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Constitución de los Estados Unidos

Lectura de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos de 1787

La Constitución de los Estados Unidos es la ley suprema de los Estados Unidos . [3] Reemplazó a los Artículos de la Confederación , la primera constitución de la nación , el 4 de marzo de 1789. Originalmente incluía siete artículos, la Constitución delinea el marco del gobierno federal . Los primeros tres artículos de la Constitución encarnan la doctrina de la separación de poderes , en la que el gobierno federal se divide en tres ramas: la legislativa , que consiste en el Congreso bicameral ( Artículo I ); la ejecutiva , que consiste en el presidente y los funcionarios subordinados ( Artículo II ); y la judicial , que consiste en la Corte Suprema y otros tribunales federales ( Artículo III ). El artículo IV , el artículo V y el artículo VI encarnan conceptos de federalismo , que describen los derechos y responsabilidades de los gobiernos estatales , los estados en relación con el gobierno federal y el proceso compartido de enmienda constitucional. El artículo VII establece el procedimiento utilizado posteriormente por los 13 estados para ratificarla . La Constitución de los Estados Unidos es la constitución nacional escrita y codificada más antigua y de mayor duración que sigue vigente en el mundo. [4] [a]

La redacción de la Constitución , a menudo denominada como su redacción, se completó en la Convención Constitucional , que se reunió en el Independence Hall de Filadelfia entre el 25 de mayo y el 17 de septiembre de 1787. [5] Los delegados a la convención fueron elegidos por las legislaturas estatales de 12 de los 13 estados originales ; Rhode Island se negó a enviar delegados. [6] El mandato inicial de la convención se limitó a enmendar los Artículos de la Confederación, que habían demostrado ser altamente ineficaces para satisfacer las necesidades de la joven nación. [7] Sin embargo, casi de inmediato, los delegados comenzaron a considerar medidas para reemplazar los Artículos. [8] La primera propuesta discutida, presentada por delegados de Virginia , exigía un Congreso bicameral (dos cámaras) que se elegiría sobre una base proporcional en función de la población del estado, un jefe ejecutivo electo y un poder judicial designado. [9] Una alternativa al Plan de Virginia , conocida como el Plan de Nueva Jersey , también exigía un ejecutivo electo pero conservaba la estructura legislativa creada por los Artículos, un Congreso unicameral donde todos los estados tenían un voto. [10]

El 19 de junio de 1787, los delegados rechazaron el Plan de Nueva Jersey con tres estados votando a favor, siete en contra y uno dividido. La derrota del plan condujo a una serie de compromisos centrados principalmente en dos cuestiones: la esclavitud y la representación proporcional. [11] [12] El primero de ellos enfrentó a los estados del Norte, donde la esclavitud se estaba aboliendo lentamente, contra los estados del Sur, cuyas economías agrícolas dependían del trabajo esclavo. [13] La cuestión de la representación proporcional era de similar preocupación para los estados menos poblados, que bajo los Artículos tenían el mismo poder que los estados más grandes. [14] Para satisfacer los intereses del Sur, particularmente en Georgia y Carolina del Sur, los delegados acordaron proteger el comercio de esclavos, es decir, la importación de esclavos, durante 20 años. [15] La esclavitud fue protegida aún más al permitir que los estados contaran tres quintas partes de sus esclavos como parte de sus poblaciones, con el propósito de representación en el gobierno federal, y al requerir la devolución de los esclavos fugitivos a sus dueños, incluso si fueron capturados en estados donde la esclavitud había sido abolida. [16] Finalmente, los delegados adoptaron el Compromiso de Connecticut , que proponía un Congreso con representación proporcional en la cámara baja y representación igualitaria en la cámara alta (el Senado) dando a cada estado dos senadores. [17] Si bien estos compromisos mantuvieron unida a la Unión y ayudaron a la ratificación de la Constitución, la esclavitud continuó durante seis décadas más y los estados menos poblados continúan teniendo una representación desproporcionada en el Senado de los EE. UU. y el Colegio Electoral . [18] [12]

Desde que la Constitución entró en vigor en 1789, ha sido enmendada 27 veces. [19] [20] Las primeras diez enmiendas, conocidas colectivamente como la Declaración de Derechos , ofrecen protecciones específicas de la libertad y la justicia individual y ponen restricciones a los poderes del gobierno dentro de los estados de EE. UU. [21] [22] La mayoría de las 17 enmiendas posteriores amplían las protecciones de los derechos civiles individuales. Otras abordan cuestiones relacionadas con la autoridad federal o modifican los procesos y procedimientos gubernamentales. Las enmiendas a la Constitución de los Estados Unidos, a diferencia de las realizadas a muchas constituciones en todo el mundo, se adjuntan al documento. La Constitución original de los Estados Unidos [23] fue escrita a mano en cinco páginas de pergamino por Jacob Shallus . [24] La primera constitución permanente, [b] es interpretada, complementada e implementada por un gran cuerpo de derecho constitucional federal y ha influido en las constituciones de otras naciones.

