is sometimes used as a shorthand for the church governance structure itself.

Though each church or denomination has its own characteristic structure, there are three general types of polity.

Episcopal polity

Churches having episcopal polity are governed by bishops. The title bishop comes from the Greek word episkopos, which literally translates into overseer.[215] In regard to Catholicism, bishops have authority over the diocese, which is both sacramental and political; as well as performing ordinations, confirmations, and consecrations, the bishop supervises the clergy of the diocese and represents the diocese both secularly and in the hierarchy of church governance.

Bishops in this system may be subject to higher ranking bishops (variously called archbishops, metropolitans or patriarchs, depending upon the tradition; see also Bishop for further explanation of the varieties of bishops.) They also meet in councils or synods. These synods, subject to presidency by higher ranking bishops, may govern the dioceses which are represented in the council, though the synod may also be purely advisory.

Note that the presence of the office of "bishop" within a church is not proof of episcopal polity. For example, in Mormonism, the "bishop" occupies the office that in an Anglican church would be occupied by a priest.

Also, episcopal polity is not usually a simple chain of command. Instead, some authority may be held, not only by synods and colleges of bishops, but by lay and clerical councils. Further, patterns of authority are subject to a wide variety of historical rights and honors which may cut across simple lines of authority.

Episcopal polity is the predominant pattern in Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Anglican churches. It is also common in Methodist and Lutheran churches. Among churches with episcopal polity, different theories of autonomy are expressed. So in Roman Catholicism the church is viewed as a single polity headed by the pope, but in Eastern Orthodoxy the various churches retain formal autonomy but are held to be unified by shared doctrine and conciliarity—that is, the authority of councils, such as ecumenical councils, Holy Synods and the former standing council, the Endemusa Synod.

Presbyterian polity

Many Reformed churches, notably those in the Presbyterian and Continental Reformed traditions, are governed by a hierarchy of councils. The lowest level council governs a single local church and is called the session or consistory; its members are called elders. The minister of the church (sometimes referred to as a teaching elder) is a member of and presides over the session; lay representatives (ruling elders or, informally, just elders) are elected by the congregation. The session sends representatives to the next level higher council, called the presbytery or classis. In some Presbyterian churches there are higher level councils (synods or general assemblies). Each council has authority over its constituents, and the representatives at each level are expected to use their own judgment. Hence higher level councils act as courts of appeal for church trials and disputes, and it is not uncommon to see rulings and decisions overturned.

Presbyterian polity is, of course, the characteristic governance of Presbyterian churches, and also of churches in the Continental Reformed tradition. Elements of presbyterian polity are also found in other churches. For example, in the Episcopal Church in the United States of America governance by bishops is paralleled by a system of deputies, who are lay and clerical representatives elected by parishes and, at the national level, by the dioceses. Legislation in the general convention requires the separate consent of the bishops and of the deputies.

Note that, in episcopal polity, a presbyter refers to a priest.

Congregational polity

Congregationalist polity dispenses with titled positions such as bishop as a requirement of church structure. The local congregation rules itself, though local leaders and councils may be appointed.

Members may be sent from the congregation to associations that are sometimes identified with the church bodies formed by Lutherans, Presbyterians, Anglicans, and other non-congregational Protestants. The similarity is deceptive, however, because the congregationalist associations do not exercise control over their members (other than ending their membership in the association). Many congregationalist churches are completely independent in principle. One major exception is Ordination, where even congregationalist churches often invite members of the vicinage or association to ordain their called pastor.

It is a principle of congregationalism that ministers do not govern congregations by themselves. They may preside over the congregation, but it is the congregation which exerts its authority in the end.

Congregational polity is sometimes called "Baptist polity", as it is the characteristic polity of Baptist churches.

Priesthood

Church discipline

Missiology

Missiology is the interdisciplinary study of Christian mission history and methodology, emerging as an academic discipline in the 19th century. It examines the missionary work of various Christian denominations, focusing on themes like inculturation, contextualization, and interfaith relations, while engaging with social sciences.[216][217] Notable figures include Alexander Duff and Gustav Warneck, who were pivotal in establishing missiology as a formal field of study.

Sacrament

A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion, is what Roman Catholics believe to be "a rite in which God is uniquely active". Augustine of Hippo defined a Christian sacrament as "a visible sign of an invisible reality". The Anglican Book of Common Prayer speaks of them as "an outward and visible sign of an inward and invisible Grace." Examples of sacraments would be Baptism and the Eucharist."[218] Therefore a sacrament is a religious symbol or often a rite which conveys divine grace, blessing, or sanctity upon the believer who participates in it, or a tangible symbol which represents an intangible reality. As defined above, an example would be baptism in water, representing (and conveying) the grace of the gift of the Holy Spirit, the Forgiveness of Sins, and membership into the Church. Anointing with holy anointing oil is another example which is often synonymous with receiving the Holy Spirit and salvation. Another way of looking at Sacraments is that they are an external and physical sign of the conferral of Sanctifying Grace.[219]

Throughout the Christian faith, views concerning which rites are sacramental, that is conferring sanctifying grace, and what it means for an external act to be sacramental vary widely. Other religious traditions also have what might be called "sacraments" in a sense, though not necessarily according to the Christian meaning of the term.

