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Historia de la arquitectura

El sueño del arquitecto , de Thomas Cole , 1840, óleo sobre lienzo

La historia de la arquitectura rastrea los cambios en la arquitectura a través de diversas tradiciones, regiones, tendencias estilísticas generales y fechas. Se cree que los orígenes de todas estas tradiciones fueron los seres humanos que satisfacían la necesidad básica de refugio y protección. [1] El término "arquitectura" generalmente se refiere a los edificios, pero en su esencia es mucho más amplio e incluye campos que ahora consideramos formas especializadas de práctica, como el urbanismo , la ingeniería civil , la arquitectura naval , la militar [2] y la arquitectura paisajística .

Las tendencias en arquitectura se vieron influenciadas, entre otros factores, por las innovaciones tecnológicas, particularmente en los siglos XIX, XX y XXI. La mejora y/o utilización del acero , el hierro fundido , los azulejos, el hormigón armado y el vidrio ayudaron, por ejemplo, a la aparición del Art Nouveau y a hacer más grandiosas las Bellas Artes . [3]

Paleolítico

Los humanos y sus ancestros han estado creando varios tipos de refugios durante al menos cientos de miles de años, y la construcción de refugios puede haber estado presente en las primeras etapas de la evolución de los homínidos. Todos los grandes simios construyen "nidos" para dormir , aunque con diferentes frecuencias y grados de complejidad. Los chimpancés construyen nidos regularmente con haces de ramas entrelazadas; [4] estos varían según el clima (los nidos tienen una cama más gruesa cuando hace frío y se construyen con soportes más grandes y resistentes cuando hace viento o llueve). [5] Los orangutanes construyen actualmente los nidos más complejos de todos los grandes simios no humanos, completos con techos, mantas, almohadas y "literas". [6]

Se ha argumentado que las prácticas de construcción de nidos fueron cruciales para la evolución de la creatividad humana y la habilidad de construcción más que el uso de herramientas, ya que los homínidos comenzaron a necesitar construir nidos no solo en circunstancias únicas adaptadas, sino como formas de señalización . [7] La ​​retención de características arbóreas como manos altamente prensiles para la construcción experta de nidos y refugios también habría beneficiado a los primeros homínidos en entornos impredecibles y climas cambiantes. [5] Muchos homínidos, especialmente los más antiguos, como Ardipithecus [8] y Australopithecus [9], conservaron dichas características y pueden haber elegido construir nidos en árboles cuando estaban disponibles. El desarrollo de una "base de operaciones" hace 2 millones de años también puede haber fomentado la evolución de la construcción de refugios o escondites protegidos. [10] Independientemente de la complejidad de la construcción de nidos, los primeros homínidos todavía pueden haber dormido en condiciones más o menos "abiertas", a menos que se les brindara la oportunidad de un refugio rocoso . [7] Estos refugios rocosos podrían ser utilizados tal como están con poco más de modificaciones que nidos y hogares, o en el caso de bases establecidas —especialmente entre los homínidos posteriores— podrían ser personalizados con arte rupestre (en el caso de Lascaux ) u otros tipos de estructuras estéticas (en el caso de la cueva de Bruniquel entre los neandertales) [11] En los casos de dormir en terreno abierto, el etólogo holandés Adriaan Kortlandt propuso una vez que los homínidos podrían haber construido recintos temporales de arbustos espinosos para disuadir a los depredadores, lo que apoyó utilizando pruebas que mostraban que los leones se volvían reacios a la comida si estaban cerca de ramas espinosas. [12]

En 2000, los arqueólogos de la Universidad Meiji en Tokio afirmaron haber encontrado 2 alineaciones pentagonales de agujeros de postes en una ladera cerca del pueblo de Chichibu , interpretándolo como dos chozas que datan de alrededor de 500.000 años de antigüedad y construidas por el Homo erectus . [13] Actualmente, las primeras estructuras construidas específicamente confirmadas se encuentran en Francia en el sitio de Terra Amata , junto con la evidencia más temprana de fuego artificial, hace c. 400.000 años. [14] Debido a la naturaleza perecedera de los refugios de esta época, es difícil encontrar evidencia de viviendas más allá de los hogares y las piedras que pueden formar los cimientos de una vivienda. Cerca de Wadi Halfa , Sudán , el sitio Arkin 8 contiene círculos de arenisca de 100.000 años de antigüedad que probablemente fueron las piedras de anclaje para las tiendas. [15] En el este de Jordania , las marcas de agujeros de postes en el suelo dan evidencia de casas hechas de postes y paja hace unos 20.000 años. [16] En áreas donde el hueso, especialmente el hueso de mamut , es un material viable, la evidencia de estructuras se conserva mucho más fácilmente, como las viviendas de hueso de mamut entre la cultura Mal'ta-Buret' hace 24-15.000 años y en Mezhirich hace 15.000 años. El Paleolítico superior en general se caracteriza por la expansión y el crecimiento cultural de los humanos anatómicamente modernos (así como el crecimiento cultural de los neandertales , a pesar de su extinción constante en este momento), y aunque actualmente carecemos de datos de viviendas construidas antes de esta época, las viviendas de esta era comienzan a mostrar más comúnmente signos de modificación estética, como en Mezhirich, donde los colmillos de mamut grabados pueden haber formado la "fachada" de una vivienda. [17]

10.000–2000 a. C.

Reconstrucción de una casa mesolítica en Irlanda, Parque Nacional del Patrimonio Irlandés

Los avances arquitectónicos son una parte importante del período Neolítico (10.000-2000 a. C.), durante el cual se produjeron algunas de las principales innovaciones de la historia de la humanidad. La domesticación de plantas y animales, por ejemplo, dio lugar a una nueva economía y a una nueva relación entre las personas y el mundo, a un aumento del tamaño y la permanencia de las comunidades, a un desarrollo masivo de la cultura material y a nuevas soluciones sociales y rituales que permitieron a las personas vivir juntas en estas comunidades. Los nuevos estilos de estructuras individuales y su combinación en asentamientos proporcionaron los edificios necesarios para el nuevo estilo de vida y la nueva economía, y también fueron un elemento esencial del cambio. [21]

Aunque se han descubierto numerosas viviendas pertenecientes a todos los periodos prehistóricos y también algunos modelos de viviendas en arcilla que han permitido realizar reconstrucciones fieles, rara vez incluían elementos que pudieran relacionarlas con el arte. Algunas excepciones las constituyen las decoraciones murales y los hallazgos que se aplican igualmente a ritos y arte neolítico y calcolítico .

En el sur y suroeste de Asia, las culturas neolíticas aparecen poco después de 10.000 a. C., inicialmente en el Levante ( Neolítico precerámico A y Neolítico precerámico B ) y desde allí se extendieron hacia el este y el oeste. Hay culturas neolíticas tempranas en el sudeste de Anatolia, Siria e Irak hacia el 8000 a. C., y las sociedades productoras de alimentos aparecen por primera vez en el sudeste de Europa hacia el 7000 a. C., y en Europa central hacia el 5500 a. C. (de los cuales los complejos culturales más antiguos incluyen Starčevo-Koros (Cris) , Linearbandkeramic y Vinča ). [22] [23] [24] [25]

Los asentamientos y "ciudades" neolíticos incluyen:

Antigüedad

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia es conocida por la construcción de edificios de adobe y de zigurats , que ocupan un lugar destacado en cada ciudad y consisten en un montículo artificial, que a menudo se eleva en enormes escalones, coronado por un templo. El montículo, sin duda, tenía como finalidad elevar el templo a una posición dominante en lo que, de otro modo, era un valle fluvial llano. La gran ciudad de Uruk tenía varios recintos religiosos, que contenían muchos templos más grandes y ambiciosos que cualquier edificio conocido anteriormente. [32]

La palabra zigurat es una forma anglicanizada de la palabra acadia ziqqurratum , el nombre dado a las sólidas torres escalonadas de adobe. Deriva del verbo zaqaru , ("ser alto"). Los edificios se describen como montañas que unen la Tierra y el cielo. El zigurat de Ur , excavado por Leonard Woolley , tiene 64 por 46 metros en la base y originalmente unos 12 metros de altura con tres pisos. Fue construido bajo Ur-Nammu (circa 2100 a. C.) y reconstruido bajo Nabonido (555-539 a. C.), cuando se aumentó en altura a probablemente siete pisos. [33]

Antiguo egipcio

Las imágenes modernas del antiguo Egipto están muy influenciadas por los restos supervivientes de la arquitectura monumental. Muchos estilos y motivos formales se establecieron en los albores del estado faraónico , alrededor del 3100 a. C. Los edificios más emblemáticos del Antiguo Egipto son las pirámides , construidas durante el Imperio Antiguo y Medio ( c. 2600-1800 a. C.) como tumbas para el faraón . Sin embargo, también hay templos impresionantes, como el complejo de templos de Karnak .