Fondo

Primer gobierno

Del 5 de septiembre de 1774 al 1 de marzo de 1781, el Segundo Congreso Continental , convocado en Filadelfia en lo que hoy se llama Independence Hall , funcionó como gobierno provisional de los Estados Unidos. Los delegados al Primer Congreso Continental en 1774 y luego al Segundo Congreso Continental de 1775 a 1781 fueron elegidos en gran medida de los comités revolucionarios de correspondencia en varias colonias en lugar de a través de los gobiernos coloniales de las Trece Colonias . [27]

Artículos de la Confederación

Los Artículos de la Confederación y la Unión Perpetua fueron la primera constitución de los Estados Unidos. [28] El documento fue redactado por un comité designado por el Segundo Congreso Continental a mediados de junio de 1777 y fue adoptado por el Congreso en pleno a mediados de noviembre de ese año. La ratificación por parte de las 13 colonias tomó más de tres años y se completó el 1 de marzo de 1781. Los Artículos otorgaban poco poder al gobierno central. Si bien el Congreso de la Confederación tenía algunas capacidades de toma de decisiones, carecía de poderes de ejecución. La implementación de la mayoría de las decisiones, incluidas las enmiendas a los Artículos, requería la aprobación legislativa de los 13 estados recién formados. [29] [30]

A pesar de estas limitaciones, basándose en la autoridad del Congreso otorgada en el Artículo 9, la liga de estados era considerada tan fuerte como cualquier confederación republicana similar jamás formada. [31] El problema principal era, en palabras de George Washington , "no había dinero". [32] El Congreso Confederado podía imprimir dinero, pero no valía nada, y aunque el Congreso podía pedir dinero prestado, no podía devolverlo. [32] Ningún estado pagaba su parte de impuestos para apoyar al gobierno, y algunos no pagaban nada. Unos pocos estados sí pagaban los intereses de la deuda nacional que debían sus ciudadanos, pero nada más, y no se pagaban intereses sobre las deudas contraídas con gobiernos extranjeros. En 1786, Estados Unidos se enfrentaba a un impago de sus deudas pendientes. [32]

En virtud de los Artículos, Estados Unidos tenía poca capacidad para defender su soberanía. La mayoría de las tropas del ejército de 625 hombres de la nación estaban desplegadas frente a fuertes británicos que no representaban una amenaza en suelo estadounidense. Los soldados no recibían su salario, algunos desertaban y otros amenazaban con amotinarse. [33] España cerró Nueva Orleans al comercio estadounidense, a pesar de las protestas de los funcionarios estadounidenses. Cuando los piratas berberiscos comenzaron a apoderarse de barcos comerciales estadounidenses, el Tesoro no tenía fondos para pagar el rescate. Si una crisis militar requería una acción, el Congreso no tenía crédito ni poder impositivo para financiar una respuesta. [32]

En el ámbito nacional, los Artículos de la Confederación no conseguían unificar los diversos sentimientos e intereses de los distintos estados. Aunque en 1783 se firmó el Tratado de París entre Gran Bretaña y Estados Unidos, en el que se nombraban todos los estados americanos, varios estados procedieron a violarlo. Nueva York y Carolina del Sur procesaron repetidamente a los leales por actividades en tiempos de guerra y redistribuyeron sus tierras. [32] Las legislaturas estatales individuales imponían embargos de forma independiente, negociaban directamente con autoridades extranjeras, formaban ejércitos y hacían la guerra, todo ello violando la letra y el espíritu de los Artículos. [ cita requerida ]

En septiembre de 1786, durante una convención interestatal para discutir y desarrollar un consenso sobre la reversión de las barreras comerciales proteccionistas que cada estado había erigido, James Madison cuestionó si los Artículos de la Confederación eran un pacto vinculante o incluso un gobierno viable. Connecticut no pagó nada y "se negó positivamente" a pagar las contribuciones estadounidenses durante dos años. [34] Un rumor en ese momento era que un partido sedicioso de legisladores de Nueva York había iniciado una conversación con el virrey de Canadá . Al sur, se decía que los británicos estaban financiando abiertamente las incursiones de los indios Creek en Georgia, y el estado estaba bajo la ley marcial . [35] Además, durante la Rebelión de Shays (agosto de 1786 - junio de 1787) en Massachusetts, el Congreso no pudo proporcionar dinero para apoyar a un estado constituyente en peligro. El general Benjamin Lincoln se vio obligado a recaudar fondos de los comerciantes de Boston para pagar un ejército de voluntarios. [36]

El Congreso estaba paralizado. No podía hacer nada significativo sin nueve estados, y algunas leyes requerían que estuvieran presentes los 13. Cuando un estado presentaba solo un miembro presente, su voto no se contaba. Si la delegación de un estado estaba dividida en partes iguales, su voto no podía contarse para el requisito de los nueve miembros. [37] El Congreso de la Confederación había "prácticamente dejado de intentar gobernar". [38] La visión de una nación respetable entre las naciones parecía desvanecerse a los ojos de revolucionarios como George Washington , Benjamin Franklin y Rufus King . Su sueño de una república , una nación sin gobernantes hereditarios, con el poder derivado del pueblo en elecciones frecuentes, estaba en duda. [39] [40]

El 21 de febrero de 1787, el Congreso de la Confederación convocó una convención de delegados estatales en Filadelfia para proponer revisiones de los Artículos. [41] A diferencia de intentos anteriores, la convención no tenía como objetivo la aprobación de nuevas leyes o modificaciones parciales, sino el "único y expreso propósito de revisar los Artículos de la Confederación". La convención no se limitaba al comercio; más bien, tenía como objetivo "hacer que la constitución federal fuera adecuada a las exigencias del gobierno y la preservación de la Unión". La propuesta podría entrar en vigor cuando fuera aprobada por el Congreso y los estados. [42]

Historia

Redacción de 1787

Escena de la firma de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos el 17 de septiembre de 1787 , un retrato de 1940 de Howard Chandler Christy que representa la firma de la Constitución en Filadelfia