General definitions and terms

In the majority of Western Christianity, the generally accepted definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign that conveys spiritual grace through Christ. Christian churches, denominations, and sects are divided regarding the number and operation of the sacraments. Sacraments are generally held to have been instituted by Jesus Christ, although in some cases this point is debated. They are usually administered by the clergy to a recipient or recipients, and are generally understood to involve visible and invisible components. The invisible component (manifested inwardly) is understood to be brought about by the action of the Holy Spirit, God's grace working in the sacrament's participants, while the visible (or outward) component entails the use of such things as water, oil, and bread and wine that is blessed or consecrated; the laying-on-of-hands; or a particularly significant covenant that is marked by a public benediction (such as with marriage or absolution of sin in the reconciliation of a penitent).

As defined by the Roman Catholic Church, recognised by the Eastern Orthodox churches, Oriental Orthodox, (though these two do not categorically define the number), and Independent Catholic and Old Catholic Church.

The Orthodox Churches (Eastern and Oriental) typically do not limit the number of sacraments, viewing all encounters with reality in life as sacramental in some sense, and their acknowledgement of the number of sacraments at seven as an innovation of convenience not found in the Church Fathers. It came into use, although infrequently, later on from later encounters with the West and its Sacramental Theology.[220] Other denominations and traditions, both in eastern and western Christianity may affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, these include many of the Protestant denominations and some of the Old Believers in the Orthodox communion, some of whom reject all sacraments except Baptism.

Since some post-Reformation denominations do not regard clergy as having a classically sacerdotal or priestly function, they avoid the term "sacrament," preferring the terms "sacerdotal function," "ordinance," or "tradition." This belief invests the efficacy of the ordinance in the obedience and participation of the believer and the witness of the presiding minister and the congregation. This view stems from a highly developed concept of the priesthood of all believers. In this sense, the believer himself or herself performs the sacerdotal role [citation needed].

Eucharist

Eucharist, also called Communion, or the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian sacrament or ordinance, generally considered to be a re-enactment of the Last Supper, the final meal that Jesus Christ shared with his disciples before his arrest and eventual crucifixion. The consecration of bread and a cup within the rite recalls the moment at the Last Supper when Jesus gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and wine, saying, "This is my blood".[33][221]

There are different interpretations of the significance of the Eucharist, but "there is more of a consensus among Christians about the meaning of the Eucharist than would appear from the confessional debates over the sacramental presence, the effects of the Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which it may be celebrated."[222]

The phrase "the Eucharist" may refer not only to the rite but also to the consecrated bread (leavened or unleavened) and wine (or, in some Protestant denominations, unfermented grape juice) used in the rite,[223] and, in this sense, communicants may speak of "receiving the Eucharist", as well as "celebrating the Eucharist".

Eucharist is from Greek εὐχαριστία (eucharistia), meaning thanksgiving. The verb εὐχαριστῶ, the usual word for "to thank" in the Septuagint and the New Testament, is found in the major texts concerning the Lord's Supper, including the earliest:

For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me." (1 Corinthians 11:23–24)

The Lord's Supper (Κυριακὸν δεῖπνον) derives from 1 Corinthians 11:20–21.

When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains hungry, another gets drunk.

Communion is a translation; other translations are "participation", "sharing", "fellowship"[224] of the Greek κοινωνία (koinōnía) in 1 Corinthians 10:16. The King James Version has

The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ?[225]

Christ with the Eucharist by Vicente Juan Masip, 16th century.

The Last Supper appears in all three Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke; and in the First Epistle to the Corinthians,[33][226][227] while the last-named of these also indicates something of how early Christians celebrated what Paul the Apostle called the Lord's Supper. As well as the Eucharistic dialogue in John chapter 6.

In his First Epistle to the Corinthians (c. 54–55), Paul the Apostle gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus's Last Supper: "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, 'This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.' In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, 'This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me'."[228]

The synoptic gospels, first Mark,[229] and then Matthew[230] and Luke,[231] depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper. References to Jesus's body and blood foreshadow his crucifixion, and he identifies them as a new covenant.[232] In the gospel of John, the account of the Last Supper has no mention of Jesus taking bread and wine and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead it recounts his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him and each other.[232][233]

The expression The Lord's Supper, derived from St. Paul's usage in 1 Corinthians 11:17–34, may have originally referred to the Agape feast, the shared communal meal with which the Eucharist was originally associated.[234] The Agape feast is mentioned in Jude 12. But The Lord's Supper is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine.

