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El arte de Europa , también conocido como arte occidental , abarca la historia del arte visual en Europa . El arte prehistórico europeo comenzó como pintura rupestre y petroglifo móvil del Paleolítico Superior y fue característico del período entre el Paleolítico y la Edad del Hierro . [1] Las historias escritas del arte europeo a menudo comienzan con las civilizaciones del Egeo , que datan del tercer milenio a. C. Sin embargo, un patrón consistente de desarrollo artístico dentro de Europa se vuelve claro solo con el arte de la Antigua Grecia , que fue adoptado y transformado por Roma y llevado; con el Imperio Romano , a gran parte de Europa, el norte de África y Asia occidental . [2]
La influencia del arte del período clásico creció y disminuyó durante los siguientes dos mil años, pareciendo deslizarse hacia un recuerdo lejano en partes del período medieval , para resurgir en el Renacimiento , sufrir un período de lo que algunos de los primeros historiadores del arte vieron como "decadencia" durante el período barroco , [3] para reaparecer en una forma refinada en el neoclasicismo [4] y renacer en el posmodernismo . [5]
Antes del siglo XIX, la Iglesia cristiana ejerció una gran influencia en el arte europeo, y los encargos de la Iglesia eran la principal fuente de trabajo para los artistas. En el mismo período, también se produjo un renovado interés por la mitología clásica, las grandes guerras, los héroes y heroínas, y los temas no relacionados con la religión. [6] La mayor parte del arte de los últimos 200 años se ha producido sin referencia a la religión y, a menudo, sin ninguna ideología en particular, pero el arte a menudo se ha visto influido por cuestiones políticas, ya sea que reflejaran las preocupaciones de los mecenas o del artista.
El arte europeo se organiza en una serie de períodos estilísticos que, históricamente, se superponen entre sí a medida que florecieron diferentes estilos en diferentes áreas. En términos generales, los períodos son: clásico , bizantino , medieval , gótico , renacentista , barroco , rococó , neoclásico , moderno , posmoderno y nueva pintura europea . [6]
El arte prehistórico europeo es una parte importante del patrimonio cultural europeo. [7] La historia del arte prehistórico suele dividirse en cuatro períodos principales: Edad de Piedra , Neolítico , Edad de Bronce y Edad de Hierro . La mayoría de los artefactos restantes de este período son pequeñas esculturas y pinturas rupestres.
Gran parte del arte prehistórico superviviente son pequeñas esculturas portátiles, con un pequeño grupo de figurillas femeninas de Venus como la Venus de Willendorf (24.000-22.000 a. C.) encontrada en Europa central; [8] la figurilla de Löwenmensch de 30 cm de altura de alrededor del 30.000 a. C. casi no tiene piezas que puedan relacionarse con ella. El reno nadador de alrededor del 11.000 a. C. es una de las mejores de una serie de tallas magdalenienses en hueso o asta de animales en el arte del Paleolítico superior , aunque son superadas en número por piezas grabadas, que a veces se clasifican como esculturas. [9] Con el comienzo del Mesolítico en Europa, la escultura figurativa se redujo en gran medida, [10] y siguió siendo un elemento menos común en el arte que la decoración en relieve de objetos prácticos hasta el período romano, a pesar de algunas obras como el caldero de Gundestrup de la Edad del Hierro europea y el carro solar de Trundholm de la Edad del Bronce . [11]
El arte rupestre europeo más antiguo data de hace 40.800 años y se puede encontrar en la cueva de El Castillo en España. [12] Otros sitios de pintura rupestre incluyen Lascaux , cueva de Altamira , Grotte de Cussac , Pech Merle , cueva de Niaux , cueva Chauvet , Font-de-Gaume , Creswell Crags, Nottinghamshire, Inglaterra, (grabados rupestres y bajorrelieves descubiertos en 2003), cueva de Coliboaia de Rumania (considerada la pintura rupestre más antigua de Europa central ) [13] y Magura, [1] Belogradchik, Bulgaria. [14] La pintura rupestre también se realizó en las paredes de los acantilados, pero menos de ellas han sobrevivido debido a la erosión. Un ejemplo bien conocido son las pinturas rupestres de Astuvansalmi en el área de Saimaa de Finlandia. Cuando Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola descubrió por primera vez en 1879 las pinturas rupestres de la cueva de Altamira (Cantabria, España), los académicos de la época las consideraron falsas. Recientes reevaluaciones y numerosos descubrimientos adicionales han demostrado su autenticidad, al tiempo que han estimulado el interés por el arte de los pueblos del Paleolítico superior. Las pinturas rupestres, realizadas con las herramientas más rudimentarias, también pueden proporcionar información valiosa sobre la cultura y las creencias de esa época.