Los antiguos egipcios creían en la otra vida . También creían que para que su alma (conocida como ka ) viviera eternamente en su más allá, sus cuerpos tendrían que permanecer intactos por toda la eternidad. Entonces, tuvieron que crear una forma de proteger a los difuntos de daños y ladrones de tumbas. De esta manera, nació la mastaba . Se trataba de estructuras de adobe con techos planos, que tenían habitaciones subterráneas para el ataúd, a unos 30 m de profundidad. Imhotep , un antiguo sacerdote y arquitecto egipcio, tuvo que diseñar una tumba para el faraón Djoser . Para ello, colocó cinco mastabas, una encima de la otra, creando así la primera pirámide egipcia, la Pirámide de Djoser en Saqqara ( c. 2667–2648 a. C.), que es una pirámide escalonada . La primera de lados lisos fue construida por el faraón Seneferu , que gobernó entre c. 2613 y 2589 a. C. La más imponente es la Gran Pirámide de Giza , construida para el hijo de Seneferu: Keops ( c. 2589–2566 a. C.), siendo la última maravilla sobreviviente del mundo antiguo y la pirámide más grande de Egipto. Los bloques de piedra utilizados para las pirámides se mantenían unidos por mortero , y toda la estructura estaba cubierta de piedra caliza blanca muy pulida, con sus cimas rematadas en oro. Lo que vemos hoy es en realidad la estructura central de la pirámide. En el interior, estrechos pasajes conducían a las cámaras funerarias reales. A pesar de estar muy asociadas con el Antiguo Egipto, otras civilizaciones también han construido pirámides, como los mayas .

Debido a la falta de recursos y a un cambio de poder hacia el sacerdocio, los antiguos egipcios se alejaron de las pirámides y los templos se convirtieron en el punto focal de la construcción de cultos. Al igual que las pirámides, los templos del Antiguo Egipto también eran espectaculares y monumentales. Evolucionaron de pequeños santuarios hechos de materiales perecederos a grandes complejos, y hacia el Imperio Nuevo (circa 1550-1070 a. C.) se han convertido en enormes estructuras de piedra que consisten en salas y patios. El templo representaba una especie de "cosmos" en piedra, una copia del montículo original de la creación en el que el dios podía rejuvenecerse a sí mismo y al mundo. La entrada consistía en una puerta doble ( pilono ), que simbolizaba las colinas del horizonte. En el interior había salas con columnas que simbolizaban un matorral de papiro primigenio. Le seguían una serie de pasillos de tamaño decreciente, hasta llegar al santuario, donde se colocaba la estatua de culto de un dios. En la antigüedad, los templos se pintaban con colores vivos, principalmente rojo, azul, amarillo, verde, naranja y blanco. Debido al clima desértico de Egipto, algunas partes de estas superficies pintadas se conservaban bien, especialmente en los interiores.

Un elemento arquitectónico específico de la arquitectura del Antiguo Egipto es la cornisa cavetto (una moldura cóncava ), introducida a finales del Imperio Antiguo. Se utilizaba ampliamente para acentuar la parte superior de casi todos los edificios faraónicos formales. Debido a la frecuencia con la que se utilizaba, más tarde decoraría muchos edificios y objetos del Renacimiento egipcio . [41] [38]

Harappa

La primera civilización urbana en el subcontinente indio se remonta originalmente a la civilización del valle del Indo, principalmente en Mohenjodaro y Harappa , ahora en el actual Pakistán, así como en los estados occidentales de la República de la India. Los primeros asentamientos se ven durante el período Neolítico en Merhgarh , Baluchistán . Las ciudades de la civilización se destacaron por su planificación urbana con edificios de ladrillo cocido, elaborados sistemas de drenaje y agua, y artesanía ( productos de cornalina , tallado de sellos). Esta civilización pasó del período Neolítico al período Calcolítico y más allá con su experiencia en metalurgia (cobre, bronce, plomo y estaño). [44] Sus centros urbanos posiblemente crecieron hasta contener entre 30.000 y 60.000 individuos, [45] y la civilización en sí puede haber contenido entre uno y cinco millones de individuos. [46]

Griego

Desde la llegada de la Edad Clásica en Atenas , en el siglo V a. C., la forma clásica de construir ha estado profundamente entretejida en la comprensión occidental de la arquitectura y, de hecho, de la civilización misma. [53] Desde alrededor del 850 a. C. hasta alrededor del 300 d. C., la cultura griega antigua floreció en el continente griego , en el Peloponeso y en las islas del Egeo . Sin embargo, la arquitectura griega antigua es más conocida por sus templos , muchos de los cuales se encuentran en toda la región, y el Partenón es un excelente ejemplo de esto. Más tarde, servirán de inspiración para los arquitectos neoclásicos durante finales del siglo XVIII y el siglo XIX. Los templos más conocidos son el Partenón y el Erecteión , ambos en la Acrópolis de Atenas . Otro tipo de edificios griegos antiguos importantes fueron los teatros. Tanto los templos como los teatros usaban una compleja mezcla de ilusiones ópticas y proporciones equilibradas.

Los templos griegos antiguos suelen constar de una base con escaleras continuas de unos pocos escalones en cada borde (conocidas como crepidoma ), una cella (o naos ) con una estatua de culto en ella, columnas , un entablamento y dos frontones , uno en el lado frontal y otro en la parte posterior. En el siglo IV a. C., los arquitectos y canteros griegos habían desarrollado un sistema de reglas para todos los edificios conocidos como los órdenes : el dórico , el jónico y el corintio. Se reconocen más fácilmente por sus columnas (especialmente por los capiteles ). La columna dórica es robusta y básica, la jónica es más delgada y tiene cuatro volutas (llamadas volutas ) en las esquinas del capitel, y la columna corintia es como la jónica, pero el capitel es completamente diferente, estando decorado con hojas de acanto y cuatro volutas. [47] Además de las columnas, el friso era diferente según el orden. Mientras que el dórico presenta metopas y triglifos con gutaperchas , los frisos jónicos y corintios constan de una gran banda continua con relieves .

Además de las columnas, los templos estaban profusamente decorados con esculturas, en los frontones, en los frisos , metopas y triglifos . Los ornamentos utilizados por los arquitectos y artistas de la Antigua Grecia incluyen palmetas, volutas vegetales u onduladas, mascarones de león (sobre todo en las cornisas laterales), dentículos, hojas de acanto, bucranias, festones, ovas y dardos, rais - de - coeur , cuentas , meandros y acroterias en las esquinas de los frontones . Muy a menudo , los ornamentos de la Antigua Grecia se utilizan de forma continua, como bandas. Más tarde se utilizarán en los estilos etrusco , romano y postmedieval que intentaron revivir el arte y la arquitectura grecorromana, como el renacimiento , el barroco , el neoclásico , etc.

Al observar los restos arqueológicos de edificios antiguos y medievales, es fácil percibirlos como piedra caliza y hormigón en un tono gris topo y suponer que los edificios antiguos eran monocromáticos. Sin embargo, la arquitectura estaba policromada en gran parte del mundo antiguo y medieval. Uno de los edificios antiguos más emblemáticos, el Partenón ( c. 447–432 a. C.) en Atenas , tenía detalles pintados con rojos, azules y verdes vibrantes. Además de los templos antiguos, las catedrales medievales nunca fueron completamente blancas. La mayoría tenían reflejos de colores en capiteles y columnas . [54] Esta práctica de colorear edificios y obras de arte se abandonó durante el Renacimiento temprano. Esto se debe a que Leonardo da Vinci y otros artistas renacentistas, incluido Miguel Ángel , promovieron una paleta de colores inspirada en las antiguas ruinas grecorromanas, que debido al abandono y la decadencia constante durante la Edad Media, se volvieron blancas a pesar de ser inicialmente coloridas. Los pigmentos utilizados en el mundo antiguo eran delicados y especialmente susceptibles a la intemperie. Sin el cuidado necesario, los colores expuestos a la lluvia, la nieve, la suciedad y otros factores, se desvanecieron con el tiempo, y de esta manera los edificios y obras de arte antiguas se volvieron blancos, como lo son hoy y durante el Renacimiento. [55]

romano

La arquitectura de la antigua Roma ha sido una de las más influyentes del mundo. Su legado es evidente a lo largo de los períodos medieval y moderno temprano, y los edificios romanos continúan reutilizándose en la era moderna, tanto en la arquitectura neoclásica como en la posmoderna . Recibió una influencia particular de los estilos griego y etrusco . Durante los años republicanos (509-27 a. C.) se desarrolló una variedad de tipos de templos modificados a partir de prototipos griegos y etruscos.