The Didache (Greek: teaching) is an early Church order, including, among other features, instructions for baptism and the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the early 2nd century,[235] and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.[236] The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14.

Ignatius of Antioch, one of the Apostolic Fathers and a direct disciple of the Apostle John, mentions the Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ",[237] and Justin Martyr speaks of it as more than a meal: "the food over which the prayer of thanksgiving, the word received from Christ, has been said ... is the flesh and blood of this Jesus who became flesh ... and the deacons carry some to those who are absent."[238]

Eucharistic theology

Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a sacrament.[239] Some Protestants prefer to call it an ordinance, viewing it not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.

Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present.[240] Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach that the consecrated elements truly become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Transubstantiation is the metaphysical explanation given by Roman Catholics as to how this transformation occurs. Lutherans believe that the body and blood of Jesus are present "in, with and under" the forms of bread and wine, a concept known as the sacramental union. The Reformed churches, following the teachings of John Calvin, believe in a spiritual (or "pneumatic") real presence of Christ by the power of the Holy Spirit and received by faith. Anglicans adhere to a range of views although the Anglican church officially teaches the real presence. Some Christians reject the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a memorial of the death of Christ.

The Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document of the World Council of Churches, attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his real presence", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom".

Baptism

Eschatology

Detail from the Last Judgement by Michelangelo

Eschatology (derived from the Greek roots ἔσχατος "last" and λογία "discourse," "study") is the study of the end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world. Broadly speaking, it is the study of the destiny of man as revealed in the Bible.

Eschatology is concerned with the afterlife, beginning with death and the personal judgment which follows the death of the individual, and which is followed by the destination of heaven or hell. (In Catholic theology, heaven is sometimes preceded by purgatory.) Eschatology also concerns itself with events which are said to happen at the end of this age: the return of Jesus, the resurrection of the dead, the Rapture, the Tribulation, and following these things, the Millennium, or thousand years of peace, which has been interpreted both literally and symbolically. Finally, eschatology concerns itself with the end of the world and its associated events: the Last Judgment; the banishment of Death, Hades, and Satan and his followers to the Lake of Fire; and the creation of a new heaven and earth. Millenarianists, Seventh Day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and other recently founded sects have been influential in the modern development of these doctrines, though their roots are biblical.

Eschatology is an ancient branch of study in Christian theology, with study of the "last things" and the Second Coming of Christ first touched on by Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35–107 AD), then given more consideration by the Christian apologist in Rome, Justin Martyr (c. 100–165).[241] Treatment of eschatology continued in the West in the teachings of the influential theologian of Roman North Africa, Tertullian (c. 160–225), and was given fuller reflection and speculation soon after in the East by the master theologian, Origen (c. 185–254).[242]

Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other 16th-century reformers wrote long tracts about the End Times, but interest in eschatology dwindled after the Reformation until the late 19th century, when it became popular in the Reformed, Pentecostal, and Evangelical sects. It was increasingly recognized as a formal division of theological study during the 20th century.

The second coming of Christ is the central event in Christian eschatology. Most Christians believe that death and suffering will continue to exist until Christ's return. Others believe that suffering will gradually be eliminated prior to his coming, and that the elimination of injustice is our part in preparing for that event. Needless to say, there are a variety of viewpoints concerning the order and significance of eschatological events.

