La cultura rusa (en ruso: Культура России , romanizado : Kul'tura Rossii , AFI: [kʊlʲˈturə rɐˈsʲiɪ] ) ha sido formada por la historia de la nación, su ubicación geográfica y su vasta extensión, tradiciones religiosas y sociales, y la influencia tanto oriental [1] como occidental . [2] Los escritores y filósofos rusos han jugado un papel importante en el desarrollo del pensamiento europeo. [3] [4] Los rusos también han influido enormemente en la música clásica , [5] el ballet , [6] el deporte , [7] la pintura , [8] y el cine . [9] La nación también ha hecho contribuciones pioneras a la ciencia y la tecnología y la exploración espacial . [10] [11]
La historia de Rusia comienza con las historias de los eslavos orientales . [12] [13] La fecha de inicio tradicional de la historia específicamente rusa es el establecimiento del estado de la Rus en el norte en el año 862, gobernado por los varegos . [14] [15] En 882, el príncipe Oleg de Nóvgorod se apoderó de Kiev , uniendo las tierras del norte y el sur de los eslavos orientales bajo una sola autoridad, trasladando el centro de gobierno a Kiev a finales del siglo X y manteniendo las partes norte y sur con una autonomía significativa entre sí. El estado adoptó el cristianismo del Imperio bizantino en 988, comenzando la síntesis de las culturas bizantina y eslava que definieron la cultura rusa para el siguiente milenio. La Rus de Kiev finalmente se desintegró como estado debido a las invasiones mongolas en 1237-1240. Después del siglo XIII, Moscú emergió como una fuerza política y cultural significativa, impulsando la unificación de los territorios rusos . A finales del siglo XV, muchos de los pequeños principados alrededor de Moscú se habían unido al Gran Ducado de Moscú , que asumió el control total de su propia soberanía bajo Iván el Grande .
Iván el Terrible transformó el Gran Ducado en el Zarato de Rusia en 1547. Sin embargo, la muerte del hijo de Iván, Feodor I, sin descendencia en 1598 creó una crisis sucesoria y llevó a Rusia a un período de caos y guerra civil conocido como el Período Tumultuoso , que terminó con la coronación de Miguel Romanov como el primer zar de la dinastía Romanov en 1613. Durante el resto del siglo XVII, Rusia completó la exploración y conquista de Siberia , reclamando tierras hasta el Océano Pacífico a fines de siglo. En el ámbito interno, Rusia enfrentó numerosos levantamientos de los diversos grupos étnicos bajo su control, como lo ejemplificó el líder cosaco Stenka Razin , quien lideró una revuelta en 1670-1671. En 1721, a raíz de la Gran Guerra del Norte , el zar Pedro el Grande rebautizó el estado como Imperio Ruso ; También es conocido por establecer San Petersburgo como la nueva capital de su Imperio y por introducir la cultura de Europa occidental en Rusia. En 1762, Rusia quedó bajo el control de Catalina la Grande , quien continuó las políticas occidentalizadoras de Pedro el Grande y marcó el comienzo de la era de la Ilustración rusa . El nieto de Catalina, Alejandro I , rechazó una invasión del emperador francés Napoleón , lo que llevó a Rusia al estatus de una de las grandes potencias .
Las revueltas campesinas se intensificaron durante el siglo XIX, y culminaron con la abolición de la servidumbre rusa por parte de Alejandro II en 1861. En las décadas siguientes, los esfuerzos reformistas como las reformas de Stolypin de 1906-1914, la constitución de 1906 y la Duma Estatal (1906-1917) intentaron abrir y liberalizar la economía y el sistema político, pero los emperadores se negaron a renunciar al gobierno autocrático y se resistieron a compartir su poder. Una combinación de crisis económica, mala gestión por la participación de Rusia en la Primera Guerra Mundial y descontento con el sistema autocrático de gobierno desencadenó la Revolución rusa en 1917. El fin de la monarquía inicialmente llevó al poder a una coalición de liberales y socialistas moderados, pero sus políticas fallidas llevaron a la Revolución de Octubre . En 1922, la Rusia soviética , junto con la República Socialista Soviética de Ucrania , la República Socialista Soviética de Bielorrusia y la República Socialista Soviética de Transcaucasia firmaron el Tratado sobre la Creación de la URSS , fusionando oficialmente las cuatro repúblicas para formar la Unión Soviética como un solo estado. Entre 1922 y 1991, la historia de Rusia se convirtió esencialmente en la historia de la Unión Soviética . [ opinión ] Durante este período, la Unión Soviética fue uno de los vencedores en la Segunda Guerra Mundial después de recuperarse de una invasión sorpresa en 1941 por parte de la Alemania nazi y sus colaboradores , que previamente habían firmado un pacto de no agresión con la Unión Soviética. La red de estados satélites de la Unión Soviética en Europa del Este, que fueron incluidos en su esfera de influencia en las etapas finales de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, ayudó al país a convertirse en una superpotencia que competía con la superpotencia compañera Estados Unidos y otros países occidentales en la Guerra Fría .
A mediados de la década de 1980, cuando las debilidades de las estructuras económicas y políticas soviéticas se agudizaron, Mijaíl Gorbachov se embarcó en importantes reformas que finalmente llevaron al debilitamiento del partido comunista y la disolución de la Unión Soviética , dejando a Rusia nuevamente sola y marcando el comienzo de la historia de la Rusia postsoviética . La República Socialista Federativa Soviética de Rusia cambió su nombre a Federación Rusa y se convirtió en el principal estado sucesor de la Unión Soviética . [16] Rusia conservó su arsenal nuclear , pero perdió su estatus de superpotencia . Tras desechar la planificación central y la propiedad estatal de la era soviética en la década de 1990, nuevos líderes, encabezados por el presidente Vladimir Putin , tomaron el poder político y económico después de 2000 y se involucraron en una política exterior asertiva . Junto con el crecimiento económico, Rusia ha recuperado desde entonces un estatus global significativo como potencia mundial. La anexión de la península de Crimea en 2014 por parte de Rusia provocó sanciones económicas impuestas por los Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea . La invasión rusa de Ucrania en 2022 dio lugar a sanciones significativamente ampliadas . Bajo el liderazgo de Putin, la corrupción en Rusia está considerada como la peor de Europa, y la situación de los derechos humanos en Rusia ha sido cada vez más criticada por los observadores internacionales.Los 160 grupos étnicos de Rusia hablan alrededor de 100 idiomas. [17] Según el censo de 2002, 142,6 millones de personas hablan ruso , seguido del tártaro con 5,3 millones y el ucraniano con 1,8 millones de hablantes. [18] El ruso es el único idioma oficial del estado, pero la Constitución otorga a las repúblicas individuales el derecho a hacer que su lengua materna sea cooficial junto al ruso. [19] A pesar de su amplia dispersión, el idioma ruso es homogéneo en toda Rusia. El ruso es el idioma geográficamente más extendido de Eurasia y la lengua eslava más hablada . [20] El ruso pertenece a la familia de lenguas indoeuropeas y es uno de los miembros vivos de las lenguas eslavas orientales ; las otras son el bielorruso y el ucraniano (y posiblemente el rusino ). Los ejemplos escritos del antiguo eslavo oriental ( ruso antiguo ) están atestiguados desde el siglo X en adelante. [21]
Más de una cuarta parte de la literatura científica mundial se publica en ruso. El ruso también se utiliza como medio de codificación y almacenamiento del conocimiento universal: entre el 60 y el 70 % de toda la información mundial se publica en inglés y ruso. [22] El ruso es uno de los seis idiomas oficiales de las Naciones Unidas . [ cita requerida ]
El folclore ruso tiene sus raíces en las creencias paganas de los antiguos eslavos , que hoy en día todavía están representadas en el folclore ruso . Las bylinas épicas rusas también son una parte importante de la mitología eslava . Las bylinas más antiguas del ciclo de Kiev se registraron en el norte de Rusia , especialmente en Carelia , donde también se registró la mayor parte de la epopeya nacional finlandesa Kalevala . [ cita requerida ]
Muchos cuentos de hadas y bylinas rusos fueron adaptados para animaciones rusas o para largometrajes por directores famosos como Aleksandr Ptushko ( Ilya Muromets , Sadko ) y Aleksandr Rou ( Morožko , Vasilisa la Bella ). Algunos poetas rusos, incluidos Pyotr Yershov y Leonid Filatov , crearon una serie de interpretaciones poéticas bien conocidas de cuentos de hadas clásicos rusos y, en algunos casos, como el de Alexander Pushkin , también crearon poemas de cuentos de hadas completamente originales que se volvieron muy populares. [ cita requerida ]