Allí donde el ejército romano conquistaba, establecía pueblos y ciudades, extendiendo su imperio y avanzando en sus logros arquitectónicos y de ingeniería. Si bien las obras más importantes se encuentran en Italia, los constructores romanos también encontraron salidas creativas en las provincias occidentales y orientales, de las cuales los mejores ejemplos conservados se encuentran en la actual África del Norte , Turquía , Siria y Jordania . Aparecieron proyectos extravagantes, como el Arco de Septimio Severo en Leptis Magna (actual Libia , construido en 216 d. C.), con frontones rotos en todos los lados, o el Arco de Caracalla en Tebeste (actual Argelia , construido en c. 214 d. C.), con columnas pareadas en todos los lados, entablamentos salientes y medallones con bustos divinos. Debido a que el imperio se formó a partir de múltiples naciones y culturas, algunos edificios fueron producto de la combinación del estilo romano con la tradición local. Un ejemplo es el Arco de Palmira (actual Siria , construido entre 212 y 220 aproximadamente ), algunos de cuyos arcos están adornados con un diseño de bandas repetidas que consiste en cuatro óvalos dentro de un círculo alrededor de una roseta , que son de origen oriental.

Entre los muchos logros arquitectónicos romanos se encuentran las cúpulas (que se crearon para templos), termas, villas, palacios y tumbas. El ejemplo más conocido es el del Panteón de Roma, siendo la cúpula romana más grande que se conserva y con un gran óculo en su centro. Otra innovación importante es el arco de piedra redondeado, utilizado en arcadas, acueductos y otras estructuras. Además de los órdenes griegos (dórico, jónico y corintio), los romanos inventaron dos más. El orden toscano estaba influenciado por el dórico , pero con columnas sin estrías y un entablamento más simple sin triglifos ni guttae , mientras que el compuesto era un orden mixto , que combinaba las volutas del capitel de orden jónico con las hojas de acanto del orden corintio.

Entre el 30 y el 15 a. C., el arquitecto e ingeniero Marco Vitruvio Pollio publicó un importante tratado, De architectura , que influyó en arquitectos de todo el mundo durante siglos. Como único tratado de arquitectura que sobrevivió de la antigüedad, ha sido considerado desde el Renacimiento como el primer libro sobre teoría arquitectónica, así como una fuente importante sobre el canon de la arquitectura clásica. [60]

Al igual que los griegos, los romanos también construyeron anfiteatros . El anfiteatro más grande jamás construido, el Coliseo de Roma, podía albergar a unos 50.000 espectadores. Otra estructura romana emblemática que demuestra su precisión y avance tecnológico es el Pont du Gard , en el sur de Francia, el acueducto romano más alto que aún se conserva. [61] [57]

América (precolombina)

Más de 3000 años antes de que los europeos "descubrieran" América, ya se habían establecido sociedades complejas en América del Norte, Central y del Sur. Las más complejas se encontraban en Mesoamérica , en particular los mayas , los olmecas y los aztecas , pero también los incas en América del Sur . Las estructuras y los edificios a menudo estaban alineados con características astronómicas o con los puntos cardinales.

Mesoamérica

Gran parte de la arquitectura mesoamericana se desarrolló a través del intercambio cultural; por ejemplo, los aztecas aprendieron mucho de la arquitectura maya anterior. Muchas culturas construyeron ciudades enteras, con templos monolíticos y pirámides talladas decorativamente con animales, dioses y reyes. La mayoría de estas ciudades tenían una plaza central con edificios gubernamentales y templos, además de canchas de pelota públicas, o tlachtli , sobre plataformas elevadas. Al igual que en el antiguo Egipto, aquí también se construyeron pirámides, generalmente escalonadas . Probablemente no se usaban como cámaras funerarias, pero tenían importantes sitios religiosos en la parte superior. [64] Tenían pocas habitaciones, ya que los interiores importaban menos que la presencia ritual de estas imponentes estructuras y las ceremonias públicas que albergaban; por lo tanto, las plataformas, los altares, las escaleras procesionales, las estatuas y las tallas eran importantes. [67]

Andes

La arquitectura inca se originó a partir de los estilos Tiwanaku , fundados en el siglo II a. C. Los incas utilizaron la topografía y los materiales de la tierra en sus diseños, y la ciudad capital de Cuzco aún contiene muchos ejemplos. La famosa finca real de Machu Picchu es un ejemplo sobreviviente, junto con Sacsayhuamán y Ollantaytambo . Los incas también desarrollaron un sistema de carreteras a lo largo del continente occidental, colocando su arquitectura distintiva a lo largo del camino, afirmando visualmente su dominio imperial a lo largo de la frontera. Otros grupos, como los muiscas, no construyeron una gran arquitectura con materiales basados ​​en piedra, sino más bien con materiales como madera y arcilla.

Asia del Sur

Después de la caída del valle del Indo , la arquitectura del sur de Asia entró en el período dhármico, que vio el desarrollo de los antiguos estilos arquitectónicos indios que luego evolucionaron en varias formas únicas en la Edad Media, junto con la combinación de estilos islámicos y, más tarde, otras tradiciones globales.

Budista antiguo

La arquitectura budista se desarrolló en el subcontinente indio durante los siglos IV y II a. C., y se extendió primero a China y luego a toda Asia. Tres tipos de estructuras están asociadas con la arquitectura religiosa del budismo temprano : monasterios ( viharas ), lugares para venerar reliquias ( stupas ) y santuarios o salas de oración ( chaityas , también llamados chaitya grihas ), que más tarde llegaron a llamarse templos en algunos lugares. El tipo de edificio budista más emblemático es la estupa, que consiste en una estructura abovedada que contiene reliquias, utilizada como lugar de meditación para conmemorar a Buda . La cúpula simboliza el espacio infinito del cielo. [68]

El budismo tuvo una influencia significativa en la arquitectura de Sri Lanka después de su introducción, [69] y la arquitectura antigua de Sri Lanka era principalmente religiosa, con más de 25 estilos de monasterios budistas. [70] Los monasterios se diseñaron utilizando el Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra , que describe el diseño de la estructura.

Después de la caída del imperio Gupta, el budismo sobrevivió principalmente en Bengala bajo los Palas , [71] y tuvo un impacto significativo en la arquitectura bengalí preislámica de ese período. [72]

Antiguo hindú

En todo el subcontinente indio, la arquitectura hindú evolucionó desde simples santuarios excavados en la roca hasta templos monumentales. Desde el siglo IV al V d. C., los templos hindúes se adaptaron al culto de diferentes deidades y creencias regionales, y en los siglos VI o VII, los ejemplos más grandes habían evolucionado hasta convertirse en imponentes estructuras construidas con ladrillos o piedra que simbolizan el sagrado monte Meru de cinco picos . Influenciada por las primeras estupas budistas , la arquitectura no fue diseñada para el culto colectivo, sino que tenía áreas para que los fieles dejaran ofrendas y realizaran rituales. [73]

Muchos estilos arquitectónicos indios para estructuras como templos, estatuas, casas, mercados, jardines y planificación se describen en textos hindúes . [74] [75] Las pautas arquitectónicas sobreviven en manuscritos sánscritos y en algunos casos también en otros idiomas regionales. Estos incluyen los Vastu shastras , Shilpa Shastras , el Brihat Samhita , partes arquitectónicas de los Puranas y los Agamas, y textos regionales como el Manasara , entre otros. [76] [77]

Dado que este estilo arquitectónico surgió en el período clásico, ha tenido una influencia considerable en varios estilos arquitectónicos medievales como el de los Gurjaras , los Dravidianos , los Deccan , los Odias , los Bengalíes y los Asamés .

Maru Gurjara

Este estilo de arquitectura del norte de la India se ha observado en lugares de culto y congregación tanto hindúes como jainistas . Surgió entre los siglos XI y XIII durante el período Chaulukya (Solanki). [79] Con el tiempo se hizo más popular entre las comunidades jainistas, que lo difundieron en la región y en todo el mundo. [80] Estas estructuras tienen características únicas, como una gran cantidad de proyecciones en las paredes externas con estatuas talladas con gran nitidez y varias agujas de urushringa en el shikhara principal .