Approaches to interpretation

See also

References

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  2. ^ See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)
  3. ^ See, e.g., David Burrell, Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)
  4. ^ See for example John Shelby Spong, Why Christianity Must Change or Die (New York: Harper Collins, 2001)
  5. ^ See, e.g., Duncan Dormor et al. (eds), Anglicanism, the Answer to Modernity (London: Continuum, 2003)
  6. ^ For example, see Timothy Gorringe, Crime, Changing Society and the Churches Series (London: SPCK, 2004).
  7. ^ Louth, Andrew. The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition: From Plato to Denys. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
  8. ^ Armstrong, Karen (1993). A History of God. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0345384560.
  9. ^ Compare:Jenson, Robert W. (1997). "1: What Systematic Theology Is About". Systematic Theology. Vol. 1: The Triune God (revised ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 2001). p. 22. ISBN 9780195145984. Retrieved 5 February 2019. Systematic theology is so called because it takes up questions posed not only by current urgency but also by perceived inherent connections of the faith. Thus systematic theology may raise problems that have not yet emerged in the church's life, and maintain discussions whose immediate ecclesial-pastoral challenge is in abeyance. [...] 'Systematic' theology is [...] concerned with the truth of the gospel, whether dogmatically defined or not.
  10. ^ Dr, STEVE ESOMBA (6 June 2012). THE BOOK OF LIFE, KNOWLEDGE AND CONFIDENCE. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-4717-3463-2.
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  12. ^ 2 Pet 1:20–21 Archived 11 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
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  14. ^ The Douay–Rheims Bible, relying on the Vulgate, has "All scripture, inspired of God, is profitable to teach ...". See the comment in the New Jerusalem Bible study edition - footnote 'e', page 1967, Darton Longman Todd, 1985. ISBN 0-232-52077-1, but with the caution "less probably".
  15. ^ Daniel B. Wallace (1996). Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. pp. 313–314. ISBN 0-310-21895-0. Many scholars feel that the translation should be: 'Every inspired scripture is also profitable.' This is probably not the best translation, however, for the following reasons: (1) Contextually [...] (2) Grammatically [...]
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  20. ^ Heinrich Bullinger's Second Helvetic Confession (1566), Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God - "We believe and confess the canonical Scriptures of the holy prophets and apostles of both Testaments to be the true Word of God, and to have sufficient authority of themselves, not of men. [...] And in this Holy Scripture, the universal Church of Christ has the most complete exposition of all that pertains to a saving faith, and also to the framing of a life acceptable to God [...]."
  21. ^ Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978), Online text Archived 17 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine: "Article XI
    We affirm that Scripture, having been given by divine inspiration, is infallible, so that, far from misleading us, it is true and reliable in all the matters it addresses."
  22. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Catechism of the Catholic Church - Sacred Scripture". Archived from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 15 March 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - "107 The inspired books teach the truth. 'Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.'"
  23. ^ Compare:"Bible Infallibility - 'Evangelical' Defenders of the Faith". The Westminster Review. 75. Leonard Scott Publication: 49. January 1861. Retrieved 6 September 2020. [...] the doctrine of the infallibility of the Bible, a doctrine which, according to Mr. Ayre and his school, the apostles held and Christ sanctioned; which from the earliest times the Church has adopted, and which the plenary as well as the verbal inspirationists still maintain.
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  27. ^ The Westminster Shorter Catechism's definition of God is merely an enumeration of his attributes: "God is a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, and truth."Westminster Shorter Catechism, Question and Answer 4. The Westminster Larger Catechism adds certain attributes to this description, such as "all-sufficient", "incomprehensible", "every where present" and "knowing all things". Westminster Larger Catechism, Question and Answer 7. This answer has been criticised, however, as having "nothing specifically Christian about it."James B. Jordan, "What is God? Archived 22 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine," Biblical Horizons Newsletter, No. 82.
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  41. ^ 1 Jn 5:7
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  43. ^ Diana L. Eck (2003) Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. p. 98
  44. ^ Heb 1:2–5, Gal 4:1–7
  45. ^ Mt. 11:27
  46. ^ Eph 3:15
  47. ^ "God sent forth His Son... that we might receive the adoption as sons. And because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts crying out, "Abba, Father!" Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ."; Galatians 4:4–7
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  49. ^ John 1:1
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  52. ^ Matt 16:16
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  113. ^ Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament
  114. ^ The early Hebrews apparently had a concept of the soul but did not separate it from the body, although later Jewish writers developed the idea of the soul further. Old Testament references to the soul are related to the concept of breath and establish no distinction between the ethereal soul and the corporeal body. Christian concepts of a body-soul dichotomy originated with the ancient Greeks andwere introduced into Christian theology at an early date by St. Gregory of Nyssa and by St. Augustine.—Britannica, 2004
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  116. ^ D. K. Innes, "Sheol" in New Bible Dictionary, IVP 1996.
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  125. ^ Treated extensively in C. S. Lewis, The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature (1964).
  126. ^ See discussion at http://forums.catholic.com/showthread.php?p=3322510 Archived 9 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, where a.o. Hebrews 12:22–24 is quoted.