Los folcloristas consideran hoy la década de 1920 como la edad de oro del folclore en la Unión Soviética . El nuevo gobierno, que tenía que centrar sus esfuerzos en establecer un nuevo sistema administrativo y en construir la atrasada economía de la nación, no se molestó en intentar controlar la literatura, por lo que los estudios del folclore prosperaron. Hubo dos tendencias principales en el estudio del folclore durante la década: la escuela formalista y la finlandesa . La formalista se centró en la forma artística de los antiguos byliny y los cuentos de hadas, específicamente en su uso de estructuras distintivas y recursos poéticos. [23] La escuela finlandesa se ocupaba de las conexiones entre leyendas relacionadas de varias regiones de Europa del Este. Los académicos finlandeses recopilaron cuentos comparables de múltiples lugares y analizaron sus similitudes y diferencias, con la esperanza de rastrear las rutas de migración de estas historias épicas. [24]
Una vez que Joseph Stalin llegó al poder y puso en marcha su primer plan quinquenal en 1928, el gobierno soviético comenzó a criticar y censurar los estudios de folclore. Stalin y el régimen soviético reprimieron el folclore, creyendo que apoyaba el antiguo sistema zarista y una economía capitalista. Lo vieron como un recordatorio de la sociedad rusa atrasada que los bolcheviques estaban trabajando para superar. [26] Para mantener los estudios de folclore bajo control y evitar que las ideas "inapropiadas" se extendieran entre las masas, el gobierno creó la RAPP, la Asociación Rusa de Escritores Proletarios . La RAPP se centró específicamente en censurar los cuentos de hadas y la literatura infantil, creyendo que las fantasías y las "tonterías burguesas" dañaban el desarrollo de los ciudadanos soviéticos honrados. Los cuentos de hadas fueron retirados de las estanterías y se animó a los niños a leer libros centrados en la naturaleza y la ciencia. [27] La RAPP finalmente aumentó sus niveles de censura y se convirtió en la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos en 1932. [ cita requerida ]
Para continuar investigando y analizando el folclore, los intelectuales necesitaban justificar su valor para el régimen comunista. De lo contrario, las colecciones de folclore, junto con toda la literatura considerada inútil para los propósitos del Plan Quinquenal de Stalin, serían un ámbito de estudio inaceptable. En 1934, Maksim Gorky pronunció un discurso ante la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos argumentando que el folclore podía, de hecho, usarse conscientemente para promover los valores comunistas. Además de exponer el valor artístico del folclore, destacó que las leyendas tradicionales y los cuentos de hadas mostraban personajes ideales, orientados a la comunidad, que ejemplificaban el ciudadano soviético modelo. [28] El folclore, con muchos de sus conflictos basados en las luchas de un estilo de vida orientado al trabajo, era relevante para el comunismo ya que no podría haber existido sin la contribución directa de las clases trabajadoras. [29] Además, Gorky explicó que los personajes del folclore expresaban altos niveles de optimismo y, por lo tanto, podían alentar a los lectores a mantener una mentalidad positiva, especialmente a medida que sus vidas cambiaban con el mayor desarrollo del comunismo. [24]
Yuri Sokolov , el jefe de la sección de folclore de la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos, también promovió el estudio del folclore al argumentar que el folclore había sido originalmente la tradición oral de los trabajadores y, en consecuencia, podía usarse para motivar e inspirar proyectos colectivos entre el proletariado actual. [30] Los personajes de los cuentos populares rusos tradicionales a menudo se encontraban en un viaje de autodescubrimiento, un proceso que los llevó a valorarse a sí mismos no como individuos, sino como una parte necesaria de un todo común. Las actitudes de estos personajes legendarios eran paralelas a la mentalidad que el gobierno soviético deseaba inculcar en sus ciudadanos. [31] También señaló la existencia de muchos cuentos que mostraban a miembros de la clase trabajadora burlando a sus crueles amos, trabajando nuevamente para demostrar el valor del folclore para la ideología soviética y la sociedad de la nación en general. [32] Convencidos por los argumentos de Gorki y Sokolov, el gobierno soviético y la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos comenzaron a recopilar y evaluar el folclore de todo el país. La Unión seleccionó y grabó historias específicas que, a su juicio, promovían suficientemente el espíritu colectivista y mostraban los beneficios y el progreso del régimen soviético. Luego procedió a redistribuir copias de las historias aprobadas entre la población. Mientras tanto, surgieron centros de folclore locales en todas las ciudades importantes. [33] Estas organizaciones, responsables de promover un sentido de nacionalismo soviético, se aseguraron de que los medios publicaran versiones apropiadas de los cuentos populares rusos de manera sistemática. [24]
Además de difundir cuentos de hadas y byliny aprobados por el gobierno que ya existían, durante el gobierno de Stalin los autores que repetían ideologías soviéticas apropiadas escribieron cuentos populares comunistas y los presentaron a la población. Estos cuentos populares contemporáneos combinaban las estructuras y motivos de los antiguos byliny con la vida contemporánea en la Unión Soviética. Llamados noviny, estos nuevos cuentos fueron considerados el renacimiento de la épica rusa. [34] Se pidió a los folcloristas que enseñaran a los cantantes populares modernos el estilo y la estructura convencionales de los byliny tradicionales. También explicaron a los intérpretes los tipos apropiados de ideología comunista que deberían estar representados en las nuevas historias y canciones. [35] Como los intérpretes de la época a menudo tenían una educación deficiente, necesitaban obtener una comprensión profunda de la ideología marxista antes de que se pudiera esperar que impartieran cuentos populares al público de una manera que se adaptara al gobierno soviético. Además de recibir una educación extensiva, muchos intérpretes populares viajaron por todo el país para comprender mejor la vida de la clase trabajadora y así comunicar sus historias de manera más efectiva. [36] Debido a su papel crucial en la difusión de los ideales comunistas en toda la Unión Soviética, algunos de estos artistas llegaron a ser miembros muy valorados de la sociedad soviética. Varios de ellos, a pesar de su analfabetismo, incluso fueron elegidos miembros de la Unión de Escritores Soviéticos. [37]
Estos nuevos cuentos de hadas y canciones populares soviéticas se centraban principalmente en los contrastes entre una vida miserable en la antigua Rusia zarista y una vida mejorada bajo el liderazgo de Stalin. [38] Sus personajes representaban identidades por las que los ciudadanos soviéticos debían luchar, ejemplificando los rasgos del " Nuevo Hombre Soviético ". [39] Los héroes de los cuentos soviéticos pretendían retratar una versión transformada y mejorada del ciudadano medio, dando al lector un objetivo claro para un yo ideal orientado a la comunidad en el que se suponía que debía convertirse. Estos nuevos cuentos populares reemplazaron la magia por la tecnología y las fuerzas sobrenaturales por Stalin. [40] En lugar de recibir consejos esenciales de un ser mítico, el protagonista recibiría consejos del omnisciente Stalin. Si el personaje seguía el consejo divino de Stalin, podría tener asegurado el éxito en todos sus esfuerzos y una transformación completa en el "Nuevo Hombre Soviético". [41] Los villanos de estos cuentos de hadas contemporáneos eran los Blancos y su líder Idolisce, "el ídolo más monstruoso", que era el equivalente del zar. Las descripciones de los blancos en los noviny reflejaban las de los tártaros en los byliny. [42] En estas nuevas historias, los blancos eran capitalistas incompetentes y estancados, mientras que los ciudadanos soviéticos se convertían en héroes invencibles. [43]
