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Historia de Australia

La historia de Australia es la historia de la tierra y los pueblos que componen la Mancomunidad de Australia . La nación moderna nació el 1 de enero de 1901 como una federación de antiguas colonias británicas . Sin embargo, la historia humana de Australia comienza con la llegada de los primeros antepasados ​​de los aborígenes australianos por mar desde el sudeste asiático marítimo hace entre 50.000 y 65.000 años, y continúa hasta la democracia multicultural actual.

Los aborígenes australianos se asentaron en toda Australia continental y en muchas islas cercanas. Las tradiciones artísticas , musicales y espirituales que establecieron se encuentran entre las más antiguas que perduran en la historia de la humanidad. [1] Los antepasados ​​de los actuales isleños del estrecho de Torres, étnica y culturalmente distintos, llegaron de lo que hoy es Papúa Nueva Guinea hace unos 2500 años y se asentaron en las islas del extremo norte de la masa continental australiana.

Los navegantes holandeses exploraron las costas occidentales y meridionales en el siglo XVII y llamaron al continente Nueva Holanda . Los trepangers de Macassan visitaron las costas del norte de Australia desde alrededor de 1720, y posiblemente antes. En 1770, el teniente James Cook trazó un mapa de la costa este de Australia y la reclamó para Gran Bretaña . Regresó a Londres con relatos a favor de la colonización en Botany Bay (ahora en Sydney ). La primera flota de barcos británicos llegó a Botany Bay en enero de 1788 para establecer una colonia penal . En el siglo siguiente, los británicos establecieron otras colonias en el continente y los exploradores europeos se aventuraron en su interior. Este período vio un declive en la población aborigen y la disrupción de sus culturas debido a enfermedades introducidas, conflictos violentos y despojo de sus tierras tradicionales. A partir de 1871, los isleños del estrecho de Torres dieron la bienvenida a los misioneros cristianos , y las islas fueron anexadas más tarde por Queensland, que eligió seguir siendo parte de Australia cuando Papúa Nueva Guinea obtuvo la independencia de Australia un siglo después.

La fiebre del oro y las industrias agrícolas trajeron prosperidad. El transporte de convictos británicos a Australia se eliminó gradualmente entre 1840 y 1868. A mediados del siglo XIX, comenzaron a establecerse democracias parlamentarias autónomas en las seis colonias británicas. Las colonias votaron por referéndum unirse en una federación en 1901, y nació la Australia moderna. Australia luchó como parte del Imperio Británico y más tarde de la Commonwealth en las dos guerras mundiales y se convirtió en un aliado de larga data de los Estados Unidos durante la Guerra Fría hasta la actualidad. El comercio con Asia aumentó y un programa de inmigración de posguerra recibió a más de 7 millones de migrantes de todos los continentes. Con el apoyo de la inmigración de personas de casi todos los países del mundo desde el final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, la población aumentó a más de 25,5 millones en 2021 , con un 30 por ciento de la población nacida en el extranjero.

Prehistoria indígena

Pintura rupestre en Ubirr, en el Parque Nacional Kakadu . Hay pruebas de que el arte aborigen en Australia se remonta a unos 30.000 años.

Los antepasados ​​de los aborígenes australianos se trasladaron a lo que hoy es el continente australiano hace unos 50.000 a 65.000 años, [2] [3] [4] [5] durante el último período glacial , llegando por puentes terrestres y cortas travesías marítimas desde lo que hoy es el sudeste asiático. [6]

El refugio rocoso de Madjedbebe en la Tierra de Arnhem , en el norte del continente, es quizás el sitio de ocupación humana más antiguo de Australia. [2] [7] Desde el norte, la población se extendió a una gama de entornos muy diferentes. La Guarida del Diablo, en el extremo suroeste del continente, estuvo ocupada hace unos 47.000 años y Tasmania, hace 39.000 años. [8] Los restos humanos más antiguos encontrados se encuentran en el lago Mungo en Nueva Gales del Sur, que se han datado en unos 41.000 años atrás. El sitio sugiere una de las cremaciones más antiguas conocidas del mundo, lo que indica evidencia temprana de rituales religiosos entre humanos. [9]

La expansión de la población también alteró el medio ambiente. Desde hace 46.000 años, la agricultura con palos de fuego se utilizaba en muchas partes de Australia para limpiar la vegetación, facilitar los desplazamientos y crear pastizales abiertos ricos en fuentes de alimentos animales y vegetales. [10]

Hombre de Kolaia con un tocado que se usa en una ceremonia del fuego, río Forrest, Australia Occidental. Las prácticas religiosas aborígenes australianas asociadas con el Tiempo del Sueño se llevan practicando desde hace decenas de miles de años.

La población aborigen se enfrentó a cambios significativos en el clima y el medio ambiente. Hace unos 30.000 años, el nivel del mar comenzó a descender, las temperaturas en el sureste del continente bajaron hasta 9 grados centígrados y el interior de Australia se volvió más árido. Hace unos 20.000 años, Nueva Guinea y Tasmania estaban conectadas al continente australiano, que era más de una cuarta parte más grande que hoy. [11]

Hace unos 19.000 años, las temperaturas y los niveles del mar comenzaron a aumentar. Tasmania se separó del continente hace unos 14.000 años, y entre 8.000 y 6.000 años atrás se formaron miles de islas en el estrecho de Torres y alrededor de la costa de Australia. [11]

El clima más cálido se asoció con nuevas tecnologías. Hace entre 15.000 y 19.000 años aparecieron pequeñas herramientas de piedra con filo posterior. Se han encontrado jabalinas y bumeranes de madera que datan de hace 10.000 años. Se han encontrado puntas de piedra para lanzas que datan de hace entre 5.000 y 7.000 años. Los lanzadores de lanzas probablemente se desarrollaron más recientemente que hace 6.500 años. [12]

Los aborígenes de Tasmania estuvieron aislados del continente hace unos 14.000 años, por lo que solo poseían una cuarta parte de las herramientas y el equipo del continente adyacente. Los habitantes de la costa de Tasmania dejaron de pescar para alimentarse de abulón y cangrejos de río, y más habitantes de Tasmania se trasladaron al interior. [13]

Hace unos 4.000 años comenzó la primera fase de ocupación de las islas del Estrecho de Torres. Hace 2.500 años se ocuparon más islas y surgió una cultura marítima característica de los isleños del Estrecho de Torres . También se desarrolló la agricultura en algunas islas y hace 700 años aparecieron aldeas. [14]

La sociedad aborigen estaba formada por grupos familiares organizados en bandas y clanes de una media de 25 personas, cada uno de ellos con un territorio definido para la recolección de alimentos. Los clanes estaban vinculados a tribus o naciones, asociadas a lenguas y países concretos. En el momento del contacto europeo había unas 600 tribus o naciones y 250 lenguas distintas con varios dialectos. [15] [16] Se calcula que la población aborigen en esa época oscilaba entre 300.000 y un millón. [17] [18] [19]

Un hombre de Luritja demuestra su método de ataque con un gran bumerán curvo cubierto por un escudo fino (1920)

La sociedad aborigen era igualitaria, sin gobierno formal ni jefes. La autoridad recaía en los ancianos y las decisiones grupales generalmente se tomaban por consenso de los ancianos. La economía tradicional era cooperativa: los hombres generalmente cazaban animales grandes mientras que las mujeres recolectaban alimentos básicos locales, como animales pequeños, mariscos, vegetales, frutas, semillas y nueces. La comida se compartía dentro de los grupos y se intercambiaba entre ellos. [20] Algunos grupos aborígenes se dedicaban a la agricultura con palos para fuego , [21] la piscicultura , [22] y construían refugios semipermanentes . [23] [24] El grado en que algunos grupos se dedicaban a la agricultura es controvertido. [25] [26] [27] Algunos antropólogos describen la Australia aborigen tradicional como una sociedad "compleja de cazadores-recolectores". [24] [28]

Los grupos aborígenes eran seminómadas y, por lo general, se desplazaban por un territorio específico definido por características naturales. Los miembros de un grupo entraban en el territorio de otro grupo mediante derechos establecidos por matrimonio y parentesco o por invitación para fines específicos, como ceremonias y para compartir alimentos abundantes de temporada. Como todas las características naturales de la tierra fueron creadas por seres ancestrales, el país particular de un grupo proporcionaba alimento físico y espiritual. [29] [16]

Los aborígenes australianos desarrollaron una cultura espiritual y artística única. El arte rupestre aborigen más antiguo consiste en huellas de manos, plantillas de manos y grabados de círculos, huellas, líneas y cúpulas, y se ha datado en 35.000 años atrás. Hace unos 20.000 años, los artistas aborígenes representaban a humanos y animales. [30] Según la mitología aborigen australiana y el marco animista , el Sueño es una era sagrada en la que los seres espirituales totémicos ancestrales formaron La Creación . El Sueño estableció las leyes y estructuras de la sociedad y las ceremonias realizadas para asegurar la continuidad de la vida y la tierra. [31]

Exploración europea temprana

Descubrimiento y exploración holandeses

Exploración por los europeos hasta 1812:
  1616 Dirk Hartog
  1644 Abel Tasman
  1770 James Cook
  1797–99 George Bass
  1801–03 Matthew Flinders
Abel Tasman , el primer europeo en descubrir la Tierra de Van Diemen , hoy conocida como Tasmania

El barco Duyfken de la Compañía Holandesa de las Indias Orientales , capitaneado por Willem Janszoon , realizó el primer desembarco europeo documentado en Australia en 1606. [32] Más tarde ese año, Luís Vaz de Torres navegó hacia el norte de Australia a través del estrecho de Torres , a lo largo de la costa sur de Nueva Guinea. [33]

En 1616, Dirk Hartog , navegando fuera de su curso, en ruta desde el Cabo de Buena Esperanza a Batavia , desembarcó en una isla frente a Shark Bay , Australia Occidental. [34] En 1622-23, el barco Leeuwin realizó el primer viraje registrado de la esquina suroeste del continente. [35]

En 1627, la costa sur de Australia fue descubierta por François Thijssen y bautizada en honor a Pieter Nuyts . [36] En 1628, un escuadrón de barcos holandeses exploró la costa norte, particularmente en el Golfo de Carpentaria . [35]

El viaje de Abel Tasman de 1642 fue la primera expedición europea conocida que llegó a la Tierra de Van Diemen (posteriormente Tasmania) y Nueva Zelanda , y avistó Fiyi . En su segundo viaje de 1644, también contribuyó significativamente al mapeo del continente australiano (al que llamó Nueva Holanda ), haciendo observaciones sobre la tierra y la gente de la costa norte debajo de Nueva Guinea. [37]

Tras los viajes de Tasmania, los holandeses pudieron realizar mapas casi completos de las costas norte y oeste de Australia y de gran parte de las costas sur y sureste de Tasmania . [38]

Exploración británica y francesa

El teniente James Cook , el primer europeo en cartografiar la costa oriental de Australia en 1770

William Dampier , un bucanero y explorador inglés, desembarcó en la costa noroeste de Nueva Holanda en 1688 y nuevamente en 1699, y publicó descripciones influyentes de los pueblos aborígenes. [39]

En 1769, el teniente James Cook, al mando del HMS  Endeavour , viajó a Tahití para observar y registrar el tránsito de Venus . Cook también llevaba instrucciones secretas del Almirantazgo para localizar el supuesto Continente Austral . [40] Al no poder encontrar este continente, Cook decidió inspeccionar la costa este de Nueva Holanda, la única parte importante de ese continente que no había sido cartografiada por navegantes holandeses. [41]

El 19 de abril de 1770, el Endeavour llegó a la costa este de Nueva Holanda y diez días después ancló en Botany Bay . Cook cartografió la costa hasta su extensión norte y tomó posesión formal de la costa este de Nueva Holanda el 21/22 de agosto de 1770, cuando se encontraba en la isla Possession, frente a la costa oeste de la península del Cabo York . [42]

En su diario anotó que ya no podía "desembarcar más en esta costa oriental de Nueva Holanda, y en el lado occidental no puedo hacer ningún descubrimiento nuevo cuyo honor pertenece a los navegantes holandeses y como tal pueden reclamarlo como su propiedad [palabras en cursiva tachadas en el original] pero estoy seguro de que la costa oriental desde la latitud 38 Sur hasta este lugar nunca fue vista ni visitada por ningún europeo antes que nosotros y, por lo tanto, por la misma regla pertenece a la gran Bretaña " [palabras en cursiva tachadas en el original]. [43] [44]

En marzo de 1772, Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne , al mando de dos barcos franceses, llegó a la tierra de Van Diemen en su camino hacia Tahití y los mares del Sur. Su grupo se convirtió en el primer europeo registrado en encontrarse con los indígenas de Tasmania y matar a uno de ellos. [45]

Ese mismo año, una expedición francesa dirigida por Louis Aleno de St Aloüarn se convirtió en la primera europea en reclamar formalmente la soberanía sobre la costa oeste de Australia, pero no se hizo ningún intento de continuar con la colonización. [46]

Colonización

Planes de colonización antes de 1788

Dos de los nativos de Nueva Holanda avanzando hacia el combate (1784), litografía basada en un boceto de 1770 del ilustrador de Cook, Sydney Parkinson
Un mapa general de Nueva Holanda que incluye Nueva Gales del Sur y Botany Bay con los países adyacentes y las nuevas tierras descubiertas , publicado en An Historical Narrative of the Discovery of New Holland and New South Wales , Londres, Fielding and Stockdale, noviembre de 1786

Aunque antes de 1788 se hicieron varias propuestas para la colonización de Australia, ninguna se llevó a cabo. En 1717, Jean-Pierre Purry envió un plan a la Compañía Holandesa de las Indias Orientales para la colonización de una zona de la actual Australia del Sur. La compañía rechazó el plan con el comentario de que "no hay perspectivas de uso o beneficio para la Compañía en él, sino más bien costos muy seguros y elevados". [47]

Por el contrario, Emanuel Bowen , en 1747, promovió los beneficios de explorar y colonizar el país, escribiendo: [48]

Es imposible concebir un país que prometa más justicia por su situación que la de Terra Australis , ya no incógnita, como demuestra este mapa, sino el continente austral descubierto. Se encuentra precisamente en los climas más ricos del mundo... y por lo tanto, quien lo descubra y lo establezca perfectamente se convertirá infaliblemente en poseedor de territorios tan ricos, tan fructíferos y tan capaces de mejorar como cualquiera de los que se han descubierto hasta ahora, ya sea en las Indias Orientales o en las Occidentales.

John Harris, en su Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca, o Voyages and Travels (1744-1748, 1764) recomendó la exploración de la costa este de Nueva Holanda, con vistas a una colonización británica. [49] John Callander presentó una propuesta en 1766 para que Gran Bretaña fundara una colonia de convictos desterrados en el Mar del Sur o en Terra Australis . [50] El rey Gustavo III de Suecia tenía ambiciones de establecer una colonia para su país en el río Swan en 1786, pero el plan nació muerto. [51]

Durante la Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos (1775-1783), Gran Bretaña perdió la mayoría de sus colonias en América del Norte y se planteó la posibilidad de establecer territorios de reemplazo. Gran Bretaña había transportado a unos 50.000 convictos al Nuevo Mundo entre 1718 y 1775 y ahora estaba buscando una alternativa. La solución temporal de los pontones flotantes para prisiones había alcanzado su capacidad máxima y era un peligro para la salud pública, mientras que la opción de construir más cárceles y asilos de pobres se consideraba demasiado cara. [52] [53]

En 1779, Sir Joseph Banks , el eminente científico que había acompañado a James Cook en su viaje de 1770, recomendó Botany Bay como un lugar adecuado para un asentamiento penal. El plan de Banks era enviar de 200 a 300 convictos a Botany Bay, donde podrían ser abandonados a su suerte y no serían una carga para el contribuyente británico. [54]

Desembarco del teniente James Cook en Botany Bay, 29 de abril de 1770

Bajo la dirección de Banks, el lealista estadounidense James Matra , que también había viajado con Cook, elaboró ​​un nuevo plan para colonizar Nueva Gales del Sur en 1783. [55] Matra argumentó que el país era adecuado para plantaciones de azúcar, algodón y tabaco; la madera de Nueva Zelanda y el cáñamo o el lino podrían resultar productos valiosos; podría formar una base para el comercio del Pacífico; y podría ser una compensación adecuada para los leales estadounidenses desplazados. [56] Después de una entrevista con el Secretario de Estado Lord Sydney en 1784, Matra modificó su propuesta para incluir a los convictos como colonos, considerando que esto beneficiaría tanto a la "economía para el público como a la humanidad para el individuo". [57]

La principal alternativa a Botany Bay era enviar a los convictos a África. Desde 1775 se habían enviado convictos a guarnecer fuertes británicos en África occidental, pero el experimento había resultado infructuoso. En 1783, el gobierno de Pitt consideró exiliar a los convictos a una pequeña isla fluvial en Gambia, donde podrían formar una comunidad autónoma, una "colonia de ladrones", sin ningún gasto para el gobierno. [58]

En 1785, un comité parlamentario selecto presidido por Lord Beauchamp recomendó no apoyar el plan de Gambia, pero no apoyó la alternativa de Botany Bay. En un segundo informe, Beauchamp recomendó un asentamiento penal en Das Voltas Bay, en la actual Namibia. Sin embargo, el plan se abandonó cuando una investigación del lugar en 1786 determinó que no era adecuado. Dos semanas después, en agosto de 1786, el gobierno de Pitt anunció su intención de enviar convictos a Botany Bay. [59] El gobierno incorporó el asentamiento de la isla Norfolk a su plan, con sus atractivos de madera y lino, propuesto por los colegas de Banks en la Royal Society, Sir John Call y Sir George Young. [60]

Ha habido un debate de larga data sobre si la consideración clave en la decisión de establecer una colonia penal en Botany Bay fue la necesidad apremiante de encontrar una solución al problema de la gestión penal, o si los objetivos imperiales más amplios -como el comercio, asegurar nuevos suministros de madera y lino para la marina y la conveniencia de puertos estratégicos en la región- eran primordiales. [61] Christopher y Maxwell-Stewart sostienen que cualesquiera que fueran los motivos originales del gobierno para establecer la colonia, hacia la década de 1790 al menos había logrado el objetivo imperial de proporcionar un puerto donde los barcos pudieran ser carenados y reabastecidos. [62]

La colonia de Nueva Gales del Sur

Fundación de la colonia: 1788 a 1792

La peligrosa situación de la fragata The Guardian cuando parecía chocar contra las rocas de hielo ( c.  1790 ) – Robert Dighton; representando a la Segunda Flota

El territorio de Nueva Gales del Sur reclamado por Gran Bretaña incluía toda Australia al este del meridiano 135° Este. Esto incluía más de la mitad de Australia continental. [63] La reclamación también incluía "todas las islas adyacentes en el Pacífico" entre las latitudes de Cabo York y el extremo sur de la Tierra de Van Diemen (Tasmania). [64] En 1817, el gobierno británico retiró la extensa reclamación territorial sobre el Pacífico Sur, aprobando una ley que especificaba que Tahití, Nueva Zelanda y otras islas del Pacífico Sur no estaban dentro de los dominios de Su Majestad. [63] Sin embargo, no está claro si la reclamación se extendió alguna vez a las islas actuales de Nueva Zelanda. [65]

La colonia de Nueva Gales del Sur se estableció con la llegada de la Primera Flota de 11 buques bajo el mando del capitán Arthur Phillip en enero de 1788. Estaba formada por más de mil colonos, incluidos 778 convictos (192 mujeres y 586 hombres). [66] Unos días después de la llegada a Botany Bay, la flota se trasladó al puerto más adecuado, Port Jackson , donde se estableció un asentamiento en Sydney Cove el 26 de enero de 1788. [67] Esta fecha se convirtió más tarde en el día nacional de Australia, el Día de Australia . La colonia fue proclamada formalmente por el gobernador Phillip el 7 de febrero de 1788 en Sydney. Sydney Cove ofrecía un suministro de agua dulce y un puerto seguro, que Phillip describió como "sin excepción, el mejor puerto del mundo [...] Aquí pueden navegar mil velas de línea con la más perfecta seguridad". [68]

Arthur Phillip , primer gobernador de Nueva Gales del Sur
Fundación del asentamiento de Port Jackson en Botany Bay, Nueva Gales del Sur, en 1788 – Thomas Gosse

El gobernador Phillip tenía autoridad absoluta sobre los habitantes de la colonia. Su intención era establecer relaciones armoniosas con los aborígenes locales e intentar reformar y disciplinar a los convictos de la colonia. Los primeros esfuerzos en materia de agricultura resultaron complicados y los suministros procedentes del extranjero eran escasos. Entre 1788 y 1792, desembarcaron en Sydney unos 3546 hombres y 766 mujeres convictos. Muchos de los recién llegados estaban enfermos o no estaban en condiciones de trabajar y la condición de los convictos sanos también se deterioró debido al duro trabajo y la mala alimentación. La situación alimentaria llegó a un punto crítico en 1790 y la Segunda Flota , que finalmente llegó en junio de 1790, había perdido una cuarta parte de sus pasajeros por enfermedad, mientras que la condición de los convictos de la Tercera Flota horrorizó a Phillip. Sin embargo, a partir de 1791, la llegada más regular de barcos y los inicios del comercio redujeron la sensación de aislamiento y mejoraron los suministros. [69]

En 1788, Phillip estableció un asentamiento subsidiario en la isla Norfolk , en el Pacífico Sur, donde esperaba obtener madera y lino para la marina. Sin embargo, la isla no tenía un puerto seguro, por lo que el asentamiento fue abandonado y los colonos evacuados a Tasmania en 1807. [70] Posteriormente, la isla fue restablecida como un sitio para el transporte secundario en 1825. [71]

Phillip envió misiones exploratorias en busca de mejores suelos, se fijó en la región de Parramatta como una zona prometedora para la expansión y trasladó a muchos de los convictos a finales de 1788 para establecer un pequeño municipio, que se convirtió en el principal centro de la vida económica de la colonia. Esto dejó a Sydney Cove solo como un puerto importante y foco de la vida social. El equipo deficiente y los suelos y el clima desconocidos continuaron obstaculizando la expansión de la agricultura desde Farm Cove a Parramatta y Toongabbie , pero un programa de construcción, con la ayuda del trabajo de los convictos, avanzó de manera constante. Entre 1788 y 1792, los convictos y sus carceleros constituyeron la mayoría de la población; sin embargo, pronto comenzó a crecer una población libre, compuesta por convictos emancipados, niños nacidos en la zona, soldados cuyo servicio militar había expirado y, finalmente, colonos libres de Gran Bretaña. El gobernador Phillip partió de la colonia hacia Inglaterra el 11 de diciembre de 1792, y el nuevo asentamiento había sobrevivido a la casi inanición y al inmenso aislamiento durante cuatro años. [69]