  127. ^ For instance, with Justin Martyr. See: Philippe Bobichon, "Millénarisme et orthodoxie dans les écrits de Justin Martyr" in Mélanges sur la question millénariste de l'Antiquité à nos jours, Martin Dumont (dir.) [Bibliothèque d'étude des mondes chrétiens, 11], Paris, 2018, pp. 61-82
  128. ^ "What happens after a person dies?". The United Methodist Church. Retrieved 10 March 2011. Purgatory is believed to be a place where the souls of the faithful dead endure a period of purification and cleansing, aided by the prayers of the living, prior to their entrance into heaven. Although John Wesley believed in an intermediate state between death and the final judgment, that idea is not formally affirmed in Methodist doctrine, which "reject the idea of purgatory but beyond that maintain silence on what lies between death and the last judgment." (Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials by Ted A. Campbell)
  129. ^ Robin Russell. "Heavenly minded: It's time to get our eschatology right, say scholars, authors". UM Portal. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011. John Wesley believed in the intermediate state between death and the final judgment "where believers would share in the 'bosom of Abraham' or 'paradise,' even continuing to grow in holiness there," writes Ted Campbell, a professor at Perkins School of Theology, in his 1999 book Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials (Abingdon). That view has not been officially affirmed by the Church.
  130. ^ Orthodox Confession of Faith Archived 21 April 1999 at the Wayback Machine, questions 64–66.
  131. ^ Olivier Clément, L'Église orthodoxe. Presses Universitaires de France, 2006, Section 3, IV
  132. ^ See, for instance, LDS Life After Death Archived 14 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  133. ^ "GEHENNA - JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com.
  134. ^ "Browse by Subject". www.chabad.org.
  135. ^ "Biblical Reference: John 3:18". Ibs.org. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  136. ^ "hell– Definitions from Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  137. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Revelation 20:7-10 - New International Version". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 10 June 2024.
  138. ^ a b c d e "Hell." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  139. ^ New Bible Dictionary third edition, IVP 1996. Articles on "Hell", "Sheol".
  140. ^ a b c Evangelical Alliance Commission on Unity and Truth among Evangelicals (2000). The Nature of Hell. Acute, Paternoster (London). ISBN 0-9532992-2-8.
  141. ^ C. S. Lewis, The Great Divorce, 1946
  142. ^ Lee Strobel, The Case for Faith, 2000
  143. ^ Millard Erickson (2001). Introducing Christian Doctrine, 2nd ed. Baker Academic.
  144. ^ "The Nature of Hell. Conclusions and Recommendations". Evangelical Alliance. 2000. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2019. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  145. ^ New Dictionary of Biblical Theology; IVP Leicester 2000, "Hell"
  146. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica: Theodicy
  147. ^ The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "The Problem of Evil Archived 6 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine", Michael Tooley
  148. ^ a b c The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "The Evidential Problem of Evil Archived 10 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine", Nick Trakakis
  149. ^ Honderich, Ted (2005). "theodicy". The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. ISBN 0-19-926479-1. John Hick, for example, proposes a theodicy, while Alvin Plantinga formulates a defense. The idea of human free will often appears in both of these strategies, but in different ways.
  150. ^ Swinburne, Richard (2005). "evil, the problem of". In Ted Honderich (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. ISBN 0-19-926479-1.
  151. ^ Lewis, C. S., The Problem of Pain HarperCollins:New York, 1996 pp. 24–25
  152. ^ William A. Dembski, The End of Christianity: Finding a Good God in an Evil World. (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2009
  153. ^ "Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 45:7 – King James Version". Bible Gateway.
  154. ^ Ehrman, Bart D., God's Problem: How the Bible Fails to Answer Our Most Important Question – Why We Suffer. HarperOne, 2008
  155. ^ Bavinck, Herman. Reformed Dogmatics Vol. 3. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004) pp. 75–125 detail the historical development of Hamartiology, including Pelagius's position and the mediating positions)
  156. ^ Paul's Epistle to the Romans, chapter 3 verse 23
  157. ^ John 3:16
  158. ^ The term "ancestral sin" is also used, as in Greek προπατορικὴ ἁμαρτία (e.g. Πόλεμος και φτώχεια– η ορθόδοξη άποψη, Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Η νηστεία της Σαρακοστής Archived 17 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Πώς στράφηκε ο Λούθηρος κατά του Μοναχισμού– του Γεωργίου Φλωρόφσκυ Archived 15 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine) or προπατορικὸ ἁμάρτημα (e.g. Απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα δογματικά– Ανδρέα Θεοδώρου, εκδ. Αποστολικής Διακονίας, 1997, σελ. 156–161 Archived 21 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Θεοτόκος και προπατορικό αμάρτημα Archived 27 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine)
  159. ^ "Original Sin". Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
  160. ^ Brodd, Jeffrey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.
  161. ^ Augustine wrote to Julian of Eclanum: Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit. (Contra Julianum, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795)
  162. ^ Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus ("Contra Julianum", I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)
  163. ^ Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non-est libido actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter, secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non-continetur sub ratione vinculo originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis (STh Iª-IIae q. 82 a. 4 ad 3).
  164. ^ Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor. (De nuptiis et concupiscentia, I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. Contra Julianum, VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; Contra Secundinum Manichaeum, 15; PL 42, 590.