Tras la muerte de Stalin en marzo de 1953, los folcloristas de la época abandonaron rápidamente los nuevos cuentos populares. Escritos por autores e intérpretes individuales, los noviny no procedían de las tradiciones orales de la clase trabajadora. Por consiguiente, hoy en día se los considera pseudofolclore, en lugar de folclore soviético (o ruso) genuino. [44] Sin ninguna conexión verdadera con las masas, no había ninguna razón para que los noviny se consideraran otra cosa que literatura contemporánea. Los especialistas decidieron que los intentos de representar la vida contemporánea a través de la estructura y el arte de las epopeyas antiguas no podían considerarse folclore genuino. [45] El nombre de Stalin ha sido omitido de los pocos pseudocuentos populares supervivientes de la época. [44] En lugar de considerar el folclore bajo Stalin como un renacimiento de la epopeya rusa tradicional, hoy en día se lo considera generalmente como un período de moderación y falsedad. [ cita requerida ]
La literatura rusa se considera una de las más influyentes y desarrolladas del mundo. [46] Se remonta a la Edad Media , cuando se compusieron epopeyas y crónicas en antiguo eslavo oriental . [47] En la época de las Luces , la literatura había crecido en importancia, con obras de Mijaíl Lomonósov , Denís Fonvizin , Gavrila Derzhavin y Nikolai Karamzin . [48] Desde principios de la década de 1830, durante la Edad de Oro de la poesía rusa , la literatura experimentó una asombrosa edad de oro en poesía, prosa y teatro. [49] El Romanticismo permitió un florecimiento del talento poético: Vasili Zhukovski y más tarde su protegido Alexander Pushkin cobraron protagonismo. [50] Siguiendo los pasos de Pushkin, nació una nueva generación de poetas, entre ellos Mikhail Lermontov , Nikolay Nekrasov , Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy , Fyodor Tyutchev y Afanasy Fet . [48]
El primer gran novelista ruso fue Nikolái Gógol . [51] Después vino Iván Turguéniev , que dominaba tanto los cuentos como las novelas. [52] Fiódor Dostoyevski y León Tolstói pronto adquirieron renombre internacional. Iván Goncharov es recordado principalmente por su novela Oblómov . [53] Mijaíl Saltykov-Shchedrín escribió sátira en prosa, [54] mientras que Nikolái Leskov es más recordado por su ficción más corta. [55] En la segunda mitad del siglo, Antón Chéjov destacó en los cuentos y se convirtió en un dramaturgo destacado. [56] Otros desarrollos importantes del siglo XIX incluyeron al fabulista Iván Krílov , [57] escritores de no ficción como el crítico Vissarion Belinski , [58] y dramaturgos como Aleksandr Griboyédov y Aleksandr Ostrovsky . [59] [60] El comienzo del siglo XX se considera la Edad de Plata de la poesía rusa . Esta era tuvo poetas como Alexander Blok , Anna Akhmatova , Boris Pasternak , Konstantin Balmont , [61] Marina Tsvetaeva , Vladimir Mayakovski y Osip Mandelshtam . También produjo algunos novelistas y escritores de cuentos de primer nivel, como Aleksandr Kuprin , el ganador del Premio Nobel Ivan Bunin , Leonid Andreyev , Yevgeny Zamyatin , Dmitry Merezhkovsky y Andrei Bely . [48]
Después de la Revolución rusa de 1917, la literatura rusa se dividió en una parte soviética y otra de emigrados blancos . En la década de 1930, el realismo socialista se convirtió en la tendencia predominante en Rusia. Su figura principal fue Maxim Gorky , quien sentó las bases de este estilo. [62] Mikhail Bulgakov fue uno de los escritores más importantes de la era soviética. [63] La novela de Nikolai Ostrovsky Cómo se templó el acero ha sido una de las obras más exitosas de la literatura rusa. Entre los escritores emigrados influyentes se incluyen Vladimir Nabokov , [64] e Isaac Asimov , quien fue considerado uno de los "tres grandes" escritores de ciencia ficción . [65] Algunos escritores se atrevieron a oponerse a la ideología soviética, como el novelista ganador del Premio Nobel Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , quien escribió sobre la vida en los campos de concentración. [66]
Algunos escritores rusos, como Tolstoi y Dostoyevski , son conocidos también como filósofos, mientras que muchos otros autores son conocidos principalmente por sus obras filosóficas. La filosofía rusa floreció desde el siglo XIX, cuando se definió inicialmente por la oposición de los occidentalizadores , que abogaban por que Rusia siguiera los modelos políticos y económicos occidentales, y los eslavófilos , que insistían en desarrollar Rusia como una civilización única. Este último grupo incluye a Nikolai Danilevsky y Konstantin Leontiev , los primeros fundadores del eurasianismo . [ cita requerida ]
En sus desarrollos posteriores, la filosofía rusa siempre estuvo marcada por una profunda conexión con la literatura y el interés por la creatividad , la sociedad, la política y el nacionalismo; el cosmos y la religión fueron otros temas principales. Entre los filósofos notables de finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX se incluyen Vladimir Solovyov , Sergei Bulgakov , Pavel Florensky , Nikolai Berdyaev , Vladimir Lossky y Vladimir Vernadsky . En el siglo XX, la filosofía rusa estuvo dominada por el marxismo . [ cita requerida ]
Rusia debe gran parte de su ingenio a la gran flexibilidad y riqueza de su lengua, que permite juegos de palabras y asociaciones inesperadas. Como en cualquier otra nación, su amplio espectro abarca desde chistes lascivos y juegos de palabras tontos hasta la sátira política . [ cita requerida ]
Los chistes rusos , la forma más popular del humor ruso , son historias ficticias breves o diálogos con un final feliz . La cultura del chiste ruso se caracteriza por una serie de categorías con escenarios y personajes fijos y muy familiares. Se logran efectos sorprendentes mediante una variedad infinita de tramas. A los rusos les encantan los chistes sobre temas que se encuentran en todas partes del mundo, ya sea política, relaciones conyugales o suegras . [ cita requerida ]
La chastushka , un tipo de poesía musical tradicional rusa , es una cuarteta simple en tetrámetro trocaico con un esquema de rima ABAB o ABCB . Por lo general , las chastushkas son de naturaleza humorística , satírica o irónica, y a menudo también se ponen en música, generalmente con acompañamiento de balalaika o acordeón . La estructura rígida y corta (y en menor grado, el tipo de humor que utilizan) es paralela a los limericks . El nombre se origina de la palabra rusa части́ть , que significa "hablar rápido". [ cita requerida ]
En los siglos XII y XIII, Rusia contaba con maestros nacionales que estaban libres de toda influencia extranjera, es decir, la de los griegos por un lado, y la de los maestros lombardos llamados Andrei Georgievich para construir la catedral de Uspensky (Asunción) en la ciudad de Vladimir. Las relaciones de Rusia con el mundo griego se vieron obstaculizadas por la invasión mongola, y es al aislamiento que se produjo a raíz de ella al que debemos atribuir la originalidad de la ornamentación eslavo-rusa, que tiene un carácter propio, muy diferente del estilo bizantino y del románico . [ cita requerida ]
La historia de la arquitectura rusa comienza con los primeros edificios de madera de los antiguos eslavos y la arquitectura de las iglesias de la Rus de Kiev . [67] Tras la cristianización de la Rus de Kiev , durante varios siglos estuvo influenciada predominantemente por el Imperio bizantino . [68] Aristóteles Fioravanti y otros arquitectos italianos trajeron las tendencias renacentistas a Rusia. [69] El siglo XVI vio el desarrollo de las singulares iglesias en forma de tienda y el diseño de cúpula en cebolla , que es una característica distintiva de la arquitectura rusa. [70] En el siglo XVII, el "estilo ardiente" de ornamentación floreció en Moscú y Yaroslavl , allanando gradualmente el camino para el barroco de Naryshkin de la década de 1690. [ cita requerida ]
Después de las reformas de Pedro el Grande, la arquitectura rusa se vio influenciada por los estilos de Europa occidental. El gusto del siglo XVIII por la arquitectura rococó condujo a las espléndidas obras de Bartolomeo Rastrelli y sus seguidores. Los arquitectos rusos más influyentes del siglo XVIII; Vasili Bazhenov , Matvey Kazakov e Ivan Starov , crearon monumentos duraderos en Moscú y San Petersburgo y establecieron una base para las formas más rusas que siguieron. [71] Durante el reinado de Catalina la Grande, San Petersburgo se transformó en un museo al aire libre de arquitectura neoclásica . [72] Durante el gobierno de Alejandro I , el estilo Imperio se convirtió en el estilo arquitectónico de facto , [73] y Nicolás I abrió la puerta del eclecticismo a Rusia. La segunda mitad del siglo XIX estuvo dominada por el estilo neobizantino y el renacimiento ruso . A principios del siglo XX, el renacimiento neoclásico ruso se convirtió en una tendencia. [74] Los estilos predominantes de finales del siglo XX fueron el Art Nouveau , el Constructivismo , [75] y el Clasicismo Socialista . [76]