El arte rupestre de la cuenca mediterránea ibérica presenta un estilo muy diferente, con la figura humana como protagonista, a menudo vista en grandes grupos, con batallas, danzas y cazas representadas, así como otras actividades y detalles como la vestimenta. Las figuras están generalmente representadas de forma bastante esquemática con pintura fina, y las relaciones entre los grupos de humanos y animales se representan con más cuidado que las figuras individuales. Otros grupos de arte rupestre menos numerosos, muchos grabados en lugar de pintados, muestran características similares. Se cree que los ejemplos ibéricos datan de un largo período que tal vez abarque el Paleolítico superior, el Mesolítico y el Neolítico temprano.
El arte celta prehistórico proviene de gran parte de la Europa de la Edad del Hierro y sobrevive principalmente en forma de trabajos en metal de alto nivel hábilmente decorados con diseños complejos, elegantes y en su mayoría abstractos, a menudo utilizando formas curvas y espirales. Hay cabezas humanas y algunos animales completamente representados, pero las figuras humanas de cuerpo entero de cualquier tamaño son tan raras que su ausencia puede representar un tabú religioso. Cuando los romanos conquistaron los territorios celtas, desapareció casi por completo, pero el estilo continuó en uso limitado en las Islas Británicas , y con la llegada del cristianismo revivió allí en el estilo insular de la Alta Edad Media.
La civilización minoica de Creta se considera la más antigua de Europa. [15] El arte minoico se caracteriza por imágenes imaginativas y una mano de obra excepcional. Sinclair Hood describió una "cualidad esencial del mejor arte minoico, la capacidad de crear una atmósfera de movimiento y vida aunque siguiendo un conjunto de convenciones altamente formales". [16] Forma parte de la agrupación más amplia del arte egeo , y en períodos posteriores llegó a tener durante un tiempo una influencia dominante sobre el arte cicládico . La madera y los textiles se han descompuesto, por lo que la mayoría de los ejemplos supervivientes del arte minoico son cerámica , sellos minoicos intrincadamente tallados , frescos de palacio que incluyen paisajes, pequeñas esculturas en varios materiales, joyas y trabajos en metal.
La relación del arte minoico con el de otras culturas contemporáneas y con el arte griego antiguo posterior ha sido muy discutida. Claramente dominó el arte micénico y el arte cicládico de los mismos períodos, [17] incluso después de que Creta fuera ocupada por los micénicos, pero solo algunos aspectos de la tradición sobrevivieron a la Edad Oscura griega después del colapso de la Grecia micénica . [18]
El arte minoico tiene una variedad de temas, muchos de los cuales aparecen en diferentes medios, aunque solo algunos estilos de cerámica incluyen escenas figurativas. El salto del toro aparece en la pintura y en varios tipos de escultura, y se cree que tenía un significado religioso; las cabezas de toro también son un tema popular en terracota y otros materiales escultóricos. No hay figuras que parezcan retratos de individuos, o que sean claramente de la realeza, y la identidad de las figuras religiosas es a menudo provisional, [19] y los estudiosos no están seguros de si son deidades, clérigos o devotos. [20] Del mismo modo, no está nada claro si las habitaciones pintadas eran "santuarios" o seculares; se ha argumentado que una habitación en Akrotiri era un dormitorio, con restos de una cama, o un santuario. [21]
A menudo se representan animales, incluida una variedad inusual de fauna marina; el " estilo marino " es un tipo de cerámica palaciega pintada de MM III y LM IA que pinta criaturas marinas, incluido pulpo, esparcidos por todo el vaso, y probablemente se originó a partir de escenas pintadas al fresco similares; [22] a veces aparecen en otros medios. Las escenas de caza y guerra, y caballos y jinetes, se encuentran principalmente en períodos posteriores, en obras quizás hechas por cretenses para un mercado micénico, o señores micénicos de Creta.