Himalaya

The Himalayas are inhabited by various people groups including the Paharis, Sino-Tibetans, Kashmiris, and many more groups. Being from different religious and ethnic backgrounds, the architecture has also had multiple influences. Considering the logistical difficulties and slower pace of life in the Himalayas, artisans have that the time to make intricate wood carvings and paintings accompanied by ornamental metal work and stone sculptures that are reflected in religious as well as civic and military buildings. These styles exist in different forms from Tibet and Kashmir to Assam and Nagaland.[81] A common feature is observed in the slanted layered roofs on temples, mosques, and civic buildings.[82]

Dravidian

This is an architectural style that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent and in Sri Lanka. These include Hindu temples with a unique style that involves a shorter pyramidal tower over the garbhagriha or sanctuary called a vimana, where the north has taller towers, usually bending inwards as they rise, called shikharas. These also include secular buildings that may or may not have slanted roofs based on the geographical region. In the Tamil country, this style is influenced by the Sangam period as well as the styles of the great dynasties that ruled it. This style varies in the region to its west in Kerala that is influenced by geographic factors like western trade and the monsoons which result in sloped roofs.[85] Further north, the Karnata Dravida style varies based on the diversity of influences, often relaying much about the artistic trends of the rulers of twelve different dynasties.[86]

Kalinga

The ancient Kalinga region corresponds to the present-day eastern Indian areas of Odisha, West Bengal and northern Andhra Pradesh. Its architecture reached a peak between the 9th and 12th centuries under the patronage of the Somavamsi dynasty of Odisha. Lavishly sculpted with hundreds of figures, Kalinga temples usually feature repeating forms such as horseshoes. Within the protective walls of the temple complex are three main buildings with distinctive curved towers called deul or deula and prayer halls called jagmohan.[88]

East and Southeast Asia

Chinese and Confucian culture has had a significant influence on the art and architecture in the Sinosphere (mainly Vietnam, Korea, Japan).[89]

China and Vietnam

What is recognised today as Chinese culture has its roots in the Neolithic period (10,000–2000 BC), covering the cultural sites of Yangshao, Longshan, and Liangzhu in central China. Sections of present-day north-east China also contain sites of the Neolithic Hongshan culture that manifested aspects of proto-Chinese culture. Native Chinese belief systems included naturalistic, animistic and hero worship. In general, open-air platforms (tan, or altar) were used for worshipping naturalistic deities, such as the gods of wind and earth, whereas formal buildings (miao, or temple) were for heroes and deceased ancestors.

Most early buildings in China were timber structures. Columns with sets of brackets on the face of the buildings, mostly in even numbers, made the central intercolumnal space the largest interior opening. Heavily tiled roofs sat squarely on the timber building with walls constructed in brick or pounded earth.

The transmission of Buddhism into China around the 1st century AD led to a new era of religious practices, and so to new building types. Places of worship in form of cave temples appeared in China, based on Indian rock-cut ones. Another new building type introduced by Buddhism was the Chinese form of stupa (ta) or pagoda. In India, stupas were erected to commemorate well-known people or teachers: consequently, the Buddhist tradition adapted the structure to remember the great teacher, the Buddha. In The Chinese pagoda shared a similar symbolism with the Indian stupa and was built with sponsorship mainly from imperial patrons who hoped to gain earthly merits for the next life. Buddhism reached its peak from the 6th to the 8th centuries when there was an unprecedented number of monasteries thought China. More than 4,600 official and 40,000 unofficial monasteries were built. They varies in size by the number of cloisters they contained, ranging from 6 to 120. Each cloister consisted of a main stand-alone building – a hall, pagoda of pavilion – and was surrounded by a covered corridor in a rectangular compounded served by a gate building.[90]

Japan and Korea

Korean architecture, especially post Joseon period showcases Ming-Qing influences.[91]

Traditionally, Japanese architecture was made of wood and fusuma (sliding doors) in place of walls, allowing internal space to be altered to suit different purposes. The introduction of Buddhism in the mid 6th century, via the neighbouring Korean kingdom of Paekche, initiated large-scale wooden temple building with an emphasis on simplicity, and much of the architecture was imported from China and other Asian cultures. By the end of this century, Japan was constructing Continental-style monasteries, notably the temple, known as Horyu-ji in Ikaruga.[92] In contrast with Western architecture, Japanese structures rarely use stone, except for specific elements such as foundations. Walls are light, thin, never load-bearing and often movable.[60]

Khmer

From the start of the 9th century to the early 15th century, Khmer kings rules over a vad Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia. Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, was its capital city, and most of its surviving buildings are east-facing stone temples, many of them constructed in pyramidal, tiered form consisting of five square structures with towers, or prasats, that represent the sacred five-peaked Mount Meru of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist doctrine. As the residences of gods, temples were made of durable materials such as sandstone, brick or laterite, a clay-like substance that dries hard.[94]

Cham architecture in Vietnam also follows a similar style.[93]

Sub-Saharan Africa

Traditional Sub-Saharan African architecture is diverse, varying significantly across regions. Included among traditional house types, are huts, sometimes consisting of one or two rooms, as well as various larger and more complex structures.

West African and Bantu styles

In much of West Africa, rectangular houses with peaked roofs and courtyards, sometimes consisting of several rooms and courtyards, are also traditionally found (sometimes decorated, with adobe reliefs as among the Ashanti of Ghana,[96][97] or carved pillars as among the Yoruba people of Nigeria, especially in palaces and the dwellings of the wealthy)[98] Besides the regular rectangular type of dwelling with a sharp roof, widespread in West Africa and Madagascar, there also other types of houses: beehive houses made from a circle of stones topped with a domed roof, and the round one, with a cone-shaped roof. The first type, which also existed in America, is characteristic especially for Southern Africa. These were used by Bantu-speaking groups in southern and parts of east Africa, which was made with mud, poles, thatch, and cow dung (rectangular houses were more common among the Bantu-speaking peoples of the greater Congo region and central Africa). The round hut with a cone-shaped roof is widespread especially in Sudan and Eastern Africa, but is also present in Colombia and New Caledonia, as well as in the Western Sudan and Sahel regions of west Africa, where they are sometimes arranged into compounds.[99] A distinct style of traditional wooden architecture exists among the Grassland peoples of Cameroon, such as the Bamileke.

In several West African societies, including the kingdom of Benin (and of other Edo peoples), and the kingdoms of the Yoruba, Hausa, at sites like Jenne-Jeno (a pre-Islamic city in Mali),[100][101] and elsewhere, towns and cities were surrounded by large walls of mud brick or adobe,[102] and sometimes by monumental moats and earthworks, such as Sungbo's Eredo (in the Nigerian Yoruba kingdom of Ijebu) and the Walls of Benin (of the Nigerian Kingdom of Benin).[103][104] In medieval southern Africa, a tradition existed of fortified stone settlements such as Great Zimbabwe and Khami.

The famed Benin City of southwest Nigeria (capital of the Kingdom of Benin) destroyed by the Punitive Expedition, was a large complex of homes in coursed clay, with hipped roofs of shingles or palm leaves. The Palace had a sequence of ceremonial rooms, and was decorated with brass plaques. It was surrounded by a monumental complex of earthworks and walls whose construction is thought to have begun by the early Middle Ages.[103][104][105][106]

Sahelian

In the Western Sahel region, Islamic influence was a major contributing factor to architectural development from the later ages of the Kingdom of Ghana. At Kumbi Saleh, locals lived in domed-shaped dwellings in the king's section of the city, surrounded by a great enclosure. Traders lived in stone houses in a section which possessed 12 beautiful mosques, as described by al-bakri, with one centered on Friday prayer.[107] The king is said to have owned several mansions, one of which was sixty-six feet long, forty-two feet wide, contained seven rooms, was two stories high, and had a staircase; with the walls and chambers filled with sculpture and painting.[108]

Sahelian architecture initially grew from the two cities of Djenné and Timbuktu. The Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, constructed from mud on timber, was similar in style to the Great Mosque of Djenné. The rise of kingdoms in the West African coastal region produced architecture which drew on indigenous traditions, utilizing wood, mud-brick and adobe. Though later acquiring Islamic influences, the style also had roots in local pre-Islamic building styles, such as those found in ancient settlements like Jenne-Jeno, Dia, Mali, and Dhar Tichitt,[109] some of which employed a traditional sahelian style of cylindrical mud brick.[100]

Ethiopian

Ethiopian architecture (including modern-day Eritrea) expanded from the Aksumite style and incorporated new traditions with the expansion of the Ethiopian state. Styles incorporated more wood and rounder structures in domestic architecture in the center of the country and the south, and these stylistic influences were manifested in the construction of churches and monasteries. Throughout the medieval period, Aksumite architecture and influences and its monolithic tradition persisted, with its influence strongest in the early medieval (Late Aksumite) and Zagwe periods (when the rock-cut monolithic churches of Lalibela were carved). Throughout the medieval period, and especially from the 10th to 12th centuries, churches were hewn out of rock throughout Ethiopia, especially during the northernmost region of Tigray, which was the heart of the Aksumite Empire. The most famous example of Ethiopian rock-hewn architecture are the eleven monolithic churches of Lalibela, carved out of the red volcanic tuff found around the town.[110] During the early modern period in Ethiopia, the absorption of new diverse influences such as Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati style began with the arrival of Portuguese Jesuit missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Oceania

Most Oceanic buildings consist of huts, made of wood and other vegetal materials. Art and architecture have often been closely connected—for example, storehouses and meetinghouses are often decorated with elaborate carvings—and so they are presented together in this discussion. The architecture of the Pacific Islands was varied and sometimes large in scale. Buildings reflected the structure and preoccupations of the societies that constructed them, with considerable symbolic detail. Technically, most buildings in Oceania were no more than simple assemblages of poles held together with cane lashings; only in the Caroline Islands were complex methods of joining and pegging known. Fakhua shen, Taboa shen and Kuhua shen (the shen triplets) designed the first oceanian architecture.