El día señalado, el 14 de mayo de 1787, sólo estuvieron presentes las delegaciones de Virginia y Pensilvania, y la reunión inaugural de la convención se pospuso por falta de quórum. [43] El 25 de mayo se reunió un quórum de siete estados y comenzaron las deliberaciones. Finalmente, estuvieron representados 12 estados, y Rhode Island se negó a participar. De los 74 delegados designados por los estados, asistieron 55. [6] Los delegados estaban convencidos en general de que un gobierno central eficaz con una amplia gama de poderes ejecutables debía reemplazar al Congreso más débil establecido por los Artículos de la Confederación. [ cita requerida ]

Al inicio de la convención surgieron dos planes para estructurar el gobierno federal:

El 31 de mayo, la Convención se transformó en el Comité Plenario , encargado de considerar el Plan de Virginia. El 13 de junio, el comité presentó las resoluciones de Virginia en su forma enmendada. El Plan de Nueva Jersey se presentó en respuesta al Plan de Virginia. [ cita requerida ]

Un comité de once miembros, que incluía un delegado de cada estado representado, se reunió del 2 al 16 de julio [44] para elaborar un compromiso sobre la cuestión de la representación en la legislatura federal. Todos estuvieron de acuerdo en una forma republicana de gobierno basada en la representación del pueblo en los estados. Para la legislatura, se debían decidir dos cuestiones: cómo se distribuirían los votos entre los estados en el Congreso y cómo se elegirían los representantes. En su informe, ahora conocido como el Compromiso de Connecticut (o "Gran Compromiso"), el comité propuso una representación proporcional de los escaños en la Cámara de Representantes basada en la población (con el pueblo votando a los representantes) y una representación igualitaria para cada estado en el Senado (con los legisladores de cada estado eligiendo generalmente a sus respectivos senadores), y que todos los proyectos de ley sobre cuestiones económicas se originarían en la Cámara. [45]

El Gran Compromiso puso fin al estancamiento entre patriotas y nacionalistas, y dio lugar a numerosos compromisos más en un espíritu de conciliación. Había intereses sectoriales que equilibrar con el Compromiso de los Tres Quintos ; la reconciliación en cuanto al mandato presidencial , los poderes y el método de selección; y la jurisdicción del poder judicial federal. [ cita requerida ]

El 24 de julio, un Comité de Detalle , que incluía a John Rutledge (Carolina del Sur), Edmund Randolph (Virginia), Nathaniel Gorham (Massachusetts), Oliver Ellsworth (Connecticut) y James Wilson (Pensilvania), fue elegido para redactar una constitución detallada que reflejara las resoluciones aprobadas por la convención hasta ese momento. [46] La Convención entró en receso del 26 de julio al 6 de agosto para esperar el informe de este "Comité de Detalle". En general, el informe del comité se ajustó a las resoluciones adoptadas por la convención, añadiendo algunos elementos. Se presentó una constitución de veintitrés artículos (más el preámbulo). [47]

Del 6 de agosto al 10 de septiembre, se discutió el informe del comité de detalle, sección por sección y cláusula por cláusula. Se atendieron los detalles y se alcanzaron más compromisos. [44] [46] Hacia el final de estas discusiones, el 8 de septiembre, se designó un Comité de Estilo y Ordenación, que incluía a Alexander Hamilton de Nueva York , William Samuel Johnson de Connecticut , Rufus King de Massachusetts , James Madison de Virginia y Gouverneur Morris de Pensilvania, para destilar un borrador final de constitución a partir de los 23 artículos aprobados. [46] El borrador final, presentado a la convención el 12 de septiembre, contenía siete artículos, un preámbulo y un respaldo final , del cual Morris fue el autor principal. [6] El comité también presentó una propuesta de carta para acompañar la constitución cuando se entregara al Congreso. [48]

El documento final, redactado por Jacob Shallus , [49] fue examinado el lunes 17 de septiembre en la sesión final de la convención. Varios delegados se mostraron decepcionados por el resultado, una serie improvisada de compromisos desafortunados. Algunos delegados se marcharon antes de la ceremonia y otros tres se negaron a firmar. De los treinta y nueve firmantes, Benjamin Franklin resumió, dirigiéndose a la convención: "Hay varias partes de esta Constitución que no apruebo en este momento, pero no estoy seguro de que nunca las apruebe". Aceptaría la Constitución "porque no espero nada mejor y porque no estoy seguro de que no sea la mejor". [50]

Los defensores de la Constitución estaban ansiosos por obtener el apoyo unánime de los doce estados representados en la convención. La fórmula que aceptaron para la aprobación final fue "Hecho en la Convención, por el consentimiento unánime de los Estados presentes". Al final de la convención, la propuesta fue aprobada por once delegaciones estatales y el único delegado restante de Nueva York, Alexander Hamilton. [51]

Ratificación por los estados

Fechas en que los 13 estados originales de EE. UU. ratificaron la Constitución

Tres días después de su firma, el 17 de septiembre de 1787, la Constitución fue presentada al Congreso de la Confederación , que entonces se reunía en la ciudad de Nueva York, la capital temporal de la nación. [52] [53] [54] El documento, originalmente concebido como una revisión de los Artículos de la Confederación, introdujo en cambio una forma de gobierno completamente nueva. [55] [56] [57] Si bien los miembros del Congreso tenían el poder de rechazarlo, votaron por unanimidad el 28 de septiembre para enviar la propuesta a los trece estados para su ratificación . [58] [59] Según el proceso descrito en el Artículo VII de la Constitución propuesta, las legislaturas estatales tenían la tarea de organizar "Convenciones Federales" para ratificar el documento. Este proceso ignoró la disposición de enmienda de los Artículos de la Confederación que requería la aprobación unánime de todos los estados. En cambio, el Artículo VII exigía la ratificación de solo nueve de los 13 estados, una mayoría de dos tercios. [60] [29] [61]