Aunque las figuras minoicas, ya sean humanas o animales, tienen un gran sentido de la vida y el movimiento, a menudo no son muy precisas y a veces es imposible identificar la especie; en comparación con el arte del Antiguo Egipto, suelen ser más vívidas, pero menos naturalistas. [23] En comparación con el arte de otras culturas antiguas, hay una alta proporción de figuras femeninas, aunque ahora se descarta la idea de que los minoicos solo tenían diosas y ningún dios. La mayoría de las figuras humanas están de perfil o en una versión de la convención egipcia con la cabeza y las piernas de perfil y el torso visto de frente; pero las figuras minoicas exageran rasgos como cinturas masculinas delgadas y grandes pechos femeninos. [24]
La antigua Grecia tuvo grandes pintores, grandes escultores y grandes arquitectos. El Partenón es un ejemplo de su arquitectura que ha perdurado hasta nuestros días. La escultura griega de mármol se describe a menudo como la forma más alta del arte clásico . La pintura sobre la cerámica de la antigua Grecia y la cerámica ofrece una visión particularmente informativa de la forma en que funcionaba la sociedad en la antigua Grecia. La pintura de vasos de figuras negras y la pintura de vasos de figuras rojas ofrecen muchos ejemplos sobrevivientes de lo que era la pintura griega. Algunos pintores griegos famosos en paneles de madera que se mencionan en los textos son Apeles , Zeuxis y Parrasio , sin embargo, no sobreviven ejemplos de pintura sobre panel de la antigua Grecia, solo descripciones escritas de sus contemporáneos o de romanos posteriores. Zeuxis vivió en 5-6 a. C. y se dice que fue el primero en usar sfumato . Según Plinio el Viejo , el realismo de sus pinturas era tal que los pájaros intentaron comerse las uvas pintadas. Apeles es descrito como el pintor más grande de la Antigüedad por su técnica perfecta en el dibujo, el color brillante y el modelado.
El arte romano estuvo influenciado por Grecia y puede tomarse en parte como descendiente de la pintura y escultura griegas antiguas, pero también estuvo fuertemente influenciado por el arte etrusco más local de Italia. La escultura romana es principalmente retratos derivados de las clases altas de la sociedad, así como representaciones de los dioses. Sin embargo, la pintura romana tiene características únicas importantes. Entre las pinturas romanas sobrevivientes se encuentran pinturas murales, muchas de las villas de Campania , en el sur de Italia, especialmente en Pompeya y Herculano . Dicha pintura se puede agrupar en cuatro "estilos" o períodos principales [26] y puede contener los primeros ejemplos de trampantojo , pseudoperspectiva y paisaje puro. [27]
Casi todos los retratos pintados que se conservan del mundo antiguo son un gran número de retratos de busto en forma de sarcófago encontrados en el cementerio de la Antigüedad Tardía de Al-Fayum . Dan una idea de la calidad que debían tener las mejores obras antiguas. También sobreviven un número muy reducido de miniaturas de libros ilustrados de la Antigüedad Tardía, y un número bastante mayor de copias de ellos del período medieval temprano. El arte cristiano primitivo surgió del arte popular romano, y más tarde del imperial, y adaptó su iconografía de estas fuentes.