An important Oceanic archaeological site is Nan Madol from the Federated States of Micronesia. Nan Madol was the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur Dynasty, which united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people until about 1628.[111] Set apart between the main island of Pohnpei and Temwen Island, it was a scene of human activity as early as the first or second century AD. By the 8th or 9th century, islet construction had started, with construction of the distinctive megalithic architecture beginning 1180–1200 AD.[112]

Islamic

Due to the extent of the Islamic conquests, Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of architectural styles from the foundation of Islam (7th century) to the present day. Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine, Persian, Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim conquests conquered in the 7th and 8th centuries.[118][119] Further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. This wide and long history has given rise to many local architectural styles, including but not limited to: Umayyad, Abbasid, Persian, Moorish, Fatimid, Mamluk, Ottoman, Indo-Islamic (particularly Mughal), Sino-Islamic and Sahelian architecture.

Some distinctive structures in Islamic architecture are mosques, madrasas, tombs, palaces, baths, and forts. Notable types of Islamic religious architecture include hypostyle mosques, domed mosques and mausoleums, structures with vaulted iwans, and madrasas built around central courtyards. In secular architecture, major examples of preserved historic palaces include the Alhambra and the Topkapi Palace. Islam does not encourage the worship of idols; therefore the architecture tends to be decorated with Arabic calligraphy (including Qur'anic verses or other poetry) and with more abstract motifs such as geometric patterns, muqarnas, and arabesques, as opposed to illustrations of scenes and stories.[120][121][122][123]

European

Medieval

Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense across various parts of Europe. Castles and fortified walls provide the most notable remaining non-religious examples of medieval architecture. New types of civic, military, as well as religious buildings of new styles begin to pop up in this region during this period.

Byzantine

Byzantine architects built city walls, palaces, hippodromes, bridges, aqueducts, and churches. They built many types of churches, including the basilica (the most widespread type, and the one that reached the greatest development). After the early period, the most common layout was the cross-in-square with five domes, also found in Moscow, Novgorod or Kiev, as well as in Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, North Macedonia and Albania. Through modifications and adaptations of local inspiration, the Byzantine style will be used as the main source of inspiration for architectural styles in all Eastern Orthodox countries.[129] For example, in Romania, the Brâncovenesc style is highly based on Byzantine architecture, but also has individual Romanian characteristics.

Just as the Parthenon is the most famous building of Ancient Greek architecture, Hagia Sophia remains the iconic church of Orthodox Christianity. In Greek and Roman temples, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, where sacrifices were made; the interior, where the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built was kept, often had limited access by the general public. But Christian liturgies are held in the interior of the churches, Byzantine exteriors usually have little if any ornamentation.[130]

Byzantine architecture often featured marble columns, coffered ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of mosaics with golden backgrounds.[131] The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which was very appreciated by the Ancient Greeks. They used mostly stone and brick, and also thin alabaster sheets for windows.[132] Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface where fresco would not resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are in Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki (Greece), the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo and the Basilica of San Vitale, both in Ravenna (Italy), and Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.

Armenia

From the very beginning of the formation of feudal relations, the architecture and urban planning of Armenia entered a new stage. The ancient Armenian cities experienced economic decline; only Artashat and Tigranakert retained their importance. The importance of the cities of Dvin and Karin (Erzurum) increased. The construction of the city of Arshakavan by the king of Great Armenia Arshak II was not completely completed. Christianity brought to life a new architecture of religious buildings, which was initially nourished by the traditions of the old, ancient architecture.

Churches of the 4th-5th centuries are mainly basilicas (Kasakh, 4th-5th centuries, Ashtarak, 5th century, Akhts, 4th century, Yeghvard, 5th century). Some basilicas of Armenian architecture belong to the so-called “Western type” of basilica churches. Of these, the most famous are the churches of Tekor (5th century), Yererouk (IV-V centuries), Dvin (470), Tsitsernavank (IV-5 centuries). The three-nave Yereruyk basilica stands on a 6-step stylobate, presumably built on the site of an earlier pre-Christian temple. The basilicas of Karnut (5th century), Yeghvard (5th century), Garni (IV century), Zovuni (5th century), Tsaghkavank (VI century), Dvina (553–557), Tallinn (5th century) have also been preserved c.), Tanaat (491), Jarjaris (IV-V centuries), Lernakert (IV-V centuries), etc.[136]

Romanesque

The term 'Romanesque' is rooted in the 19th century, when it was coined to describe medieval churches built from the 10th to 12th century, before the rise of steeply pointed arches, flying buttresses and other Gothic elements. This style of architecture emerged nearly simultaneously in multiple countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain).[142] For 19th-century critics, the Romanesque reflected the architecture of stonemasons who evidently admired the heavy barrel vaults and intricate carved capitals of the ancient Romans, but whose own architecture was considered derivative and degenerate, lacking the sophistication of their classical models.

Scholars in the 21st century are less inclined to understand the architecture of this period as a 'failure' to reproduce the achievements of the past, and are far more likely to recognise its profusion of experimental forms, as a series of creative new inventions. At the time, however, research has questioned the value of Romanesque as a stylistic term. On the surface, it provides a convenient designation for buildings that share a common vocabulary of rounded arches and thick stone masonry, and appear in between the Carolingian revival of classical antiquity in the 9th century and the swift evolution of Gothic architecture after the second half of the 12th century. One problem, however, is that the term encompasses a broad array of regional variations, some with closer links to Rome than others. It should also be noted that the distinction between Romanesque architecture and its immediate predecessors and followers is not at all clear. There is little evidence that medieval viewers were concerned with the stylistic distinctions that we observe today, making the slow evolution of medieval architecture difficult to separate into neat chronological categories. Nevertheless, Romanesque remains a useful word despite its limitations, because it reflects a period of intensive building activity that maintained some continuity with the classical past, but freely reinterpreted ancient forms in a new distinctive manner.[21]

Romanesque cathedrals can be easily differentiated from Gothic and Byzantine ones, since they are characterized by the wide use of thick piers and columns, round arches and severity. Here, the possibilities of the round-arch arcade in both a structural and a spatial sense were once again exploited to the full. Unlike the sharp pointed arch of the later Gothic, the Romanesque round arch required the support of massive piers and columns. In comparison to Byzantine churches, Romanesque ones tend to lack complex ornamentation both on the exterior and interior. An example of this is the Périgueux Cathedral (Périgueux, France), built in the early 12th century and designed on the model of St. Mark's Basilica in Venice, but lacking mosaics, leaving its interior very austere and minimalistic.[143]

Gothic

Gothic architecture began with a series of experiments, which were conducted to fulfil specific requests by patrons and to accommodate the ever-growing number of pilgrims visiting sites that housed precious relics. Pilgrims in the high Middle Ages (circa 1000 to 1250 AD) increasingly travelled to well-known pilgrimage sites, but also to local sites where local and national saints were reputed to have performed miracles. The churches and monasteries housing important relics therefore wanted to heighten the popularity of their respective saints and build appropriate shrines for them. These shrines were not merely gem-encrusted reliquaries, but more importantly took the form of powerful architectural settings characterised by coloured light emitting from the large areas of stained glass. The use of stained glass, however, is not the only defining element of Gothic architecture and neither are the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, the rose window or the flying buttress, as many of these elements were used in one way or another in preceding architectural traditions. It was rather the combination and constant refinement of these elements, along with the quick response to the rapidly changing building techniques of the time, that fuelled the Gothic movement in architecture.

Consequently, it is difficult to point to one element or the exact place where Gothic first emerged; however, it is traditional to initiate a discussion of Gothic architecture with the Basilica of St Denis (circa 1135–1344) and its patrons, Abbot Suger, who began to rebuild the west front and the choir of the church. As he wrote in his De Administratione, the old building could no longer accommodate the large volumes of pilgrims who were coming to venerate the relics of St Denis, and the solution for this twofold: a west façade with three large portals and the innovative new choir, which combined an ambulatory with radiating chapels that were unique as they were not separated by walls. Instead a row of slim columns was inserted between the chapels and the choir arcade to support the rib vaults. The result enabled visitors to circulate around the altar and come within reach of the relics without actually disrupting the altar space, while also experiencing the large stained-glass windows within the chapels. As confirmed by Suger, the desire for more stained-glass was not necessarily to bring more daylight into the building but rather to fill the space with a continuous ray of colorful light, rather like mosaics or precious stones, which would make the wall vanish. The demand for ever more stained-glass windows and the search for techniques that would support them are constant throughout the development of Gothic architecture, as is evident in the writings of Suger, who was fascinated by the mystical quality of such lighting.[21]

Brick Gothic was a specific style of Gothic architecture common in Northeast and Central Europe especially in the regions in and around the Baltic Sea, which do not have resources of standing rock. The buildings are essentially built using bricks.

Renaissance

During the Renaissance, Italy consisted of many states, and intense rivalry between them generated an increase in technical and artistic developments. The Medici Family, an Italian banking family and political dynasty, is famous for its financial support of Renaissance art and architecture.