Algunos edificios rusos notables incluyen:
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La matrioska es una muñeca rusa que se puede separar para revelar otra figura del mismo tipo pero un poco más pequeña en su interior. A su vez, tiene otra figura un poco más pequeña en su interior, y así sucesivamente. El número de figuras anidadas suele ser de seis o más. La forma es principalmente cilíndrica, redondeada en la parte superior para la cabeza y afilada hacia la parte inferior, pero poco más. Las muñecas no tienen extremidades (excepto las que están pintadas). El verdadero arte está en la pintura de cada muñeca, que puede ser extremadamente elaborada. El tema suele ser el de las niñas campesinas con trajes tradicionales, pero puede ser casi cualquier cosa; por ejemplo, cuentos de hadas o líderes soviéticos. [ cita requerida ]
Otras formas de artesanía rusa incluyen khokhloma , juguete Dymkovo , gzhel , pintura Zhostovo , juguetes Filimonov , pisanka , chal de Pavlovo Posad , Rushnyk y palekh . [ cita necesaria ]
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Russian icons are typically paintings on wood, often small, though some in churches and monasteries may be as large as a table top. Many religious homes in Russia have icons hanging on the wall in the krasny ugol, the "red" or "beautiful" corner (see Icon Corner). There is a rich history and elaborate religious symbolism associated with icons. In Russian churches, the nave is typically separated from the sanctuary by an iconostasis (Russian ikonostás) a wall of icons. Icon paintings in Russia attempted to help people with their prayers without idolizing the figure in the painting. The most comprehensive collection of Icon art is found at the Tretyakov Gallery.[80]
The use and making of icons entered Kievan Rus' following its conversion to Orthodox Christianity from the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 988 AD. As a general rule, these icons strictly followed models and formulas hallowed by usage, some of which had originated in Constantinople. As time passed, the Russians—notably Andrei Rublev and Dionisius—widened the vocabulary of iconic types and styles far beyond anything found elsewhere. The personal, improvisatory and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Russia before the seventeenth century, when Simon Ushakov's painting became strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from Protestant as well as Catholic Europe.[citation needed]
In the mid-seventeenth century, changes in liturgy and practice instituted by Patriarch Nikon resulted in a split in the Russian Orthodox Church. The traditionalists, the persecuted "Old Ritualists" or "Old Believers", continued the traditional stylization of icons, while the State Church modified its practice. From that time icons began to be painted not only in the traditional stylized and nonrealistic mode, but also in a mixture of Russian stylization and Western European realism, and in a Western European manner very much like that of Catholic religious art of the time. The Stroganov movement and the icons from Nevyansk rank among the last important schools of Russian icon-painting.[citation needed]
A lubok (plural Lubki, Cyrillic: Russian: лубо́к, лубо́чная картинка) is a Russian popular print, characterized by simple graphics and narratives derived from literature, religious stories and popular tales. Lubki prints were used as decoration in houses and inns. Early examples from the late 17th and early 18th centuries were woodcuts, then engravings or etchings were typical, and from the mid-19th century lithography. They sometimes appeared in series, which might be regarded as predecessors of the modern comic strip. Cheap and simple books, similar to chapbooks,[81] which mostly consisted of pictures, are called lubok literature or (Cyrillic: Russian: лубочная литература). Both pictures and literature are commonly referred to simply as lubki. The Russian word lubok derives from lub – a special type of board that pictures were printed on.[citation needed]
The Russian Academy of Arts was created in 1757 with the aim of giving Russian artists an international role and status. Notable portrait painters from the academy include Ivan Argunov, Fyodor Rokotov, Dmitry Levitzky, and Vladimir Borovikovsky.[citation needed]
In the early 19th century, when neoclassicism and romanticism flourished, famous academic artists focused on mythological and Biblical themes, like Karl Briullov, Orest Kiprensky, Ivan Aivazovsky and Alexander Ivanov.[citation needed]
Realism came into dominance in the 19th century. The realists captured Russian identity in landscapes of wide rivers, forests, and birch clearings, as well as vigorous genre scenes and robust portraits of their contemporaries. Other artists focused on social criticism, showing the conditions of the poor and caricaturing authority; critical realism flourished under the reign of Alexander II, with some artists making the circle of human suffering their main theme. Others focused on depicting dramatic moments in Russian history. The Peredvizhniki (wanderers) group of artists broke with Russian Academy and initiated a school of art liberated from Academic restrictions. Leading realists include Ivan Shishkin, Arkhip Kuindzhi, Ivan Kramskoi, Vasily Polenov, Isaac Levitan, Vasily Surikov, Viktor Vasnetsov and Ilya Repin.[citation needed]
By the turn of the 20th century and on, many Russian artists developed their own unique styles, neither realist nor avant-garde. These include Boris Kustodiev, Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin, Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich. Many works by the Peredvizhniki group of artists have been highly sought after by collectors in recent years. Russian art auctions during Russian Art Week in London have increased in demand and works have been sold for record breaking prices.[citation needed]
The Russian avant-garde is an umbrella term used to define the large, influential wave of modernist art that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to 1930. The term covers many separate, but inextricably related, art movements that occurred at the time; namely neo-primitivism, suprematism, constructivism, rayonism, and futurism. Notable artists from this era include El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Wassily Kandinsky, Vladimir Tatlin, Alexander Rodchenko, Pavel Filonov and Marc Chagall. The Russian avant-garde reached its creative and popular height in the period between the Russian Revolution of 1917 and 1932, at which point the revolutionary ideas of the avant-garde clashed with the newly emerged conservative direction of socialist realism.[citation needed]
In the 20th century many Russian artists made their careers in Western Europe, forced to emigrate by the Revolution. Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, Naum Gabo and others spread their work, ideas, and the impact of Russian art globally.[citation needed]
During the Russian Revolution a movement was initiated to put all arts to service of the dictatorship of the proletariat. The instrument for this was created just days before the October Revolution, known as Proletkult, an abbreviation for "Proletarskie kulturno-prosvetitelnye organizatsii" (Proletarian Cultural and Enlightenment Organizations). A prominent theorist of this movement was Alexander Bogdanov. Initially, Narkompros (ministry of education), which was also in charge of the arts, supported Proletkult. Although Marxist in character, the Proletkult gained the disfavor of many party leaders, and by 1922 it had declined considerably. It was eventually disbanded by Stalin in 1932. De facto restrictions on what artists could paint were abandoned by the late 1980s.[citation needed]
However, in the late Soviet era many artists combined innovation with socialist realism including Ernst Neizvestny, Ilya Kabakov, Mikhail Shemyakin, Igor Novikov, Erik Bulatov, and Vera Mukhina. They employed techniques as varied as primitivism, hyperrealism, grotesque, and abstraction. Soviet artists produced works that were furiously patriotic and anti-fascist in the 1940s. After the Great Patriotic War Soviet sculptors made multiple monuments to the war dead, marked by a great restrained solemnity.[citation needed]