Consolidación: 1793 a 1821

Gobernador William Bligh

Tras la marcha de Felipe, los oficiales militares de la colonia comenzaron a adquirir tierras e importar bienes de consumo obtenidos de los barcos que visitaban la zona. Los antiguos convictos también cultivaban las tierras que les habían sido concedidas y se dedicaban al comercio. Las granjas se extendieron a las tierras más fértiles que rodeaban Paramatta , Windsor , Richmond y Camden , y en 1803 la colonia era autosuficiente en cereales. Se desarrolló la construcción de barcos para facilitar los viajes y explotar los recursos marinos de los asentamientos costeros. La caza de focas y de ballenas se convirtieron en industrias importantes. [72]

Vista de Sydney Cove ( aborigen : Warrane ) de Thomas Watling , 1794-1796

El Cuerpo de Nueva Gales del Sur se formó en Inglaterra en 1789 como un regimiento permanente del Ejército británico para relevar a los marines que habían acompañado a la Primera Flota. Los oficiales del Cuerpo pronto se involucraron en el comercio corrupto y lucrativo del ron en la colonia. El gobernador William Bligh (1806-1808) intentó suprimir el comercio del ron y el uso ilegal de las tierras de la Corona, lo que resultó en la Rebelión del Ron de 1808. El Cuerpo, en estrecha colaboración con el recién establecido comerciante de lana John Macarthur , organizó la única toma de posesión armada exitosa del gobierno en la historia de Australia, deponiendo a Bligh e instigando un breve período de gobierno militar antes de la llegada de Gran Bretaña del gobernador Lachlan Macquarie en 1810. [73] [74]

Macquarie fue el último gobernador autocrático de Nueva Gales del Sur , de 1810 a 1821, y tuvo un papel destacado en el desarrollo social y económico de Nueva Gales del Sur, que la vio pasar de ser una colonia penal a una sociedad civil en ciernes. Fundó un banco, una moneda y un hospital. Contrató a un planificador para diseñar el trazado de las calles de Sídney y encargó la construcción de carreteras, muelles, iglesias y edificios públicos. Envió exploradores desde Sídney y, en 1815, se completó una carretera a través de las Montañas Azules , abriendo el camino para la agricultura y el pastoreo a gran escala en los pastos ligeramente arbolados al oeste de la Gran Cordillera Divisoria . [75] [76]

Un aspecto central de la política de Macquarie fue su trato a los emancipistas , a quienes consideraba que debían ser tratados como iguales sociales a los colonos libres de la colonia. Nombró a emancipistas para puestos clave en el gobierno, entre ellos a Francis Greenway como arquitecto colonial y a William Redfern como magistrado. Su política sobre los emancipadores fue rechazada por muchos colonos libres, oficiales y funcionarios influyentes, y Londres se preocupó por el coste de sus obras públicas. En 1819, Londres nombró a JT Bigge para que llevara a cabo una investigación sobre la colonia, y Macquarie dimitió poco antes de que se publicara el informe de la investigación. [77] [78]

Expansión: 1821 a 1850

Mapa de la parte sureste de Australia, 1850

En 1820, la colonización británica se limitaba en gran medida a un radio de 100 kilómetros alrededor de Sídney y a la llanura central de la Tierra de Van Diemen. La población de colonos era de 26.000 en el continente y 6.000 en la Tierra de Van Diemen. Tras el final de las guerras napoleónicas en 1815, el transporte de convictos aumentó rápidamente y el número de colonos libres creció de forma constante. [79] De 1821 a 1840, 55.000 convictos llegaron a Nueva Gales del Sur y 60.000 a la Tierra de Van Diemen. Sin embargo, en 1830, los colonos libres y los nacidos en la zona superaban a la población de convictos de Nueva Gales del Sur. [80]

A partir de la década de 1820, los ocupantes ilegales establecieron cada vez más áreas no autorizadas para el ganado y las ovejas más allá de los límites oficiales de la colonia establecida. En 1836, se introdujo un sistema de licencias anuales que autorizaban el pastoreo en tierras de la Corona en un intento de controlar la industria pastoril , pero el auge de los precios de la lana y el alto costo de la tierra en las áreas establecidas alentaron aún más la ocupación ilegal. En 1844, la lana representaba la mitad de las exportaciones de la colonia y en 1850 la mayor parte del tercio oriental de Nueva Gales del Sur estaba controlada por menos de 2000 pastores. [81] [82]

En 1825, el límite occidental de Nueva Gales del Sur se extendió hasta la longitud 129° Este, que es el límite actual de Australia Occidental. Como resultado, el territorio de Nueva Gales del Sur alcanzó su mayor extensión, abarcando el área del estado moderno, así como las actuales Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, Australia del Sur y el Territorio del Norte. [83] [65]

En 1850, la población de colonos de Nueva Gales del Sur había crecido a 180.000 personas, sin incluir las 70-75 mil que vivían en la zona que se convirtió en la colonia separada de Victoria en 1851. [84]

Establecimiento de nuevas colonias

Después de recibir la expedición naval francesa de Nicholas Baudin en Sídney en 1802, el gobernador Phillip Gidley King decidió establecer un asentamiento en la Tierra de Van Diemen (actual Tasmania ) en 1803, en parte para prevenir un posible asentamiento francés. El asentamiento británico de la isla pronto se centró en Launceston en el norte y Hobart en el sur. [85] [86] A partir de la década de 1820, los colonos libres se sintieron alentados por la oferta de concesiones de tierras en proporción al capital que traerían los colonos. [87] [88] La Tierra de Van Diemen se convirtió en una colonia separada de Nueva Gales del Sur en diciembre de 1825 y continuó expandiéndose durante la década de 1830, apoyada por la agricultura, el pastoreo de ovejas y la caza de ballenas. Tras la suspensión del transporte de convictos a Nueva Gales del Sur en 1840, la tierra de Van Diemen se convirtió en el principal destino de los convictos. El transporte a la Tierra de Van Diemen terminó en 1853 y en 1856 la colonia cambió oficialmente su nombre a Tasmania. [89]

Desembarco en Melbourne , 1840; acuarela de W. Liardet (1840)

Los pastores de la tierra de Van Diemen comenzaron a ocupar ilegalmente el interior de Port Phillip en el continente en 1834, atraídos por sus ricos pastizales. En 1835, John Batman y otros negociaron la transferencia de 100.000 acres de tierra del pueblo Kulin. Sin embargo, el tratado fue anulado el mismo año cuando la Oficina Colonial Británica emitió la Proclamación del Gobernador Bourke . La proclamación significaba que a partir de entonces, todas las personas que se encontraran ocupando tierras sin la autorización del gobierno serían consideradas intrusos ilegales. [90] En 1836, Port Phillip fue reconocido oficialmente como un distrito de Nueva Gales del Sur y abierto a la colonización. El asentamiento principal de Melbourne se estableció en 1837 como una ciudad planificada por instrucciones del Gobernador Bourke. Los ocupantes ilegales y colonos de la Tierra de Van Diemen y Nueva Gales del Sur pronto llegaron en grandes cantidades. En 1851, el Distrito de Port Phillip se separó de Nueva Gales del Sur como la colonia de Victoria. [91] [92]

La fundación de Perth en 1829 por George Pitt Morison

En 1826, el gobernador de Nueva Gales del Sur, Ralph Darling , envió una guarnición militar a King George Sound para disuadir a los franceses de establecer un asentamiento en Australia Occidental. En 1827, el jefe de la expedición, el mayor Edmund Lockyer , anexó formalmente el tercio occidental del continente como colonia británica. [93] En 1829, la colonia del río Swan se estableció en los sitios de las modernas Fremantle y Perth , convirtiéndose en la primera colonia libre de convictos y privatizada en Australia. Sin embargo, en 1850 había un poco más de 5000 colonos. La colonia aceptó convictos a partir de ese año debido a la aguda escasez de mano de obra. [94] [95]

Adelaida en 1839. Australia del Sur fue fundada como una colonia libre, sin convictos.

La provincia de Australia del Sur se estableció en 1836 como un asentamiento financiado de forma privada basado en la teoría de la "colonización sistemática" desarrollada por Edward Gibbon Wakefield . Se prohibió el trabajo de los convictos con la esperanza de hacer que la colonia fuera más atractiva para las familias "respetables" y promover un equilibrio equilibrado entre colonos masculinos y femeninos. La ciudad de Adelaida se planificaría con una generosa provisión de iglesias, parques y escuelas. La tierra se vendería a un precio uniforme y las ganancias se utilizarían para asegurar un suministro adecuado de mano de obra mediante una migración selectiva asistida. [96] [97] [98] Se garantizaron varias libertades religiosas, personales y comerciales, y las Cartas Patentes que habilitaron la Ley de Australia del Sur de 1834 incluyeron una garantía de los derechos territoriales de los aborígenes. [99] Sin embargo, la colonia se vio gravemente afectada por la depresión de 1841-44. El conflicto con los terratenientes tradicionales indígenas también redujo las protecciones que se les habían prometido. En 1842, el asentamiento se convirtió en una colonia de la Corona administrada por el gobernador y un Consejo Legislativo designado. La economía se recuperó y en 1850 la población de colonos había crecido a 60.000. En 1851, la colonia alcanzó un autogobierno limitado con un Consejo Legislativo parcialmente elegido. [96] [97] [100]

Brisbane (asentamiento de Moreton Bay), 1835; acuarela de H. Bowerman

En 1824, se estableció el asentamiento penal de Moreton Bay en el sitio de la actual Brisbane . En 1842, la colonia penal se cerró y la zona se abrió al asentamiento libre. En 1850, la población de Brisbane había alcanzado los 8.000 habitantes y un número cada vez mayor de pastores pastaban ganado vacuno y ovino en Darling Downs, al oeste de la ciudad. La violencia fronteriza entre los colonos y la población indígena se agravó a medida que el pastoreo se expandía al norte del río Tweed . Una serie de disputas entre los pastores del norte y el gobierno de Sídney llevaron a que los colonos del norte exigieran cada vez más la separación de Nueva Gales del Sur. En 1857, el gobierno británico aceptó la separación y en 1859 se proclamó la colonia de Queensland. [101] [102] [103]

Los convictos y la sociedad colonial

Convictos y emancipadores

Black-eyed Sue y Sweet Poll de Plymouth, Inglaterra, lloran a sus amantes, que pronto serán transportados a Botany Bay (publicado en Londres en 1792)

Entre 1788 y 1868, aproximadamente 161.700 convictos fueron transportados a las colonias australianas de Nueva Gales del Sur, Tierra de Van Diemen y Australia Occidental. [104] La tasa de alfabetización de los convictos estaba por encima de la media y aportaron una serie de habilidades útiles a la nueva colonia, entre ellas la construcción, la agricultura, la navegación, la pesca y la caza. [105] El pequeño número de colonos libres significó que los primeros gobernadores también tuvieron que depender de convictos y emancipadores para profesiones como abogados, arquitectos, agrimensores y profesores. [106]

Los convictos inicialmente trabajaban en granjas del gobierno y en obras públicas, como desmonte y construcción de terrenos. Después de 1792, la mayoría fueron asignados a trabajar para empleadores privados, incluidos los emancipadores . A los emancipadores se les otorgaron pequeñas parcelas de tierra para la agricultura y un año de raciones del gobierno. Más tarde se les asignó trabajo de convictos para ayudarlos a trabajar en sus granjas. [107] Algunos convictos fueron asignados a oficiales militares para que dirigieran sus negocios. Estos convictos aprendieron habilidades comerciales que podrían ayudarlos a trabajar por cuenta propia cuando terminara su sentencia o se les otorgara un "boleto de permiso" (una forma de libertad condicional). [108]

Los convictos pronto establecieron un sistema de trabajo a destajo que les permitía trabajar por un salario una vez que completaban las tareas que se les habían asignado. [109] En 1821, los convictos, los emancipadores y sus hijos poseían dos tercios de la tierra cultivada, la mitad del ganado y un tercio de las ovejas. [110] También trabajaban en oficios y pequeños negocios. Los emancipadores empleaban a aproximadamente la mitad de los convictos asignados a amos privados. [111]

Una serie de reformas recomendadas por J. T. Bigge en 1822 y 1823 empeoraron las condiciones de los convictos. Se redujeron las raciones de comida y se restringieron sus oportunidades de trabajar por un salario. [112] Se asignaron más convictos a cuadrillas de trabajo rural, se sistemático el control y la vigilancia burocráticos de los convictos, se establecieron asentamientos penales aislados como lugares de castigo secundario, se endurecieron las reglas para los boletos de permiso y se sesgaron las concesiones de tierras para favorecer a los colonos libres con un gran capital. [113] Como resultado, los convictos que llegaron después de 1820 tenían muchas menos probabilidades de convertirse en propietarios, casarse y formar familias. [114]

Colonos libres

La humanitaria Caroline Chisholm fue una destacada defensora de los derechos de la mujer y de una política colonial favorable a la familia.

Las reformas de Bigge también apuntaban a alentar a los colonos libres ofreciéndoles concesiones de tierras en proporción a su capital. A partir de 1831, las colonias reemplazaron las concesiones de tierras por ventas de tierras en subasta a un precio mínimo fijo por acre, y los ingresos se utilizaron para financiar la migración asistida de trabajadores. Entre 1821 y 1850, Australia atrajo a 200.000 inmigrantes del Reino Unido. Sin embargo, el sistema de asignación de tierras condujo a la concentración de la tierra en manos de un pequeño número de colonos adinerados. [115]

Dos tercios de los inmigrantes que llegaron a Australia durante este período recibieron ayuda de los gobiernos británico o colonial. [116] También se ofreció a las familias de los convictos un pasaje gratuito y se seleccionaron a unos 3.500 inmigrantes en virtud de las Leyes de Pobres inglesas . Varios planes especiales y de beneficencia, como los de Caroline Chisholm y John Dunmore Lang , también proporcionaron asistencia para la migración. [117]

Mujer

La empresaria Elizabeth Macarthur ayudó a establecer la industria de la lana merino.

Las mujeres representaban tan solo el 15% de los convictos deportados. Debido a la escasez de mujeres en la colonia, tenían más probabilidades de casarse que los hombres y tendían a elegir como maridos a hombres mayores, hábiles y con propiedades. Los primeros tribunales coloniales hicieron cumplir los derechos de propiedad de las mujeres independientemente de sus maridos, y el sistema de racionamiento también les dio a las mujeres y a sus hijos cierta protección contra el abandono. Las mujeres estuvieron activas en los negocios y la agricultura desde los primeros años de la colonia, entre las más exitosas se encuentran la ex convicta convertida en empresaria Mary Reibey y la agricultora Elizabeth Macarthur . [118] Un tercio de los accionistas del primer banco colonial (fundado en 1817) eran mujeres. [119]

Uno de los objetivos de los programas de migración asistida de la década de 1830 fue promover la migración de mujeres y familias para lograr un equilibrio de género más equilibrado en las colonias. Caroline Chisholm estableció un refugio y una bolsa de trabajo para mujeres migrantes en Nueva Gales del Sur en la década de 1840 y promovió el asentamiento de mujeres solteras y casadas en áreas rurales. [120] [121]

Entre 1830 y 1850, la proporción de mujeres en la población de colonos australianos aumentó del 24 por ciento al 41 por ciento. [122]

Religión

La Iglesia de Inglaterra era la única iglesia reconocida antes de 1820 y su clero trabajaba en estrecha colaboración con los gobernadores. Richard Johnson (capellán jefe entre 1788 y 1802) fue encargado por el gobernador Arthur Phillip de mejorar la "moralidad pública" en la colonia y también estuvo muy involucrado en la salud y la educación. [123] Samuel Marsden (diversos ministerios entre 1795 y 1838) se hizo conocido por su trabajo misionero, la severidad de sus castigos como magistrado y la vehemencia de sus denuncias públicas del catolicismo y los convictos irlandeses. [124]

Una pintura que representa la Rebelión de Castle Hill en Sydney de 1804

Alrededor de una cuarta parte de los convictos eran católicos. La falta de reconocimiento oficial del catolicismo se combinó con la sospecha hacia los convictos irlandeses, que sólo aumentó después de la Rebelión de Castle Hill liderada por los irlandeses en 1804. [125] [126] Sólo dos sacerdotes católicos operaron temporalmente en la colonia antes de que el gobernador Macquarie designara capellanes católicos oficiales en Nueva Gales del Sur y la Tierra de Van Diemen en 1820. [127]

Los informes de Bigge recomendaron que se mejorara el estatus de la Iglesia Anglicana. En 1824 se nombró a un arcediano anglicano y se le asignó un puesto en el primer Consejo Legislativo asesor. El clero y las escuelas anglicanas también recibieron apoyo estatal. Esta política se modificó bajo el gobernador Burke mediante las Leyes de la Iglesia de 1836 y 1837. El gobierno ahora proporcionaba apoyo estatal al clero y los edificios de las iglesias de las cuatro denominaciones más importantes: anglicana, católica, presbiteriana y, más tarde, metodista. [127]

Muchos anglicanos vieron el apoyo estatal a la Iglesia católica como una amenaza. El destacado ministro presbiteriano John Dunmore Lang también promovió divisiones sectarias en la década de 1840. [128] [129] Sin embargo, el apoyo estatal condujo a un crecimiento de las actividades de la iglesia. Asociaciones caritativas como las Hermanas Católicas de la Caridad , fundadas en 1838, proporcionaron hospitales, orfanatos y asilos para ancianos y discapacitados. Las organizaciones religiosas también fueron los principales proveedores de educación escolar en la primera mitad del siglo XIX, un ejemplo notable fue el Colegio Australiano de Lang, que abrió en 1831. Muchas asociaciones religiosas, como las Hermanas de San José , cofundadas por Mary MacKillop en 1866, continuaron sus actividades educativas después de que la provisión de escuelas estatales seculares creciera a partir de la década de 1850. [130] [131]

Exploración del continente

Flinders se prepara para circunnavegar Terra Australis - Julio de 1802

Entre 1798 y 1799, George Bass y Matthew Flinders partieron de Sídney en un balandro y circunnavegaron Tasmania , demostrando así que era una isla. [132] Entre 1801 y 1802, Matthew Flinders, a bordo del HMS  Investigator, lideró la primera circunnavegación de Australia. A bordo del barco se encontraba el explorador aborigen Bungaree , que se convirtió en la primera persona nacida en el continente australiano en circunnavegarlo. [132]

Matthew Flinders dirigió la primera circunnavegación exitosa de Australia en 1801-02.

En 1798, el ex convicto John Wilson y dos compañeros cruzaron las Montañas Azules, al oeste de Sídney, en una expedición ordenada por el gobernador Hunter. Hunter suprimió las noticias de la hazaña por temor a que alentara a los convictos a huir del asentamiento. En 1813, Gregory Blaxland , William Lawson y William Wentworth cruzaron las montañas por una ruta diferente y pronto se construyó una carretera hacia las Mesetas Centrales . [133]

En 1824, Hamilton Hume y William Hovell encabezaron una expedición para encontrar nuevas tierras de pastoreo en el sur de la colonia y también para averiguar dónde fluían los ríos occidentales de Nueva Gales del Sur. Durante 16 semanas entre 1824 y 1825, viajaron a Port Phillip y regresaron. Descubrieron el río Murray (al que llamaron Hume) y muchos de sus afluentes, así como buenas tierras agrícolas y de pastoreo. [134]

En 1828, Charles Sturt dirigió una expedición por el río Macquarie y descubrió el río Darling . En 1829, al frente de una segunda expedición, Sturt siguió el curso del río Murrumbidgee hasta el río Murray. Su grupo siguió el curso del río hasta su unión con el río Darling . Sturt continuó río abajo hasta el lago Alexandrina , donde el río Murray se encuentra con el mar en Australia del Sur. [135]

El agrimensor general Sir Thomas Mitchell dirigió una serie de expediciones a partir de la década de 1830 para dar seguimiento a las expediciones anteriores. Mitchell empleó a tres guías aborígenes y registró muchos nombres de lugares aborígenes. También registró un encuentro violento con propietarios tradicionales en el río Murray en 1836 en el que sus hombres los persiguieron, "matando a todos los que pudieron". [136] [137]

El científico y explorador polaco, el conde Paul Edmund Strzelecki, realizó trabajos de topografía en los Alpes australianos en 1839 y, dirigido por dos guías aborígenes, se convirtió en el primer europeo en ascender al pico más alto de Australia, al que llamó Monte Kosciuszko en honor al patriota polaco Tadeusz Kościuszko . [138] [139]

John Longstaff , llegada de Burke, Wills y King al campamento abandonado en Cooper's Creek, domingo por la tarde, 21 de abril de 1861

El científico alemán Ludwig Leichhardt dirigió tres expediciones al norte de Australia en la década de 1840, a veces con la ayuda de guías aborígenes. Él y su grupo desaparecieron en 1848 mientras intentaban cruzar el continente de este a oeste. [140] Edmund Kennedy dirigió una expedición a lo que ahora es el extremo occidental de Queensland en 1847 antes de ser arponeado por aborígenes en la península de Cape York en 1848. [141]

En 1860, Burke y Wills lideraron la primera travesía sur-norte del continente desde Melbourne hasta el golfo de Carpentaria . Sin conocimientos de supervivencia y sin querer aprender de los aborígenes locales, Burke y Wills murieron en 1861, tras regresar del golfo a su punto de encuentro en Coopers Creek, solo para descubrir que el resto de su grupo había partido del lugar solo unas horas antes. Se convirtieron en héroes trágicos para los colonos europeos; su funeral atrajo a una multitud de más de 50.000 personas y su historia inspiró numerosos libros, obras de arte, películas y representaciones en la cultura popular. [142] [143]

En 1862, John McDouall Stuart logró atravesar Australia central de sur a norte. Su expedición trazó la ruta que luego seguiría la línea telegráfica terrestre australiana . [144]

La finalización de esta línea telegráfica en 1872 estuvo asociada con una mayor exploración del desierto de Gibson y la llanura de Nullarbor . Mientras exploraba el centro de Australia en 1872, Ernest Giles avistó Kata Tjuta desde un lugar cerca de Kings Canyon y lo llamó Monte Olga. [145] Al año siguiente, Willian Gosse observó Uluru y lo llamó Ayers Rock, en honor al Secretario en Jefe de Australia del Sur , Sir Henry Ayers . [146]

En 1879, Alexander Forrest viajó desde la costa norte de Australia Occidental hasta el telégrafo terrestre y descubrió tierras adecuadas para el pastoreo en la región de Kimberley. [144]

El impacto de la colonización británica en la población indígena

Cuando la Primera Flota llegó a Sydney Cove con unos 1.300 colonos en enero de 1788, se estima que la población aborigen de la región de Sydney era de unas 3.000 personas. [147] El primer gobernador de Nueva Gales del Sur, Arthur Phillip, llegó con instrucciones de: "esforzarse por todos los medios posibles para abrir un trato con los nativos y conciliar sus afectos, ordenando a todos nuestros súbditos que vivan en amistad y amabilidad con ellos". [148]

Una escena en el sur de Australia (1850) de Alexander Schramm muestra a colonos alemanes con aborígenes.