  165. ^ Augustine wrote to Julian of Eclanum: Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non-praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus voluntate motis, non-libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine– ut non-vos de illa nimium contristemus– non-qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum voluntarium serviente (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also his late work: Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus, II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550–1551. Cf.Schmitt, É. (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale. Études Augustiniennes. Paris. p. 104.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  166. ^ Justo L. Gonzalez (1970–1975). A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation). Abingdon Press.
  167. ^ Public Domain Forget, Jacques (1910). "Jansenius and Jansenism". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  168. ^ Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned—for sin indeed was in the world before the law was given, but sin is not counted where there is no law. Yet death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over those whose sinning was not like the transgression of Adam, who was a type of the one who was to come.—Romans 5:12–14, ESV "Therefore, as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all men. For as by the one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man's obedience the many will be made righteous. Now the law came in to increase the trespass, but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more, so that, as sin reigned in death, grace also might reign through righteousness leading to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord."—Rom. 5:18–21, ESV
  169. ^ The Book of Concord, "The Thorough Declaration of the Formula of Concord," chapter II, sections 11 and 12 Archived 16 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine; The Augsburg Confession, Article 2 Archived 12 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  170. ^ Arminius, James The Writings of James Arminius (three vols.), tr. James Nichols and William R. Bagnall (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), I:252
  171. ^ Canons of Dordrecht, "The Third and Fourth Main Points of Doctrine" Archived 29 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine; Westminster Confession of Faith, chapter 6 Archived 13 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine; Westminster Larger Catechism, Question 25 Archived 13 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine; Heidelberg Catechism, question 8 Archived 3 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine
  172. ^ The Westminster Confession of Faith, 9.3 Archived 13 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  173. ^ Ra McLaughlin. "Total Depravity, part 1". Reformed Perspectives. Retrieved 14 July 2008. [Any person] can do outwardly good works, but these works come from a heart that hates God, and therefore fail to meet God's righteous standards.
  174. ^ Charles Partee, The Theology of John Calvin (Westminster John Knox, 2008), 129. "By total depravity Calvin means totally susceptible to sin."
  175. ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.
  176. ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.
  177. ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.
  178. ^ a b c d "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 26 January 2015. "Total Depravity – Lutherans and Calvinists agree." Yes this is correct. Both agree on the devastating nature of the fall and that man by nature has no power to aid in his conversions...and that election to salvation is by grace. In Lutheranism the German term for election is Gnadenwahl, election by grace--there is no other kind.
  179. ^ Robert L. Browning and Roy A. Reed, Forgiveness, Reconciliation, and Moral Courage (Eerdmans, 2004), 113. "Luther did not mean by 'total depravity' that everything a person did was depraved. He meant that depravity, sin and wickedness can invade any and every part of life."
  180. ^ Henry Cole, trans, Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term liberum arbitrium was translated "free-will" by Cole. However Ernest Gordon Rupp and Philip Saville Watson, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation (Westminster, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.
  181. ^ Roger E. Olson, Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities (InterVarsity Press, 2009), 17. "Arminians of the heart emphatically do not deny total depravity," but prefer not to use the word.
  182. ^ Keith D. Stanglin and Thomas H. McCall, Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace (Oxford University, 2012), 157–158.
  183. ^ Soteriology. Dictionary.com. WordNet 3.0. Princeton University. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Soteriology Archived 13 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine (accessed: 2 March 2008).
  184. ^ "soteriology– Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 25 April 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  185. ^ Table drawn from, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 2006. p. 448.
  186. ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.
  187. ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.
  188. ^ John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.
  189. ^ Morris, J.W., The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History, p267, "The Book of Concord became the official statement of doctrine for most of the world's Lutherans. The Formula of Concord reaffirmed the traditional Lutheran doctrine of total depravity in very clear terms"
  190. ^ Melton, J.G., Encyclopedia of Protestantism, p229, on Formula of Concord, "the 12 articles of the formula focused on a number of newer issues such as original sin (in which total depravity is affirmed)"
  191. ^ "WELS vs Assembly of God". WELS Topical Q&A. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. [P]eople by nature are dead in their transgressions and sin and therefore have no ability to decide of Christ (Ephesians 2:1, 5). We do not choose Christ, rather he chose us (John 15:16) We believe that human beings are purely passive in conversion.
  192. ^ Augsburg Confessional, Article XVIII, Of Free Will, saying: "(M)an's will has some liberty to choose civil righteousness, and to work things subject to reason. But it has no power, without the Holy Ghost, to work the righteousness of God, that is, spiritual righteousness; since the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God (1 Cor. 2:14); but this righteousness is wrought in the heart when the Holy Ghost is received through the Word."