Russians have distinctive traditions of folk music. Typical ethnic Russian musical instruments are gusli, balalaika, zhaleika, balalaika contrabass, bayan accordion, Gypsy guitar and garmoshka. Folk music had great influence on the Russian classical composers, and in modern times it is a source of inspiration for a number of popular folk bands, most prominent being Golden Ring, Ural's Nation Choir, Lyudmila Zykina. Russian folk songs, as well as patriotic songs of the Soviet era, constitute the bulk of repertoire of the world-renowned Red Army choir and other popular Russian ensembles.[citation needed]
Russian folk dance (Russian: Русский Народный Танец) can generally be broken up into two main types of dances. Khorovod (Russian: Хоровод), a circular game type dance where the participants hold hands, sing, and the action generally happens in the middle of circle, and Plyaska (Russian: Пляска or Плясовый), a circular dance for men and women that increases in diversity and tempo, according to Bob Renfield, considered to be the preeminent scholar on the topic. Other forms of Russian Folk Dance include Pereplyas (Russian: Перепляс), an all-male competitive dance, Mass Dance (Russian: Массовый пляс), an unpaired stage dance without restrictions on age or number of participants, Group Dance (Russian: Групповая пляска) a type of mass dance employs simple round-dance passages, and improvisation, and types of Quadrilles (Russian: Кадриль), originally a French dance brought to Russia in the 18th century.[82]
Ethnic Russian dances include khorovod (Russian: Хоровод), barynya (Russian: Барыня), kamarinskaya (Russian: Камаринская), kazachok (Russian: Казачок) and chechotka (Russian: Чечётка) (a tap dance in bast shoes and with a bayan).[83] Troika (Russian: Тройка) A dance with one man and two women, named after the traditional Russian carriage which is led by three horses. Bear Dance or dancing with bears (Russian: Танец С Медведем) Dates back to 907 when Great Russian Prince Oleg, in celebration of his victory over the Greeks in Kiev, had as entertainment, 16 male dancers dress as bears and four bears dress as dancers.[84][85] Dances with dancers dressed as bears are a recurring theme, as seen a recording of the Omsk Russian Folk Chorus.[86] One of the main characteristics of Russian furious dances is the vprisiadku elements.[87][88]
Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.[89] In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful, and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein.[89] The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff, one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music.[90] World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich, Georgy Sviridov and Alfred Schnittke.[89]
Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakh and Gidon Kremer,[91][92] cellist Mstislav Rostropovich,[93] pianists Vladimir Horowitz,[94] Sviatoslav Richter,[95] and Emil Gilels,[96] and vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya.[97]
The original purpose of the ballet in Russia was to entertain the imperial court. The first ballet company was the Imperial School of Ballet in St. Petersburg in the 1740s. The Ballets Russes was a ballet company founded in the 1909 by Sergey Diaghilev, an enormously important figure in the Russian ballet scene. Diaghilev and his Ballets Russes' travels abroad profoundly influenced the development of dance worldwide.[98] The headquarters of his ballet company was located in Paris, France. A protégé of Diaghilev, George Balanchine, founded the New York City Ballet Company in 1948.[citation needed]
During the early 20th century, Russian ballet dancers Anna Pavlova and Vaslav Nijinsky rose to fame. Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,[99] and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced one internationally famous star after another, including Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev, and Mikhail Baryshnikov. The Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Mariinsky in Saint Petersburg remain famous throughout the world. Ballet from then on spread worldwide.[100]
The first known opera made in Russia was A Life for the Tsar by Mikhail Glinka in 1836. This was followed by several operas such as Ruslan and Lyudmila in 1842. Russian opera was originally a combination of Russian folk music and Italian opera. After the October Revolution many opera composers left Russia. Russia's most popular operas include Boris Godunov, Eugene Onegin, The Golden Cockerel, Prince Igor, and The Queen of Spades.[citation needed]
Russia is the place where many of the earliest experiments in electronic music and noise music took place. Arseny Avraamov's magnum opus, "Symphony of the factory sirens" (composed in 1918, performed live in 1922) stood as one of the earliest experiments in noise music and a precursor to musique concrete, Avraamov was also a notable inventor in the field of earliest electronic instruments. Theremin, one of the first mass-produced electronic musical instruments, was invented by Leon Theremin in the Soviet Union before 1928. ANS was another early electronic instrument, invented in 1937 by Soviet engineer Evgeny Murzin. Other electronic instruments, invented around the same time in the Soviet Union and also by Russian emigrees, included "la croix sonore" ("a sounding cross") by Nikolai Obukhov (1929), violena (Russian: виолена) by Soviet engineer Alexander Gurov and ilston (Russian: ильстон) by Ilya Ilsarov, sonar (Russian: сонар) by Nikita Ananiev, ekvodin (Russian: экводин) by Andrei Volodin, kompanola (Russian: компанола) by Igor Simonov, and many others.
During the 1940s, new electronic instruments were invented in the Soviet Union, including "V-9" (Russian: В-9) by Andrei Volodin, emiriton (Russian: эмиритон) by Andrey Rimsky-Korsakov and A.Ivanov. Emiriton was praised by Shostakovich, and an ensemble of four emiritons toured Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1940.
In 1956, Ensemble of Electromusical Instruments (Russian: Ансамбль Электромузыкальных Инструментов), or EMI (Russian: ЭМИ) was founded by Vyacheslav Mescherin. Among many synthesizers used by EMI were theremins, electronic harps, electronic organs, ekvodin and a Soviet-made reverb unit. EMI played music reminiscent of the Western space-age pop.
In 1965, production of the first consumer-grade synthesizer in the Soviet Union, called "Yunost-70" (Youth-70) (Russian: Юность-70), was launched.
In 1966, Moscow Experimental Electronic Music Studio (MESEM) (Russian: МЭСЭМ) was created by Evgeny Murzin, and it was officially opened in 1967. Several notable electronic and experimental composers emerged from the studio, including Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Stanislav Kreichi, Alexander Nemtin, Sándor Kallós, Vladimir Martynov, Alfred Schnittke and one of the pioneers of new age music, Eduard Artemiev. Artemiev was among the composers, whose work laid down the foundation of trance music almost two decades later.
During the late 1960s, electronic light music ensembles emerged in the Soviet Union, among them were Ensemble Rokoko, Ensemble Elektron and various jazz ensembles. Their music was frequently transmitted by radio abroad, an effort to increase foreign tourism to the USSR.
By the early 1970s, electronic and electroacoustic instruments became a staple in Soviet estrada and VIA music. Electronic music found acceptance in the Soviet cinema, for instance it was used by Andrei Tarkovsky in "Solaris", "Mirror", "Stalker", was used in Andrei Konchalovsky's "Siberiade", but also was used in more accessible movies, such as "Diamond hand".
Among official soundtracks for the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow opening and closing ceremonies was electronic "Oh Thou Sport, you are eternal progress" (Russian: О, спорт - ты вечный прогресс) from the electronic cantata "Ode to the good messenger" (Russian: Ода доброму вестнику) composed by Eduard Artemiev. The sound director for the opening ceremony, Yury Bogdanov, was another notable alumni of MESEM and author of more than 200 electronic soundtracks for Soviet movies, and numerous electronic and experimental albums.
After the fall of Soviet Union, several electronic music subgenres have emerged from Russia, namely hardbass, drift phonk, dark psytrance, hookah rap, operplugg, sovietwave.