Enfermedad

El relativo aislamiento de la población indígena durante unos 60.000 años significó que tenían poca resistencia a muchas enfermedades introducidas. Un brote de viruela en abril de 1789 mató a aproximadamente la mitad de la población aborigen de la región de Sydney. El origen del brote es controvertido ; algunos investigadores sostienen que se originó a partir del contacto con pescadores indonesios en el extremo norte, mientras que otros sostienen que es más probable que haya sido propagado inadvertida o deliberadamente por los colonos. [149] [150] [151]

Hubo otros brotes de viruela que devastaron a las poblaciones aborígenes a finales de la década de 1820 (afectando al sudeste de Australia), a principios de la década de 1860 (desplazándose hacia el interior desde la península de Coburgo en el norte hasta la Gran Bahía Australiana en el sur) y a finales de la década de 1860 (desde Kimberley hasta Geraldton). Según Josphine Flood, la tasa estimada de mortalidad aborigen por viruela era del 60 por ciento en la primera exposición, del 50 por ciento en los trópicos y del 25 por ciento en el interior árido. [152]

Otras enfermedades introducidas, como el sarampión, la gripe, la fiebre tifoidea y la tuberculosis, también provocaron elevadas tasas de mortalidad en las comunidades aborígenes. Butlin calcula que la población aborigen de la zona de la actual Victoria era de unas 50.000 personas en 1788, antes de que dos brotes de viruela la redujeran a unas 12.500 en 1830. Entre 1835 y 1853, la población aborigen de Victoria se redujo de 10.000 a unas 2.000 personas. Se calcula que alrededor del 60% de estas muertes se debieron a enfermedades introducidas, el 18% a causas naturales y el 15% a la violencia de los colonos. [153]

Las enfermedades venéreas también fueron un factor en la despoblación indígena, reduciendo las tasas de fertilidad aborigen en el sudeste de Australia en un 40 por ciento en 1855. En 1890, hasta el 50 por ciento de la población aborigen en algunas regiones de Queensland estaba afectada. [154]

Conflicto y desposesión

Policía montada atacando a indígenas durante la masacre de Slaughterhouse Creek de 1838, durante las guerras fronterizas australianas .

En un principio, el asentamiento británico se había planificado como una colonia penal autosuficiente basada en la agricultura. Karskens sostiene que el conflicto estalló entre los colonos y los propietarios tradicionales de las tierras debido a las suposiciones de los colonos sobre la superioridad de la civilización británica y su derecho a las tierras que habían "mejorado" mediante la construcción y el cultivo. [155]

Proclamación emitida en la Tierra de Van Diemen alrededor de 1828-1830 por el teniente gobernador Arthur , que explica los preceptos de la justicia británica en forma pictórica para los aborígenes de Tasmania . Tasmania sufrió un nivel de conflicto más alto que las otras colonias británicas en Australia. [156]

Los conflictos también surgieron de malentendidos interculturales y de represalias por acciones anteriores, como el secuestro de hombres, mujeres y niños aborígenes. Los ataques de represalia y los castigos colectivos fueron perpetrados por colonos y grupos aborígenes por igual. [157] Los ataques aborígenes constantes contra los colonos, la quema de cultivos y la matanza masiva de ganado fueron actos más evidentes de resistencia a la pérdida de tierras y recursos alimentarios tradicionales. [158]

Entre 1794 y 1800 hubo intensos conflictos entre los colonos y el pueblo Darug , en los que murieron 26 colonos y hasta 200 Darug. [159] [160] También estalló un conflicto en el país de Dharawal entre 1814 y 1816, que culminó en la masacre de Appin (abril de 1816) en la que murieron al menos 14 aborígenes. [161] [162]

En la década de 1820, la colonia se extendió por la Gran Cordillera Divisoria , abriendo el camino para la agricultura y el pastoreo a gran escala en el país Wiradjuri . [75] Entre 1822 y 1824, Windradyne dirigió un grupo de 50 a 100 hombres aborígenes en incursiones que resultaron en la muerte de 15 a 20 colonos. Las estimaciones de muertes aborígenes en el conflicto varían de 15 a 100. [163] [164]

En la tierra de Van Diemen, la Guerra Negra estalló en 1824, tras una rápida expansión del número de colonos y del pastoreo de ovejas en el interior de la isla. Se declaró la ley marcial en noviembre de 1828 y en octubre de 1830 una "Línea Negra" de alrededor de 2.200 tropas y colonos arrasó la isla con la intención de expulsar a la población aborigen de los distritos colonizados. De 1830 a 1834, George Augustus Robinson y embajadores aborígenes, entre ellos Truganini, lideraron una serie de "Misiones Amistosas" a las tribus aborígenes que pusieron fin a la guerra. [165] Alrededor de 200 colonos y entre 600 y 900 aborígenes de Tasmania murieron en el conflicto y los supervivientes aborígenes fueron finalmente reubicados en la isla Flinders. [166] [167]

Combates cerca de Creen Creek, Queensland, en septiembre de 1876

La expansión de colonos y pastores hacia la región de la actual Victoria en la década de 1830 también desencadenó conflictos con los terratenientes tradicionales. Broome estima que entre 1835 y 1853 murieron 80 colonos y entre 1.000 y 1.500 aborígenes en conflictos fronterizos en Victoria. [168]

El crecimiento de la colonia del río Swan en la década de 1830 condujo a un conflicto con los aborígenes, que culminó en la masacre de Pinjarra , en la que murieron entre 15 y 30 aborígenes. [169] [170] Según Neville Green, 30 colonos y 121 aborígenes murieron en un conflicto violento en Australia Occidental entre 1826 y 1852. [171]

La policía nativa australiana estaba formada por soldados nativos bajo el mando de oficiales blancos y fue en gran medida responsable de la "dispersión" de las tribus aborígenes en el este de Australia, pero particularmente en Nueva Gales del Sur y Queensland.

La expansión del pastoreo de ovejas y ganado después de 1850 trajo consigo más conflictos con las tribus aborígenes más alejadas de las áreas más pobladas. Las tasas de bajas aborígenes en los conflictos aumentaron a medida que los colonos hicieron un mayor uso de la policía montada, las unidades de la policía nativa y los revólveres y las armas de retrocarga recientemente desarrollados. El conflicto fue particularmente intenso en Nueva Gales del Sur en la década de 1840 y en Queensland de 1860 a 1880. En el centro de Australia, se estima que entre 650 y 850 aborígenes, de una población de 4.500, fueron asesinados por los colonos entre 1860 y 1895. En el País del Golfo del norte de Australia, cinco colonos y 300 aborígenes fueron asesinados antes de 1886. [172] La última masacre registrada de aborígenes por parte de colonos fue en Coniston, en el Territorio del Norte, en 1928, donde al menos 31 aborígenes fueron asesinados. [173]

La expansión de los asentamientos británicos también provocó un aumento de los conflictos intertribales entre los aborígenes, ya que más personas se vieron obligadas a abandonar sus tierras tradicionales para trasladarse al territorio de otras tribus, a menudo hostiles. Butlin estimó que, de las 8.000 muertes de aborígenes en Victoria entre 1835 y 1855, 200 se debieron a la violencia intertribal. [174]

Broome estima que el número total de muertos a causa del conflicto entre colonos y aborígenes entre 1788 y 1928 fue de 1.700 colonos y entre 17.000 y 20.000 aborígenes. Reynolds ha sugerido una "estimación" más elevada de 3.000 colonos y hasta 30.000 aborígenes asesinados. [175] Un equipo de proyecto de la Universidad de Newcastle, Australia, ha llegado a una estimación preliminar de 8.270 muertes de aborígenes en masacres fronterizas entre 1788 y 1930. [176]

Alojamiento y protección

Retrato de Bungaree en Sydney en 1826, por Augustus Earle .

En los dos primeros años de asentamiento, los aborígenes de Sydney evitaron en gran medida a los recién llegados. En noviembre de 1790, Bennelong condujo a los supervivientes de varios clanes a Sydney, 18 meses después de la epidemia de viruela que había devastado a la población aborigen. [177] Bungaree , un hombre de Kuringgai, se unió a Matthew Flinders en su circunnavegación de Australia entre 1801 y 1803, desempeñando un papel importante como emisario ante los diversos pueblos indígenas que encontraron. [178]

El gobernador Macquarie intentó asimilar a los aborígenes, otorgándoles tierras, estableciendo granjas aborígenes y fundando una institución nativa para brindar educación a los niños aborígenes. [179] Sin embargo, en la década de 1820, la institución nativa y las granjas aborígenes habían fracasado. Los aborígenes continuaron viviendo en tierras baldías frente al mar y en los márgenes del asentamiento de Sydney, adaptando sus prácticas tradicionales al nuevo entorno semiurbano. [180] [181]

Tras la escalada del conflicto fronterizo, en 1839 se designaron protectores de los aborígenes en Australia del Sur y el distrito de Port Phillip, y en 1840 en Australia Occidental. El objetivo era ampliar la protección de la ley británica a los aborígenes, distribuir raciones y proporcionar educación, instrucción en el cristianismo y formación profesional. Sin embargo, en 1857 las oficinas de protección habían sido cerradas debido a su coste y a que no cumplían sus objetivos. [182] [183]

Agricultores aborígenes en la estación del protectorado aborigen de Loddon en Franklinford, Victoria , en 1858

En 1825, el gobernador de Nueva Gales del Sur concedió 10.000 acres para una misión cristiana aborigen en el lago Macquarie. [184] En la década de 1830 y principios de la de 1840 también hubo misiones en el valle de Wellington, Port Phillip y la bahía de Moreton. El asentamiento de aborígenes de Tasmania en la isla Flinders funcionó eficazmente como misión bajo el mando de George Robinson entre 1835 y 1838. [185]

En Nueva Gales del Sur, entre 1860 y 1894 se establecieron 116 reservas aborígenes. La mayoría de las reservas permitían a los aborígenes un cierto grado de autonomía y libertad para entrar y salir. En cambio, la Junta Victoriana para la Protección de los Aborígenes (creada en 1869) tenía amplios poderes para regular el empleo, la educación y el lugar de residencia de los aborígenes victorianos, y administraba de cerca las cinco reservas y misiones establecidas desde el autogobierno en 1858. En 1886, la junta de protección obtuvo el poder de excluir a los aborígenes "mestizos" de las misiones y estaciones. La legislación victoriana fue la precursora de las políticas de segregación racial de otros gobiernos australianos a partir de la década de 1890. [186]

En las zonas más densamente pobladas, la mayoría de los aborígenes que habían perdido el control de sus tierras vivían en reservas y misiones, o en los márgenes de las ciudades y pueblos. En los distritos pastorales, la Ley de Tierras Baldías Británicas de 1848 otorgó a los terratenientes tradicionales derechos limitados para vivir, cazar y recolectar alimentos en tierras de la Corona en virtud de contratos de arrendamiento pastoral. Muchos grupos aborígenes acamparon en estaciones pastorales donde los hombres aborígenes solían trabajar como pastores y ganaderos. Estos grupos pudieron mantener una conexión con sus tierras y mantener aspectos de su cultura tradicional. [187]

A partir de 1868, los pescadores de perlas extranjeros se instalaron en las islas del estrecho de Torres, trayendo consigo enfermedades exóticas que redujeron a la mitad la población indígena. En 1871, la Sociedad Misionera de Londres comenzó a operar en las islas y la mayoría de los habitantes del estrecho de Torres se convirtieron al cristianismo, que consideraban compatible con sus creencias. Queensland anexó las islas en 1879. [188]

De la autonomía a la federación

El autogobierno colonial y la fiebre del oro

Hacia un gobierno representativo

William Wentworth abogó por un mayor autogobierno y fundó el primer partido político de Australia.

La legislación imperial de 1823 había previsto un Consejo Legislativo nominado por el gobernador de Nueva Gales del Sur y una nueva Corte Suprema, lo que establecía límites adicionales al poder de los gobernadores. Varias figuras coloniales prominentes, incluido William Wentworth , hicieron campaña a favor de un mayor grado de autogobierno, aunque hubo divisiones sobre hasta qué punto un futuro cuerpo legislativo debería ser elegido popularmente. Otras cuestiones incluían los derechos políticos británicos tradicionales, la política agraria, el transporte y si se podía confiar en una gran población de convictos y ex convictos para el autogobierno. La Asociación Patriótica Australiana fue formada en 1835 por Wentworth y William Bland para promover un gobierno representativo para Nueva Gales del Sur. [189] [190] [191]

La inauguración del primer Parlamento electo de Australia en Sídney ( c.  1843 )

El transporte a Nueva Gales del Sur se suspendió en 1840. En 1842, Gran Bretaña concedió a la colonia un gobierno representativo limitado al reformar el Consejo Legislativo de modo que dos tercios de sus miembros fueran elegidos por votantes varones. Sin embargo, un requisito de propiedad significó que solo el 20 por ciento de los varones eran elegibles para votar en las primeras elecciones al Consejo Legislativo en 1843. [ 192]

El creciente número de colonos libres y de personas nacidas en las colonias condujo a una mayor agitación por reformas liberales y democráticas. [193] En el Distrito de Port Phillip hubo agitación por un gobierno representativo y la independencia de Nueva Gales del Sur. [194] En 1850, Gran Bretaña concedió a la Tierra de Van Diemen, Australia del Sur y la recién creada colonia de Victoria Consejos legislativos semielectos siguiendo el modelo de Nueva Gales del Sur. [195]

La fiebre del oro de la década de 1850

El Sr. EH Hargraves, descubridor del oro de Australia, el 12 de febrero de 1851, devolvió el saludo a los mineros de oro – Thomas Tyrwhitt Balcombe

En febrero de 1851, Edward Hargraves descubrió oro cerca de Bathurst, Nueva Gales del Sur . Más tarde ese año se hicieron más descubrimientos en Victoria, donde se encontraron los yacimientos de oro más ricos. Nueva Gales del Sur y Victoria introdujeron una licencia de extracción de oro con una tarifa mensual, cuyos ingresos se utilizaban para compensar el costo de proporcionar infraestructura, administración y vigilancia de los yacimientos de oro. [196]

La fiebre del oro provocó inicialmente inflación y escasez de mano de obra, ya que los trabajadores varones se trasladaron a los yacimientos de oro. También llegaron inmigrantes de Gran Bretaña, Europa, Estados Unidos y China. La población australiana aumentó de 430.000 en 1851 a 1.170.000 en 1861. Victoria se convirtió en la colonia más poblada y Melbourne en la ciudad más grande. [197] [198]

La migración china fue una preocupación particular para los funcionarios coloniales debido a la creencia generalizada de que representaba un peligro para el nivel de vida y la moralidad de los australianos blancos. Los gobiernos coloniales respondieron imponiendo impuestos y restricciones a los inmigrantes y residentes chinos. En 1856 estallaron disturbios antichinos en los yacimientos de oro de Victoria y en Nueva Gales del Sur en 1860. [199]

La empalizada de Eureka

Disturbios en la empalizada de Eureka . Acuarela de J. B. Henderson (1854)

Ante la creciente competencia, los mineros victorianos se quejaron cada vez más de las tasas por licencia, de los funcionarios corruptos y autoritarios y de la falta de derecho a voto de los mineros itinerantes. Las protestas se intensificaron en octubre de 1854, cuando tres mineros fueron arrestados tras un motín en Ballarat. Los manifestantes formaron la Ballarat Reform League para apoyar a los detenidos y exigieron el sufragio masculino, la reforma de la licencia y la administración mineras y la reforma agraria para promover las pequeñas explotaciones agrícolas. Siguieron las protestas y los manifestantes construyeron una empalizada en el campo Eureka en Ballarat. El 3 de diciembre, las tropas invadieron la empalizada y mataron a unos 20 manifestantes. Cinco soldados murieron y 12 resultaron gravemente heridos. [200]

Tras una Comisión Real, la licencia mensual fue sustituida por un derecho minero anual más barato que otorgaba a los titulares el derecho a votar y a construir una vivienda en los yacimientos auríferos. También se reformó la administración de los yacimientos auríferos victorianos. La rebelión de Eureka pronto pasó a formar parte de la mitología nacionalista australiana. [201] [202]

Autogobierno y democracia

Una cabina de votación en Melbourne – David Syme and Co ( c.  1880 )

Las elecciones para los Consejos Legislativos semirepresentativos, celebradas en Nueva Gales del Sur, Victoria, Australia del Sur y la Tierra de Van Diemen en 1851, dieron lugar a un mayor número de miembros liberales que abogaban por un autogobierno pleno. En 1852, el Gobierno británico anunció que cesaría el transporte de presos a la Tierra de Van Diemen e invitó a las colonias orientales a redactar constituciones que permitieran el autogobierno. [203]

Las constituciones de Nueva Gales del Sur, Victoria y la Tierra de Van Diemen (rebautizada como Tasmania en 1856) obtuvieron la sanción real en 1855, y la de Australia del Sur en 1856. Las constituciones variaban, pero cada una de ellas creaba una cámara baja elegida con un amplio sufragio masculino y una cámara alta que era nombrada de por vida (Nueva Gales del Sur) o elegida con un sufragio de propiedad más restringido. Cuando Queensland se convirtió en una colonia independiente en 1859, inmediatamente se convirtió en autónoma. A Australia Occidental se le concedió el autogobierno en 1890. [204]

El voto secreto fue adoptado en Tasmania, Victoria y Australia del Sur en 1856, seguido por Nueva Gales del Sur (1858), Queensland (1859) y Australia Occidental (1877). Australia del Sur introdujo el sufragio universal masculino para su cámara baja en 1856, seguido por Victoria en 1857, Nueva Gales del Sur (1858), Queensland (1872), Australia Occidental (1893) y Tasmania (1900). Queensland excluyó a los varones aborígenes del derecho a voto en 1885. [205] En Australia Occidental existía un requisito de propiedad para votar para los varones aborígenes, asiáticos, africanos y personas de ascendencia mixta. [204]

En Victoria en 1884, en Australia del Sur en 1888 y en Nueva Gales del Sur en 1891 se formaron sociedades para promover el sufragio femenino. La Unión Cristiana de Mujeres por la Templanza también estableció sucursales en la mayoría de las colonias australianas en la década de 1880, promoviendo el voto femenino y una variedad de causas sociales. [206] El sufragio femenino y el derecho a presentarse a cargos públicos se obtuvieron por primera vez en Australia del Sur en 1895. [207] Las mujeres obtuvieron el derecho a votar en Australia Occidental en 1899, con restricciones raciales. Las mujeres en el resto de Australia solo obtuvieron plenos derechos a votar y presentarse a cargos electivos en la década posterior a la Federación, aunque hubo algunas restricciones raciales. [208] [209]

El largo boom (1860 a 1890)

Entre 1850 y 1871, el oro fue el principal producto de exportación de Australia y permitió a la colonia importar una variedad de bienes de consumo y de capital. El aumento de la población en las décadas posteriores a la fiebre del oro estimuló la demanda de viviendas, bienes de consumo, servicios e infraestructura urbana. [210]

En la década de 1860, Nueva Gales del Sur, Victoria, Queensland y Australia del Sur introdujeron leyes de selección destinadas a promover las granjas familiares y la agricultura y el pastoreo mixtos. [211] Las mejoras en la tecnología agrícola y la introducción de cultivos adaptados a las condiciones australianas condujeron finalmente a la diversificación del uso de la tierra rural. La expansión de los ferrocarriles a partir de la década de 1860 permitió transportar el trigo a granel a bajo costo, lo que estimuló el desarrollo de un cinturón de trigo desde Australia del Sur hasta Queensland. [212] [213]

La película de William Strutt "Bushrangers on the St Kilda Road" (1887), escenario de frecuentes atracos durante la fiebre del oro victoriana perpetrados por bandidos, conocidos como los robos de St Kilda Road .

El período de 1850 a 1880 vio un resurgimiento del bushranging . El resurgimiento del bushranging a partir de la década de 1850 se basó en las quejas de los pobres rurales (varios miembros de la banda de Kelly , los bushrangers más famosos, eran hijos de pequeños granjeros empobrecidos). Las hazañas de Ned Kelly y su banda obtuvieron un considerable apoyo de la comunidad local y una amplia cobertura de la prensa nacional en ese momento. Después de la captura y ejecución de Kelly por asesinato en 1880, su historia inspiró numerosas obras de arte, literatura y cultura popular y un debate continuo sobre hasta qué punto era un rebelde que luchaba contra la injusticia social y la policía opresiva, o un criminal asesino. [214]

La captura del barco de pesca Blackbirder 'Daphne' alrededor de 1869;
El comercio de esclavos del Pacífico que funcionó entre 1863 y 1904 vio a decenas de miles de isleños del Mar del Sur llevados a las plantaciones de caña de azúcar de Queensland, ya sea como trabajadores contratados o esclavos.