Pronto surgieron dos facciones, una que apoyaba la Constitución, los federalistas , y la otra que se oponía a ella, los llamados antifederalistas . [62] [63] Durante los meses siguientes, la propuesta fue debatida, criticada y explicada cláusula por cláusula. En el estado de Nueva York , en ese momento un foco de antifederalismo, tres delegados de la Convención de Filadelfia que también eran miembros del Congreso —Hamilton , Madison y Jay— publicaron una serie de comentarios, ahora conocidos como The Federalist Papers , en apoyo de la ratificación. [64] [65]

Antes de fin de año, tres legislaturas estatales votaron a favor de la ratificación. Delaware fue el primero, votando unánimemente 30-0; Pensilvania el segundo, aprobando la medida 46-23; [66] [67] [68] y Nueva Jersey el tercero, también registrando una votación unánime. [69] Al comenzar 1788, Connecticut y Georgia siguieron el liderazgo de Delaware con votos casi unánimes, pero el resultado se volvió menos seguro a medida que los líderes de estados clave como Virginia, Nueva York y Massachusetts expresaron preocupaciones sobre la falta de protección de los derechos de las personas. [70] [71] [72] [73] Temiendo la perspectiva de la derrota, los federalistas cedieron, prometiendo que si se adoptaba la Constitución, se agregarían enmiendas para asegurar las libertades individuales. [74] Con eso, la posición de los antifederalistas se derrumbó. [75]

El 21 de junio de 1788, New Hampshire se convirtió en el noveno estado en ratificar el tratado. Tres meses después, el 17 de septiembre, el Congreso de la Confederación certificó la ratificación de once estados y aprobó resoluciones que fijaban las fechas para elegir a los primeros senadores y representantes, el primer miércoles de enero (7 de enero de 1789); elegir al primer presidente, el primer miércoles de febrero (4 de febrero); y comenzar oficialmente el nuevo gobierno, el primer miércoles de marzo (4 de marzo), cuando el primer Congreso se reuniría en la ciudad de Nueva York. [76] Como acto final, el Congreso de la Confederación acordó comprar 10 millas cuadradas de Maryland y Virginia para establecer una capital permanente.

Carolina del Norte esperó para ratificar la Constitución hasta que el nuevo Congreso aprobara la Declaración de Derechos , y la ratificación de Rhode Island sólo se produciría después de la amenaza de un embargo comercial. [77] [78]

Influencias

John Locke , autor de Dos tratados sobre el gobierno civil

La Constitución de los Estados Unidos era federal y estuvo muy influida por el estudio de la Carta Magna y otras federaciones, tanto antiguas como existentes. La cláusula de debido proceso de la Constitución se basó en parte en el derecho consuetudinario y en la Carta Magna (1215), que se había convertido en el fundamento de la libertad inglesa contra el poder arbitrario ejercido por un gobernante. [79] [80] La idea de separación de poderes inherente a la Constitución se inspiró en gran medida en los filósofos de la Ilustración del siglo XVIII , como Montesquieu y John Locke . [81]

La influencia de Montesquieu, Locke, Edward Coke y William Blackstone fue evidente en la Convención Constitucional. Antes y durante la redacción y firma de la Constitución, Blackstone , Hume , Locke y Montesquieu estuvieron entre los filósofos políticos a los que se hizo referencia con más frecuencia. [82] El historiador Herbert W. Schneider sostuvo que la Ilustración escocesa fue "probablemente la tradición individual más potente de la Ilustración estadounidense" y el avance de las libertades personales. [83] El historiador Jack P. Greene sostiene que en 1776 los fundadores se basaron en gran medida en la Carta Magna y los escritos posteriores del "racionalismo de la Ilustración" y el derecho consuetudinario inglés . El historiador Daniel Walker Howe señala que Benjamin Franklin admiraba mucho a David Hume , un filósofo escocés del siglo XVIII, y había estudiado muchas de sus obras mientras estuvo en Edimburgo en 1760. Ambos abrazaron la idea de que los funcionarios públicos de alto rango no deberían recibir salario [84] y que la clase baja era un mejor juez del carácter a la hora de elegir a sus representantes. [85]

En su Institución de las leyes de Inglaterra , Coke interpretó que las protecciones y derechos de la Carta Magna no se aplicaban sólo a los nobles, sino a todos los súbditos británicos. Al escribir la Carta de Virginia de 1606 , autorizó al rey en el Parlamento a dar a los nacidos en las colonias todos los derechos y libertades como si hubieran nacido en Inglaterra. Los Comentarios sobre las leyes de Inglaterra de William Blackstone se consideran los libros más influyentes sobre derecho en la nueva república. [82] [86] Madison hizo referencia frecuente a Blackstone, Locke y Montesquieu, [87] todos ellos entre los teóricos políticos más destacados de finales del siglo XVIII. [88]

Tras la Gloriosa Revolución de 1688, el filósofo político británico John Locke ejerció una gran influencia, [89] ampliando la teoría contractual de gobierno propuesta por Thomas Hobbes , su contemporáneo. [90] Locke propuso el principio del consentimiento de los gobernados en sus Dos tratados sobre el gobierno civil . El deber del gobierno en virtud de un contrato social entre el pueblo soberano era servir al pueblo protegiendo sus derechos. Estos derechos básicos eran la vida, la libertad y la propiedad . [91]