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During the Soviet times, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,[101] and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.[102] Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.[101] The Ganelin Trio have been described by critics as the greatest ensemble of free-jazz in continental Europe.[103] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium,[104] DDT,[105] and Kino.[106] Pop music in Russia has continued to flourish since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.[107] In the recent times, Little Big, a rave band, has gained popularity in Russia and across Europe.[108] Other modern music can be found in the media, such as YouTube. For example, the song "Moscow, Moscow," is extremely popular among memes and other means of entertainment.
Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as The Battleship Potemkin.[110] Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.[111][112] Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography.[113] Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a huge impact on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[114] Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.[citation needed]
The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema. The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.[115][116] In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[117] In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.[118] In 2002, Russian Ark was the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take.[119] Today, the Russian cinema industry continues to expand.[120]
Russia also has a long and rich tradition of animation, which started already in the late Russian Empire times. Most of Russia's cartoon production for cinema and television was created during Soviet times, when Soyuzmultfilm studio was the largest animation producer. Soviet animators developed a great and unmatched variety of pioneering techniques and aesthetic styles, with prominent directors including Ivan Ivanov-Vano, Fyodor Khitruk and Aleksandr Tatarskiy. Soviet cartoons are still a source for many popular catch phrases, while such cartoon heroes as Russian-style Winnie-the-Pooh, cute little Cheburashka, Wolf and Hare from Nu, Pogodi! being iconic images in Russia and many surrounding countries. The traditions of Soviet animation were developed in the past decade by such directors as Aleksandr Petrov and studios like Melnitsa, along with Ivan Maximov.[citation needed]
Russia has almost 37 thousand media outlets, over 35 thousand newspapers,[121] and 12 thousand magazines.[122] The largest internationally operating news agencies in Russia are TASS, RIA Novosti, and Interfax.[123] Television is the most popular media in Russia, as 99% of the Russian population receives at least one television channel,[121] and roughly 60% of Russians watch television on a daily basis.[124] The most watched TV channels in Russia include the state-owned Russia-1, Channel One Russia, NTV, REN TV, and Russia Today.[122] Popular nationwide radio stations in Russia include Radio Rossii, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, Radio Yunost, and Russkoye Radio.[122]
Originating from Russian scientific community and telecommunication industries, a specific Russian culture of using the Internet has been established since the early 1990s. In the second half of the 1990s, the term Runet was coined to call the segment of Internet written or understood in the Russian language. Whereas the Internet "has no boundaries", "Russian Internet" (online communications in the Russian language) can not be localized solely to the users residing in the Russian Federation as it includes Russian-speaking people from all around the world. This segment includes millions of users in other ex-USSR countries, Israel and others abroad diasporas.[125]
With the introduction of the Web, many social and cultural events found reflections within the Russian Internet society. Various online communities formed, and the most popular one grew out of the Russian-speaking users of the California-based blogging platform LiveJournal (which was completely bought out in December 2007 by Russian firm SUP Fabrik).[126] In January 2008 a LiveJournal blog of the "3rd statesman" Sergey Mironov had appeared and he was shortly followed by the new President Dmitry Medvedev who opened a personal video blog which was later also expanded with a LiveJournal version.[citation needed]
As of late, there are scores of websites offering Russian language content including mass media, e-commerce, search engines and so on. Particularly notorious are the "Russian Hackers".[127] Russian web design studios, software and web-hosting enterprises offer a variety of services, and the results form a sort of national digital culture. E-commerce giants such as Google and Microsoft have their Russian branches. In September 2007, the national domain .ru passed the milestone of a million domain names.[128] By the end of the 2000s, VKontakte social network became the most populated in the Runet.[citation needed]
Russia's research and development budget is the world's ninth-highest, with an expenditure of approximately 422 billion rubles on domestic research and development.[129] In 2019, Russia was ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications.[130] Russia ranked 45th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021.[131] Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to twenty-six Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace.[132]
Mikhail Lomonosov proposed the conservation of mass in chemical reactions, discovered the atmosphere of Venus, and founded modern geology.[133] Since the times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and a prominent tutor Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematicians became among the world's most influential.[134] Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry.[135] Sofya Kovalevskaya was a pioneer among women in mathematics in the 19th century.[136] Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006, both of which he infamously declined.[137][138]
Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio,[139] while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser.[140] Zhores Alferov contributed significantly to the creation of modern heterostructure physics and electronics.[141] Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes.[142] Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology.[143] Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology.[144] Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning.[145] Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.[146]
Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centers of origin of cultivated plants.[147] Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an aviation pioneer.[148] Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems.[149] Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis.[150] George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.[151] Many foreign scientists lived and worked in Russia for a long period, such as Leonard Euler and Alfred Nobel.[152][153]
Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.[154]: 6–7, 333
In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6.[155] In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.[156]
In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard Sputnik 2.[157] In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial body, the Moon.[158] In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to arrive at and circumnavigate the Moon.[159] In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, Venus.[160] In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars.[161]: 34–60 During the same period, Lunokhod 1 became the first space exploration rover,[162] while Salyut 1 became the world's first space station.[163] Russia had 176 active satellites in space in 2021,[164] the world's third-highest.[165]
Not only the minorities in Russia but the Russian culture as a whole has in the different regions of the country like in Northwest Russia, Central Russia, Southern Russia, Siberian Russia, Volga Russia, Ural Russia, Far East Russia and the Russian North Caucasus and their Oblasts own local traditions and characteristics which were developed over a long period of time through strong ethno-cultural interactions within the various groups and communities, like Slavs, Tatars and Finno-Ugrics.[166]
Traditional Russian clothes include kaftan, a cloth which Old Russia had in common with similar robes in the Ottoman Empire, Scandinavia and Persia.[167] Kosovorotka, which was over a long time of period a traditional holidays blouse worn by men.[168] Ushanka for men, which design was influenced in 17th century when in central and northern Russia a hat with earflaps called treukh was worn. Sarafan which is connected to the Middle East region and were worn in Central- and Northern regions of Old Russia. In Southern Russia burka and papaha are connected to the Cossacks which, in turn, is culturally connected to the people of the Northern Caucaus. Kokoshnik for women was primarily worn in the northern regions of Russia in the 16th to 19th centuries. Lapti and similar shoes were mostly worn by poorer members in Old Russia and northern regions where Slavic, Baltic and Finno-Ugric people lived. Valenki are traditional Russian shoes from 18th century designs which originally originated in the Great steppe, from Asian nomads.[citation needed] Russian traditional cloths and its elements still have a high priority in today's Russia, especially in pagan Slavic communities, folk festivals, Cossack communities, in modern fashion and Russian music ensembles.[citation needed]
Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks.[169] Bread, of many varieties,[170] is very popular across Russia.[171] Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.[172][173] Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni,[174] and shashlyk are popular meat dishes.[175] Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat.[176] Salads include Olivier salad,[177] vinegret,[178] and dressed herring.[179]
Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[180] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka, which was created in the nation in the 14th century.[181] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[182] while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[183] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[184] Tea has also been a historically popular beverage in Russia.[185]
Russia has eight, diverse—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[186] The year starts with New Year's Day on January 1, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on January 7; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[187] Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on February 23;[188] International Women's Day, dedicated to women, on March 8;[189] and Spring and Labor Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers; on May 1.[190]
Victory Day, which honors Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square;[191] and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event.[192] Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on June 12, celebrated to commemorate Russia's declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union;[193] and Unity Day on November 4, commemorating the uprising which marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian occupation of Moscow.[194]
Popular non-public holidays include Old New Year on 14 January;[195] Tatiana Day on 25 January, dedicated to students;[196] Maslenitsa, an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday;[197] Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space;[198] Kupala Night on 6–7 July, a traditional Slavic holiday;[199] and Peter and Fevronia Day. Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[200] The Scarlet Sails is a famous public event held annually during the White Nights Festival in Saint Petersburg.[201]
Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism are Russia's traditional religions, deemed part of Russia's "historical heritage" in a law passed in 1997.[202]Estimates of believers widely fluctuate among sources, and some reports put the number of non-believers in Russia as high as 48-67% of the population.[203] Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant religion in Russia.[204] 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while there are a number of smaller Orthodox Churches.[205] However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture.[206] Smaller Christian denominations such as Roman Catholics, Armenian Gregorians, and various Protestants exist.