En la década de 1880, la mitad de la población australiana vivía en ciudades, lo que hacía que Australia estuviera más urbanizada que el Reino Unido, los Estados Unidos y Canadá. [215] Entre 1870 y 1890, el ingreso promedio per cápita en Australia era más del 50 por ciento más alto que el de los Estados Unidos, lo que le daba a Australia uno de los niveles de vida más altos del mundo. [216]

El tamaño del sector público casi se duplicó, pasando de representar el 10% del gasto nacional en 1850 al 19% en 1890. Los gobiernos coloniales gastaron mucho en infraestructura, como ferrocarriles, puertos, telégrafos, escuelas y servicios urbanos. Gran parte del dinero para esta infraestructura se tomó prestado en los mercados financieros de Londres, pero los gobiernos ricos en tierras también vendieron tierras para financiar el gasto y mantener bajos los impuestos. [217] [218]

En 1856, los trabajadores de la construcción de Sydney y Melbourne fueron los primeros del mundo en lograr la jornada laboral de ocho horas. En la década de 1880, los sindicatos crecieron y se extendieron a los trabajadores menos cualificados y también a través de las fronteras coloniales. En 1890, aproximadamente el 20 por ciento de los trabajadores varones pertenecían a un sindicato, una de las tasas más altas del mundo. [219] [220]

El crecimiento económico estuvo acompañado de una expansión hacia el norte de Australia. Se descubrió oro en el norte de Queensland en las décadas de 1860 y 1870, y en las regiones de Kimberley y Pilbara de Australia Occidental en la década de 1880. Las explotaciones de ganado ovino y vacuno se extendieron al norte de Queensland y al País del Golfo del Territorio del Norte y a la región de Kimberley de Australia Occidental en las décadas de 1870 y 1880. Las plantaciones de azúcar también se expandieron en el norte de Queensland durante el mismo período. [221] [222]

Desde finales de la década de 1870, los sindicatos, las Ligas Antichinas y otros grupos comunitarios hicieron campaña contra la inmigración china y los bajos salarios de la mano de obra china. Tras las conferencias intercoloniales sobre el tema celebradas en 1880-81 y 1888, los gobiernos coloniales respondieron con una serie de leyes que restringieron progresivamente la inmigración china y sus derechos de ciudadanía. [223]

Depresión de la década de 1890

"La crisis laboral. – El motín en George Street, Sydney" ( c.  1890 )

La caída de los precios de la lana y el estallido de una burbuja inmobiliaria especulativa en Melbourne anunciaron el fin del largo auge. Varios bancos importantes suspendieron sus actividades y la economía se contrajo un 20 por ciento entre 1891 y 1895. El desempleo aumentó hasta casi un tercio de la fuerza laboral. A la depresión le siguió la " sequía de la Federación " entre 1895 y 1903. [224]

En 1890, una huelga en la industria naviera se extendió a los muelles, los ferrocarriles, las minas y los galpones de esquila. Los empleadores respondieron con un cierre patronal y la contratación de mano de obra no sindicalizada, y los gobiernos coloniales intervinieron con la policía y las tropas. La huelga fracasó, al igual que las huelgas posteriores de los esquiladores en 1891 y 1894, y de los mineros en 1892 y 1896. [225]

La derrota de la huelga marítima de 1890 llevó a los sindicatos a formar partidos políticos. En Nueva Gales del Sur, la Liga Electoral Laboral ganó una cuarta parte de los escaños en las elecciones de 1891 y mantuvo el equilibrio de poder entre el Partido del Libre Comercio y el Partido Proteccionista . Los partidos laboristas también ganaron escaños en las elecciones de Australia del Sur y Queensland de 1893. El primer gobierno laborista del mundo se formó en Queensland en 1899, pero duró solo una semana. [226]

En una Conferencia Intercolonial celebrada en 1896, las colonias acordaron ampliar las restricciones a la inmigración china a "todas las razas de color". El Partido Laborista apoyó al gobierno de Reid en Nueva Gales del Sur en la aprobación de la Ley de Restricción y Regulación de las Razas de Color , precursora de la Política de Australia Blanca. Sin embargo, después de que Gran Bretaña y Japón manifestaran sus objeciones a la legislación, Nueva Gales del Sur, Tasmania y Australia Occidental introdujeron en su lugar pruebas de idiomas europeos para restringir a los inmigrantes "indeseables". [227]

Crecimiento del nacionalismo

Los orígenes de un estilo de pintura claramente australiano se asocian a menudo con el movimiento de la Escuela de Heidelberg , siendo Esquilando los carneros (1890) de Tom Roberts un ejemplo emblemático.

A finales de la década de 1880, la mayoría de las personas que vivían en las colonias australianas eran nativos, aunque más del 90 por ciento eran de ascendencia británica e irlandesa. [228] La Asociación de Nativos Australianos hizo campaña por una federación australiana dentro del Imperio Británico, promovió la literatura y la historia australianas y presionó con éxito para que el 26 de enero fuera el día nacional de Australia. [229]

El baladista australiano Banjo Paterson escribió varias obras clásicas, entre ellas " Waltzing Matilda " (1895), considerado el himno nacional no oficial de Australia.

Muchos nacionalistas hablaban de que los australianos compartían sangre común como miembros de la "raza" británica. [230] Henry Parkes afirmó en 1890: "El hilo carmesí del parentesco nos atraviesa a todos... debemos unirnos como un gran pueblo australiano". [231]

Una minoría de nacionalistas consideraba que una identidad australiana distintiva, en lugar de una "britanicidad" compartida, era la base para una Australia unificada. Algunos, como la revista radical The Bulletin y el fiscal general de Tasmania, Andrew Inglis Clark , eran republicanos, mientras que otros estaban dispuestos a aceptar un país totalmente independiente de Australia con un papel meramente ceremonial para el monarca británico. [232]

Una Australia unificada solía asociarse con una Australia blanca. En 1887, The Bulletin declaró que todos los hombres blancos que dejaban atrás las divisiones religiosas y de clase del viejo mundo eran australianos. [233] Una Australia blanca también significaba la exclusión de la mano de obra asiática barata, una idea fuertemente promovida por el movimiento obrero. [234]

El creciente sentimiento nacionalista en las décadas de 1880 y 1890 se asoció con el desarrollo de un arte y una literatura distintivamente australianos. Artistas de la Escuela de Heidelberg como Arthur Streeton , Frederick McCubbin y Tom Roberts siguieron el ejemplo de los impresionistas europeos pintando al aire libre. Se dedicaron a capturar la luz y el color del paisaje australiano y a explorar lo distintivo y lo universal en la "vida mixta de la ciudad y la vida característica de la estación y el campo". [235]

En la década de 1890, Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson y otros escritores asociados con The Bulletin produjeron poesía y prosa que exploraban la naturaleza de la vida en el campo y temas como la independencia, el estoicismo, el trabajo masculino, el igualitarismo, el antiautoritarismo y el compañerismo. Los protagonistas eran a menudo esquiladores, jinetes de fronteras y trabajadores itinerantes del campo. En la década siguiente, Lawson, Paterson y otros escritores como Steele Rudd , Miles Franklin y Joseph Furphy ayudaron a forjar una literatura nacional distintiva. La balada de Paterson " The Man from Snowy River" (1890) alcanzó popularidad, y su letra para la canción " Waltzing Matilda " (c. 1895) ayudó a convertirla en el himno nacional no oficial para muchos australianos. [236]

Movimiento de federación

El creciente sentimiento nacionalista coincidió con las preocupaciones empresariales sobre la ineficiencia económica de las barreras aduaneras entre las colonias, la duplicación de servicios por parte de los gobiernos coloniales y la falta de un mercado nacional único para bienes y servicios. [237] Las preocupaciones coloniales sobre las ambiciones alemanas y francesas en la región también llevaron a la presión británica para una fuerza de defensa australiana federada y una red ferroviaria unificada de ancho único para fines de defensa. [238]

En 1885 se formó un Consejo Federal de Australasia, pero tenía pocos poderes y Nueva Gales del Sur y Australia del Sur se negaron a unirse. [239]

Sir Henry Parkes pronunciando la primera resolución en la conferencia de la federación en Melbourne, el 1 de marzo de 1890

Un obstáculo para la federación era el temor de las colonias más pequeñas de ser dominadas por Nueva Gales del Sur y Victoria. Queensland, en particular, aunque en general favorecía una política de Australia blanca, deseaba mantener una excepción para los trabajadores de las islas de los Mares del Sur en la industria de la caña de azúcar. [240]

Otro obstáculo importante eran las políticas de libre comercio de Nueva Gales del Sur, que entraban en conflicto con las políticas proteccionistas dominantes en Victoria y la mayoría de las demás colonias. No obstante, el primer ministro de Nueva Gales del Sur, Henry Parkes, era un firme defensor de la federación y su discurso en Tenterfield en 1889 fue decisivo para conseguir apoyo para la causa. [241]

En 1891 se celebró en Sydney una Convención Nacional de Australasia, en la que estaban representadas todas las colonias y Nueva Zelanda. Se aprobó un proyecto de ley constitucional, pero el empeoramiento de la depresión económica y la oposición en los parlamentos coloniales retrasaron el avance. [242]

Se formaron las Ligas de la Federación Ciudadana y en una conferencia celebrada en Corowa en julio de 1893 se desarrolló un nuevo plan para la federación que incluía una convención constitucional con delegados elegidos directamente y un referéndum en cada colonia para aprobar la constitución propuesta. El nuevo primer ministro de Nueva Gales del Sur, George Reid , respaldó el "plan Corowa" y en 1895 convenció a la mayoría de los demás primeros ministros para que lo adoptaran. [243]

Todas las colonias, excepto Queensland, enviaron representantes a una convención constitucional que celebró sesiones en 1897 y 1898. La convención redactó una propuesta de constitución para una Commonwealth de estados federados bajo la Corona británica. [244]

Los referendos celebrados en 1898 dieron como resultado mayorías sólidas a favor de la constitución en Victoria, Australia del Sur y Tasmania. Sin embargo, el referendo no logró obtener la mayoría necesaria en Nueva Gales del Sur. [245] Los primeros ministros de las demás colonias aceptaron una serie de concesiones a Nueva Gales del Sur (en particular, que la futura capital de la Commonwealth se ubicaría en ese estado), y en 1899 se celebraron más referendos en todas las colonias, excepto Australia Occidental. Todos resultaron en votos a favor. [246]

En marzo de 1900, se enviaron delegados a Londres, entre ellos los principales defensores de la federación Edmund Barton y Alfred Deakin . Tras las negociaciones con el gobierno británico, el proyecto de ley de la federación fue aprobado por el parlamento imperial el 5 de julio de 1900 y obtuvo la sanción real el 9 de julio. Posteriormente, Australia Occidental votó a favor de unirse a la nueva federación. [247]

De la federación a la guerra (1901-1914)

Edmund Barton (izquierda), el primer primer ministro de Australia , con Alfred Deakin , el segundo primer ministro

El Gobernador General , Lord Hopetoun , proclamó la Mancomunidad de Australia el 1 de enero de 1901, y Barton juró como primer ministro de Australia. [247] Las primeras elecciones federales se celebraron en marzo de 1901 y dieron como resultado una estrecha mayoría del Partido Proteccionista sobre el Partido del Libre Comercio, con el Partido Laborista Australiano (ALP) en tercer lugar. El Partido Laborista declaró que apoyaría al partido que ofreciera concesiones a su programa, y ​​los proteccionistas de Barton formaron un gobierno, con Deakin como Fiscal General . [248]

La Ley de Restricción de la Inmigración de 1901 fue una de las primeras leyes aprobadas por el nuevo parlamento australiano . Esta ley, pieza central de la política de Australia Blanca, utilizó una prueba de dictado en un idioma europeo para excluir a los inmigrantes asiáticos, que eran considerados una amenaza para el nivel de vida de Australia y la cultura británica mayoritaria. [249] [250]

Con la federación, la Commonwealth heredó las pequeñas fuerzas de defensa de las seis antiguas colonias australianas. En 1901, unidades de soldados de las seis colonias australianas habían estado activas como parte de las fuerzas británicas en la Guerra de los Bóers . Cuando el gobierno británico solicitó más tropas de Australia a principios de 1902, el gobierno australiano accedió con un contingente nacional. Unos 16.500 hombres se habían ofrecido como voluntarios para el servicio al final de la guerra en junio de 1902. [251] [252]

En 1902, el gobierno introdujo el sufragio femenino en la jurisdicción de la Commonwealth, pero al mismo tiempo excluyó a los aborígenes del derecho al voto a menos que ya tuvieran derecho a voto en una jurisdicción estatal. [253]

Apertura del primer Parlamento de Australia en 1901
La implementación de la política de Australia Blanca fue una de las primeras medidas del nuevo parlamento. En la imagen: The Melbourne Punch (c. mayo de 1888)

El gobierno también introdujo un arancel a las importaciones, diseñado para aumentar los ingresos y proteger la industria australiana. [254] Sin embargo, los desacuerdos sobre la legislación de las relaciones industriales llevaron a la caída del gobierno proteccionista de Deakin en abril de 1904 y al nombramiento del primer gobierno laborista nacional bajo el primer ministro Chris Watson . El propio gobierno de Watson cayó en abril y un gobierno de libre comercio bajo el primer ministro Reid introdujo con éxito la legislación para un Tribunal de Conciliación y Arbitraje de la Commonwealth para resolver las disputas industriales interestatales. [255]

En julio de 1905, Deakin formó un gobierno proteccionista con el apoyo del Partido Laborista. El nuevo gobierno emprendió una serie de reformas sociales y un programa denominado "nueva protección", en virtud del cual la protección arancelaria para las industrias australianas estaría vinculada a la concesión de salarios "justos y razonables". En el caso Harvester de 1907, HB Higgins, del Tribunal de Conciliación y Arbitraje, fijó un salario básico basado en las necesidades de un sustentador de familia varón que mantuviera a su esposa y tres hijos. En 1914, la Commonwealth y todos los estados habían introducido sistemas para resolver disputas industriales y fijar salarios y condiciones. [256] [257]

La base del Partido Laborista era el movimiento sindical australiano , que creció de menos de 100.000 miembros en 1901 a más de medio millón en 1914. [258] El partido también obtuvo un apoyo considerable de los trabajadores administrativos, los católicos y los pequeños agricultores. [259] En 1905, el Partido Laborista adoptó objetivos a nivel federal que incluían el "cultivo de un sentimiento australiano basado en el mantenimiento de la pureza racial" y "la propiedad colectiva de los monopolios". Ese mismo año, la rama de Queensland del partido adoptó un objetivo abiertamente socialista. [260]

Procesión en apoyo a la jornada laboral de ocho horas, George Street, Sydney , 4 de octubre de 1909

Tras las elecciones de diciembre de 1906, el gobierno proteccionista de Deakin permaneció en el poder, pero tras la aprobación de la legislación sobre pensiones de vejez y un nuevo arancel proteccionista en 1908, el Partido Laborista retiró su apoyo al gobierno. En noviembre, Andrew Fisher se convirtió en el segundo primer ministro laborista. En respuesta, los partidos de la oposición formaron una coalición antilaborista y Deakin se convirtió en primer ministro en junio de 1909. [261]

En las elecciones de mayo de 1910 , el Partido Laborista obtuvo la mayoría en ambas cámaras del parlamento y Fisher volvió a ser primer ministro. El gobierno laborista introdujo una serie de reformas, entre ellas un impuesto territorial progresivo (1910), pensiones para inválidos (1910) y un subsidio de maternidad (1912). El gobierno estableció el Banco de la Commonwealth (1911), pero los referendos para nacionalizar los monopolios y ampliar los poderes comerciales de la Commonwealth fueron derrotados en 1911 y 1913. La Commonwealth asumió la responsabilidad del Territorio del Norte de manos de Australia del Sur en 1911. [262] [263] El gobierno aumentó el gasto en defensa, expandiendo el sistema de entrenamiento militar obligatorio que había sido introducido por el gobierno anterior y estableciendo la Marina Real Australiana. [264] [265] [266]

El nuevo Partido Liberal de la Commonwealth ganó las elecciones de mayo de 1913 y el ex líder laborista Joseph Cook se convirtió en primer ministro. El intento del gobierno de Cook de aprobar una ley que aboliera el trato preferencial para los miembros de los sindicatos en el servicio público de la Commonwealth desencadenó una doble disolución del parlamento. El Partido Laborista ganó cómodamente las elecciones de septiembre de 1914 y Fisher volvió a ocupar el cargo. [267]

En el período anterior a la guerra se produjo un fuerte crecimiento de la población y la economía. La economía creció un 75 por ciento, con las industrias rurales, la construcción, la manufactura y los servicios gubernamentales a la cabeza. [268] La población aumentó de cuatro millones en 1901 a cinco millones en 1914. Entre 1910 y 1914 llegaron poco menos de 300.000 inmigrantes, todos blancos y casi todos procedentes de Gran Bretaña. [269]

Primera Guerra Mundial

Australia en guerra, 1914-1918

Cuando el Reino Unido declaró la guerra a Alemania el 4 de agosto de 1914, la declaración afectó automáticamente a todas las colonias y dominios británicos. [270] Ambos partidos principales ofrecieron a Gran Bretaña 20.000 tropas australianas. Como la Ley de Defensa de 1903 impedía enviar reclutas al extranjero, se creó una nueva fuerza de voluntarios, la Fuerza Imperial Australiana (AIF), para cumplir con este compromiso. [271] [272]

El entusiasmo público por la guerra era alto y el cupo inicial para la AIF se llenó rápidamente. Las tropas partieron hacia Egipto el 1 de noviembre de 1914; uno de los barcos de escolta, el HMAS Sydney , hundió al crucero alemán Emden en el camino. Mientras tanto, en septiembre, una fuerza expedicionaria australiana separada había capturado la Nueva Guinea Alemana. [273]

Soldados australianos en Egipto con un canguro como mascota del regimiento, 1914

Después de llegar a Egipto, la AIF se incorporó al Cuerpo de Ejército de Australia y Nueva Zelanda (ANZAC). Los Anzac formaron parte de la Fuerza Expedicionaria del Mediterráneo con la tarea de abrir los Dardanelos a los acorazados aliados, amenazando Constantinopla , la capital del Imperio otomano que había entrado en la guerra del lado de las Potencias Centrales . Los Anzac, junto con tropas francesas, británicas e indias, desembarcaron en la península de Galípoli el 25 de abril de 1915. La posición australiana y neozelandesa en Anzac Cove era vulnerable a los ataques y las tropas sufrieron grandes pérdidas al establecer una estrecha cabeza de playa. Después de que quedó claro que la fuerza expedicionaria no podría lograr sus objetivos, los Anzac fueron evacuados en diciembre, seguidos por los británicos y franceses a principios de enero. [274] [275]

Los australianos sufrieron alrededor de 8.000 muertes en la campaña. [276] Los corresponsales de guerra australianos destacaron de diversas maneras la valentía y las cualidades de lucha de los australianos y los errores de sus comandantes británicos. El 25 de abril pronto se convirtió en una fiesta nacional australiana conocida como el Día de Anzac , centrada en los temas de "nacionalidad, hermandad y sacrificio". [277] [278]

En 1916, cinco divisiones de infantería de la AIF fueron enviadas al Frente Occidental. En julio de 1916, en Fromelles , la AIF sufrió 5.533 bajas en 24 horas, el encuentro más costoso en la historia militar australiana. [279] En otras partes del Somme , 23.000 australianos murieron o resultaron heridos en siete semanas de ataques a posiciones alemanas. En la primavera de 1917, las tropas australianas sufrieron 10.000 bajas en la Primera Batalla de Bullecourt y la Segunda Batalla de Bullecourt . En el verano y el otoño de 1917, las tropas australianas también sufrieron grandes pérdidas durante la ofensiva británica alrededor de Ypres . En total, casi 22.000 tropas australianas murieron en 1917. [280]

8 de agosto de 1918 , por Will Longstaff . Representación de la batalla de Amiens

En noviembre de 1917, las cinco divisiones australianas se unieron para formar el Cuerpo Australiano , y en mayo de 1918 el general australiano John Monash asumió el mando. El Cuerpo Australiano participó activamente en la detención de la Ofensiva de Primavera alemana de 1918 y en la contraofensiva aliada de agosto de ese año. [281]

En Oriente Medio, las brigadas de la Caballería Ligera australiana tuvieron una destacada actuación en la batalla de Romani en agosto de 1916. En 1917, participaron en el avance aliado a través de la península del Sinaí y hacia Palestina. En 1918, avanzaron a través de Palestina y hacia Siria en un avance que condujo a la rendición otomana el 31 de octubre. [282]

Cuando la guerra terminó el 11 de noviembre de 1918, 324.000 australianos habían prestado servicio en el extranjero. Entre las bajas hubo 60.000 muertos y 150.000 heridos, la tasa de bajas más alta de todas las fuerzas aliadas. Las tropas australianas también tuvieron tasas más altas de ausencias no autorizadas, delitos y encarcelamientos que otras fuerzas aliadas. [283]

El frente interno

El primer ministro WM Hughes en 1919

En octubre de 1914, el gobierno laborista de Fisher introdujo la Ley de Precauciones de Guerra , que le otorgaba el poder de elaborar reglamentos "para garantizar la seguridad pública y la defensa de la Commonwealth". [284] Después de que Billy Hughes reemplazara a Fisher como primer ministro en octubre de 1915, las regulaciones bajo la ley se utilizaron cada vez más para censurar publicaciones, penalizar la libertad de expresión y suprimir organizaciones que el gobierno consideraba perjudiciales para el esfuerzo bélico. [285] [286] Se formaron ligas antialemanas y 7.000 alemanes y otros "extranjeros enemigos" fueron enviados a campos de internamiento durante la guerra. [287] [285]

La economía se contrajo un 10 por ciento durante el curso de las hostilidades. La inflación aumentó en los dos primeros años de guerra y los salarios reales cayeron. [288] [289] Los salarios más bajos y la percepción de especulación por parte de algunas empresas llevaron, en 1916, a una ola de huelgas de mineros, trabajadores portuarios y esquiladores. [290]

Los alistamientos en el ejército también disminuyeron, cayendo de 35.000 al mes en su pico en 1915 a 6.000 al mes en 1916. [291] En respuesta, Hughes decidió celebrar un referéndum sobre el reclutamiento para el servicio en el extranjero. Tras la estrecha derrota del referéndum de reclutamiento de octubre de 1916 , Hughes y 23 de sus partidarios abandonaron el partido laborista parlamentario y formaron un nuevo gobierno nacionalista con la antigua oposición. Los nacionalistas ganaron cómodamente las elecciones de mayo de 1917 y Hughes continuó como primer ministro. [292]

Entre agosto y octubre de 1917 hubo una importante huelga de trabajadores de los ferrocarriles, el transporte, los servicios portuarios y el carbón de Nueva Gales del Sur, que fue derrotada después de que los gobiernos de la Commonwealth y de Nueva Gales del Sur arrestaran a los líderes de la huelga y organizaran a agentes especiales y trabajadores no sindicalizados. [293] Un segundo referéndum sobre el reclutamiento también fue derrotado en diciembre. Los alistamientos en 1918 fueron los más bajos de la guerra, lo que llevó a la disolución de 12 batallones y a motines en la AIF. [294]

Conferencia de paz de París

Hughes asistió a la Conferencia de Guerra Imperial y al Gabinete de Guerra Imperial en Londres desde junio de 1918, donde Australia, Nueva Zelanda, Canadá y Sudáfrica obtuvieron el apoyo británico para su representación separada en la eventual conferencia de paz. [295] [296] En la Conferencia de Paz de París en 1919, Hughes argumentó que Alemania debía pagar el costo total de la guerra, pero finalmente ganó solo £ 5 millones en reparaciones de guerra para Australia. Australia y los otros dominios británicos autónomos ganaron el derecho a convertirse en miembros de pleno derecho de la nueva Liga de Naciones , y Australia obtuvo un mandato especial de la Liga de Naciones sobre Nueva Guinea Alemana que le permitía controlar el comercio y la inmigración. Australia también ganó una participación del 42 por ciento de la isla de Nauru, anteriormente gobernada por Alemania, lo que le dio acceso a sus ricas reservas de superfosfato. Australia argumentó con éxito contra una propuesta japonesa de una cláusula de igualdad racial en el pacto de la Liga de Naciones, ya que Hughes temía que pondría en peligro la política de Australia Blanca. [297] Como signatario del Tratado de Versalles y miembro pleno de la Sociedad de Naciones, Australia dio un paso importante hacia el reconocimiento internacional como nación soberana. [298]

Años de entreguerras

Los años 1920: hombres, dinero y mercados

Soldados australianos transportando al Primer Ministro Billy Hughes , el "pequeño excavador", por George Street, Sydney, después de su regreso de la Conferencia de Paz de París, 1919
Construido entre 1920 y 1930, una obra maestra cultural de la arquitectura australiana , el Ayuntamiento de Brisbane fue uno de los edificios más caros y la segunda construcción más grande del período de entreguerras, después del Puente del Puerto de Sídney .