La mayor parte del arte que sobrevivió del período medieval tenía un enfoque religioso, a menudo financiado por la Iglesia , individuos eclesiásticos poderosos como obispos , grupos comunales como abadías o mecenas seculares adinerados . Muchos tenían funciones litúrgicas específicas, como las cruces procesionales y los retablos , por ejemplo.
Una de las cuestiones centrales sobre el arte medieval es su falta de realismo. Con la caída de Roma se perdió gran parte del conocimiento de la perspectiva en el arte y de la comprensión de la figura humana . Pero el realismo no era la preocupación principal de los artistas medievales. Simplemente intentaban transmitir un mensaje religioso, una tarea que exige imágenes icónicas claras en lugar de imágenes reproducidas con precisión.
Periodo de tiempo : del siglo VI al siglo XV
El arte del período de migración es un término general para el arte de los pueblos "bárbaros" que se trasladaron a territorios que antes eran romanos. El arte celta de los siglos VII y VIII vio una fusión con las tradiciones germánicas a través del contacto con los anglosajones creando lo que se llama el estilo hiberno-sajón o arte insular , que sería muy influyente en el resto de la Edad Media. El arte merovingio describe el arte de los francos antes de aproximadamente el año 800, cuando el arte carolingio combinó influencias insulares con un renacimiento clásico autoconsciente, evolucionando hacia el arte otoniano . El arte anglosajón es el arte de Inglaterra después del período insular. Los manuscritos iluminados contienen casi toda la pintura sobreviviente del período, pero la arquitectura, la metalistería y los pequeños trabajos tallados en madera o marfil también fueron medios importantes.
El arte bizantino se superpone o se fusiona con lo que llamamos arte cristiano primitivo hasta el período iconoclasta de 730-843, cuando se destruyó la gran mayoría de las obras de arte con figuras; queda tan poco que hoy cualquier descubrimiento aporta nuevos conocimientos. Después de 843 y hasta 1453 hay una clara tradición artística bizantina. A menudo se trata del mejor arte de la Edad Media en términos de calidad de material y mano de obra, con una producción centrada en Constantinopla. El logro más importante del arte bizantino fueron los frescos y mosaicos monumentales en el interior de las iglesias con cúpulas, la mayoría de los cuales no han sobrevivido debido a los desastres naturales y la apropiación de las iglesias para convertirlas en mezquitas.
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El arte románico se refiere al período que va desde el año 1000 hasta el auge del arte gótico en el siglo XII. Este fue un período de creciente prosperidad y el primero en el que se utilizó un estilo coherente en toda Europa, desde Escandinavia hasta Sicilia. El arte románico es vigoroso y directo, originalmente era de colores brillantes y, a menudo, muy sofisticado. Las vidrieras y el esmalte sobre metal se convirtieron en medios importantes y se desarrollaron esculturas de mayor tamaño en bulto redondo, aunque el altorrelieve fue la técnica principal. Su arquitectura está dominada por muros gruesos y ventanas y arcos de medio punto, con abundante decoración tallada.
Gothic art is a variable term depending on the craft, place and time. The term originated with Gothic architecture in 1140, but Gothic painting did not appear until around 1200 (this date has many qualifications), when it diverged from Romanesque style. Gothic sculpture was born in France in 1144 with the renovation of the Abbey Church of S. Denis and spread throughout Europe, by the 13th century it had become the international style, replacing Romanesque. International Gothic describes Gothic art from about 1360 to 1430, after which Gothic art merges into Renaissance art at different times in different places. During this period forms such as painting, in fresco and on panel, become newly important, and the end of the period includes new media such as prints.
The Renaissance is characterized by a focus on the arts of Ancient Greece and Rome, which led to many changes in both the technical aspects of painting and sculpture, as well as to their subject matter. It began in Italy, a country rich in Roman heritage as well as material prosperity to fund artists. During the Renaissance, painters began to enhance the realism of their work by using new techniques in perspective, thus representing three dimensions more authentically. Artists also began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of Titian's portraits and the development of sfumato and chiaroscuro by Leonardo da Vinci. Sculptors, too, began to rediscover many ancient techniques such as contrapposto. Following with the humanist spirit of the age, art became more secular in subject matter, depicting ancient mythology in addition to Christian themes. This genre of art is often referred to as Renaissance Classicism. In the North, the most important Renaissance innovation was the widespread use of oil paints, which allowed for greater colour and intensity.