The period began in around 1452, when the architect and humanist Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) completed his treatise De Re Aedificatoria (On the Art of Building) after studying the ancient ruins of Rome and Vitruvius's De Architectura. His writings covered numerous subjects, including history, town planning, engineering, sacred geometry, humanism and philosophies of beauty, and set out the key elements of architecture and its ideal proportions. In the last decades of the 15th century, artists and architects began to visit Rome to study the ruins, especially the Colosseum and the Pantheon. They left behind precious records of their studies in the form of drawings. While humanist interest in Rome had been building up over more than a century (dating back at least to Petrarch in the 14th century), antiquarian considerations of monuments had focused on literary, epigraphic and historical information rather than on the physical remains. Although some artists and architects, such as Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), Donatello (circa 1386–1466) and Leon Battista Alberti, are reported to have made studies of Roman sculpture and ruins, almost no direct evidence of this work survives. By the 1480s, prominent architects, such as Francesco di Giorgio (1439–1502) and Giuliano da Sangallo (circa 1445–1516), were making numerous studies of ancient monuments, undertaken in ways that demonstrated that the process of transforming the model into a new design had already begun. In many cases, drawing ruins in their fragmentary state necessitated a leap of imagination, as Francesco himself readily admitted in his annotation to his reconstruction of the Campidoglio, noting 'largely imagined by me, since very little can be understood from the ruins.[156]

Soon, grand buildings were constructed in Florence using the new style, like the Pazzi Chapel (1441–1478) or the Palazzo Pitti (1458–1464). The Renaissance begun in Italy, but slowly spread to other parts of Europe, with varying interpretations.[149]

Since Renaissance art is an attempt of reviving Ancient Rome's culture, it uses pretty much the same ornaments as the Ancient Greek and Roman. However, because most if not all resources that Renaissance artists had were Roman, Renaissance architecture and applied arts widely use certain motifs and ornaments that are specific to Ancient Rome. The most iconic one is the margent, a vertical arrangement of flowers, leaves or hanging vines, used at pilasters. Another ornament associated with the Renaissance is the round medallion, containing a profile of a person, similar with Ancient cameos. Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, and other post-medieval styles use putti (chubby baby angels) much more often compared to Greco-Roman art and architecture. An ornament reintroduced during the Renaissance, that was of Ancient Roman descent, that will also be used in later styles, is the cartouche, an oval or oblong design with a slightly convex surface, typically edged with ornamental scrollwork.

Worldwide

Baroque

The Baroque emerged from the Counter Reformation as an attempt by the Catholic Church in Rome to convey its power and to emphasize the magnificence of God. The Baroque and its late variant the Rococo were the first truly global styles in the arts. Dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1800. Born in the painting studios of Bologna and Rome in the 1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly throughout Italy, Spain and Portugal, Flanders, France, the Netherlands, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres from Munich (Germany) to Vilnius (Lithuania). The Portuguese, Spanish and French empires and the Dutch treading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia, to places such as Lima, Mozambique, Goa and the Philippines.[166] Due to its spread in regions with different architectural traditions, multiple kinds of Baroque appeared based on location, different in some aspects, but similar overall. For example, French Baroque appeared severe and detached by comparison, preempting Neoclassicism and the architecture of the Age of Enlightenment.[157] Hybrid Native American/European Baroque architecture first appeared in South America (as opposed to Mexico) in the late 17th century, after the indigenous symbols and styles that characterize this unusual variant of Baroque had been kept alive over the preceding century in other media, a very good example of this being the Jesuit Church in Arequipa (Peru).[167]

The first Baroque buildings were cathedrals, churches and monasteries, soon joined by civic buildings, mansions, and palaces. Being characterized by dynamism, for the first time walls, façades and interiors curved,[168] a good example being San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome. Baroque architects took the basic elements of Renaissance architecture, including domes and colonnades, and made them higher, grander, more decorated, and more dramatic. The interior effects were often achieved with the use of quadratura, or trompe-l'œil painting combined with sculpture: the eye is drawn upward, giving the illusion that one is looking into the heavens. Clusters of sculpted angels and painted figures crowd the ceiling. Light was also used for dramatic effect; it streamed down from cupolas and was reflected from an abundance of gilding. Solomonic columns were often used, to give an illusion of upwards motion and other decorative elements occupied every available space. In Baroque palaces, grand stairways became a central element.[169] Besides architecture, Baroque painting and sculpture are characterized by dynamism too. This is in contrast with how static and peaceful Renaissance art is.

Besides the building itself, the space where it was placed had a role too. Both Baroque and Rococo buildings try to seize viewers' attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome, or on a massive one, like the new facade of the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, designed to tower over the city. A manifestation of power and authority on the grandest scale, Baroque urban planning and renewal was promoted by the church and the state alike. It was the first era since antiquity to experience mass migration into cities, and urban planners took idealistic measures to regulate them. The most notable early example was Domenico Fontana's restructuring of Rome's street plan of Pope Sixtus V. Architects had experimented with idealized city schemes since the early Renaissance, examples being Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) planning a centralized model city, with streets leading to a central piazza, or Filarete (Antonio di Pietro Aver(u)lino, c. 1400-c. 1469) designing a round city named Sforzinda (1451–1456) that he based on parts of the human body in the idea that a healthy city should reflect the physiognomy of its inhabitants. However, none of these idealistic cities has ever been built. In fact, few such projects were put into practice in Europe as new cities were prohibitively costly and existing urban areas, with existing churches and palaces, could not be demolished. Only in the Americas, where architects often had a clean space to work with, were such cities possible, as in Lima (Peru) or Buenos Aires (Argentina). The earliest Baroque ideal city is Zamość, built north-east of Kraków (Poland) by the Italian architect Bernardo Morando (c. 1540-1600), being a centralized town focusing on a square with radiating streets. Where entire cities could not be rebuilt, patrons and architects compensated by creating spacious and symmetrical squares, often with avenues and radiating out at perpendicular angles and focusing on a fountain, statue or obelisk. A good example of this is the Place des Vosges (formerly Place Royale), commissioned by Henry IV probably after plans by Baptiste du Cerceau (1545–1590). The most famous Baroque space in the world is Gianlorenzo Bernini's St. Peter's Square in Rome.[170] Similar with ideal urban planning, Baroque gardens are characterized by straight and readapting avenues, with geometric spaces.

Rococo

The name Rococo derives from the French word rocaille, which describes shell-covered rock-work, and coquille, meaning seashell. Rococo architecture is fancy and fluid, accentuating asymmetry, with an abundant use of curves, scrolls, gilding and ornaments. The style enjoyed great popularity with the ruling elite of Europe during the first half of the 18th century. It developed in France out of a new fashion in interior decoration, and spread across Europe.[175] Domestic Rococo abandoned Baroque's high moral tone, its weighty allegories and its obsession with legitimacy: in fact, its abstract forms and carefree, pastoral subjects related more to notions of refuge and joy that created a more forgiving atmosphere for polite conversations. Rococo rooms are typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy. Even the grander salons used for entertaining were more modest in scale, as social events involved smaller numbers of guests.

Characteristic of the style were Rocaille motifs derived from the shells, icicles and rock-work or grotto decoration. Rocaille arabesques were mostly abstract forms, laid out symmetrically over and around architectural frames. A favourite motif was the scallop shell, whose top scrolls echoed the basic S and C framework scrolls of the arabesques and whose sinuous ridges echoed the general curvilinearity of the room decoration. While few Rococo exteriors were built in France, a number of Rococo churches are found in southern Germany.[176] Other widely-user motifs in decorative arts and interior architecture include: acanthus and other leaves, birds, bouquets of flowers, fruits, elements associated with love (putti, quivers with arrows ans arrowed hearts) trophies of arms, putti, medallions with faces, many many flowers, and Far Eastern elements (pagodes, dragons, monkeys, bizarre flowers, bamboo, and Chinese people).[177] Pastel colours were widely used, like light blue, mint green or pink. Rococo designers also loved mirrors (the more the better), an example being the Hall of Mirrors of the Amalienburg (Munich, Germany), by Johann Baptist Zimmermann. Generally, mirrors are also featured above fireplaces.

Exoticism

The interactions between East and West brought on by colonialist exploration have had an impact on aesthetics. Because of being something rare and new to Westerners, some non-European styles were really appreciated during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Some nobles and kings built little structures inspired by these styles in the gardens of their palaces, or fully decorated a handful of rooms of palaces like this. Because of not fully understanding the origins and principles that govern these exotic aesthetics, Europeans sometimes created hybrids of the style which they tried to replicate and which were the trends at that time. A good example of this is chinoiserie, a Western decorative style, popular during the 18th century, that was heavily inspired by Chinese arts, but also by Rococo at the same time. Because traveling to China or other Far Eastern countries was something hard at that time and so remained mysterious to most Westerners, European imagination were fuelled by perceptions of Asia as a place of wealth and luxury, and consequently patrons from emperors to merchants vied with each other in adorning their living quarters with Asian goods and decorating them in Asian styles. Where Asian objects were hard to obtain, European craftsmen and painters stepped up to fill the demand, creating a blend of Rococo forms and Asian figures, motifs and techniques.