Después de la guerra, el primer ministro Billy Hughes encabezó una nueva fuerza conservadora, el Partido Nacionalista , formado a partir del antiguo Partido Liberal y elementos escindidos del Partido Laborista (del que él era el más destacado), tras la profunda y amarga división sobre el servicio militar obligatorio . Se estima que 12.000 australianos murieron como resultado de la pandemia de gripe española de 1919, casi con toda seguridad traída a casa por los soldados que regresaban. [299]

El reverendo John Flynn , fundador del Royal Flying Doctor Service
Aviador pionero Sir Charles Kingsford Smith
Edith Cowan (1861–1932) fue elegida para la Asamblea Legislativa de Australia Occidental en 1921 y fue la primera mujer elegida para el Parlamento australiano.

El éxito de la Revolución bolchevique en Rusia supuso una amenaza a los ojos de muchos australianos, aunque para un pequeño grupo de socialistas fue una inspiración. El Partido Comunista de Australia se formó en 1920 y, aunque siguió siendo insignificante desde el punto de vista electoral, obtuvo cierta influencia en el movimiento sindical y fue prohibido durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial por su apoyo al Pacto Mólotov-Ribbentrop y el Gobierno de Menzies intentó prohibirlo de nuevo sin éxito durante la Guerra de Corea . A pesar de las divisiones, el partido se mantuvo activo hasta su disolución al final de la Guerra Fría . [300] [301]

El Partido del Campo (hoy Partido Nacional ) se formó en 1920 para promulgar su versión del agrarismo , a la que llamó " Countrymindedness " (mentalidad campesina). El objetivo era mejorar el estatus de los ganaderos (operadores de grandes ranchos de ovejas) y los pequeños agricultores, y asegurarles subsidios. [302] Al haber perdurado más que cualquier otro partido importante, salvo el Partido Laborista, generalmente ha operado en coalición con el Partido Liberal (desde la década de 1940), convirtiéndose en un partido importante del gobierno en Australia, particularmente en Queensland.

Otras secuelas significativas de la guerra incluyeron el continuo malestar industrial, que incluyó la huelga de la policía victoriana de 1923. [303] Las disputas industriales caracterizaron la década de 1920 en Australia . Otras huelgas importantes ocurrieron en la zona portuaria, en las industrias de la minería del carbón y de la madera a fines de la década de 1920. El movimiento sindical había establecido el Consejo Australiano de Sindicatos (ACTU) en 1927 en respuesta a los esfuerzos del gobierno nacionalista por cambiar las condiciones laborales y reducir el poder de los sindicatos.

El consumismo, la cultura del entretenimiento y las nuevas tecnologías que caracterizaron la década de 1920 en los Estados Unidos también se encontraron en Australia. La prohibición no se implementó en Australia, aunque las fuerzas antialcohólicas lograron que los hoteles cerraran después de las 6 p. m. y cerraran por completo en algunos suburbios de la ciudad. [304]

La incipiente industria cinematográfica fue decayendo a lo largo de la década, a pesar de que más de dos millones de australianos asistían a los cines semanalmente en 1250 salas. Una Comisión Real en 1927 no ayudó y la industria que había comenzado tan brillantemente con el estreno del primer largometraje del mundo, The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), se atrofió hasta su resurgimiento en la década de 1970. [ 305] [306]

Stanley Bruce became Prime Minister in 1923, when members of the Nationalist Party Government voted to remove W.M. Hughes. Speaking in early 1925, Bruce summed up the priorities and optimism of many Australians, saying that "men, money and markets accurately defined the essential requirements of Australia" and that he was seeking such from Britain.[307] The migration campaign of the 1920s, operated by the Development and Migration Commission, brought almost 300,000 Britons to Australia,[308] although schemes to settle migrants and returned soldiers "on the land" were generally not a success. "The new irrigation areas in Western Australia and the Dawson Valley of Queensland proved disastrous"[309]

In Australia, the costs of major investment had traditionally been met by state and Federal governments and heavy borrowing from overseas was made by the governments in the 1920s. A Loan Council was set up in 1928 to co-ordinate loans, three-quarters of which came from overseas.[310] Despite Imperial Preference, a balance of trade was not successfully achieved with Britain. "In the five years from 1924. .. to ... 1928, Australia bought 43.4% of its imports from Britain and sold 38.7% of its exports. Wheat and wool made up more than two-thirds of all Australian exports", a dangerous reliance on just two export commodities.[311]

Australia embraced the new technologies of transport and communication. Coastal sailing ships were finally abandoned in favour of steam, and improvements in rail and motor transport heralded dramatic changes in work and leisure. In 1918, there were 50,000 cars and lorries in the whole of Australia. By 1929 there were 500,000.[312] The stage coach company Cobb and Co, established in 1853, finally closed in 1924.[313] In 1920, the Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Service (to become the Australian airline Qantas) was established.[314] The Reverend John Flynn, founded the Royal Flying Doctor Service, the world's first air ambulance in 1928.[315] Daredevil pilot, Sir Charles Kingsford Smith pushed the new flying machines to the limit, completing a round Australia circuit in 1927 and in 1928 traversed the Pacific Ocean, via Hawaii and Fiji from the US to Australia in the aircraft Southern Cross. He went on to global fame and a series of aviation records before vanishing on a night flight to Singapore in 1935.[316]

Dominion status

George V with his prime ministers. Standing (left to right): Monroe (Newfoundland), Coates (New Zealand), Bruce (Australia), Hertzog (Union of South Africa), Cosgrave (Irish Free State). Seated: Baldwin (UK), King George V, King (Canada).

Australia achieved independent Sovereign Nation status after World War I, under the Statute of Westminster. This formalised the Balfour Declaration of 1926, a report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference of British Empire leaders in London, which defined Dominions of the British empire in the following way: "They are autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations."; however, Australia did not ratify the Statute of Westminster until 1942.[317] According to historian Frank Crowley, this was because Australians had little interest in redefining their relationship with Britain until the crisis of World War II.[318]

The Australia Act 1986 removed any remaining links between the British Parliament and the Australian states.

From 1 February 1927 until 12 June 1931, the Northern Territory was divided up as North Australia and Central Australia at latitude 20°S. New South Wales has had one further territory surrendered, namely Jervis Bay Territory comprising 6,677 hectares, in 1915. The external territories were added: Norfolk Island (1914); Ashmore Island, Cartier Islands (1931); the Australian Antarctic Territory transferred from Britain (1933); Heard Island, McDonald Islands, and Macquarie Island transferred to Australia from Britain (1947).

The Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra (Melbourne was the seat of government from 1901 to 1927). The FCT was renamed the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in 1938. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911.

Great Depression

Ribbon ceremony to open the Sydney Harbour Bridge on 20 March 1932. Breaking protocol, the soon to be dismissed Premier Jack Lang cuts the ribbon while Governor Philip Game looks on.

Australia was deeply affected by the Great Depression of the 1930s, particularly due to its heavy dependence on exports, especially primary products such as wool and wheat.[319] Exposed by continuous borrowing to fund capital works in the 1920s, the Australian and state governments were "already far from secure in 1927, when most economic indicators took a turn for the worse. Australia's dependence of exports left her extraordinarily vulnerable to world market fluctuations", according to economic historian Geoff Spenceley.[320] Debt by the state of New South Wales accounted for almost half of Australia's accumulated debt by December 1927. The situation caused alarm amongst a few politicians and economists, notably Edward Shann of the University of Western Australia, but most political, union and business leaders were reluctant to admit to serious problems.[321] In 1926, Australian Finance magazine described loans as occurring with a "disconcerting frequency" unrivalled in the British Empire: "It may be a loan to pay off maturing loans or a loan to pay the interest on existing loans, or a loan to repay temporary loans from the bankers..."[322] Thus, well before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the Australian economy was already facing significant difficulties. As the economy slowed in 1927, so did manufacturing and the country slipped into recession as profits slumped and unemployment rose.[323]

In 1931, more than 1,000 unemployed men marched from the Esplanade to the Treasury Building in Perth, Western Australia, to see Premier Sir James Mitchell.

At elections held in October 1929, the Labor Party was swept into power in a landslide victory; Stanley Bruce, the former prime minister, lost his own seat. The new Prime Minister, James Scullin, and his largely inexperienced government were almost immediately faced with a series of crises. Hamstrung by their lack of control of the Senate, a lack of control of the banking system and divisions within their party about how best to deal with the situation, the government was forced to accept solutions that eventually split the party, as it had in 1917. Some gravitated to New South Wales Premier Lang, others to Prime Minister Scullin.

Various "plans" to resolve the crisis were suggested; Sir Otto Niemeyer, a representative of the English banks who visited in mid-1930, proposed a deflationary plan, involving cuts to government spending and wages. Treasurer Ted Theodore proposed a mildly inflationary plan, while the Labor Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, proposed a radical plan which repudiated overseas debt.[324] The "Premier's Plan" finally accepted by federal and state governments in June 1931, followed the deflationary model advocated by Niemeyer and included a reduction of 20 per cent in government spending, a reduction in bank interest rates and an increase in taxation.[325] In March 1931, Lang announced that interest due in London would not be paid and the Federal government stepped in to meet the debt. In May, the Government Savings Bank of New South Wales was forced to close. The Melbourne Premiers' Conference agreed to cut wages and pensions as part of a severe deflationary policy but Lang renounced the plan. The grand opening of the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1932 provided little respite to the growing crisis straining the young federation. With multimillion-pound debts mounting, public demonstrations and move and counter-move by Lang and then Scullin, then Lyons federal governments, the Governor of New South Wales, Philip Game, had been examining Lang's instruction not to pay money into the Federal Treasury. Game judged it was illegal. Lang refused to withdraw his order and, on 13 May, he was dismissed by Governor Game. At June elections, Lang Labor's seats collapsed.[326]

May 1931 had seen the creation of a new conservative political force, the United Australia Party formed by breakaway members of the Labor Party combining with the Nationalist Party. At Federal elections in December 1931, the United Australia Party, led by former Labor member Joseph Lyons, easily won office. They remained in power until September 1940. The Lyons government has often been credited with steering recovery from the depression, although just how much of this was owed to their policies remains contentious.[327] Stuart Macintyre also points out that although Australian GDP grew from £386.9 million to £485.9 million between 1931 and 1932 and 1938–39, real domestic product per head of population was still "but a few shillings greater in 1938–39 (£70.12), than it had been in 1920–21 (£70.04)."[328]

21-year-old Don Bradman is chaired off the cricket pitch after scoring a world record 452 runs not out in 1930. Sporting success lifted Australian spirits through the Depression years.

Australia recovered relatively quickly from the financial downturn of 1929–1930, with recovery beginning around 1932. The Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons, favoured the tough economic measures of the Premiers' Plan, pursued an orthodox fiscal policy and refused to accept the proposals of the Premier of New South Wales, Jack Lang, to default on overseas debt repayments. According to author Anne Henderson of the Sydney Institute, Lyons held a steadfast belief in "the need to balance budgets, lower costs to business and restore confidence" and the Lyons period gave Australia "stability and eventual growth" between the drama of the Depression and the outbreak of the Second World War. A lowering of wages was enforced and industry tariff protections maintained, which together with cheaper raw materials during the 1930s saw a shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the chief employer of the Australian economy—a shift which was consolidated by increased investment by the commonwealth government into defence and armaments manufacture. Lyons saw restoration of Australia's exports as the key to economic recovery.[329]

Phar Lap, c. 1930

The extent of unemployment in Australia, often cited as peaking at 29 per cent in 1932 is debated. "Trade union figures are the most often quoted, but the people who were there...regard the figures as wildly understating the extent of unemployment" wrote historian Wendy Lowenstein in her collection of oral histories of the depression; however, David Potts argued that "over the last thirty years ...historians of the period have either uncritically accepted that figure (29% in the peak year 1932) including rounding it up to 'a third', or they have passionately argued that a third is far too low."[330][331] Potts himself though suggested a peak national figure of 25 per cent unemployed.[332] Measurement is difficult in part because there was great variation, geographically, by age and by gender, in the level of unemployment. Statistics collected by historian Peter Spearritt show 17.8 per cent of men and 7.9 per cent of women unemployed in 1933 in the comfortable Sydney suburb of Woollahra. This is not to say that 81.9 per cent of women were working but that 7.9 per cent of the women interested/looking for work were unable to find it, a much lower figure than maybe first thought, as many women stayed home and were not in the job force in those years, especially if they were unable to find work.

In the working class suburb of Paddington, 41.3 per cent of men and 20.7 per cent of women were listed as unemployed.[333] Geoffrey Spenceley stated that apart from variation between men and women, unemployment was also much higher in some industries, such as the building and construction industry, and comparatively low in the public administrative and professional sectors.[334]In country areas, worst hit were small farmers in the wheat belts as far afield as north-east Victoria and Western Australia, who saw more and more of their income absorbed by interest payments.[335]

Extraordinary sporting successes did something to alleviate the spirits of Australians during the economic downturn. In a Sheffield Shield cricket match at the Sydney Cricket Ground in 1930, Don Bradman, a young New South Welshman of just 21 years of age wrote his name into the record books by smashing the previous highest batting score in first-class cricket with 452 runs not out in just 415 minutes.[336] The rising star's world beating cricketing exploits were to provide Australians with much needed joy through the emerging Great Depression in Australia and post-World War II recovery. Between 1929 and 1931 the racehorse Phar Lap dominated Australia's racing industry, at one stage winning fourteen races in a row.[337] Famous victories included the 1930 Melbourne Cup, following an assassination attempt and carrying 9 stone 12 pounds weight.[338] Phar Lap sailed for the United States in 1931, going on to win North America's richest race, the Agua Caliente Handicap in 1932. Soon after, on the cusp of US success, Phar Lap developed suspicious symptoms and died. Theories swirled that the champion race horse had been poisoned and a devoted Australian public went into shock.[339] The 1938 British Empire Games were held in Sydney from 5–12 February, timed to coincide with Sydney's sesqui-centenary (150 years since the foundation of British settlement in Australia).

Indigenous policy

Following federation Aboriginal affairs was a state responsibility, although the Commonwealth became responsible for the Aboriginal population of the Northern Territory from 1911. By that date the Commonwealth and all states except Tasmania had passed legislation establishing Protectors of Aborigines and Protection Boards with extensive powers to regulate the lives of Aboriginal Australians including their ownership of property, place of residence, employment, sexual relationships and custody of their children. Reserves were established, ostensibly for the protection of the Aboriginal population who had been dispossessed of their land. Church groups also ran missions throughout Australia providing shelter, food, religious instruction and elementary schooling for Indigenous people.[340]

Some officials were concerned by the growing number of Aboriginal children of mixed heritage, particularly in northern Australia where large Indigenous, South Sea Islander and Asian populations were seen as inconsistent with the white Australia policy. Laws concerning Aboriginal Australians were progressively tightened to make it easier for officials to remove Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their parents and place them in reserves, missions, institutions and employment with white employers.[341]

The segregation of Aboriginal people on reserves and in institutions was never systematically accomplished due to funding constraints, differing policy priorities in the states and territories, and resistance from Aboriginal people. In the more densely settled areas of Australia, about 20 per cent of Aboriginal people lived on reserves in the 1920s. The majority lived in camps on the fringes of country towns and a small percentage lived in cities. During the Great Depression more Aboriginal people moved to reserves and missions for food and shelter. By 1941 almost half of the Aboriginal population of New South Wales lived on reserves.[342]

In northern Australia, the majority of employed Aboriginal people worked in the pastoral industry where they lived in camps, often with their extended families. Many also camped on the margins of towns and reserves where they could avoid most of the controls imposed by the administrators of reserves, compounds and missions.[343]

The 1937 Native Welfare conference of state and Commonwealth officials endorsed a policy of biological absorption of mixed-descent Aboriginal Australians into the white community.

[T]he destiny of the natives of aboriginal origin, but not of the full blood, lies in their ultimate absorption by the people of the Commonwealth and it therefore recommends that all efforts be directed to that end.[344]

The officials saw the policy of Aboriginal assimilation by absorption into the white community as progressive, aimed at eventually achieving civil and economic equality for mixed-descent Aboriginal people.[344]

... efforts of all State authorities should be directed towards the education of children of mixed aboriginal blood at white standards, and their subsequent employment under the same conditions as whites with a view to their taking their place in the white community on an equal footing with the whites.[345]

The following decades saw an increase in the number of Aboriginal Australians of mixed descent removed from their families, although the states and territories progressively adopted a policy of cultural, rather than biological, assimilation, and justified removals on the grounds of child welfare.[346] In 1940, New South Wales became the first state to introduce a child welfare model whereby Aboriginal children of mixed descent were removed from their families under general welfare provisions by court order. Other jurisdictions introduced a welfare model after the war.[345]

Second World War

Defence policy in the 1930s

Prime Minister Robert Menzies and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in 1941

Until the late 1930s, defence was not a significant issue for Australians. At the 1937 elections, both political parties advocated increased defence spending, in the context of increased Japanese aggression in China and Germany's aggression in Europe; however, there was a difference in opinion about how the defence spending should be allocated. The United Australia Party government emphasised co-operation with Britain in "a policy of imperial defence". The lynchpin of this was the British naval base at Singapore and the Royal Navy battle fleet "which, it was hoped, would use it in time of need".[347] Defence spending in the inter-war years reflected this priority. In the period 1921–1936 totalled £40 million on the Royal Australian Navy, £20 million on the Australian Army and £6 million on the Royal Australian Air Force (established in 1921, the "youngest" of the three services). In 1939, the Navy, which included two heavy cruisers and four light cruisers, was the service best equipped for war.[348]

The light cruiser HMAS Sydney, lost in a battle in the Indian Ocean, November 1941

Fearing Japanese intentions in the Pacific, Menzies established independent embassies in Tokyo and Washington to receive independent advice about developments.[349] Gavin Long argues that the Labor opposition urged greater national self-reliance through a buildup of manufacturing and more emphasis on the Army and RAAF, as Chief of the General Staff, John Lavarack also advocated.[350] In November 1936, Labor leader John Curtin said "The dependence of Australia upon the competence, let alone the readiness, of British statesmen to send forces to our aid is too dangerous a hazard upon which to found Australia's defence policy."[351] According to John Robertson, "some British leaders had also realised that their country could not fight Japan and Germany at the same time." But "this was never discussed candidly at...meeting(s) of Australian and British defence planners", such as the 1937 Imperial Conference.[352]

By September 1939 the Australian Army numbered 3,000 regulars.[353] A recruiting campaign in late 1938, led by Major-General Thomas Blamey increased the reserve militia to almost 80,000.[354] The first division raised for war was designated the 6th Division, of the 2nd AIF, there being 5 Militia Divisions on paper and a 1st AIF in the First World War.[355]

War

Australian troops at Milne Bay, Papua. The Australian army was the first to inflict defeat on the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II at the Battle of Milne Bay of August–September 1942.
An Australian light machine gun team in action near Wewak, Papua New Guinea, in June 1945

On 3 September 1939, the prime minister, Robert Menzies, made a national radio broadcast: "My fellow Australians. It is my melancholy duty to inform you, officially, that, in consequence of the persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her, and that, as a result, Australia is also at war."[356]

Thus began Australia's involvement in the six-year global conflict. Australians were to fight in an extraordinary variety of locations, including withstanding the advance of German Panzers in the Siege of Tobruk, turning back the advance of the Imperial Japanese Army in the New Guinea Campaign, undertaking bomber missions over Europe, engaging in naval battles in the Mediterranean. At home, Japanese attacks included mini-submarine raids on Sydney Harbour and very heavy air raids on and near the Northern Territory's capital, Darwin.[357]

The recruitment of a volunteer military force for service at home and abroad was announced, the 2nd Australian Imperial Force and a citizen militia organised for local defence. Troubled by Britain's failure to increase defences at Singapore, Menzies was cautious in committing troops to Europe. By the end of June 1940, France, Norway, Denmark and the Low Countries had fallen to Nazi Germany. Britain stood alone with its dominions. Menzies called for "all-out war", increasing federal powers and introducing conscription. Menzies' minority government came to rely on just two independents after the 1940 election.[358]

In January 1941, Menzies flew to Britain to discuss the weakness of Singapore's defences. Arriving in London during The Blitz, Menzies was invited into Winston Churchill's British War Cabinet for the duration of his visit. Returning to Australia, with the threat of Japan imminent and with the Australian army suffering badly in the Greek and Crete campaigns, Menzies re-approached the Labor Party to form a War Cabinet. Unable to secure their support, and with an unworkable parliamentary majority, Menzies resigned as prime minister. The coalition held office for another month, before the independents switched allegiance and John Curtin was sworn in as prime minister.[349] Eight weeks later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.