La influencia de Montesquieu en los redactores de la Constitución es evidente en el Federalista n.° 47 de Madison y en el Federalista n.° 78 de Hamilton . Se sabe que Jefferson, Adams y Mason leyeron a Montesquieu. [92] Los jueces de la Corte Suprema , los intérpretes máximos de la constitución, han citado a Montesquieu a lo largo de la historia de la Corte. [93] (Véase, por ejemplo , Green v. Biddle , 21 US 1, 1, 36 (1823). United States v. Wood , 39 US 430, 438 (1840). Myers v. United States , 272 US 52, 116 (1926). Nixon v. Administrator of General Services , 433 US 425, 442 (1977). Bank Markazi v. Peterson , 136 US 1310, 1330 (2016).) Montesquieu hizo hincapié en la necesidad de fuerzas equilibradas que se empujen entre sí para evitar la tiranía (lo que refleja la influencia del tratado de Polibio del siglo II a. C. sobre los controles y equilibrios de la República romana ). En su obra El espíritu del derecho , Montesquieu sostuvo que la separación de los poderes del Estado debía estar al servicio de la libertad del pueblo: legislativo, ejecutivo y judicial, [94] [95] al tiempo que enfatizaba que la idea de separación tenía como propósito la distribución equitativa de la autoridad entre las diversas ramas del gobierno. [96]

La Carta de Derechos inglesa (1689) fue una inspiración para la Carta de Derechos estadounidense. Ambas requieren juicios por jurado , contienen el derecho a poseer y portar armas , prohíben las fianzas excesivas y prohíben los " castigos crueles e inusuales ". [97] Muchas libertades protegidas por las constituciones estatales y la Declaración de Derechos de Virginia se incorporaron a la Carta de Derechos. [98] Con la llegada de la Revolución estadounidense, muchos de los derechos garantizados por la Carta de Derechos federal se reconocieron como inspirados por la ley inglesa. [97] Se había desarrollado un cuerpo sustancial de pensamiento a partir de la literatura del republicanismo en los Estados Unidos , típicamente demostrado por las obras de John Adams , quien a menudo citaba a Blackstone y Montesquieu textualmente, y se aplicó a la creación de constituciones estatales . [99]

Aunque las ideas de los derechos inalienables, la separación de poderes y la estructura de la Constitución fueron influenciadas en gran medida por los pensadores de la Ilustración europea, como Montesquieu , John Locke y otros, [82] [100] [101] Benjamin Franklin y Thomas Jefferson todavía tenían reservas sobre las formas existentes de gobierno en Europa. [102] En un discurso en la Convención Constitucional, Franklin afirmó: "Hemos regresado a la historia antigua en busca de modelos de gobierno y hemos examinado diferentes formas de esas repúblicas ... Y hemos visto Estados modernos en toda Europa, pero no encontramos ninguna de sus constituciones adecuada a nuestras circunstancias". [103] Jefferson sostuvo que la mayoría de los gobiernos europeos eran monarquías autocráticas e incompatibles con el carácter igualitario del pueblo estadounidense. En una carta de 1787 a John Rutledge , Jefferson afirmó que "la única condición en la tierra que se puede comparar con [el gobierno estadounidense] ... es la de los indios, donde todavía tienen menos ley que nosotros". En esa misma carta, Jefferson sostuvo que el gobierno estadounidense, con sus características nativas americanas, marcaba una gran mejora respecto de los modelos europeos. [104]

Los estudiosos de la historia de los indios americanos Donald Grinde y Bruce Johansen afirman que hay "evidencia abrumadora" de que los conceptos e ideas políticos de la Confederación iroquesa influyeron en la Constitución de los Estados Unidos , [105] y se les considera los partidarios más abiertos de la tesis iroquesa. [106] Sin embargo, la idea sobre el alcance de esa influencia en la fundación varía entre los historiadores y ha sido cuestionada o criticada por varios historiadores, incluidos Samuel Payne, [107] William Starna, George Hamell, [108] y el historiador y arqueólogo Philip Levy , quien afirma que la evidencia es en gran medida coincidente y circunstancial. [109] La crítica más abierta, la antropóloga Elisabeth Tooker , afirmó que la tesis de la influencia iroquesa es en gran medida el producto de "interpretaciones blancas de los indios" y "malentendidos académicos". [110] [111]

Las leyes de la Confederación iroquesa eran familiares para fundadores como James Monroe, Benjamin Franklin y Thomas Jefferson, y se dice que influyeron en su pensamiento durante la era fundacional en un grado u otro. [112] [113] [114] John Napoleon Brinton Hewitt , que nació en la reserva india de Tuscarora y fue etnólogo en la Oficina de Etnología del Instituto Smithsoniano, es citado a menudo por los historiadores de la historia iroquesa. Hewitt, sin embargo, rechazó la idea de que la Liga Iroquesa tuviera una influencia importante en el Plan de Unión de Albany , el plan de Benjamin Franklin para crear un gobierno unificado para las Trece Colonias , que fue rechazado. [110]

Disposiciones de la Constitución

La Constitución incluye cuatro secciones: un párrafo introductorio titulado Preámbulo, una lista de siete artículos que definen el marco del gobierno, un texto final sin título con las firmas de 39 redactores y 27 enmiendas que se han adoptado conforme al Artículo V (véase más abajo).

Preámbulo

Nosotros el Pueblo ” en su edición original
Lectura de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos de 1787

El Preámbulo, párrafo introductorio de la Constitución, establece los propósitos del nuevo gobierno: [115]

Nosotros, el pueblo de los Estados Unidos, con el fin de formar una Unión más perfecta, establecer la justicia, asegurar la tranquilidad interna, proveer a la defensa común, promover el bienestar general y asegurar los beneficios de la libertad para nosotros y nuestra posteridad, ordenamos y establecemos esta Constitución para los Estados Unidos de América.