  193. ^ Henry Cole, trans., Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term liberum arbitrium was translated "free-will" by Cole. However Ernest Gordon Rupp and Philip Saville Watson, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation (Westminster, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.
  194. ^ Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: Oxford University Press USA. pp. 157–158.
  195. ^ The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Lutheran Church, XI. Election. "Predestination" means "God's ordination to salvation".
  196. ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 63. Arminians accepts divine election, [but] they believe it is conditional.
  197. ^ The Westminster Confession, III:6, says that only the "elect" are "effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified, and saved." However in his Calvin and the Reformed Tradition (Baker, 2012), 45, Richard A. Muller observes that "a sizeable body of literature has interpreted Calvin as teaching "limited atonement", but "an equally sizeable body . . . [interprets] Calvin as teaching "unlimited atonement".
  198. ^ "Justification / Salvation". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2015. Romans 3:23-24, 5:9, 18 are other passages that lead us to say that it is most appropriate and accurate to say that universal justification is a finished fact. God has forgiven the sins of the whole world whether people believe it or not. He has done more than "made forgiveness possible." All this is for the sake of the perfect substitutionary work of Jesus Christ.
  199. ^ "IV. Justification by Grace through Faith". This We Believe. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Retrieved 5 February 2015. We believe that God has justified all sinners, that is, he has declared them righteous for the sake of Christ. This is the central message of Scripture upon which the very existence of the church depends. It is a message relevant to people of all times and places, of all races and social levels, for "the result of one trespass was condemnation for all men" (Romans 5:18]). All need forgiveness of sins before God, and Scripture proclaims that all have been justified, for "the result of one act of righteousness was justification that brings life for all men" (Romans 5:18). We believe that individuals receive this free gift of forgiveness not on the basis of their own works, but only through faith (Ephesians 2:8–9). ... On the other hand, although Jesus died for all, Scripture says that "whoever does not believe will be condemned" (Mark 16:16). Unbelievers forfeit the forgiveness won for them by Christ (John 8:24).
  200. ^ Becker, Siegbert W. "Objective Justification" (PDF). Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. p. 1. Retrieved 26 January 2015.
  201. ^ "Universal Justification". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2015. Christ paid for all our sins. God the Father has therefore forgiven them. But to benefit from this verdict we need to hear about it and trust in it. If I deposit money in the bank for you, to benefit from it you need to hear about it and use it. Christ has paid for your sins, but to benefit from it you need to hear about it and believe in it. We need to have faith but we should not think of faith as our contribution. It is a gift of God which the Holy Spirit works in us.
  202. ^ Augsburg Confession, Article V, Of Justification. People "cannot be justified before God by their own strength, merits, or works, but are freely justified for Christ's sake, through faith, when they believe that they are received into favor, and that their sins are forgiven for Christ's sake. ..."
  203. ^ Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012). Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace. New York: Oxford University Press USA. p. 136. Faith is a condition of justification
  204. ^ Paul ChulHong Kang, Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals (Peter Lang, 2006), 70, note 171. Calvin generally defends Augustine's "monergistic view".
  205. ^ Diehl, Walter A. "The Age of Accountability". Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary. Retrieved 10 February 2015. In full accord with Scripture the Lutheran Confessions teach monergism. "In this manner, too, the Holy Scriptures ascribe conversion, faith in Christ, regeneration, renewal and all the belongs to their efficacious beginning and completion, not to the human powers of the natural free will, neither entirely, nor half, nor in any, even the least or most inconsiderable part, but in solidum, that is, entirely, solely, to the divine working and the Holy Ghost" (Trigl. 891, F.C., Sol. Decl., II, 25).
  206. ^ Monergism; thefreedictionary.com
  207. ^ "Calvinism and Lutheranism Compared". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
  208. ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 18. Arminian synergism" refers to "evangelical synergism, which affirms the prevenience of grace.
  209. ^ Olson, Roger E. (2009). Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. p. 165. [Arminius]' evangelical synergism reserves all the power, ability and efficacy in salvation to grace, but allows humans the God-granted ability to resist or not resist it. The only "contribution" humans make is nonresistance to grace.
  210. ^ The Westminster Confession of Faith, Ch XVII, "Of the Perseverance of the Saints".
  211. ^ "Once saved always saved". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015. People can fall from faith. The Bible warns, "If you think you are standing firm, be careful that you don't fall" (1 Corinthians 10:12). Some among the Galatians had believed for a while, but had fallen into soul-destroying error. Paul warned them, "You who are trying to be justified by law have been alienated from Christ; you have fallen away from grace" (Galatians 5:4). In his explanation of the parable of the sower, Jesus says, "Those on the rock are the ones who receive the word with joy when they hear it, but they have no root. They believe for a while, but in time of testing they fall away" (Luke 8:13). According to Jesus a person can believe for a while and then fall away. While they believed they possessed eternal salvation, but when they fell from faith they lost God's gracious gift.
  212. ^ "Perseverence of the Saints (Once Saved Always Saved)". WELS Topical Q&A. Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 7 February 2015. We cannot contribute one speck to our salvation, but by our own arrogance or carelessness we can throw it away. Therefore, Scripture urges us repeatedly to fight the good fight of faith (Ephesians 6 and 2 Timothy 4 for example). My sins threaten and weaken my faith, but the Spirit through the gospel in word and sacraments strengthens and preserves my faith. That's why Lutherans typically speak of God's preservation of faith and not the perseverance of the saints. The key is not our perseverance but the Spirit's preservation.