A patrol from the 2/13th Infantry Battalion at Tobruk in North Africa, (AWM 020779). The 1941 Siege of Tobruk saw an Australian garrison halt the advance of Hitler's Panzer divisions for the first time since the commencement of the war.

From 1940 to 1941, Australian forces played prominent roles in the fighting in the Mediterranean theatre, including Operation Compass, the Siege of Tobruk, the Greek campaign, the Battle of Crete, the Syria–Lebanon Campaign and the Second Battle of El Alamein.

A garrison of around 14,000 Australian soldiers, commanded by Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead was besieged in Tobruk, Libya, by the German-Italian army of General Erwin Rommel between April and August 1941. The Nazi propagandist Lord Haw Haw derided the defenders as 'rats', a term the soldiers adopted as an ironic compliment: "The Rats of Tobruk".[359] Vital in the defence of Egypt and the Suez Canal, the siege saw the advance of the German army halted for the first time and provided a morale boost for the British Commonwealth, which was then standing alone against Hitler.[citation needed]

The war came closer to home when HMAS Sydney was lost with all hands in battle with the German raider Kormoran in November 1941.

With most of Australia's best forces committed to fight against Hitler in the Middle East, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, the US naval base in Hawaii, on 8 December 1941 (eastern Australia time). The British battleship HMS Prince of Wales and battlecruiser HMS Repulse sent to defend Singapore were sunk soon afterwards. Australia was ill-prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While demanding reinforcements from Churchill, on 27 December 1941 Curtin published an historic announcement:[360] "The Australian Government... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom."[361]

US General Douglas MacArthur, Commander of Allied forces in the Pacific, with Prime Minister John Curtin

British Malaya quickly collapsed, shocking the Australian nation. British, Indian and Australian troops made a disorganised last stand at Singapore, before surrendering on 15 February 1942. Around 15,000 Australian soldiers became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted that the "battle for Australia" would now follow. On 19 February, Darwin suffered a devastating air raid, the first time the Australian mainland had ever been attacked by enemy forces. For the following 19 months, Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times.

Dutch and Australian PoWs at Tarsau, in Thailand in 1943. 22,000 Australians were captured by the Japanese; 8,000 died as POWs.

Two battle-hardened Australian divisions were already steaming from the Middle East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin refused, and anxiously awaited their return to Australia. US President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered his commander in the Philippines, General Douglas MacArthur, to formulate a Pacific defence plan with Australia in March 1942. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of General MacArthur, who became "Supreme Commander of the South West Pacific". Curtin had thus presided over a fundamental shift in Australia's foreign policy. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942 and American troops began massing in Australia. In late May 1942, Japanese midget submarines sank an accommodation vessel in a daring raid on Sydney Harbour. On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle.[362]

In an effort to isolate Australia, the Japanese planned a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, in the Australian Territory of New Guinea. In May 1942, the US Navy engaged the Japanese in the Battle of the Coral Sea and halted the attack. The Battle of Midway in June effectively defeated the Japanese navy and the Japanese army launched a land assault on Moresby from the north.[132] Between July and November 1942, Australian forces repulsed Japanese attempts on the city by way of the Kokoda Track, in the highlands of New Guinea. The Battle of Milne Bay in August 1942 was the first Allied defeat of Japanese land forces.

Australian soldiers display Japanese flags they captured at Kaiapit, New Guinea in 1943.

Meanwhile, in North Africa, the Axis Powers had driven Allies back into Egypt. A turning point came between July and November 1942, when Australia's 9th Division played a crucial role in some of the heaviest fighting of the First and Second Battle of El Alamein, which turned the North Africa Campaign in favour of the Allies.[363]

The Battle of Buna–Gona, between November 1942 and January 1943, set the tone for the bitter final stages of the New Guinea campaign, which persisted into 1945. The offensives in Papua and New Guinea of 1943–44 were the single largest series of connected operations ever mounted by the Australian armed forces.[364] On 14 May 1943, the Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, though clearly marked as a medical vessel, was sunk by Japanese raiders off the Queensland coast, killing 268, including all but one of the nursing staff, further enraging popular opinion against Japan.[365][366]

Australian prisoners of war were at this time suffering severe ill-treatment in the Pacific Theatre. In 1943, 2,815 Australian Pows died constructing Japan's Burma-Thailand Railway.[367] In 1944, the Japanese inflicted the Sandakan Death March on 2,000 Australian and British prisoners of war—only 6 survived. This was the single worst war crime perpetrated against Australians in war.[368]

MacArthur largely excluded Australian forces from the main push north into the Philippines and Japan. It was left to Australia to lead amphibious assaults against Japanese bases in Borneo. Curtin suffered from ill health from the strains of office and died weeks before the war ended, replaced by Ben Chifley.

Of Australia's wartime population of seven million, almost one million men and women served in a branch of the services during the six years of warfare. By war's end, gross enlistments totalled 727,200 men and women in the Australian Army (of whom 557,800 served overseas), 216,900 in the RAAF and 48,900 in the RAN. More than 39,700 were killed or died as prisoners of war, about 8,000 of whom died as prisoners of the Japanese.[369]

Australian home front

Australian women were encouraged to contribute to the war effort by joining one of the female branches of the armed forces or participating in the labour force.
The Bombing of Darwin, 19 February 1942. Japanese air raids on Australia during 1942–43 killed hundreds of servicemen and civilians, while Axis naval activity in Australian waters threatened shipping between 1940 and 1945.

While the Australian civilian population suffered less at the hands of the Axis powers than did other Allied nations in Asia and Europe, Australia nevertheless came under direct attack by Japanese naval forces and aerial bombardments, particularly through 1942 and 1943, resulting in hundreds of fatalities and fuelling fear of Japanese invasion. Axis naval activity in Australian waters also brought the war close to home for Australians. Austerity measures, rationing and labour controls measures were all implemented to assist the war effort.[370] Australian civilians dug air raid shelters, trained in civil defence and first aid, and Australian ports and cities were equipped with anti aircraft and sea defences.[371]

The Australian economy was markedly affected by World War II.[372] Expenditure on war reached 37 per cent of GDP by 1943–44, compared to 4 per cent expenditure in 1939–1940.[373] Total war expenditure was £2,949 million between 1939 and 1945.[374]

1942 Australian propaganda poster. Australia feared invasion by Imperial Japan following the invasion of the Australian Territory of New Guinea and Fall of Singapore in early 1942.

Although the peak of army enlistments occurred in June–July 1940, when more than 70,000 enlisted, it was the Curtin Labor government, formed in October 1941, that was largely responsible for "a complete revision of the whole Australian economic, domestic and industrial life".[375] Rationing of fuel, clothing and some food was introduced, (although less severely than in Britain) Christmas holidays curtailed, "brown outs" introduced and some public transport reduced. From December 1941, the Government evacuated all women and children from Darwin and northern Australia, and more than 10,000 refugees arrived from South East Asia as Japan advanced.[376] In January 1942, the Manpower Directorate was set up "to ensure the organisation of Australians in the best possible way to meet all defence requirements."[375] Minister for War Organisation of Industry, John Dedman introduced a degree of austerity and government control previously unknown, to such an extent that he was nicknamed "the man who killed Father Christmas".

In May 1942 uniform tax laws were introduced in Australia, ending state governments' control of income taxation. "The significance of this decision was greater than any other... made throughout the war, as it added extensive powers to the Federal Government and greatly reduced the financial autonomy of the states."[377]

Manufacturing grew significantly because of the war. "In 1939, there were only three Australian firms producing machine tools, but by 1943 there were more than one hundred doing so."[378] From having few front line aircraft in 1939, the RAAF had become the fourth largest allied Air force by 1945. A number of aircraft were built under licence in Australia before the war's end, notably the Beaufort and Beaufighter, although the majority of aircraft were from Britain and later, the US.[379] The Boomerang fighter, designed and built in four months of 1942, emphasised the desperate state Australia found itself in as the Japanese advanced.

Australia also created, virtually from nothing, a significant female workforce engaged in direct war production. Between 1939 and 1944 the number of women working in factories rose from 171,000 to 286,000.[380] Dame Enid Lyons, widow of former Prime Minister Joseph Lyons, became the first woman elected to the House of Representatives in 1943, joining the Robert Menzies' new centre-right Liberal Party of Australia, formed in 1945. At the same election, Dorothy Tangney became the first woman elected to the Senate.

Post-war boom

Menzies and Liberal dominance: 1949–72

Sir Robert Menzies, founder of the Liberal Party of Australia and Prime Minister of Australia 1939–41 (UAP) and 1949–66

Politically, Robert Menzies and the Liberal Party of Australia dominated much of the immediate post war era, defeating the Labor government of Ben Chifley in 1949, in part because of a Labor proposal to nationalise banks[381] and following a crippling coal strike led by the Australian Communist Party. Menzies became the country's longest-serving prime minister and the Liberal party, in coalition with the rural based Country Party, won every federal election until 1972.

As in the United States in the early 1950s, allegations of communist influence in society saw tensions emerge in politics. Refugees from Soviet dominated Eastern Europe immigrated to Australia, while to Australia's north, Mao Zedong's Chinese Communist Party won the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and in June 1950, Communist North Korea invaded South Korea. The Menzies government responded to a United States led United Nations Security Council request for military aid for South Korea and diverted forces from occupied Japan to begin Australia's involvement in the Korean War. After fighting to a bitter standstill, the UN and North Korea signed a ceasefire agreement in July 1953. Australian forces had participated in such major battles as Kapyong and Maryang San. 17,000 Australians had served and casualties amounted to more than 1,500, of whom 339 were killed.[382]

Queen Elizabeth II inspecting sheep at Wagga Wagga on her 1954 Royal Tour. Huge crowds greeted the Royal party across Australia.

During the course of the Korean War, the Liberal government attempted to ban the Communist Party of Australia, first by legislation in 1950 and later by referendum, in 1951.[383] While both attempts were unsuccessful, further international events such as the defection of minor Soviet Embassy official Vladimir Petrov, added to a sense of impending threat that politically favoured Menzies' Liberal-CP government, as the Labor Party split over concerns about the influence of the Communist Party on the trade union movement. The tensions led to another bitter split and the emergence of the breakaway Democratic Labor Party (DLP). The DLP remained an influential political force, often holding the balance of power in the Senate, until 1974. Its preferences supported the Liberal and Country Party.[384] The Labor party was led by H.V. Evatt after Chifley's death in 1951. Evatt had served as President of the United Nations General Assembly during 1948–49 and helped draft the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Evatt retired in 1960 amid signs of mental ill-health, and Arthur Calwell succeeded him as leader, with a young Gough Whitlam as his deputy.[385]

Menzies presided during a period of sustained economic boom and the beginnings of sweeping social change, which included youth culture and its rock and roll music and, in the late 1950s, the arrival of television broadcasting. In 1958, Australian country music singer Slim Dusty, who would become the musical embodiment of rural Australia, had Australia's first international music chart hit with his bush ballad "Pub With No Beer",[386] while rock and roller Johnny O'Keefe's "Wild One" became the first local recording to reach the national charts, peaking at No. 20.[387][388] Australian cinema produced little of its own content in the 1950s, but British and Hollywood studios produced a string of successful epics from Australian literature, featuring home grown stars Chips Rafferty and Peter Finch.

Menzies remained a staunch supporter of links to the monarchy and Commonwealth of Nations and formalised an alliance with the United States, but also launched post-war trade with Japan, beginning a growth of Australian exports of coal, iron ore and mineral resources that would steadily climb until Japan became Australia's largest trading partner.[389]

When Menzies retired in 1965, he was replaced as Liberal leader and prime minister by Harold Holt. Holt drowned while swimming at a surf beach in December 1967 and was replaced by John Gorton (1968–1971) and then by William McMahon (1971–1972).

Post-war immigration

Postwar migrants arriving in Australia in 1954
After World War II and by the 1950s, Australia had a population of 10 million, and the most populous urban centre was its oldest city, Sydney. It has retained its status as Australia's largest city ever since.

Following World War II, the Chifley Labor government instigated a massive programme of European immigration. In 1945, Minister for Immigration, Arthur Calwell wrote "If the experience of the Pacific War has taught us one thing, it surely is that seven million Australians cannot hold three million square miles of this earth's surface indefinitely."[390] All political parties shared the view that the country must "populate or perish". Calwell stated a preference for ten British immigrants for each one from other countries; however, the numbers of British migrants fell short of what was expected, despite government assistance.[391]

Migration brought large numbers of southern and central Europeans to Australia for the first time. A 1958 government leaflet assured readers that unskilled non-British migrants were needed for "labour on rugged projects ... work which is not generally acceptable to Australians or British workers".[392] The Australian economy stood in sharp contrast to war-ravaged Europe, and newly arrived migrants found employment in a booming manufacturing industry and government assisted programmes such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme. This hydroelectricity and irrigation complex in south-east Australia consisted of sixteen major dams and seven power stations constructed between 1949 and 1974. It remains the largest engineering project undertaken in Australia. Necessitating the employment of 100,000 people from more than 30 countries, to many it denoted the birth of multicultural Australia.[393]Some 4.2 million immigrants arrived between 1945 and 1985, about 40 per cent of whom came from Britain and Ireland.[394] The 1957 novel They're a Weird Mob was a popular account of an Italian migrating to Australia, although written by Australian-born author John O'Grady. The Australian population reached 10 million in 1959–with Sydney its most populous city.

In May 1958, the Menzies Government passed the Migration Act 1958 which replaced the Immigration Restriction Act's arbitrarily applied dictation test with an entry permit system, that reflected economic and skills criteria.[395][396] Further changes in the 1960s effectively ended the White Australia Policy. It legally ended in 1973.

Economic growth and suburban living

Tumut 3 power station was constructed as part of the vast Snowy Mountains Hydro Electric Scheme (1949–1974). Construction necessitated the expansion of Australia's immigration programme.

Australia enjoyed significant growth in prosperity in the 1950s and 1960s, with increases in both living standards and in leisure time.[397][398] The manufacturing industry, previously playing a minor part in an economy dominated by primary production, greatly expanded. The first Holden motor car came out of General Motors-Holden's Fisherman's Bend factory in November 1948. Car ownership rapidly increased—from 130 owners in every 1,000 in 1949 to 271 owners in every 1,000 by 1961.[399] By the early 1960s, four competitors to Holden had set up Australian factories, employing between 80,000 and 100,000 workers, "at least four-fifths of them migrants".[400]

In the 1960s, about 60 per cent of Australian manufacturing was protected by tariffs. Pressure from business interests and the union movement ensured these remained high. Historian Geoffrey Bolton suggests that this high tariff protection of the 1960s caused some industries to "lapse into lethargy", neglecting research and development and the search for new markets.[400] The CSIRO was expected to fulfil research and development.

Prices for wool and wheat remained high, with wool the mainstay of Australia's exports. Sheep numbers grew from 113 million in 1950 to 171 million in 1965. Wool production increased from 518,000 to 819,000 tonnes in the same period.[401] Wheat, wool and minerals ensured a healthy balance of trade between 1950 and 1966.[402]

The great housing boom of the post war period saw rapid growth in the suburbs of the major Australian cities. By the 1966 census, only 14 per cent lived in rural Australia, down from 31 per cent in 1933, and only 8 per cent lived on farms.[403] Virtual full employment meant high standards of living and dramatic increases in home ownership, and by the sixties, Australia had the most equitable spread of income in the world.[404] By the beginning of the sixties, an Australia-wide McNair survey estimated that 94% of homes had a fridge, 50% a telephone, 55% a television, 60% a washing machine, and 73% a vacuum cleaner. In addition, most households had now acquired a car.[405] According to one study, "In 1946, there was one car for every 14 Australians; by 1960, it was one to 3.5. The vast majority of families had access to a car."[397]

Car ownership flourished during the postwar period, with 1970/1971 census data estimating that 96.4 per cent of Australian households in the early Seventies owned at least one car; however, not all felt the rapid suburban growth was desirable.[406] Distinguished Architect and designer Robin Boyd, a critic of Australia's built surroundings, described Australia as "'the constant sponge lying in the Pacific', following the fashions of overseas and lacking confidence in home-produced, original ideas".[407] In 1956, dadaist comedian Barry Humphries performed the character of Edna Everage as a parody of a house-proud housewife of staid 1950s Melbourne suburbia (the character only later morphed into a critique of self-obsessed celebrity culture). It was the first of many of his satirical stage and screen creations based around quirky Australian characters: Sandy Stone, a morose elderly suburbanite, Barry McKenzie a naive Australian expat in London and Sir Les Patterson, a vulgar parody of a Whitlam-era politician.[408]

Some writers defended suburban life. Journalist Craig Macgregor saw suburban life as a "...solution to the needs of migrants..." Hugh Stretton argued that "plenty of dreary lives are indeed lived in the suburbs... but most of them might well be worse in other surroundings".[409] Historian Peter Cuffley has recalled life for a child in a new outer suburb of Melbourne as having a kind of joyous excitement. "Our imaginations saved us from finding life too humdrum, as did the wild freedom of being able to roam far and wide in different kinds of (neighbouring) bushland...Children in the suburbs found space in backyards, streets and lanes, playgrounds and reserves..."[410]

In 1954, the Menzies Government formally announced the introduction of the new two-tiered TV system—a government-funded service run by the ABC, and two commercial services in Sydney and Melbourne, with the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne being a major driving force behind the introduction of television to Australia.[411] Colour TV began broadcasting in 1975.

Indigenous civil rights, assimilation and child removal

The Menzies era (1949–1972) saw significant strides in civil rights for indigenous Australians. Over the period, Menzies and his successors dismantled remaining restrictions on voting rights for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples culminating in the Menzies Government's 1962 Commonwealth Electoral Act, while the Holt Government's landmark 1967 Referendum received overwhelming public support for the transfer of responsibility for Aboriginal Affairs to the Federal Government, and the removal of discriminatory provisions regarding the national census from the Australian Constitution. By 1971, the first Aboriginal Senator was sitting on the government benches, with Neville Bonner becoming a Liberal Senator for QLD.[412]

Prime Minister Harold Holt with Aboriginal rights campaigners ahead of the 1967 Referendum.
Liberal Senator Neville Bonner, the first federal parliamentarian to identify as Aboriginal, joined the Senate in 1971

During this period, the policy of assimilation attracted increasing criticism from Aboriginal people and their supporters on the grounds of its negative effects on Aboriginal families and its denial of Aboriginal cultural autonomy. Removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their families slowed by the late 1960s and by 1973 the Commonwealth had adopted a policy of self-determination for Indigenous Australians.[413]

The 1951 Native Welfare Conference of state and Commonwealth officials had agreed on a policy of cultural assimilation for all Aboriginal Australians. Paul Hasluck, the Commonwealth Minister for Territories, stated: "Assimilation means, in practical terms, that, in the course of time, it is expected that all persons of aboriginal blood or mixed blood in Australia will live like other white Australians do."[345][346]

Controls over the daily lives of Aboriginal people and the removal of Aboriginal children of mixed descent continued under the policy of assimilation, although the control was now largely exercised by Welfare Boards and removals were justified on welfare grounds. The number of Aboriginal people deemed to be wards of the state under Northern Territory welfare laws doubled to 11,000 from 1950 to 1965.[414]

In 1997, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission estimated that between 10 per cent and one-third of Aboriginal children had been removed from their families from 1910 to 1970. Regional studies indicate that 15 per cent of Aboriginal children were removed in New South Wales from 1899 to 1968, while the figure for Victoria was about 10 per cent.[415] Robert Manne estimates that the figure for Australia as a whole was closer to 10 per cent.[416]

Summarising the policy of assimilation and forced removals of Aboriginal children of mixed descent, Richard Broome concludes: "Even though the children's material conditions and Western education may have been improved by removal, even though some removals were necessary, and even though some people were thankful for it in retrospect, overall it was a disaster....It was a rupturing of tens of thousands of Aboriginal families, aimed at eradicating Aboriginality from the nation in the cause of homogeneity and in fear of difference."[415]

Alliances 1950–1972

In the early 1950s, the Menzies government saw Australia as part of a "triple alliance" in concert with both the US and traditional ally Britain.[417] At first, "the Australian leadership opted for a consistently pro-British line in diplomacy", while at the same time looking for opportunities to involve the US in South East Asia.[418] Thus, the government committed military forces to the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency and hosted British nuclear tests after 1952.[419] Australia was also the only Commonwealth country to offer support to the British during the Suez Crisis.[420]

Menzies oversaw an effusive welcome to Queen Elizabeth II on the first visit to Australia by a reigning monarch, in 1954. He made the following remarks during a light-hearted speech to an American audience in New York, while on his way to attend her coronation in 1953: "We in Australia, of course, are British, if I may say so, to the boot heels...but we stand together – our people stand together – till the crack of doom."[421]

Harold Holt and US President John F. Kennedy in the Oval Office in Washington, D.C., 1963. By the 1960s, Australian defence policy had shifted from Britain to the US as key ally.

As British influence declined in South East Asia, the US alliance came to have greater significance for Australian leaders and the Australian economy. British investment in Australia remained significant until the late 1970s, but trade with Britain declined through the 1950s and 1960s. In the late 1950s the Australian Army began to re-equip using US military equipment. In 1962, the US established a naval communications station at North West Cape, the first of several built during the next decade.[422][423] Most significantly, in 1962, Australian Army advisors were sent to help train South Vietnamese forces, in a developing conflict in which the British had no part.

According to diplomat Alan Renouf, the dominant theme in Australia's foreign policy under Australia's Liberal–Country Party governments of the 1950s and 1960s was anti-communism.[424] Another former diplomat, Gregory Clark, suggested that it was specifically a fear of China that drove Australian foreign policy decisions for twenty years.[425] The ANZUS security treaty, which had been signed in 1951, had its origins in Australia's and New Zealand's fears of a rearmed Japan. Its obligations on the US, Australia and New Zealand are vague, but its influence on Australian foreign policy thinking, at times has been significant.[426] The SEATO treaty, signed only three years later, clearly demonstrated Australia's position as a US ally in the emerging Cold War.[427]

As Britain struggled to enter the Common Market in the 1960s, Australia saw that its historic ties with the mother country were rapidly fraying. Canberra was alarmed but kept a low profile, not wanting to alienate London. Russel Ward states that the implications of British entry into Europe in 1973: "seemed shattering to most Australians, particularly to older people and conservatives."[428] Carl Bridge, however, points out that Australia had been "hedging its British bets" for some time. The ANZUS treaty and Australia's decision to enter the Vietnam War did not involve Britain and by 1967 Japan was Australia's leading export partner and the US her largest source of imports. According to Bridge, Australia's decision not to follow Britain's devaluation of her currency in 1967 "marked the demise of British Australia."[427]

Vietnam War

Personnel and aircraft of RAAF Transport Flight Vietnam arrive in South Vietnam in August 1964.