During the late 13th century and early 14th century, much of the painting in Italy was Byzantine in character, notably that of Duccio of Siena and Cimabue of Florence, while Pietro Cavallini in Rome was more Gothic in style. During the 13th century, Italian sculptors began to draw inspiration not only from medieval prototypes, but also from ancient works.[30]
In 1290, Giotto began painting in a manner that was less traditional and more based upon observation of nature. His famous cycle at the Scrovegni Chapel, Padua, is seen as the beginnings of a Renaissance style.
Other painters of the 14th century were carried the Gothic style to great elaboration and detail. Notable among these painters are Simone Martini and Gentile da Fabriano.
In the Netherlands, the technique of painting in oils rather than tempera, led itself to a form of elaboration that was not dependent upon the application of gold leaf and embossing, but upon the minute depiction of the natural world. The art of painting textures with great realism evolved at this time. Dutch painters such as Jan van Eyck and Hugo van der Goes were to have great influence on Late Gothic and Early Renaissance painting.
The ideas of the Renaissance first emerged in the city-state of Florence, Italy. The sculptor Donatello returned to classical techniques such as contrapposto and classical subjects like the unsupported nude—his second sculpture of David was the first free-standing bronze nude created in Europe since the Roman Empire. The sculptor and architect Brunelleschi studied the architectural ideas of ancient Roman buildings for inspiration. Masaccio perfected elements like composition, individual expression, and human form to paint frescoes, especially those in the Brancacci Chapel, of surprising elegance, drama, and emotion.
A remarkable number of these major artists worked on different portions of the Florence Cathedral. Brunelleschi's dome for the cathedral was one of the first truly revolutionary architectural innovations since the Gothic flying buttress. Donatello created many of its sculptures. Giotto and Lorenzo Ghiberti also contributed to the cathedral.
High Renaissance artists include such figures as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Raffaello Sanzio.
The 15th-century artistic developments in Italy (for example, the interest in perspectival systems, in depicting anatomy, and in classical cultures) matured during the 16th century, accounting for the designations "Early Renaissance" for the 15th century and "High Renaissance" for the 16th century. Although no singular style characterizes the High Renaissance, the art of those most closely associated with this period—Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, and Titian—exhibits an astounding mastery, both technical and aesthetic. High Renaissance artists created works of such authority that generations of later artists relied on these artworks for instruction. These exemplary artistic creations further elevated the prestige of artists. Artists could claim divine inspiration, thereby raising visual art to a status formerly given only to poetry. Thus, painters, sculptors, and architects came into their own, successfully claiming for their work a high position among the fine arts. In a sense, 16th- century masters created a new profession with its own rights of expression and its own venerable character.
Early Netherlandish painting developed (but did not strictly invent) the technique of oil painting to allow greater control in painting minute detail with realism—Jan van Eyck (1366–1441) was a figure in the movement from illuminated manuscripts to panel paintings.
Hieronymus Bosch (1450?–1516), a Dutch painter, is another important figure in the Northern Renaissance. In his paintings, he used religious themes, but combined them with grotesque fantasies, colorful imagery, and peasant folk legends. His paintings often reflect the confusion and anguish associated with the end of the Middle Ages.
Albrecht Dürer introduced Italian Renaissance style to Germany at the end of the 15th century, and dominated German Renaissance art.
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In European art, Renaissance Classicism spawned two different movements—Mannerism and the Baroque. Mannerism, a reaction against the idealist perfection of Classicism, employed distortion of light and spatial frameworks in order to emphasize the emotional content of a painting and the emotions of the painter. The work of El Greco is a particularly clear example of Mannerism in painting during the late 16th, early 17th centuries. Northern Mannerism took longer to develop, and was largely a movement of the last half of the 16th century. Baroque art took the representationalism of the Renaissance to new heights, emphasizing detail, movement, lighting, and drama in their search for beauty. Perhaps the best known Baroque painters are Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Peter Paul Rubens, and Diego Velázquez.