Las palabras iniciales, " Nosotros el pueblo ", representaban un nuevo pensamiento: la idea de que el pueblo y no los estados eran la fuente de la legitimidad del gobierno. [116] [117] [118] [119] [120] [121] Acuñada por Gouverneur Morris de Pensilvania, quien presidió el Comité de Estilo de la convención, la frase se considera una mejora en el borrador original de la sección que seguía a las palabras " Nosotros el pueblo" con una lista de los 13 estados. [122] [115] En lugar de los nombres de los estados, Morris sustituyó "de los Estados Unidos" y luego enumeró los seis objetivos de la Constitución, ninguno de los cuales se mencionó originalmente. [123] [124]

Artículos

Las principales disposiciones de la Constitución incluyen siete artículos que definen el marco básico del gobierno federal. Los artículos que han sido enmendados aún incluyen el texto original, aunque las disposiciones derogadas por las enmiendas en virtud del Artículo V suelen estar entre corchetes o en cursiva para indicar que ya no se aplican. A pesar de estos cambios, el enfoque de cada artículo sigue siendo el mismo que cuando se adoptó en 1787. [ cita requerida ]

Artículo I – La Legislatura

El Artículo I describe el Congreso , la rama legislativa del gobierno federal. La Sección 1 dice: "Todos los poderes legislativos aquí otorgados serán conferidos a un Congreso de los Estados Unidos, que estará compuesto por un Senado y una Cámara de Representantes ". El artículo establece la forma de elección y las calificaciones de los miembros de cada cuerpo. Los representantes deben tener al menos 25 años de edad, ser ciudadanos de los Estados Unidos durante siete años y vivir en el estado que representan. Los senadores deben tener al menos 30 años de edad, ser ciudadanos durante nueve años y vivir en el estado que representan.

El Artículo I, Sección 8 enumera los poderes delegados a la legislatura. En lo financiero, el Congreso tiene el poder de imponer impuestos, pedir préstamos, pagar deudas y proveer para la defensa común y el bienestar general; para regular el comercio, las quiebras y acuñar moneda. Para regular los asuntos internos, tiene el poder de regular y gobernar las fuerzas militares y las milicias , reprimir insurrecciones y repeler invasiones. Debe proveer para la naturalización, estándares de pesos y medidas, oficinas de correos y caminos, y patentes; para gobernar directamente el distrito federal y cesiones de tierra por parte de los estados para fuertes y arsenales. En lo internacional, el Congreso tiene el poder de definir y castigar la piratería y los delitos contra la Ley de las Naciones, declarar la guerra y hacer reglas de guerra. La Cláusula Necesaria y Adecuada final , también conocida como la Cláusula Elástica, confiere expresamente poderes incidentales al Congreso sin el requisito de los Artículos de delegación expresa para todos y cada uno de los poderes. El Artículo I, Sección 9 enumera ocho límites específicos al poder del Congreso.

La Corte Suprema ha interpretado en ocasiones de manera amplia la Cláusula de Comercio y la Cláusula de Necesidad y Adecuación del Artículo Uno para permitir al Congreso promulgar leyes que no están expresamente permitidas por los poderes enumerados ni expresamente denegadas en las limitaciones al Congreso. En McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), la Corte Suprema interpretó la Cláusula de Necesidad y Adecuación para permitir al gobierno federal tomar medidas que le permitan "realizar los altos deberes que le asigna [la Constitución] de la manera más beneficiosa para el pueblo", [125] incluso si esa acción no está en sí misma dentro de los poderes enumerados. El Presidente de la Corte Suprema Marshall aclaró: "Que el fin sea legítimo, que esté dentro del alcance de la Constitución, y todos los medios que sean apropiados, que estén claramente adaptados a ese fin, que no estén prohibidos, sino que concuerden con la letra y el espíritu de la Constitución, son constitucionales". [125]

Artículo II – El Poder Ejecutivo

El artículo II describe el cargo, las calificaciones y los deberes del Presidente de los Estados Unidos y del Vicepresidente . El Presidente es el jefe del poder ejecutivo del gobierno federal , así como el jefe de estado y jefe de gobierno de la nación .

El artículo 2 se modifica por la 12.ª Enmienda , que reconoce tácitamente los partidos políticos, y la 25.ª Enmienda, relativa a la sucesión en el cargo. El presidente recibirá una única remuneración del gobierno federal. El juramento inaugural se especifica para preservar, proteger y defender la Constitución.

El presidente es el comandante en jefe de las Fuerzas Armadas de los Estados Unidos , así como de las milicias estatales cuando se movilizan. El presidente hace tratados con el asesoramiento y consentimiento de un quórum de dos tercios del Senado. Para administrar el gobierno federal, el presidente comisiona todos los cargos del gobierno federal según lo ordene el Congreso; y puede requerir las opiniones de sus principales funcionarios y hacer " designaciones de receso " para las vacantes que puedan ocurrir durante el receso del Senado. El presidente garantiza que las leyes se ejecuten fielmente y puede otorgar indultos y perdones con la excepción del juicio político del Congreso . El presidente informa al Congreso sobre el Estado de la Unión y, mediante la Cláusula de Recomendación , recomienda medidas nacionales "necesarias y convenientes". El presidente puede convocar y suspender las sesiones del Congreso en circunstancias especiales.

La sección 4 prevé la destitución del presidente y otros funcionarios federales. El presidente es destituido en caso de juicio político y condena por traición, soborno u otros delitos graves o faltas graves.