By 1965, Australia had increased the size of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam (AATTV), and in April the Government made a sudden announcement that "after close consultation with the United States", a battalion of troops was to be sent to South Vietnam.[429] In parliament, Menzies emphasised the argument that "our alliances made demands on us". The alliance involved was presumably, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), and Australia was providing military assistance because South Vietnam, a signatory to SEATO, had apparently requested it.[430] Documents released in 1971 indicated that the decision to commit troops was made by Australia and the US, not at the request of South Vietnam.[431] By 1968, there were three Australian Army battalions at any one time at the 1st Australian Task Force (1ATF) base at Nui Dat in addition to the advisers of the AATTV placed throughout Vietnam, and personnel reached a peak total of almost 8,000, comprising about one third of the Army's combat capacity. Between 1962 and 1972 almost 60,000 personnel served in Vietnam, including ground troops, naval forces and air assets.[432]

In July 1966, new Prime Minister Harold Holt expressed his government's support for the US and its role in Vietnam in particular. "I don't know where people would choose to look for the security of this country were it not for the friendship and strength of the United States."[433] While on a visit in the same year to the US, Holt assured President Lyndon B. Johnson "...I hope there is corner of your mind and heart which takes cheer from the fact that you have an admiring friend, a staunch friend, [Australia] that will be all the way with LBJ."[434]

The Liberal-CP Government was returned with a massive majority in elections held in December 1966, fought over national security issues including Vietnam. The opposition Labor Party had advocated the withdrawal of all conscripts from Vietnam, but its deputy leader Gough Whitlam had stated that a Labor government might maintain regular army troops there.[435] Arthur Calwell, who had been leader of the Labor Party since 1960, retired in favour of Whitlam a few months later.

Despite Holt's sentiments and his government's electoral success in 1966, the war became unpopular in Australia, as it did in the United States. The movements to end Australia's involvement gathered strength after the Tet Offensive of early 1968 and compulsory national service (selected by ballot) became increasingly unpopular. In the 1969 elections, the government hung on despite a significant decline in popularity. Moratorium marches held across Australia in mid-1970 attracted large crowds—the Melbourne march of 100,000 being led by Labor MP Jim Cairns. As the Nixon administration proceeded with Vietnamization of the war and began the withdrawal of troops, so did the Australian Government. In November 1970 1st Australian Task Force was reduced to two battalions and in November 1971, 1ATF was withdrawn from Vietnam. The last military advisers of the AATTV were withdrawn by the Whitlam Labor government in mid-December 1972.[432]

The Australian military presence in Vietnam had lasted 10 years, and in purely human cost, more than 500 had been killed and more than 2,000 wounded. The war cost Australia $218 million between 1962 and 1972.[432]

Reform and reaction: 1972–1996

The Whitlam government: 1972–75

Gough Whitlam and US President Richard Nixon in 1973. The Whitlam government was responsible for significant reforms, but went on to be dismissed in controversial circumstances.

Elected in December 1972 after 23 years in opposition, Labor won office under Gough Whitlam, introducing significant reforms and expanding the federal budget. Welfare benefits were extended and payment rates increased, a national health insurance scheme was introduced, and divorce laws liberalised. Commonwealth expenditure on schools trebled in the two years to mid-1975 and the Commonwealth assumed responsibility for funding higher education, abolishing tuition fees. In foreign affairs, the new government prioritised the Asia Pacific region, formally abolishing the White Australia Policy, recognising Communist China and enhancing ties with Indonesia. Conscription was abolished and the remaining Australian troops in Vietnam withdrawn. The Australian national anthem was changed from God Save the Queen to Advance Australia Fair, the imperial honours system was replaced at the Commonwealth level by the Order of Australia, and Queen Elizabeth II was officially styled Queen of Australia. Relations with the US, however, became strained after government members criticised the resumption of the US bombing campaign in North Vietnam.[436]

In Indigenous affairs, the government introduced a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people in economic, social and political affairs. Federal expenditure on Aboriginal services increased from $23 million to $141 million during the three years of the government.[437] One of the first acts of the Whitlam government was to establish a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory under Justice Woodward. Legislation based on its findings was passed into law by the Fraser government in 1976, as the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976.[437]

As the Whitlam government did not control the Senate, much of its legislation was rejected or amended. After Labor was re-elected with a reduced majority at elections in May 1974, the Senate remained an obstacle to its political agenda. The government's popularity was also harmed by deteriorating economic conditions and a series of political scandals. Increased government spending, rapid wage growth, booming commodity prices and the first OPEC oil shock led to economic instability. The unemployment rate reached post-war high of 3.6 per cent in late 1974 and the annual inflation rate hit 17 per cent.[438]

In 1974–75 the government began negotiations for US$4 billion in foreign loans to fund state development of Australia's mineral and energy resources. Minister Rex Connor conducted secret discussions with a loan broker from Pakistan, and Treasurer Jim Cairns misled parliament about the issue. Arguing the government was incompetent following the Loans Affair, the opposition Liberal-Country Party Coalition delayed passage of the government's money bills in the Senate, until the government would promise a new election. Whitlam refused and the deadlock ended when his government was controversially dismissed by the Governor-General, John Kerr on 11 November 1975. Opposition leader Malcolm Fraser was installed as caretaker prime minister, pending an election.[439]

Fraser government: 1975–83

Malcolm Fraser and US President Jimmy Carter in 1977.

The Federal elections of December 1975 resulted in a landslide victory for the Liberal-Country Party coalition and Malcolm Fraser continued as prime minister. The coalition government won subsequent elections in 1977 and 1980, making Fraser the second longest serving Australian prime minister up to that time.[440] The Fraser government espoused a policy of administrative competence and economic austerity leavened by progressive humanitarian, social and environmental interventions. The government enacted the Whitlam government's land rights bill with few changes, increased immigration, and resettled Indochinese refugees. It promoted multiculturalism and in 1978 established the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) as a multicultural broadcaster. In foreign policy, the government continued Labor's friendly relations with China and Indonesia, repaired the frayed relationship with the US and opposed white minority rule in South Africa and Rhodesia. Environmental policies included banning resource development on Fraser Island and the Great Barrier Reef, creating Kakadu National Park and banning whaling. However, the government refused to use Commonwealth powers to stop the construction of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania in 1982 and the resulting grassroots campaign against the dam contributed to the emergence of an influential environmental movement in Australia.[441][440]

On the economic front, the Fraser government followed a "fight inflation first" strategy centred on budget cuts and wage restraint. Welfare benefits were restricted, the universal healthcare system was partially dismantled, and university funding per student cut. However, by the early 1980s economic conditions were deteriorating. The second oil shock in 1979 increased inflation which was exacerbated by a boom in commodity prices and a sharp increase in real wages. An international recession, the collapse of the resources boom and a severe drought in eastern Australia saw unemployment rise. The government responded with Keynesian deficit spending in its 1982 Budget, but by 1983 both unemployment and annual inflation exceeded 10 per cent. At the Federal elections in March 1983 the coalition government was comfortably defeated by Labor under its popular new leader Bob Hawke.[442]

Labor governments: 1983–1996

Bob Hawke with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1987. Hawke went on to become the longest-serving Labor Prime Minister.

The Hawke government pursued a mixture of free market reforms and consensus politics featuring "summits" of government representatives, business leaders, trade unions and non-government organisations in order to reach consensus on key issues such as economic policy and tax reform. The centrepiece of this policy mix was an Accord with trade unions under which wage demands would be curtailed in return for increased social benefits. Welfare payments were increased and better targeted to those on low incomes, and a retirement benefits scheme (superannuation) was extended to most employees. A new universal health insurance scheme, Medicare, was introduced.[443] The Treasurer Paul Keating oversaw a program of deregulation and micro-economic reforms which broke with the Keynesian economics that had traditionally been favoured by the Labor party.[444] These reforms included floating the Australian dollar, deregulating capital markets and allowing competition from foreign banks. Business regulation and competition policy was streamlined, tariffs and quotas on imports were reduced, and a number of government enterprises were privatised. The higher education system was restructured and significantly expanded, partly funded by the reintroduction of fees in the form of student loans and "contributions" (HECS).[445] Paul Kelly concludes that, "In the 1980s both Labor and non-Labor underwent internal philosophical revolutions to support a new set of ideas—faith in markets, deregulation, a reduced role for government, low protection and the creation of a new cooperative enterprise culture."[446]

The government's environmental interventions included stopping the Franklin Dam in Tasmania, banning new uranium mines at Jabiluka, and proposing Kakadu National park for world heritage listing.[443] In foreign policy, the government maintained strong relations with the US and was instrumental in the formation of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group. Australia contributed naval ships and troops to UN forces in the Gulf War after Iraq had invaded Kuwait in 1990.[443][447]

Opening of the new Parliament House during the Australian Bicentenary, May 1988.

The government took other initiatives aimed at fostering national unity. The Australia Act 1986 eliminated the last vestiges of British legal authority at the federal level. The Australian Bicentenary in 1988 was the focus of year-long celebrations with multicultural themes. The World Expo 88 was held in Brisbane and a new Parliament House in Canberra was opened.[448]

Strong economic growth, falling unemployment, an unstable opposition, and Bob Hawke's popularity with the public contributed to the re-election of the Hawke government in 1984, 1987 and 1990. However, the economy went into recession in 1990 and by late 1991 the unemployment rate had risen above 10 per cent. With the government's popularity falling, Paul Keating successfully challenged for the leadership and became prime minister in December 1991.[443]

The Keating government's first priority was economic recovery. In February 1992 it released the "One Nation" job creation package and later legislated tax cuts to corporations and individuals to boost economic growth. Unemployment reached 11.4 per cent in 1992—the highest since the Great Depression in Australia. The Liberal-National opposition had proposed an ambitious plan of economic reform to take to the 1993 Election, including the introduction of a Goods and Services Tax. Keating campaigned strongly against the tax and was returned to office in March 1993.[449]

Paul Keating delivering the Redfern Park Speech on 10 December 1992

In May 1994 a more ambitious "Working Nation" jobs program was introduced. The Keating government also pursued a number of "big picture" issues throughout its two terms including increased political and economic engagement in the Asia Pacific region, Indigenous reconciliation, and an Australian republic. The government engaged closely with the Indonesian President, Suharto and other regional partners, and successfully campaigned to increase the role of APEC as a major forum for strategic and economic co-operation.[450] A Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation was established and, following the High Court of Australia's historic Mabo decision in 1992, the first national Native Title legislation was introduced to regulate claims and provide compensation for loss of native title.[451] In 1993, Keating established a Republic Advisory Committee to examine options for Australia becoming a republic. The government also introduced family payments and a superannuation guarantee with compulsory employer contributions.[452]

Under the Hawke government the annual migration intake had more than doubled from 54,500 in 1984–85 to more than 120,000 in 1989–90. The Keating government responded to community concerns about the pace of immigration by cutting the immigration intake and introducing mandatory detention for illegal immigrants arriving without a valid visa. Immigration fell to 67,900 in 1992–93.[453][454]

With foreign debt, inflation and unemployment still stubbornly high, Keating lost the March 1996 Election to the Liberals' John Howard.[455][456]

Australia in a globalised world: 1996–2022

Howard government: 1996–2007

John Howard, the 25th Prime Minister of Australia held office from 1996 to 2007, the second-longest tenure in history
Opening ceremony of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.

John Howard with a Liberal–National Party coalition served as Prime Minister from 1996 until 2007, winning re-election in 1998, 2001 and 2004 to become the second-longest serving prime minister after Menzies. The Howard government introduced a nationwide gun control scheme following a mass shooting at Port Arthur. The coalition introduced industrial relations reforms in 1996 which promoted individual contracts and enterprise bargaining. In 2006, it introduced the WorkChoices legislation, which made it easier for small businesses to terminate employment. After the 1996 election, Howard and treasurer Peter Costello proposed a Goods and Services Tax (GST) which they successfully took to the electorate in 1998 and implemented in July 2000.[457]

The government responded to the populist anti-immigration policies of Pauline Hanson and her One Nation party by publicly criticising elites and political correctness and emphasising Australian values.[458][459] The coalition initially cut immigration intakes, abolished the Office of Multicultural Affairs and other multicultural agencies, and introduced citizenship tests for migrants.[460] Following a sharp increase in unauthorised arrivals by boat from 1999, the government opened new mandatory detention centres in remote areas of Australia and issued temporary visas for those found to be refugees. Following the Children Overboard affair and the Tampa Affair in 2001, the government introduced the Pacific Solution, which involved moving unauthorised immigrants to detention centres in Nauru and Papua New Guinea while their refugee status was determined, as well as a policy of turning back vessels intercepted at sea.[461]

In Indigenous affairs the Prime Minister rejected calls for a treaty with Indigenous Australians and an apology for past actions which had harmed them. Instead, the government pursued a policy of "practical reconciliation" involving specific measures to improve Indigenous education, health, employment and housing. In response to the High Court's decision in Wik Peoples v Queensland, in 1996, the government amended native title legislation to limit native title claims. In 2007, following the release of the "Little Children are Sacred" report detailing widespread abuse in Aboriginal communities, the Howard government launched the Northern Territory Intervention in order to create a safe environment for Indigenous children. The government's response was criticised by the co-chairs of the report, but was supported by the Labor opposition.[462]

Honouring an election commitment, the Howard government set up a people's convention on an Australian republic. The resulting 1999 referendum on a republic failed. Howard, a monarchist, became the only Australian Prime Minister to publicly oppose a constitutional amendment he had put to the people.[463][464]

The Australian-led coalition INTERFET during the East Timor crisis from 1999 to 2002
The Australian-led multinational force in response to the Solomon Islands conflict (1999–2003).
Operation RAMSI (2003–2017) became Australia's largest effort in democracy and nation-building

In 1999, Australia led a United Nations force into East Timor to help establish democracy and independence for that nation, following political violence. Australia also committed to other peacekeeping and stabilisation operations: notably in Bougainville, including Operation Bel Isi (1998–2003); as well as Operation Helpem Fren and the Australian-led Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) in the early 2000s; and the 2006 East Timorese crisis.[465] Following the September 2001 terrorist attacks on the US and the subsequent War on Terror, Australia committed troops to the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. These events, along with the 2002 Bali Bombings and other terrorist incidents, led to the creation of a National Security Committee and further anti-terrorist legislation.[457]

In foreign affairs, the government advocated a policy of "Asia first, but not Asia only", emphasising traditional links to the Commonwealth and the US. Relations with Indonesia became strained over East Timor but generally improved after the Bali bombings. Australia's support of US policy during the War on Terror was followed by an Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement in 2004. Trade agreements with Singapore and Thailand were also secured and relations with China improved. Australia joined the US in refusing to ratify the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions, arguing that it would harm Australia's economy and would be ineffective without the participation of China and India.[466]

After initial cuts, the immigration intake increased steadily, with a bias towards skilled workers to meet the needs of a rapidly growing economy. Immigration also became more diverse, with the proportion of immigrants from South Asia increasing from 8 per cent in 1996–97 to 20 per cent in 2007–08. Inbound tourism also grew, helped by the Sydney Olympic games in 2000.[467]

The economy continued its uninterrupted expansion since the early 1990s recession, with record jobs growth and the lowest unemployment rates since the 1970s. Exports, imports and foreign investment grew, and China became Australia's second largest trading partner after Japan. The coalition delivered budget surpluses in most years which, along with the proceeds of government asset sales, were partly invested in a Future Fund to reduce the national debt. Income inequality and private debt increased as the economy expanded, with the biggest increase in incomes accruing to the top 10 per cent of income earners.[468]

By 2007, the Howard government was consistently trailing the Labor opposition in opinion polls, with key issues being rising interest rates, the unpopular Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and climate change policy. There were also leadership tensions between Howard and Costello, and opinion polls indicated a desire for a generational change in leadership. Labor won the November 2007 election with a swing of more than 5 per cent and Howard became only the second sitting prime minister to lose his seat in an election.[469]

Labor governments: 2007–2013

Kevin Rudd and Julia Gillard in 2006. Gillard went on to become Australia's first female Prime Minister.

The Rudd government moved quickly to ratify the Kyoto protocols, dismantle the previous government's Work Choices industrial relations reforms, and issue an apology to Aboriginal Australians for past policies, particularly the removal of Aboriginal children from their families.[470] The government was soon confronted by the Global Financial Crisis and subsequent global recession, responding with a series of economic stimulus measures worth A$75 billion. Although economic growth slowed in 2008, Australia was one of the few advanced economies in the world to avoid recession.[471]

The Rudd government proposed an emissions trading scheme (ETS) to address climate change, but the legislation was twice rejected in the Senate. After the failed December 2009 UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, the government decided to postpone its ETS until 2013, a decision which saw Labor lose some electoral support to the Greens.[472] The government's proposed a Resources Super Profits Tax adversely affected Labor's support in the resource-rich states of Queensland and Western Australia.[473]

Australian special forces wait for extraction during the War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)

The government changed its predecessor's asylum seeker policy by closing the Nauru processing centre, abolished temporary protection visas and improving the legal rights and processing time for applicants for asylum. However, unauthorised arrivals by boat increased sharply from 2009 and the number in mandatory detention stretched capacity. The new leader of the opposition, Tony Abbot, promised that a coalition government would "stop the boats."[474][475]

In June 2010, with the government behind the opposition in polls and Rudd's popularity falling, the Labor caucus replaced Rudd with Julia Gillard as leader: Australia's first female prime minister.[475] The new leader was able to negotiate concessions on a new mining tax with large mining companies but failed to reach agreement with East Timor on a proposed migration processing centre there.[476]

Following the August 2010 federal election, Gillard formed a minority Labor government with the support of the Australian Greens and three independents.[477] The Gillard government passed enabling legislation for a National Broadband Network, a carbon pricing scheme, a mining tax, a National Disability Insurance Scheme, and school funding reforms.[477] The government negotiated an agreement with Malaysia to process some asylum seekers there but the plan was struck down by the High Court. In response, the government reopened offshore processing centres on Manus Island and Nauru.[478]

Following mounting leadership speculation and poor polling for the government, Rudd defeated Gillard in a leadership ballot in June 2013 and returned as prime minister, promising to replace the carbon tax with an emissions trading scheme and to ensure that people arriving without authority by boat would not be settled in Australia.[479] The opposition, promising to "stop the boats," abolish the carbon tax and mining tax, and reduce the Budget deficit and government debt, won the September 2013 election.[480]

Liberal-National Coalition governments (2013–2022)

The return of the Liberal-National Coalition to power after six years in opposition initially failed to restore stability to the office of prime minister. Prime Minister Tony Abbott's rival Malcolm Turnbull challenged for and won the leadership of the Liberals within Abbott's first term. After Turnbull narrowly returned the coalition to office in 2016, Party dissatisfaction with his leadership saw him replaced by Scott Morrison in 2018.

Abbott government (2013–2015)

Prime Minister Tony Abbott signing the China–Australia Free Trade Agreement with President Xi Jinping, November 2014

Prime Minister Tony Abbott's government began implementing its policies on unauthorised maritime arrivals, including Operation Sovereign Borders, boat turnbacks, the reintroduction of temporary protection visas, and the resettlement in third countries of those found to be refugees. The number of people arriving by boat fell from 20,587 in 2013 to none in 2015.[481][482] The government continued Australia's economic engagement with Asia, signing trade agreements with China, South Korea and Japan. The government also embraced the intervention against Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, joining the air campaign, sending special forces and providing training for the Iraqi army.[483]

The government's May 2014 Budget proved unpopular, with the perception that it had involved breaking a number of election promises.[484] The government secured the passage of legislation abolishing the carbon tax (July 2014) and the mining tax (September 2014).[483]

The Prime Minister announced a number of decisions – most notably the reintroduction of knighthoods and a knighthood for Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh – which had not been approved by cabinet and which were widely criticised in the media.[485][486] By September 2015 the government had lost 30 Newspolls in a row and Malcolm Turnbull successfully challenged for the leadership.[487]

Turnbull government (2015–2018)

Malcolm Turnbull takes a selfie with Trần Đại Quang, Donald Trump and Xi Jinping, November 2017.

The new Turnbull government announced a National Innovation and Science Agenda and delivered a Budget featuring cuts to company tax.[488] However, the elections of July 2016 saw the government returned with a majority on only one and a minority in the Senate. Following a national postal plebiscite, the government legalised same-sex marriage in December 2017.[489]

In foreign affairs, Australia signed a refugee exchange deal with the US in September 2016, allowing those in detention on Manus Island and Nauru to be settled in the US.[490] There was increased tension with China over its policies in the South China Sea, Australia's new laws targeting foreign influence in domestic politics, and a ban, on national security grounds, on Chinese companies supplying Australia's 5G communications network.[491]

In 2017, the United States, Japan, India and Australia agreed to revive the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue in order to counter Chinese ambitions in the South China Sea.[492] Australia signed a modified Trans-Pacific Partnership trade agreement with 10 other nations in March 2018 after the US withdrew from the original agreement.[493]

The government lost five by-elections in July 2018. When, in August, the government made a commitment to meet Australia's emissions target under the Paris Agreement, a number of coalition members rebelled. The controversy harmed the government, which had already lost more than 30 consecutive Newspolls. The parliamentary Liberal Party elected Scott Morrison as its new leader and he was sworn in as prime minister.[494]

Morrison government (2018–2022)

A barricade in Coolangatta enforcing the border closure between Queensland and New South Wales in April 2020 that was implemented by the Queensland Government in response to the COVID-19 pandemic[495]

The Morrison government committed to remaining in the Paris Agreement, but promised a greater focus on reduction of energy prices.[496] In foreign affairs the government signed the Indonesia–Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (IA-CEPA) in March 2019.[497] The government was returned at the elections of May 2019 with a three-seat majority.