A rather different art developed out of northern realist traditions in 17th-century Dutch Golden Age painting, which had very little religious art, and little history painting, instead playing a crucial part in developing secular genres such as still life, genre paintings of everyday scenes, and landscape painting. While the Baroque nature of Rembrandt's art is clear, the label is less use for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while also continuing to produce the traditional categories.
Baroque art is often seen as part of the Counter-Reformation—the artistic element of the revival of spiritual life in the Roman Catholic Church. Additionally, the emphasis that Baroque art placed on grandeur is seen as Absolutist in nature. Religious and political themes were widely explored within the Baroque artistic context, and both paintings and sculptures were characterised by a strong element of drama, emotion and theatricality. Famous Baroque artists include Caravaggio or Rubens.[34] Artemisia Gentileschi was another noteworthy artist, who was inspired by Caravaggio's style. Baroque art was particularly ornate and elaborate in nature, often using rich, warm colours with dark undertones. Pomp and grandeur were important elements of the Baroque artistic movement in general, as can be seen when Louis XIV said, "I am grandeur incarnate"; many Baroque artists served kings who tried to realize this goal. Baroque art in many ways was similar to Renaissance art; as a matter of fact, the term was initially used in a derogative manner to describe post-Renaissance art and architecture which was over-elaborate.[34] Baroque art can be seen as a more elaborate and dramatic re-adaptation of late Renaissance art.
By the 18th century, however, Baroque art was falling out of fashion as many deemed it too melodramatic and also gloomy, and it developed into the Rococo, which emerged in France. Rococo art was even more elaborate than the Baroque, but it was less serious and more playful.[35] Whilst the Baroque used rich, strong colours, Rococo used pale, creamier shades. The artistic movement no longer placed an emphasis on politics and religion, focusing instead on lighter themes such as romance, celebration, and appreciation of nature. Rococo art also contrasted the Baroque as it often refused symmetry in favor of asymmetrical designs. Furthermore, it sought inspiration from the artistic forms and ornamentation of Far Eastern Asia, resulting in the rise in favour of porcelain figurines and chinoiserie in general.[36] The 18th-century style flourished for a short while; nevertheless, the Rococo style soon fell out of favor, being seen by many as a gaudy and superficial movement emphasizing aesthetics over meaning. Neoclassicism in many ways developed as a counter movement of the Rococo, the impetus being a sense of disgust directed towards the latter's florid qualities.
Throughout the 18th century, a counter movement opposing the Rococo sprang up in different parts of Europe, commonly known as Neoclassicism. It despised the perceived superficiality and frivolity of Rococo art, and desired for a return to the simplicity, order and 'purism' of classical antiquity, especially ancient Greece and Rome. The movement was in part also influenced by the Renaissance, which itself was strongly influenced by classical art. Neoclassicism was the artistic component of the intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment; the Enlightenment was idealistic, and put its emphasis on objectivity, reason and empirical truth. Neoclassicism had become widespread in Europe throughout the 18th century, especially in the United Kingdom, which saw great works of Neoclassical architecture spring up during this period; Neoclassicism's fascination with classical antiquity can be seen in the popularity of the Grand Tour during this decade, where wealthy aristocrats travelled to the ancient ruins of Italy and Greece. Nevertheless, a defining moment for Neoclassicism came during the French Revolution in the late 18th century; in France, Rococo art was replaced with the preferred Neoclassical art, which was seen as more serious than the former movement. In many ways, Neoclassicism can be seen as a political movement as well as an artistic and cultural one.[37] Neoclassical art places an emphasis on order, symmetry and classical simplicity; common themes in Neoclassical art include courage and war, as were commonly explored in ancient Greek and Roman art. Ingres, Canova, and Jacques-Louis David are among the best-known neoclassicists.[38]