Chinese art was not the only foreign style with which Europeans experimented. Another was the Islamic one. Examples of this include the Garden Mosque of the Schwetzingen Palace in Germany (the only surviving example of an 18th-century European garden mosque), the Royal Pavilion in Brighton, or the Moorish Revival buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries, with horseshoe arches and brick patterns. When it come to the Orient, Europeans also had an interest for the culture of Ancient Egypt. Compared to other cases of exoticism, the one with the land of pharaohs is the oldest one, since Ancient Greeks and Romans had this interest during Antiquity. The main periods when Egyptian Revival monuments were erected were the early 19th century, with Napoleon's military campaigns in Egypt, and the 1920s, when the Tomb of Tutankhamun was discovered in 1922, which caused an Egyptomania that lead to Art Deco sometimes using motifs inspired by Ancient Egypt. During the late 18th and early 19th century, Neoclassicism sometimes mixed Greco-Roman elements with Egyptian ones. Because of its association with pharaohs, death and eternity, multiple Egyptian Revival tombs or cemetery entry gates were built in this style. Besides mortuary structures, other buildings in this style include certain synagogues, like the Karlsruhe Synagogue or some Empire monuments built during the reign of Nepoleon, such as the Egyptian portico of the Hôtel Beauharnais or the Fontaine du Fellah. During the 1920s and 1930s, Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican architecture was of great interest for some American architects, particularly what the Mayans built. Several of Frank Lloyd Wright's California houses were erected in a Mayan Revival style, while other architects combined Mayan motifs with Art Deco ones.[186]

Neoclassicism

Neoclassical architecture focused on Ancient Greek and Roman details, plain, white walls and grandeur of scale. Compared to the previous styles, Baroque and Rococo, Neoclassical exteriors tended to be more minimalist, featuring straight and angular lines, but being still ornamented. The style's clean lines and sense of balance and proportion worked well for grand buildings (such as the Panthéon in Paris) and for smaller structures alike (such as the Petit Trianon).

Excavations during the 18th century at Pompeii and Herculaneum, which had both been buried under volcanic ash during the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius, inspired a return to order and rationality, largely thanks to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann.[197][198] In the mid-18th century, antiquity was upheld as a standard for architecture as never before. Neoclassicism was a fundamental investigation of the very bases of architectural form and meaning. In the 1750s, an alliance between archaeological exploration and architectural theory started, which will continue in the 19th century. Marc-Antoine Laugier wrote in 1753 that 'Architecture owes all that is perfect to the Greeks'.[199]

The Cenotaph of Newton, c. 1784 (never built), by Étienne-Louis Boullée[193]

The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia. Federal-style architecture is the name for the classicizing architecture built in North America between c. 1780 and 1830, and particularly from 1785 to 1815. This style shares its name with its era, the Federal Period. The term is also used in association with furniture design in the United States of the same time period. The style broadly corresponds to the middle-class classicism of Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Regency style in Britain and to the French Empire style. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is usually referred to as Classicism (‹See Tfd›German: Klassizismus, Russian: Классицизм), while the newer Revival styles of the 19th century until today are called neoclassical.

Étienne-Louis Boullée (1728–1799) was a visionary architect of the period. His utopian projects, never built, included a monument to Isaac Newton (1784) in the form of an immense dome, with an oculus allowing the light to enter, giving the impression of a sky full of stars. His project for an enlargement of the Royal Library (1785) was even more dramatic, with a gigantic arch sheltering the collection of books. While none of his projects were ever built, the images were widely published and inspired architects of the period to look outside the traditional forms.[200]

Similarly with the Renaissance and Baroque periods, during the Neoclassical one urban theories of how a good city should be appeared too. Enlightenment writers of the 18th century decried the problems of Paris at that time, the biggest one being the big number of narrow medieval streets crowded with modest houses. Voltaire openly criticized the failure of the French Royal administration to initiate public works, improve the quality of life in towns, and stimulate the economy. 'It is time for those who rule the most opulent capital in Europe to make it the most comfortable and the most magnificent of cities. There must be public markets, fountains which actually provide water and regular pavements. The narrow and infected streets must be widened, monuments that cannot be seen must be revealed and new ones built for all to see', Voltaire insisted in a polemical essay on 'The Embellishments of Paris' in 1749. In the same year, Étienne La Font de Saint-Yenne, criticized how Louis XIV's great east façade of the Louvre, was all but hidden from views by a dense quarter of modest houses. Voltaire also said that in order to transform Paris into a city that could rival ancient Rome, it was necessary to demolish more than it was to built. 'Our towns are still what they were, a mass of houses crowded together haphazardly without system, planning or design', Marc-Antoine Laugier complained in 1753. Writing a decade later, Pierre Patte promoted an urban reform in quest of health, social order, and security, launching at the same time a medical and organic metaphor which compared the operations of urban design to those of the surgeons. With bad air and lack of fresh water its current state was pathological, Patte asserted, calling for fountains to be placed at principal intersections and markets. Squares are recommended promote the circulation of air, and for the same reason houses on the city's bridges should be demolished. He also criticized the location of hospitals next to markets and protested continued burials in overcrowded city churchyards.[201] Besides cities, new ideas of how a garden should be appeared in 18th century England, making place for the English landscape garden (aka jardin à l'anglaise), characterized by an idealized view of nature, and the use of Greco-Roman or Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. It was the opposite of the symmetrical and geometrically planned Baroque garden (aka jardin à la française).

Revivalism and Eclecticism

The 19th century was dominated by a wide variety of stylistic revivals, variations, and interpretations. Revivalism in architecture is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a previous architectural era. Modern-day Revival styles can be summarized within New Classical architecture, and sometimes under the umbrella term traditional architecture.

The idea that architecture might represent the glory of kingdoms can be traced to the dawn of civilisation, but the notion that architecture can bear the stamp of national character is a modern idea, that appeared in the 18th century historical thinking and given political currency in the wake of the French Revolution. As the map of Europe was repeatedly changing, architecture was used to grant the aura of a glorious past to even the most recent nations. In addition to the credo of universal Classicism, two new, and often contradictory, attitudes on historical styles existed in the early 19th century. Pluralism promoted the simultaneous use of the expanded range of style, while Revivalism held that a single historical model was appropriate for modern architecture. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: Egyptian for prisons, Gothic for churches, or Renaissance Revival for banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: the pharaohs with death and eternity, the Middle Ages with Christianity, or the Medici family with the rise of banking and modern commerce.

View of Devonpart, near Plymouth (UK), by John Foulston, 1820s, including an 'Egyptian' library, a 'Hindoo' nonconformist chapel, a 'primitive Doric' town hall, and a street of houses with a Roman Corinthian order

Whether their choice was Classical, medieval, or Renaissance, all revivalists shared the strategy of advocating a particular style based on national history, one of the great enterprises of historians in the early 19th century. Only one historic period was claimed to be the only one capable of providing models grounded in national traditions, institutions, or values. Issues of style became matters of state.[204]

The most well-known Revivalist style is the Gothic Revival one, that appeared in the mid-18th century in the houses of a number of wealthy antiquarians in England, a notable example being the Strawberry Hill House. German Romantic writers and architects were the first to promote Gothic as a powerful expression of national character, and in turn use it as a symbol of national identity in territories still divided. Johann Gottfried Herder posed the question 'Why should we always imitate foreigners, as if we were Greeks or Romans?'.[205]

In art and architecture history, the term Orientalism refers to the works of the Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in Western Asia, during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France.

In India, during the British Raj, a new style, Indo-Saracenic, (also known as Indo-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic, Neo-Mughal, or Hindoo style) was getting developed, which incorporated varying degrees of Indian elements into the Western European style. The Churches and convents of Goa are another example of the blending of traditional Indian styles with western European architectural styles. Most Indo-Saracenic public buildings were constructed between 1858 and 1947, with the peaking at 1880.[206] The style has been described as "part of a 19th-century movement to project themselves as the natural successors of the Mughals".[207] They were often built for modern functions such as transport stations, government offices, and law courts. It is much more evident in British power centres in the subcontinent like Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata.[208]

Beaux-Arts

The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied. Due to the fact that international students studied here, there are buildings from the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century of this type all over the world, designed by architects like Charles Girault, Thomas Hastings, Ion D. Berindey or Petre Antonescu. Today, from Bucharest to Buenos Aires and from San Francisco to Brussels, the Beaux-Arts style survives in opera houses, civic structures, university campuses commemorative monuments, luxury hotels and townhouses. The style was heavily influenced by the Paris Opéra House (1860–1875), designed by Charles Garnier, the masterpiece of the 19th century renovation of Paris, dominating its entire neighbourhood and continuing to astonish visitors with its majestic staircase and reception halls. The Opéra was an aesthetic and societal turning point in French architecture. Here, Garnier showed what he called a style actuel, which was influenced by the spirit of the time, aka Zeitgeist, and reflected the designer's personal taste.