In 2017, a convention of 250 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander delegates had issued the Uluru Statement from the Heart, calling for constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians and a "voice to parliament". In 2019, the government announced a process to ensure that Indigenous Australians would be heard at all levels of government.[498]

In 2020, the government was confronted with the world COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent recession, Australia's first in 29 years.[499] The government banned foreign nationals entering Australia and formed a National Cabinet to address the crisis.[500][501] The national cabinet announced restrictions on non-essential business, travel and gatherings of people. These restrictions were eased from May, although individual states and territories reimposed restrictions in response to particular outbreaks of COVID-19.[502][503]

The Australian government made provision for $267 billion in economic stimulus measures, and $16.6 billion in health measures in response to COVID-19.[504] As a result of the COVID-19 recession, the unemployment rate peaked at 7.5 per cent in July 2020 before falling to 5.6 per cent in March 2021.[503][505][506]

AUKUS founders
Scott Morrison with fellow AUKUS founders Prime Minister Boris Johnston of the UK and US President Joe Biden.

In June 2021, Australia and the United Kingdom announced that they had struck a preliminary deal on a free-trade agreement.[507] On 16 September 2021, the government announced that Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States had agreed to the creation of an enhanced trilateral security partnership, dubbed AUKUS. The first initiative under AUKUS would be for Australia to acquire nuclear-powered submarine technology. As a result of the agreement, Australia cancelled its 2016 contract for the diesel-electric Attack-class submarine with the French company Naval Group.[508] The decision drew rebukes from China and France.[509][510]

Post-pandemic: 2022–present

Albanese government (2022–present)

Anthony Albanese, the 31st Prime Minister of Australia reviews the Federation Guard during the Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II, 4 June 2022

On 23 May 2022, Anthony Albanese was sworn in as Australia's new prime minister. His Labor Party defeated Scott Morrison's conservative government in the election. Prime Minister Albanese formed Australia's first Labor government in almost a decade.[511]

The global surge in inflation that began in 2021, continued. The Australian inflation rate peaked at 7.5% at the end of 2022: a 32 year high. By November 2023, the Reserve Bank of Australia had raised interest rates to 4.35%, a 12-year high.[512]

A referendum on an Indigenous Voice to Parliament was held on the 14 October 2023 and was rejected nationally.[513] The Yes23 campaign co-chair Rachel Perkins called for a week of silence "to grieve this outcome and reflect on its meaning and significance".[514]

Society and culture: 1960s–present

Social developments

Indigenous Australians

Portrait of Lionel Rose
Lionel Rose, 1968 Australian of the Year
Tennis No. 1 Evonne Goolagong was 1971 Australian of the Year

The 1960s proved a key decade for Indigenous rights in Australia, with the demand for change led by Indigenous activists and organisations such as the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, and embraced by the wider population as citizenship rights were extended.[515]

At the start of the decade, Aboriginal affairs were still regulated by state governments and, in the Northern Territory, by the Australian government. In most states Aboriginal Australians were banned from drinking alcohol and their freedom of association, movement and control of property was restricted. Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory banned Aboriginal people from voting and Queensland and Western Australia controlled their right to marry. Aboriginals were often subjected to unofficial "colour bars" restricting their access to many goods, services and public facilities, especially in country towns.[516]

The official policy of the Australian government and most state governments, however, was the assimilation of Aboriginal people into mainstream culture.[517] In 1962, the Menzies Government's Commonwealth Electoral Act gave Indigenous people the right to vote at federal elections. In 1965, Queensland became the last state to confer state voting rights on Aboriginal people.[518][519]

In 1963, the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land sent a bark petition to the Australian parliament asking for recognition of their traditional land rights. They subsequently took their case to the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory which ruled against them in September 1971.[520] In 1965, Charles Perkins, helped organise freedom rides into parts of Australia to expose discrimination and inequality. In 1966, the Gurindji people of Wave Hill station commenced the Gurindji strike in a quest for equal pay and recognition of land rights.[521]

In 1966, the Australian government gave Aboriginal people the same rights to social security benefits as other Australians.[522] A 1967 referendum changed the Australian constitution to include all Aboriginal Australians in the national census and allow the Federal parliament to legislate on their behalf.[523] A Council for Aboriginal Affairs was established.[524]

Popular acclaim for Aboriginal artists, sportspeople and musicians also grew over the period. In 1968, boxer Lionel Rose was proclaimed Australian of the Year.[525] That same year, artist Albert Namatjira was honoured with a postage stamp.[526] Singer-songwriter Jimmy Little's 1963 Gospel song "Royal Telephone" was the first No.1 hit by an Aboriginal artist.[527] Women's Tennis World No. 1 Evonne Goolagong Cawley was celebrated as Australian of the Year in 1971.[528]

Country Liberal Adam Giles became the first indigenous Australian to head a state or territory government when he became Chief Minister of the Northern Territory in 2016.

Neville Bonner was appointed Liberal Senator for QLD in 1971, becoming the first federal parliamentarian to identify as Aboriginal. Eric Deeral (QLD) and Hyacinth Tungutalum (NT) followed at a state and territory level in 1974.[529] In 1976, Sir Doug Nicholls was appointed Governor of South Australia, the first indigenous Australian to hold vice-regal office.[530] By the 2020s, Aboriginal representation in the federal parliament had exceeded the proportion of Aboriginal people in the general population, and Australia had its first Aboriginal leader of a state or territory in 2016, when the Country Liberal Party's Adam Giles became Chief Minister of the Northern Territory.[531]

In January 1972, Aboriginal activists erected an Aboriginal "tent embassy" on the lawns of parliament house, Canberra and issued a number demands including land rights, compensation for past loss of land and self-determination. The leader of the opposition Gough Whitlam was among those who visited the tent embassy to discuss their demands.[532]

The Whitlam government came to power in December 1972 with a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal people.[437] The government also passed legislation against racial discrimination and established a Royal Commission into land rights in the Northern Territory, which formed the basis for the Fraser government's Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976.[437]

Uluru: returned to traditional owners in 1985

Following this, some states introduced their own land rights legislation; however, there were significant limitations on the returned lands, or that available for claim.[533] In 1985, the Hawke government handed over Uluru (Ayers Rock) to traditional owners with a lease back to the Commonwealth.[534]

In 1992, the High Court of Australia handed down its decision in the Mabo Case, holding that Indigenous native title survived reception of English law and continued to exist unless extinguished by conflicting law or interests in land. The Keating government passed a Native Title Act in 1993 to regulate native title claims and established a Native Title Tribunal to hear those claims. In the subsequent Wik decision of 1996, the High Court found that a pastoral lease did not necessarily extinguish native title. In response, the Howard government amended the Native Title Act to provide better protection for pastoralists and others with an interest in land.[535] By March 2019 the Native Titles Tribunal had determined that 375 Indigenous communities had established native title over 39 per cent of the Australian continent, with one third under exclusive title.[536]

From 1960 the Indigenous population grew faster than the Australian population as a whole. The Aboriginal population was 106,000 in 1961 (1 per cent of the total population) but by 2016 had grown to 786,900 (3 per cent of the population) with a third living in major cities.[537] Despite the drift to large cities, the period from 1965 to 1980 also saw a movement of Indigenous Australians away from towns and settlements to small outstations (or homelands), particularly in Arnhem Land and Central Australia. The movement to outstations was associated with a wider trend for the revival of traditional culture. However, the expense of providing infrastructure to small remote communities has seen pressure from federal, state and territory governments to redirect funding towards larger Indigenous communities.[538]

From 1971 to 2006, indicators for Indigenous employment, median incomes, home ownership, education and life expectancy all improved, although they remained well below the level for those who were not indigenous.[539] High rates of Indigenous incarceration and deaths in custody were highlighted by the report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody in April 1991. The Keating government responded with $400 million in new spending to address some of the recommendations of the report. However, by 2001 Indigenous incarceration rates and deaths in custody had increased. Deaths in custody continued at an average of 15 per year during the decade to 2018.[540]

Richard Broome has concluded: "To close the gap [between Indigenous and other Australians] on inequality and well being will take many years; some despairingly say generations. Compensation for lost wages, for missing out on native title settlements and for being removed from one's family and kin remain unresolved."[541]

Women

A female police officer in 2008

Holmes and Pinto point out that in 1960 domesticity and motherhood were still the dominant conceptions of femininity. In 1961, women made up only 25 per cent of employed adults and twice as many women described their occupation as "home duties" compared with those in paid employment. The fertility rate fell from a post-war high of 3.5 to less than 2 in the 1970s and 1980s.[542][543]

The reforming drive of the 1960s and the increasing influence of the women's movement led to a series of legislative and institutional changes. These included the abolition of the "marriage bar" in the Australian public service in 1966, the Arbitration Commission's equal pay decisions of 1969 and 1972, the introduction of paid maternity leave in the Australian public service in 1973, and the enactment of the federal Sex Discrimination Act in 1984 and the Affirmative Action Act of 1986.[544]

Single mothers' benefits were introduced in 1973 and the Family Law Act 1975 bought in no-fault divorce. From the 1980s there was an increase in government funding of women's refuges, health centres, rape crisis centres and information services.[542] The Australian government began funding child care with the Child Care Act of 1972, although state, territory and local government were still the main providers of funding. In 1984, the Australian government introduced standardised fee relief for child care, and funding was greatly expanded in 1990 by the decision to extend fee relief to commercial child care centres.[545]

According to Holmes and Pinto, reliable birth control, increased employment opportunities, and improved family welfare and childcare provision increased opportunities for women outside motherhood and domesticity.[542] In 2019–20, women were more likely than men to hold a bachelor's degree or higher qualification. 68 per cent of women aged 20–74 years old participated in the labour force, compared with 78 per cent of men. However, 43 per cent of employed women were working part-time, compared with 16 per cent of men, and the average earnings of women working full-time was 14 per cent below that of men.[546]

In the five-to-ten years to 2020, the number of women in private sector leadership roles, female federal Justices and Judges, and federal parliamentarians have all increased gradually.[546] However, between 1999 and 2021, Australia has fallen from ninth to 50th in the Inter-Parliamentary Union's ranking of countries by women's representation in national parliaments.[547]

Migrants and cultural diversity

Malcolm Fraser: Committed to a multicultural Australia

In 1961, just over 90 per cent of the Australian population had been born in Australia, New Zealand, the UK or Ireland. Another eight per cent had been born in continental Europe.[548] The White Australia policy was in force and migrants were expected to assimilate into the Australian way of life. As the White Australia policy was gradually dismantled in the 1960s and formally abolished in 1973, governments developed a policy of multiculturalism to manage Australia's increasing cultural diversity. In August 1973 Labor's immigration minister Al Grassby announced his vision of A Multi‐Cultural Society for the Future and a policy of cultural pluralism based on principles of social cohesion, equality of opportunity and cultural identity soon gained bipartisan support. The Galbally Report on migrant services in 1978 recommended that: "every person should be able to maintain his or her culture without prejudice or disadvantage and should be encouraged to understand and embrace other cultures." In response to the report, the Fraser government expanded funding for settlement services, established the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs (AIMA), funded multicultural and community language education programs in schools and established the multi-lingual Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). State and territory government programs to support multiculturalism followed.[549]

By the late 1980s Australia had a high migrant intake which included significant numbers of new arrivals from Asian and Middle‐Eastern countries, leading to public debate on immigration policy. In 1984, the historian Geoffrey Blainey called for a reduction in Asian immigration in the interests of social cohesion. In 1988, the opposition Leader, John Howard called for the abandonment of multiculturalism, a reduction in Asian immigration, and a focus on 'One Australia'. In the same year, the government's FitzGerald review of immigration recommended a sharper economic focus in the selection of immigrants. In 1989, the Hawke government released its National Agenda for a Multicultural Australia which endorsed respect for cultural diversity and the need for settlement services, but indicated that pluralism was limited by the need for "an overriding and unifying commitment to Australia".[550]

Multicultural programs continued to expand between 1986 and 1996 with an emphasis on addressing disadvantage in migrant communities as well as settlement services for recent migrants.[550] James Walter argues that the Hawke and Keating governments (1983–96) also promoted high migration as a means of improving Australia's competitive advantage in a globalised market.[551]

In 1996, Pauline Hanson, a newly elected independent member of parliament, called for a cut in Asian immigration and an end to multiculturalism. In 1998, her One Nation Party gained 23 per cent of the vote in the Queensland elections. The Howard government (1996 to 2007) initially abolished a number of multicultural agencies and reduced funding to some migrant services as part of a general program of budget cuts. In 1999, the government adopted a policy of "Australian multiculturalism" with an emphasis on citizenship and adherence to "Australian values".[552]

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the Bali bombings and other terrorist incidents, some media and political commentary sought to link terrorism with Islam. In 2004, the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) reported an increase in vilification and violence against Australian Muslims and some other minority ethnic groups. The government increased funding for multicultural, citizenship and settlement programs, with an emphasis on the promotion of social cohesion and security.[553] The annual immigration intake also increased substantially as the economy boomed, from 67,900 in 1998–99 to 148,200 in 2006–07. The proportion of migrants selected for their skills increased from 30 per cent in 1995–96 to 68 per cent in 2006–07.[454]

Immigration continued to grow under the Labor government (2007–13) with prime minister Kevin Rudd proclaiming a "big Australia" policy. The immigration intake averaged around 190,000 a year from 2011–12 to 2015–16, a level based on research indicating the optimum level to increase economic output per head of population. India and China became the largest source countries of new migrants.[554] The immigration intake was reduced to 160,000 in 2018–19 as some State governments complained that high immigration was adding to urban congestion. The opposition also linked high immigration with low wages growth while the One Nation party continued to oppose high immigration while proclaiming: "It's okay to be white.".[555]

By 2020, 30 per cent of the Australian population were born overseas. The top five countries of birth for those born overseas were England, China, India, New Zealand and the Philippines. Australia's population encompassed migrants born in almost every country in the world.[556]

Arts and culture

John Gorton in 1970. As Prime Minister, Gorton revitalised government support for Australian cinema

The 1960s and 1970s saw increased government support for the arts and the flourishing of distinctively Australian artistic works. The Gorton government (1968–71) established the Australian Council for the Arts, the Australian Film Development Corporation (AFDC) and the National Film and Television Training School.[557] The Whitlam government (1972–75) established the Australia Council with funding to promote crafts, Aboriginal arts, literature, music, visual arts, theatre, film and television.[558]

In 1966, a television drama quota was introduced requiring broadcasters to show 30 minutes of locally produced drama each week. The police series Homicide (1964–67) became the highest rating program and the family drama Skippy the Bush Kangaroo became a local and international success. By 1969 eight of the twelve most popular television programs were Australian. With these successes, locally produced dramas became a staple of Australian television in the 1970s and 1980s. Notable examples include Rush (1973–76), The Sullivans (1976–83) and Neighbours (1985–present).[559]

From the late 1960s a "new wave" of Australian theatre emerged, initially centred on small theatre groups such as the Pram Factory, La Mama and the Australian Performing Group in Melbourne and the Jane Street Theatre and Nimrod Theatre Company in Sydney. Playwrights associated with the new wave included David Williamson, Alex Buzo, Jack Hibberd and John Romeril. Features of the new wave were the extensive use of Australian colloquial speech (including obscenities), the exploration of the Australian identity, and the critique of cultural myths. By the end of the 1970s new Australian plays were a feature of small and large theatre companies in most states.[560]

Patrick White: In 1973, became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize in Literature

Support through the AFDC (from 1975 the Australian Film Commission) and state funding bodies, and generous tax concessions for investors introduced in 1981, led to a large increase in Australian produced films. Almost 400 were produced between 1970 and 1985. Notable films include The Adventures of Barry McKenzie (1972), Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), My Brilliant Career (1979), Breaker Morant (1980), Gallipoli (1981), the Mad Max trilogy (1979–85) and Crocodile Dundee (1986).[561]

In 1973, Patrick White became the first Australian to win a Nobel Prize for Literature.[562] While there were only around twenty Australian novels published in 1973, this had grown to around 300 in 1988.[563] By 1985 more than 1,000 writers had received grants and more than 1,000 books had been subsidised by the Literature Board. Writers who published their first book between 1975 and 1985 include Peter Carey, David Malouf, Murray Bail, Elizabeth Jolley, Helen Garner and Tim Winton.[564]

There was also a growing recognition of Indigenous cultural movements. In the early 1970s Aboriginal elders at Papunya began using acrylic paints to make "dot" paintings based on the traditional Honey Ant Dreaming. Indigenous artists from other regions also developed distinctive styles based on a fusion of modern art materials and traditional stories and iconography.[564] Indigenous writers such as Oodgeroo Noonuccal (Kath Walker), Jack Davis and Kevin Gilbert produced significant work in the 1970s and 1980s. A National Black Theatre was established in Sydney in the early 1970s. The Aboriginal Islander Dance Theatre was established in 1976 and the Bangarra Dance Theatre in 1989. In 1991, the rock band Yothu Yindi, which drew on traditional Aboriginal music and dance, achieved commercial and critical success.[565]

In music, ABC television's popular music show Countdown (1974–87) helped promote Australian music while radio station 2JJ (later JJJ) in Sydney promoted live performances and recordings by Australian independent artists and record labels.[566]

Carter and Griffen-Foley state that by the end of the 1970s: "There was a widely shared sense of Australian culture as independent, no longer troubled by its relationship with Britain."[564] However, by 1990 commentators as diverse as P. P. McGuiness and Geoffrey Serle were complaining that the large increase in artistic works had led to the celebration of mediocrity. Poet Chris Wallace-Crabbe questioned whether Australia had overcome its former "cultural cringe" only to fall into cultural overconfidence.[567]

In the new millennium, the globalisation of the Australian economy and society, and developments in jet travel and the internet have largely overcome the "tyranny of distance" which had influenced Australian arts and culture. Overseas cultural works could be more readily accessed in person or virtually. Australian performers such as the Australian Ballet and Australian Chamber Orchestra frequently toured abroad. The growing number of international art exhibitions, such as Art Basel Hong Kong and the Queensland Art Gallery's Asia-Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art, have increased the exposure of Australian art in the region and the wider global market.[568][569]

In film, the number of Australian productions averaged 14 per year in the 1970s but grew to 31 per year in the 2000s and 37 per year in the 2010s.[570] A number of Australian directors and actors, including Baz Luhrmann, George Miller, Peter Weir, Cate Blanchett, Nicole Kidman, Geoffrey Rush and others, have been able to establish careers both in Australia and abroad. The technical expertise developed in the Australian industry, and the increasing number of internationally successful Australian directors and actors, encouraged foreign producers to make more films in Australia.[568] Major international productions made in Australia in the past decade include Mad Max: Fury Road and The Great Gatsby.

Carter and Griffen-Follet conclude: "Australia is no longer a Dominion or client state within a closed imperial market, but a medium-sized player, exporter as well as importer, within globalised cultural industries and markets."[571]

Historiography

The first Australian histories, such as those by William Wentworth and James Macarthur, were written to influence public opinion and British policy in the colony. After the Australian colonies became self-governing in the 1850s, colonial governments commissioned histories aimed at promoting migration and investment from Britain. The beginning of professional academic history in Australian universities from 1891 saw the dominance of an Imperial framework for interpreting Australian history, in which Australia emerged from the successful transfer of people, institutions, and culture from Britain. Typical of the imperial school of Australian history was the Australian volume of the Cambridge History of the British Empire published in 1933.[572][573]

Military history received government support after the First World War, most prominently with Charles Bean's 12 volume History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 (1921–42). Bean's earlier work as Australia's official war correspondent had helped establish the Anzac legend which, according to McKenna: "immediately supplanted all other narratives of nationhood – the march of the explorers, the advance of settlement, Eureka, Federation and Australia's record of progressive democratic legislation."[574]

Radical nationalist interpretations of Australian history became more prominent from the 1930s. Brian Fitzpatrick published a series of histories from 1939 to 1941 which sought to demonstrate the exploitative nature of Britain's economic relationship with Australia and the role of the labour movement in a struggle for social justice and economic independence. Russel Ward's The Australian Legend (1958) which sought to trace the origins of a distinctive democratic national ethos from the experiences of the convicts, bushrangers, gold-diggers, drovers and shearers. In the 1960s, Marxist historians such as Bob Gollan and Ian Turner explored the relationship of the labour movement to radical nationalist politics.[575]

Donald Horne's The Lucky Country (1964) is a critique of a "dull and provincial" Australia that gets by on its abundance of natural resources.[576] The book's title has been constantly misinterpreted since the book was published.[577]

In the first two volumes of his History of Australia (1962, 1968) Manning Clark developed an idiosyncratic interpretation of Australian history telling the story of "epic tragedy" in which "the explorers, Governors, improvers, and perturbators vainly endeavoured to impose their received schemes of redemption on an alien, intractable setting".[578] Donald Horne's The Lucky Country (1964) was scathing in its observations of a complacent, dull, anti-intellectual and provincial Australia, with a swollen suburbia and absence of innovation. Geoffrey Blainey's The Tyranny of Distance (1966) argued that Australia's distance from Britain had shaped its history and identity.[579][580]

Humphrey McQueen in A New Britannia (1970) attacked radical nationalist historical narratives from a Marxist New Left perspective. Anne Summers in Damned Whores and God's Police (1975) and Miriam Dixson in The Real Matilda (1976) analysed the role of women in Australian history. Others explored the history of those marginalised because of their sexuality or ethnicity.[581] Oral histories, such as Wendy Lowenstein's Weevils in the Flour (1978) became more prominent.[582]

From the 1970s, histories of the Aboriginal–settler relationship became prominent. Charles Rowley's The Destruction of Aboriginal Society (1970), Henry Reynolds' The Other Side of the Frontier (1981) and Peter Reid's work on the "stolen generations" of Aboriginal children are notable.[583][584]

Post-structuralist ideas on the relationship between language and meaning were influential in the 1980s and 1990s, for example, in Greg Dening's Mr Bligh's Bad Language (1992).[585] Memory studies and Pierre Nora's ideas on the relationship between memory and history influenced work in a number of fields including military history, ethnographic history, oral history and historical work in Australian museums.[586] Interdisciplinary histories drawing on the insights of fields such as sociology, anthropology, cultural studies and environmental studies have become more common since the 1980s.[587] Transnational approaches which analyse Australian history in a global and regional context have also flourished in recent decades.[588]

In the 21st century, most historical works are not created by academic historians, and public conceptions of Australia's history are more likely to be shaped by popular histories, historical fiction and drama, the media, the internet, museums and public institutions. Popular histories by amateur historians regularly outsell work by academic historians. Local histories and family histories have proliferated in recent decades.[589][590]

See also

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