Just as Mannerism rejected Classicism, so did Romanticism reject the ideas of the Enlightenment and the aesthetic of the Neoclassicists. Romanticism rejected the highly objective and ordered nature of Neoclassicism, and opted for a more individual and emotional approach to the arts.[39] Romanticism placed an emphasis on nature, especially when aiming to portray the power and beauty of the natural world, and emotions, and sought a highly personal approach to art. Romantic art was about individual feelings, not common themes, such as in Neoclassicism; in such a way, Romantic art often used colours in order to express feelings and emotion.[39] Similarly to Neoclassicism, Romantic art took much of its inspiration from ancient Greek and Roman art and mythology, yet, unlike Neoclassical, this inspiration was primarily used as a way to create symbolism and imagery. Romantic art also takes much of its aesthetic qualities from medievalism and Gothicism, as well as mythology and folklore. Among the greatest Romantic artists were Eugène Delacroix, Francisco Goya, J. M. W. Turner, John Constable, Caspar David Friedrich, Thomas Cole, and William Blake.[38]
Most artists attempted to take a centrist approach which adopted different features of Neoclassicist and Romanticist styles, in order to synthesize them. The different attempts took place within the French Academy, and collectively are called Academic art. Adolphe William Bouguereau is considered a chief example of this stream of art.
In the early 19th century the face of Europe, however, became radically altered by industrialization. Poverty, squalor, and desperation were to be the fate of the new working class created by the "revolution". In response to these changes going on in society, the movement of Realism emerged. Realism sought to accurately portray the conditions and hardships of the poor in the hopes of changing society. In contrast with Romanticism, which was essentially optimistic about mankind, Realism offered a stark vision of poverty and despair. Similarly, while Romanticism glorified nature, Realism portrayed life in the depths of an urban wasteland. Like Romanticism, Realism was a literary as well as an artistic movement. The great Realist painters include Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Camille Corot, Honoré Daumier, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas (both considered as Impressionists), and Thomas Eakins, among others.
The response of architecture to industrialisation, in stark contrast to the other arts, was to veer towards historicism. Although the railway stations built during this period are often considered the truest reflections of its spirit – they are sometimes called "the cathedrals of the age" – the main movements in architecture during the Industrial Age were revivals of styles from the distant past, such as the Gothic Revival. Related movements were the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, who attempted to return art to its state of "purity" prior to Raphael, and the Arts and Crafts Movement, which reacted against the impersonality of mass-produced goods and advocated a return to medieval craftsmanship.
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Out of the naturalist ethic of Realism grew a major artistic movement, Impressionism. The Impressionists pioneered the use of light in painting as they attempted to capture light as seen from the human eye. Edgar Degas,Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, were all involved in the Impressionist movement. As a direct outgrowth of Impressionism came the development of Post-Impressionism. Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat are the best known Post-Impressionists.
Following the Impressionists and the Post-Impressionists came Fauvism, often considered the first "modern" genre of art. Just as the Impressionists revolutionized light, so did the fauvists rethink color, painting their canvases in bright, wild hues. After the Fauvists, modern art began to develop in all its forms, ranging from Expressionism, concerned with evoking emotion through objective works of art, to Cubism, the art of transposing a four-dimensional reality onto a flat canvas, to Abstract art. These new art forms pushed the limits of traditional notions of "art" and corresponded to the similar rapid changes that were taking place in human society, technology, and thought.