Artículo III – El Poder Judicial

El artículo III describe el sistema judicial (el poder judicial ), incluida la Corte Suprema . El artículo describe los tipos de casos que la corte considera de jurisdicción original . El Congreso puede crear tribunales inferiores y un proceso de apelaciones y promulga leyes que definen los delitos y los castigos. El artículo tres también protege el derecho a juicio por jurado en todos los casos penales y define el delito de traición .

La Sección 1 confiere el poder judicial de los Estados Unidos a los tribunales federales y, con él, la autoridad para interpretar y aplicar la ley a un caso particular. También se incluye el poder de castigar, sentenciar y dirigir acciones futuras para resolver conflictos. La Constitución describe el sistema judicial de los Estados Unidos. En la Ley del Poder Judicial de 1789 , el Congreso comenzó a completar los detalles. Actualmente, el Título 28 del Código de los Estados Unidos [126] describe los poderes judiciales y la administración.

A partir del Primer Congreso, los jueces de la Corte Suprema viajaban por el circuito para formar paneles que escucharan las apelaciones de los tribunales de distrito . [c] En 1891, el Congreso promulgó un nuevo sistema. Los tribunales de distrito tendrían jurisdicción original . Los tribunales de apelación intermedios (tribunales de circuito) con jurisdicción exclusiva escucharían las apelaciones regionales antes de que las considerara la Corte Suprema. La Corte Suprema tiene jurisdicción discrecional , lo que significa que no tiene que escuchar todos los casos que se le presentan. [126]

Para hacer cumplir las decisiones judiciales, la Constitución otorga a los tribunales federales poderes tanto de desacato penal como de desacato civil . Otros poderes implícitos incluyen medidas cautelares y el recurso de hábeas corpus . El Tribunal puede encarcelar por contumacia , litigio de mala fe y desobediencia a un mandato judicial. El poder judicial incluye el otorgado por las leyes del Congreso para las normas de derecho y castigo. El poder judicial también se extiende a áreas no cubiertas por la ley. Por lo general, los tribunales federales no pueden interrumpir los procedimientos judiciales estatales. [126]

La cláusula  1 de la sección  2 autoriza a los tribunales federales a conocer únicamente de casos y controversias reales. Su poder judicial no se extiende a casos hipotéticos o que están prohibidos por cuestiones de legitimación , falta de trascendencia o madurez . Por lo general, un caso o controversia requiere la presencia de partes contrarias que tengan algún interés genuino en juego en el caso. [d]

La cláusula 2 de la Sección 2 establece que la Corte Suprema tiene jurisdicción original en casos que involucran a embajadores, ministros y cónsules, para todos los casos que se refieren a estados-nación extranjeros, [127] y también en aquellas controversias que están sujetas al poder judicial federal porque al menos un estado es parte. Los casos que surgen bajo las leyes de los Estados Unidos y sus tratados son de la jurisdicción de los tribunales federales. Los casos bajo el derecho marítimo internacional y las concesiones de tierras conflictivas de diferentes estados son de la jurisdicción de los tribunales federales. Los casos entre ciudadanos estadounidenses en diferentes estados, y los casos entre ciudadanos estadounidenses y estados extranjeros y sus ciudadanos, son de la jurisdicción federal. Los juicios se llevarán a cabo en el estado donde se cometió el delito. [126]

Ninguna parte de la Constitución autoriza expresamente la revisión judicial , pero los redactores de la Constitución sí contemplaron la idea, y desde entonces ha habido precedentes que establecen que los tribunales pueden ejercer la revisión judicial sobre las acciones del Congreso o del poder ejecutivo. Dos leyes federales en conflicto están bajo jurisdicción "pendiente" si una presenta un problema constitucional estricto. La jurisdicción de los tribunales federales es poco frecuente cuando una legislatura estatal promulga algo como bajo jurisdicción federal. [e] Para establecer un sistema federal de derecho nacional, se hace un esfuerzo considerable para desarrollar un espíritu de cortesía entre el gobierno federal y los estados. Según la doctrina de " res judicata ", los tribunales federales dan "plena fe y crédito" a los tribunales estatales. [f] La Corte Suprema decidirá cuestiones constitucionales de derecho estatal solo caso por caso, y solo por estricta necesidad constitucional, independientemente de los motivos de los legisladores estatales, sus resultados de política o su sabiduría nacional. [g]

La sección 3 prohíbe al Congreso cambiar o modificar la ley federal sobre traición por mayoría simple. Esta sección también define la traición como un acto manifiesto de hacer la guerra o ayudar materialmente a quienes están en guerra con los Estados Unidos. Las acusaciones deben ser corroboradas por al menos dos testigos. El Congreso es un órgano político y los desacuerdos políticos que surgen rutinariamente nunca deben considerarse como traición. Esto permite la resistencia no violenta al gobierno porque la oposición no es una cuestión de vida o muerte. Sin embargo, el Congreso sí prevé otros delitos subversivos menores, como la conspiración . [h]

Artículo IV – Los Estados

El artículo IV describe las relaciones entre los estados y entre cada estado y el gobierno federal. Además, prevé cuestiones como la admisión de nuevos estados y los cambios de fronteras entre los estados. Por ejemplo, exige que los estados den " plena fe y crédito " a los actos públicos, registros y procedimientos judiciales de los otros estados. El Congreso tiene permitido regular la manera en que se pueden admitir pruebas de tales actos. La cláusula de "privilegios e inmunidades" prohíbe a los gobiernos estatales discriminar a los ciudadanos de otros estados en favor de los ciudadanos residentes. Por ejemplo, en materia de sentencias penales , un estado no puede aumentar una pena sobre la base de que la persona condenada es no residente.