  213. ^ Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. pp. 437–438.
  214. ^ Demarest, Bruce A. (1997). The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation. Crossway Books. p. 35. Many Arminians deny the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints.
  215. ^ "Bishop– Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 25 April 2007. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  216. ^ Kim, Kirsteen; Fitchett-Climenhaga, Alison (2022). "Introduction to Mission Studies: Analyzing Missiology's Current Configuration and Charting Future Prospects". In Kim, Kirsteen; Jørgensen, Knud; Fitchett-Climenhaga, Alison (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Mission Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-256757-4.
  217. ^ Morreau, A. S. (2001). "Missiology". In Elwell, Walter A. (ed.). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. pp. 780–783. ISBN 978-0-8010-2075-9.
  218. ^ Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion "Sacrament" obtained at https://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html Archived 3 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  219. ^ Catholic Encyclopaedia: "Sacraments" http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm Archived 14 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  220. ^ The Sacraments http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3 Archived 17 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  221. ^ Ignazio Silone, Bread and Wine (1937).
  222. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Eucharist". Britannica.com. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  223. ^ cf. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition 2000 Archived 10 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  224. ^ "Parallel Translations". Bible.cc. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
  225. ^ 1 Corinthians 10:16
  226. ^ Comfort, Philip Wesley (2001). "Lord's Supper, The". In Comfort, Philip W.; Elwell, Walter A. (eds.). Tyndale Bible Dictionary. ISBN 0-8423-7089-7.
  227. ^ Cross, Frank Leslie; Livingstone, Elizabeth A. (2005). "Eucharist". In Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (eds.). Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
  228. ^ (1 Corinthians 11:23–25
  229. ^ And as they were eating, he took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to them, and said, "Take; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, and they all drank of it. And he said to them, "This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many. Truly, I say to you, I shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God." Mark 14:22–25
  230. ^ Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to the disciples and said, "Take, eat; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, saying, "Drink of it, all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you I shall not drink again of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom." Matthew 26:26–29
  231. ^ They prepared the passover. And when the hour came, he sat at table, and the apostles with him. And he said to them, "I have earnestly desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer; for I tell you I shall not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he said, "Take this, and divide it among yourselves; for I tell you that from now on I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes." And he took bread, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he broke it and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me." And likewise the cup after supper, saying, "This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood. ..." Luke 22:13–20
  232. ^ a b Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
  233. ^ Comfort, Philip Wesley (2001). "John, Gospel of". In Comfort, Philip W.; Elwell, Walter A. (eds.). Tyndale Bible Dictionary. ISBN 0-8423-7089-7.
  234. ^ Lambert, J. C. (1978). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (reprint ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8028-8045-2.
  235. ^ Bruce Metzger. The canon of the New Testament. 1997
  236. ^ "There are now two quite separate Eucharistic celebrations given in Didache 9–10, with the earlier one now put in second place." Crossan. The historical Jesus. Citing Riggs, John W. 1984
  237. ^ " ... (t)he eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh suffered for our sins, and which in His loving-kindness the Father raised up. ... Let that eucharist alone be considered valid which is under the bishop or him to whom he commits it. ... It is not lawful apart from the bishop either to baptize, or to hold a love-feast. But whatsoever he approves, that also is well-pleasing to God, that everything which you do may be secure and valid." Letter to the Smyrnaeans, 6, 8 Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine "Give heed to keep one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup unto union with His blood. There is one altar, as there is one bishop, together with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow-servants; that whatsoever you do, you may do according unto God."Letter to the Philadelphians, 4 Archived 29 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  238. ^ First Apology Archived 31 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 65–67
  239. ^ For example, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglo-Catholics, Old Catholics; and cf. the presentation of the Eucharist as a sacrament in the Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document Archived 9 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine of the World Council of Churches
  240. ^ "Most Christian traditions also teach that Jesus is present in the Eucharist in some special way, though they disagree about the mode, the locus, and the time of that presence" (Encyclopædia Britannica Online) Archived 19 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
  241. ^ Bobichon, Philippe. "Philippe Bobichon, Millénarisme et orthodoxie dans les écrits de Justin Martyr". In Mélanges Sur la Question Millénariste de l'Antiquité À Nos Jours, Martin Dumont (Dir.) [Bibliothèque d'Étude des Mondes Chrétiens, 11], Paris, 2018, P. 61-82. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
  242. ^ Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson, eds. Ante-Nicene Fathers. (16 vol.) Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1994. The writings of Ignatius and Justin Martyr can be found in Vol. 1; Tertullian, in Volumes 3–4; and Origen, in Volume 4.

Bibliography

External links