Surrealism is often classified as a form of Modern Art. However, the Surrealists themselves have objected to the study of surrealism as an era in art history, claiming that it oversimplifies the complexity of the movement (which they say is not an artistic movement), misrepresents the relationship of surrealism to aesthetics, and falsely characterizes ongoing surrealism as a finished, historically encapsulated era. Other forms of Modern art (some of which border on Contemporary art) include:
Time Period:
Modern art foreshadowed several characteristics of what would later be defined as postmodern art; as a matter of fact, several modern art movements can often be classified as both modern and postmodern, such as pop art. Postmodern art, for instance, places a strong emphasis on irony, parody and humour in general; modern art started to develop a more ironic approach to art which would later advance in a postmodern context. Postmodern art sees the blurring between the high and fine arts with low-end and commercial art; modern art started to experiment with this blurring.[39]Recent developments in art have been characterised by a significant expansion of what can now deemed to be art, in terms of materials, media, activity and concept. Conceptual art in particular has had a wide influence. This started literally as the replacement of concept for a made object, one of the intentions of which was to refute the commodification of art. However, it now usually refers to an artwork where there is an object, but the main claim for the work is made for the thought process that has informed it. The aspect of commercialism has returned to the work.
There has also been an increase in art referring to previous movements and artists, and gaining validity from that reference.
Postmodernism in art, which has grown since the 1960s, differs from Modernism in as much as Modern art movements were primarily focused on their own activities and values, while Postmodernism uses the whole range of previous movements as a reference point. This has by definition generated a relativistic outlook, accompanied by irony and a certain disbelief in values, as each can be seen to be replaced by another. Another result of this has been the growth of commercialism and celebrity. Postmodern art has questioned common rules and guidelines of what is regarded as 'fine art', merging low art with the fine arts until none is fully distinguishable.[40][41] Before the advent of postmodernism, the fine arts were characterised by a form of aesthetic quality, elegance, craftsmanship, finesse and intellectual stimulation which was intended to appeal to the upper or educated classes; this distinguished high art from low art, which, in turn, was seen as tacky, kitsch, easily made and lacking in much or any intellectual stimulation, art which was intended to appeal to the masses. Postmodern art blurred these distinctions, bringing a strong element of kitsch, commercialism and campness into contemporary fine art;[39] what is nowadays seen as fine art may have been seen as low art before postmodernism revolutionised the concept of what high or fine art truly is.[39] In addition, the postmodern nature of contemporary art leaves a lot of space for individualism within the art scene; for instance, postmodern art often takes inspiration from past artistic movements, such as Gothic or Baroque art, and both juxtaposes and recycles styles from these past periods in a different context.[39]
Some surrealists in particular Joan Miró, who called for the "murder of painting" (In numerous interviews dating from the 1930s onwards, Miró expressed contempt for conventional painting methods and his desire to "kill", "murder", or "rape" them in favor of more contemporary means of expression).[42] have denounced or attempted to "supersede" painting, and there have also been other anti-painting trends among artistic movements, such as that of Dada and conceptual art. The trend away from painting in the late 20th century has been countered by various movements, for example the continuation of Minimal Art, Lyrical Abstraction, Pop Art, Op Art, New Realism, Photorealism, Neo Geo, Neo-expressionism, New European Painting, Stuckism, Excessivism and various other important and influential painterly directions.
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![Pulpit in the Pisa Baptistery by Nicola Pisano; 1260; marble; height: 4.6 m.[31]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Pisa,_battistero_di_San_Giovanni_(45).jpg/1280px-Pisa,_battistero_di_San_Giovanni_(45).jpg)
![Crucifix; by Cimabue; circa 1285; tempera on panel; 4.29 x 3.83 m; San Domenico (Arezzo, Italy)[32]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/CrocifissoCimabue-Arezzo-Photo_taken_by_Senet._April_20,_2010-Perspective_correction,_crop_and_blackframe_with_GIMP_by_Paolo_Villa_2019.jpg/1280px-CrocifissoCimabue-Arezzo-Photo_taken_by_Senet._April_20,_2010-Perspective_correction,_crop_and_blackframe_with_GIMP_by_Paolo_Villa_2019.jpg)
![Crucifix; Giotto; circa 1300; tempera on panel; 5.78 x 4.06 m; Santa Maria Novella (Florence, Italy)[33]](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Giotto._the-crucifix-1290-1300_Florence,_Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg/1280px-Giotto._the-crucifix-1290-1300_Florence,_Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg)
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