The ancestors of many of today's Russians adopted Orthodox Christianity in the 10th century.[206] The 2007 International Religious Freedom Report published by the US Department of State said that approximately 100 million citizens consider themselves Russian Orthodox Christians.[207] According to a poll by the Russian Public Opinion Research Center, 63% of respondents considered themselves Russian Orthodox, 6% of respondents considered themselves Muslim and less than 1% considered themselves either Buddhist, Catholic, Protestant or Jewish. Another 12% said they believe in God, but did not practice any religion, and 16% said they are non-believers.[208]
The steppe culture of the Russian Cossacks originated from nomadic steppe people which merged with Eastern Slavic people groups into large communities. The early Cossack communities emerged in the 14th century, the first, among others, were the Don Cossacks. Other Cossack communities that have played an important role in Russia's history and culture are the Ural Cossacks, Terek Cossacks, Kuban Cossacks, Orenburg Cossacks, Volga Cossacks, Astrakhan Cossacks, Siberian Cossacks, Transbaikal Cossacks, Amur Cossacks, Ussuri Cossacks. Cossacks defended the Russian borders and expanded Russia's territory. The regions of the large Cossack communities enjoyed many freedoms in Tsarist Russia. The culture of the Cossacks became an important part of Russian culture, many Russian songs and various elements in dances and Russia's culture in general were much shaped by the Cossack communities.[209]
The forest plays a very important role in Russia's culture and history. The forest had a great influence on the characteristics of Russian people and their cultural creations. Many myths of Russian culture are closely intertwined with the forest. Various of the early Slavic and other tribes built their houses out of wood so that the forest influenced the style of Russian architecture significantly.[210][211] The handcraft Hohloma which originated in the Volga region is made out of wood and depicts numerous plants of the forest, like the berry Viburnum opulus (Russian: Калина, Kalina), flowers and leaves. Many Russian fairy tales play in the forest and fictional characters like Baba Yaga are strongly connected to Russian wood culture. The forest is also an important subject of many Russian folk songs.[212]
Russian walking culture
Strolling or walking (Russian: гулять, gulyat') is very common in the Russian society. In contrast to many western countries strolling is very common among young people in Russia. Young people often arrange just to go for a walk.[213][214] Besides the verb, the experience itself, which describes the time span of the walk, is called progulka (Russian: прогулка).[215] Walking is so important in Russian culture that gulyat' is also a synonym for "to party".[216][217][self-published source?]
Mushroom hunting and berry picking
Activities in the forest where people pick mushrooms and berries are very common in Russia. Mushrooms (Russian: грибы, griby) have been an important part of Russian folk culture at least since the 10th century and an essential part of Russian meals. There are more than 200 kinds of edible mushrooms in Russia. Mushrooms were always considered magical and so they play a prominent role in Russian fairy tales. The ability to identify and prepare edible mushrooms is often passed on from generation to generation. The mushroom hunting tradition is especially common in Slavic-speaking and Baltic countries. The berry (Russian: ягода, yagoda) also plays an important role in Russian folk culture and is often part of Russian craftsmanship, folk songs and national costumes. The cranberry was known in Europe for centuries as the "Russian berry". To pick mushrooms and berries in forests is a kind of meditation in Russia.[218][219][220][221][222]
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Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games,[224] ranking second in an all-time Olympic Games medal count.[225] Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics; and Russian synchronized swimming is considered to be the world's best.[226] Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing.[227] Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players.[228] Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.[229] The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[230] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[231][232]
As the Soviet Union, Russia was traditionally very strong in basketball, winning Olympic tournaments, World Championships and Eurobasket. As of 2009 they have various players in the NBA, notably Utah Jazz forward Andrei Kirilenko, and are considered as a worldwide basketball force. In 2007, Russia defeated world champions Spain to win Eurobasket 2007. Russian basketball clubs such as PBC CSKA Moscow (numerous Euroleague Champions) have also had great success in European competitions such as the Euroleague and the ULEB Cup.[citation needed]
Although ice hockey was only introduced during the Soviet era, the national team soon dominated the sport internationally, winning gold at seven of the nine Olympics and 19 of the 30 World Championships they contested between 1954 and 1991. Russian players Valeri Kharlamov, Sergei Makarov, Viacheslav Fetisov and Vladislav Tretiak hold four of the six positions on the IIHF Team of the Century.[233] As with some other sports, the Russian ice hockey programme suffered after the breakup of the Soviet Union, with Russia enduring a 15-year gold medal drought. At that time many prominent Russian players made their careers in the National Hockey League (NHL). In recent years Russia has reemerged as a hockey power, winning back to back gold medals in the 2008 and 2009 World Championships, and overtaking Team Canada as the top ranked ice hockey team in the world, but then lost to Canada in the quarter-finals of the 2010 Olympics and 2010 World Junior Championship.[234] The Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) was founded in 2008 as a rival of the NHL.[citation needed]
Bandy, known in Russian as "hockey with a ball" and sometimes informally as "Russian hockey" (as opposed to "Canadian hockey", an informal name for ice hockey), is another traditionally popular ice sport, with national league games averaging around 3,500 spectators.[235] It's considered a national sport.[236] The Soviet Union national bandy team won all the Bandy World Championships from 1957 to 1979. The Russian team is the reigning world champion since the 2014 tournament, having defended the title in 2015.[citation needed]
Football is the most popular sport in Russia.[237] The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960,[238] and reached the finals of Euro 1988.[239] In 1956 and 1988, the Soviet Union won gold at the Olympic football tournament. Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.[240][241] The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008.[242] Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,[243] and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[244]
Russia has an extensive history of martial arts. Some of its best-known forms include the fistfight, Sambo, and Systema with its derivatives Ryabko's Systema and Retuinskih's System ROSS. Undefeated lightweight UFC champion Khabib Nurmagomedov is from Makhachkala and was called by President Vladimir Putin following his victory over Conor McGregor.[citation needed]
State symbols of Russia include the Byzantine double-headed eagle, combined with St. George of Moscow in the Russian coat of arms; these symbols date from the time of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Russian flag appeared in the late Tsardom of Russia period and became widely used during the era of the Russian Empire. The current Russian national anthem shares its music with the Soviet Anthem, though not the lyrics (many Russians of older generations don't know the new lyrics and sing the old ones). The Russian imperial motto God is with us and the Soviet motto Proletarians of all countries, unite! are now obsolete and no new motto has been officially introduced to replace them. The Hammer and sickle and the full Soviet coat of arms are still widely seen in Russian cities as a part of old architectural decorations. Soviet Red Stars are also encountered, often on military equipment and war memorials. The Soviet Red Banner is still honored, especially the Banner of Victory of 1945.[citation needed]
The Matryoshka doll is a recognizable symbol of Russia, while the towers of Moscow Kremlin and Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow are main Russia's architectural symbols. Cheburashka is a mascot of Russian national Olympic team. Mary, Saint Nicholas, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint Alexander Nevsky, Saint Sergius of Radonezh, Saint Seraphim of Sarov are Russia's patron saints. Chamomile is a flower that Russians often associate with their Motherland, while birch is a national tree. The Russian bear is an animal often associated with Russia, though this image has Western origins and Russians themselves do not consider it as a special symbol. The native Russian national personification is "Родина мать" Mother Motherland (the statue of it located on the Mamay hill "Мамаев курган" in Volgograd /former Stalingrad/), called Mother Russia at the West.[citation needed] In Russia another state symbol would be White or Silver Birch Trees or chamomile. Chamomile can be found in most places of Russia but is mostly found in the forests. Finding a chamomile can be a good sign in Russia and you could also make a headband out of it called a venok. Mostly young girls will sit outside with their friends in poorer regions and make them. You can make them out of any flower and keep them hanging in the house or wear it when outside.