Beaux-Arts façades were usually imbricated, or layered with overlapping classical elements or sculpture. Often façades consisted of a high rusticated basement level, after it a few floors high level, usually decorated with pilasters or columns, and at the top an attic level and/or the roof. Beaux-Arts architects were often commissioned to design monumental civic buildings symbolic of the self-confidence of the town or city. The style aimed for a Baroque opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked Louis XIV's Versailles. However, it was not just a revival of the Baroque, being more of a synthesis of Classicist styles, like Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism etc.[216][217][218]

Industry and new technologies

Because of the Industrial Revolution and the new technologies it brought, new types of buildings have appeared. By 1850 iron was quite present in dailylife at every scale, from mass-produced decorative architectural details and objects of apartment buildings and commercial buildings to train sheds. A well-known 19th century glass and iron building is the Crystal Palace from Hyde Park (London), built in 1851 to house the Great Exhibition, having an appearance similar with a greenhouse. Its scale was daunting.

The marketplace pioneered novel uses of iron and glass to create an architecture of display and consumption that made the temporary display of the world fairs a permanent feature of modern urban life. Just after a year after the Crystal Palace was dismantaled, Aristide Boucicaut opened what historians of mass consumption have labelled the first department store, Le Bon Marché in Paris. As the store expanded, its exterior took on the form of a public monument, being highly decorated with French Renaissance Revival motifs. The entrances advanced subtly onto the pavemenet, hoping to captivate the attention of potential customers. Between 1872 and 1874, the interior was remodelled by Louis-Charles Boileau, in collaboration with the young engineering firm of Gustave Eiffel. In place of the open courtyard required to permit more daylight into the interior, the new building focused around three skylight atria.[224]

Art Nouveau

Popular in many countries from the early 1890s until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Art Nouveau was an influential although relatively brief art and design movement and philosophy. Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the modern architecture of the 20th century. Between c. 1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being Friedrich Nietzsche in 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression.

Focusing on natural forms, asymmetry, sinuous lines and whiplash curves, architects and designers aimed to escape the excessively ornamental styles and historical replications, popular during the 19th century. However, the style was not completely new, since Art Nouveau artists drew on a huge range of influences, particularly Beaux-Arts architecture, the Arts and Crafts movement, aestheticism and Japanese art. Buildings used materials associated in the 19th century with modernity, such as cast-iron and glass. A good example of this is the Paris Metro entrance at Porte Dauphine by Hector Guimard (1900). Its cast-iron and glass canopy is as much sculpture as it is architecture. In Paris, Art Nouveau was even called Le Style Métro by some. The interest for stylized organic forms of ornamentation originated in the mid 19th century, when it was promoted in The Grammar of Ornament (1854), a pattern book by British architect Owen Jones (architect) (1809–1874).

Whiplash curves and sinuous organic lines are its most familiar hallmarks, however the style can not be summarized only to them, since its forms are much more varied and complex. The movement displayed many national interpretations. Depending on where it manifested, it was inspired by Celtic art, Gothic Revival, Rococo Revival, and Baroque Revival. In Hungary, Romania and Poland, for example, Art Nouveau incorporated folkloric elements. This is true especially in Romania, because it facilitated the appearance of the Romanian Revival style, which draws inspiration from Brâncovenesc architecture and traditional peasant houses and objects. The style also had different names, depending on countries. In Britain it was known as Modern Style, in the Netherlands as Nieuwe Kunst, in Germany and Austria as Jugendstil, in Italy as Liberty style, in Romania as Arta 1900, and in Japan as Shiro-Uma. It would be wrong to credit any particular place as the only one where the movement appeared, since it seems to have arisen in multiple locations.[233][234][235][236]

Modern

Rejecting ornament and embracing minimalism and modern materials, Modernist architecture appeared across the world in the early 20th century. Art Nouveau paved the way for it, promoting the idea of non-historicist styles. It developed initially in Europe, focusing on functionalism and the avoidance of decoration. Modernism reached its peak during the 1930s and 1940s with the Bauhaus and the International Style, both characterised by asymmetry, flat roofs, large ribbon windows, metal, glass, white rendering and open-plan interiors.[240]

Art Deco

Art Deco, named retrospectively after an exhibition held in Paris in 1925, originated in France as a luxurious, highly decorated style. It then spread quickly throughout the world - most dramatically in the United States - becoming more streamlined and modernistic through the 1930s. The style was pervasive and popular, finding its way into the design of everything from jewellery to film sets, from the interiors of ordinary homes to cinemas, luxury streamliners and hotels. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of the Great Depression during the 1930s.[245]

Although it ended with the start of World War II, its appeal has endured. Despite that it is an example of modern architecture, elements of the style drew on ancient Egyptian, Greek, Roman, African, Aztec and Japanese influences, but also on Futurism, Cubism and the Bauhaus. Bold colours were often applied on low-reliefs. Predominant materials include chrome plating, brass, polished steel and aluminium, inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.

International Style

The International Style emerged in Europe after World War I, influenced by recent movements, including De Stijl and Streamline Moderne, and had a close relationship to the Bauhaus. The antithesis of nearly every other architectural movement that preceded it, the International Style eliminated extraneous ornament and used modern industrial materials such as steel, glass, reinforced concrete and chrome plating. Rectilinear, flat-roofed, asymmetrical and white, it became a symbol of modernity across the world. It seemed to offer a crisp, clean, rational future after the horrors of war. Named by the architect Philip Johnson and historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock (1903–1987) in 1932, the movement was epitomized by Charles-Edouard Jeanneret, or Le Corbusier and was clearly expressed in his statement that 'a house is a machine for living in'.[250]

Brutalist

Based on social equality, Brutalism was inspired by Le Corbusier's 1947-1952 Unité d'habitation in Marseilles. It seems the term was originally coined by Swedish architect Hans Asplund (1921–1994), but Le Corbusier's use of the description béton brut, meaning raw concrete, for his choice of material for the Unité d'habitation was particularly influential. The style flourished from the 1950s to the mid-1970s, mainly using concrete, which although new in itself, was unconventional when exposed on facades. Before Brutalism, concrete was usually hidden beneath other materials.[256]

Postmodern

Not one definable style, Postmodernism is an eclectic mix of approaches that appeared in the late 20th century in reaction against Modernism, which was increasingly perceived as monotonous and conservative. As with many movements, a complete antithesis to Modernism developed. In 1966, the architect Robert Venturi (1925–2018) had published his book, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, which praised the originality and creativity of Mannerist and Baroque architecture of Rome, and encouraged more ambiguity and complexity in contemporary design. Complaining about the austerity and tedium of so many smooth steel and glass Modernist buildings, and in deliberate denunciation of the famous Modernist 'Less is more', Venturi stated 'Less is a bore'. His theories became a majore influence on the development of Postmodernism.[257]

Deconstructivist

Deconstructivism in architecture is a development of postmodern architecture that began in the late 1980s. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation, non-linear processes of design, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin, and apparent non-Euclidean geometry,[269] (i.e., non-rectilinear shapes) which serve to distort and dislocate some of the elements of architecture, such as structure and envelope. The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist "styles" is characterised by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos.

Important events in the history of the Deconstructivist movement include the 1982 Parc de la Villette architectural design competition (especially the entry from the French philosopher Jacques Derrida and the American architect Peter Eisenman[270] and Bernard Tschumi's winning entry), the Museum of Modern Art's 1988 Deconstructivist Architecture exhibition in New York, organized by Philip Johnson and Mark Wigley, and the 1989 opening of the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus, designed by Peter Eisenman. The New York exhibition featured works by Frank Gehry, Daniel Libeskind, Rem Koolhaas, Peter Eisenman, Zaha Hadid, Coop Himmelblau, and Bernard Tschumi. Since the exhibition, many of the architects who were associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term. Nonetheless, the term has stuck and has now, in fact, come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture.

Contemporary architecture

Contemporary architecture is the architecture of the 21st century. No single style is dominant.[271] Contemporary architects work in several different styles, from postmodernism, high-tech architecture and new references and interpretations of traditional architecture[272][273] to highly conceptual forms and designs, resembling sculpture on an enormous scale. Some of these styles and approaches make use of very advanced technology and modern building materials, such as tube structures which allow construction of buildings that are taller, lighter and stronger than those in the 20th century, while others prioritize the use of natural and ecological materials like stone, wood and lime.[274] One technology that is common to all forms of contemporary architecture is the use of new techniques of computer-aided design, which allow buildings to be designed and modeled on computers in three dimensions, and constructed with more precision and speed.

See also

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References

Modernism

Further reading

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