Tourism in Russia has seen rapid growth since the late Soviet times, first inner tourism and then international tourism as well. Rich cultural heritage and great natural variety place Russia among the most popular tourist destinations in the world. The country contains 29 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, while many more are on UNESCO's tentative lists.[245] Major tourist routes in Russia include a travel around the Golden Ring of ancient cities, cruises on the big rivers like Volga, and long journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway. Diverse regions and ethnic cultures of Russia offer many different food and souvenirs, and show a great variety of traditions, like Russian banya, Tatar Sabantuy, or Siberian shamanist rituals.[citation needed]
Most popular tourist destinations in Russia are Moscow and Saint Petersburg, the current and the former capitals of the country and great cultural centers, recognized as World Cities. Moscow and Saint Petersburg feature such world-renowned museums as Tretyakov Gallery and Hermitage, famous theaters like Bolshoi and Mariinsky, ornate churches like Saint Basil's Cathedral, Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, Saint Isaac's Cathedral and Church of the Savior on Blood, impressive fortifications like Moscow Kremlin and Peter and Paul Fortress, beautiful squares like Red Square and Palace Square, and streets like Tverskaya and Nevsky Prospect. Rich palaces and parks of extreme beauty are found in the former imperial residences in suburbs of Moscow (Kolomenskoye, Tsaritsyno) and Saint Petersburg (Peterhof, Strelna, Oranienbaum, Gatchina, Pavlovsk Palace, Tsarskoye Selo). Moscow contains a great variety of impressive Soviet-era buildings along with modern skyscrapers, while Saint Petersburg, nicknamed Venice of the North, boasts of its classical architecture, many rivers, channels and bridges.[citation needed]
Kazan, the capital of Tatarstan, shows a unique mix of Christian Russian and Muslim Tatar cultures. The city has registered a brand The Third Capital of Russia, though a number of other major Russian cities compete for this status, like Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg and Nizhny Novgorod, all being major cultural centers with rich history and prominent architecture. Veliky Novgorod, Pskov and the cities of Golden Ring (Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kostroma and others) have at best preserved the architecture and the spirit of ancient and medieval Rus', and also are among the main tourist destinations. Many old fortifications (typically Kremlins), monasteries and churches are scattered throughout Russia, forming its unique cultural landscape both in big cities and in remote areas.[citation needed]
The warm subtropical Black Sea coast of Russia is the site for a number of popular sea resorts, like Sochi, known for its beaches and wonderful nature. At the same time Sochi can boast a number of major ski resorts, like Krasnaya Polyana; the city is the host of 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics. The mountains of the Northern Caucasus contain many other popular ski resorts, like Dombay in Karachay–Cherkessia.[citation needed]
The most famous natural tourist destination in Russia is Lake Baikal, named the Blue Eye of Siberia. This unique lake, oldest and deepest in the world, has crystal-clean waters and is surrounded by taiga-covered mountains.[citation needed]
Other popular natural destinations include Kamchatka with its volcanoes and geysers, Karelia with its many lakes and granite rocks, Altai with its snowy mountains and Tyva with its wild steppes.[citation needed]
...and in the twentieth century Russian coreographers and performers, dis-seminating the art of ballet throughout of the world, attainted world-wide recognition.
The inhabitants of Russia are quite diverse. Most are ethnic Russians, but there also are more than 120 other ethnic groups present, speaking many languages and following disparate religious and cultural traditions. ... Russia can boast a long tradition of excellence in every aspect of the arts and sciences.
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{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)...and Pushkin, adapting to the transition with ingenuity and uneven success, became Russia's first fully profes-sional writer.
...Chekhov, whatever his standing as a playwright, is quite probably the best short-story writer ever.
On June 16, 1963, aboard Vostok 6, Soviet Cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first woman to travel into space.
Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to achieve a lunar soft landing and to transmit photographic data from the Moon's surface to Earth...
...on September 18, 1968, the Soviet Union's Zond 5 spacecraft circled the moon, ferrying the first living creatures known to have orbited another world. On board were two Russian steppe tortoises along with some worms, flies and seeds.
The Lunokhod 1 rover was delivered to the lunar surface by the Luna 17 spacecraft and was first successful rover to operate beyond Earth.
On April 19, 1971, the Soviet Union placed into orbit Salyut, the world's first space station.
...and Russia is third with 147.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Life in Russia would have been impossible without bread, and the different types of bread are as varied as life itself.
Mayonnaise was introduced to imperialist Russia at the turn of the 20th century and it remained a stalwart throughout Soviet times. Mass-produced and durable, it was everywhere – from workers canteens to households that didn't have an abundance of fresh food. Today the average Russian consumes 2.5kg a year, using it as everything from a salad dressing to a bread spread.
But ask Russians what pierogi resemble, and they show no hesitation. It is, of course, nothing more than Russian pelmeni, they reply.
At the other end of Europe, the popularity in medieval France of pigeon and foie gras wrapped en paupiettes with cabbage leaves may well have migrated east — or at least its association with pigeon may have. That seems to be the origin of Polish goląbki, Ukrainian holubtsi, and Russian golubtsy, all versions of the word pigeon.
...if Russian salad is an orchestra of flavours and textures, then each player deserves to be heard.
Beloved by Russians, this dish is an essential ingredient for any feast, especially the New Year celebration.
Shuba, or dressed herring, fills many Russian hearts with nostalgia. Also known as "herring under a fur coat", it was a traditional New Year's Eve dish in the Soviet era - and is still a much loved snack.
The Russians drink some 17.3 shots of vodka per month on average, according to data from Euromonitor. That's easily the most in the world.
The topic of wine production and wine varieties is gaining popularity among the population. More and more, Russian wine consumers want to learn about the product being consumed, which is reflected in the growing influence of beverage retailers on the retail distribution of wine.
In Russia, where tea is a part of daily life in all seasons, "tea-drinking," or chayepitiye, refers to more than just simply consuming the brewed delicacy.
A legacy of the Soviet era, March 8 is widely celebrated and a public holiday in Russia.
Since the end of the Soviet era in Russia, May Day has become a rallying point for Russians who are nostalgic for the Communist era.
The annual parade, which commemorates the end of World War II in Europe, is usually held on May 9.
With each passing year, the so-called Immortal Regiment procession marking the Soviet victory over Nazi Germany becomes larger and more widespread.
It marks the anniversary of the First Congress of People's Deputies adopting the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) in 1990.
The holiday was established to mark Moscow's liberation from Polish invaders in 1612
The Old New Year isn't an official holiday. By this time, there have been enough days off for Russians - almost eleven days to celebrate the New Year and Orthodox Christmas. But, for some reason, January 13–14 is a feast yet again.
In Russia, Jan. 25 is Tatiana's Day—otherwise known as student's day—and Moscow has an array of events planned to mark the occasion.
The country is in the midst of celebrating Maslenitsa, an Eastern Slavic folk holiday that takes place the week before the start of Russian Orthodox Lent... Though now tied to the Christian calendar, Maslenitsa has roots in ancient Slavic sun worshippers — it originally marked the end of winter and advent of spring.
The day has been celebrated every year as Cosmonautics Day since the spaceflight took place in 1961.
In parts of Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, and Russia, an ancient pagan summer rite called Kupala combined with the traditional Orthodox feast of Saint John the Baptist, becoming Ivan Kupala Night, a festival celebrating the summer solstice.
The biggest Russian Orthodox celebration of the year is Easter (Paskha) – a time for friends, family, food and, of course, vodka.
More than 1.4 million people gathered along the Neva River in St. Petersburg on June 23 to watch the famous Scarlet Sails celebration held in honour of the city's high school graduates
{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link){{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)