It also establishes extradition between the states, as well as laying down a legal basis for freedom of movement and travel among the states. Today, this provision is sometimes taken for granted, but in the days of the Articles of Confederation, crossing state lines was often arduous and costly. The Territorial Clause gives Congress the power to make rules for disposing of federal property and governing non-state territories of the United States. Finally, the fourth section of Article Four requires the United States to guarantee to each state a republican form of government and to protect them from invasion and violence.

Article V – Amendment Process

Article V outlines the process for amending the Constitution. Eight state constitutions in effect in 1787 included an amendment mechanism. Amendment-making power rested with the legislature in three of the states, and in the other five it was given to specially elected conventions. The Articles of Confederation provided that amendments were to be proposed by Congress and ratified by the unanimous vote of all 13 state legislatures. This proved to be a major flaw in the Articles, as it created an insurmountable obstacle to constitutional reform. The amendment process crafted during the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention was, according to The Federalist No. 43, designed to establish a balance between pliancy and rigidity:[128][better source needed]

It guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its discovered faults. It moreover equally enables the General and the State Governments to originate the amendment of errors, as they may be pointed out by the experience on one side, or on the other.

There are two steps in the amendment process. Proposals to amend the Constitution must be properly adopted and ratified before they change the Constitution. First, there are two procedures for adopting the language of a proposed amendment, either by (a) Congress, by two-thirds majority in both the Senate and the House of Representatives, or (b) national convention (which shall take place whenever two-thirds of the state legislatures collectively call for one). Second, there are two procedures for ratifying the proposed amendment, which requires three-fourths of the states' (presently 38 of 50) approval: (a) consent of the state legislatures, or (b) consent of state ratifying conventions. The ratification method is chosen by Congress for each amendment.[129] State ratifying conventions were used only once, for the Twenty-first Amendment.[130]

Presently, the Archivist of the United States is charged with responsibility for administering the ratification process under the provisions of 1 U.S. Code § 106b. The Archivist submits the proposed amendment to the states for their consideration by sending a letter of notification to each Governor. Each Governor then formally submits the amendment to their state's legislature. When a state ratifies a proposed amendment, it sends the Archivist an original or certified copy of the state's action. Ratification documents are examined by the Office of the Federal Register for facial legal sufficiency and an authenticating signature.[131]

Article Five ends by shielding certain clauses in the new frame of government from being amended. Article One, Section 9, Clause 1 prevents Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves into the United States prior to 1808, plus the fourth clause from that same section, which reiterates the Constitutional rule that direct taxes must be apportioned according to state populations. These clauses were explicitly shielded from Constitutional amendment prior to 1808. On January 1, 1808, the first day it was permitted to do so, Congress approved legislation prohibiting the importation of slaves into the country. On February 3, 1913, with ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment, Congress gained the authority to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census. The third textually entrenched provision is Article One, Section 3, Clauses 1, which provides for equal representation of the states in the Senate. The shield protecting this clause from the amendment process ("no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate") is less absolute but it is permanent.

Article VI – Federal Powers

Article VI establishes that the Constitution and all federal laws and treaties made in accordance with it have supremacy over state laws, and that "the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the laws or constitutions of any state notwithstanding." It validates national debt created under the Articles of Confederation and requires that all federal and state legislators, officers, and judges take oaths or affirmations to support the Constitution. This means that the states' constitutions and laws should not conflict with the laws of the federal constitution and that in case of a conflict, state judges are legally bound to honor the federal laws and constitution over those of any state. Article Six also states "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States."

Article VII – Ratification

Article VII describes the process for establishing the proposed new frame of government. Anticipating that the influence of many state politicians would be Antifederalist, delegates to the Philadelphia Convention provided for ratification of the Constitution by popularly elected ratifying conventions in each state. The convention method also made it possible that judges, ministers and others ineligible to serve in state legislatures, could be elected to a convention. Suspecting that Rhode Island, at least, might not ratify, delegates decided that the Constitution would go into effect as soon as nine states (two-thirds rounded up) ratified.[132] Each of the remaining four states could then join the newly formed union by ratifying.[133]

Closing endorsement

The signatures in the closing endorsement section of the United States Constitution

The signing of the United States Constitution occurred on September 17, 1787, when 39 delegates endorsed the constitution created during the convention. In addition to signatures, this closing endorsement, the Constitution's eschatocol, included a brief declaration that the delegates' work has been successfully completed and that those whose signatures appear on it subscribe to the final document. Included are a statement pronouncing the document's adoption by the states present, a formulaic dating of its adoption, and the delegates' signatures. Additionally, the convention's secretary, William Jackson, added a note to verify four amendments made by hand to the final document, and signed the note to authenticate its validity.[134]

The language of the concluding endorsement, conceived by Gouverneur Morris and presented to the convention by Benjamin Franklin, was made intentionally ambiguous in hopes of winning over the votes of dissenting delegates. Advocates for the new frame of government, realizing the impending difficulty of obtaining the consent of the states needed to make it operational, were anxious to obtain the unanimous support of the delegations from each state. It was feared that many of the delegates would refuse to give their individual assent to the Constitution. Therefore, in order that the action of the convention would appear to be unanimous, the formula, Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present ... was devised.[135][better source needed]

The document is dated: "the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord" 1787, and "of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth." This two-fold epoch dating serves to place the Constitution in the context of the religious traditions of Western civilization and, at the same time, links it to the regime principles proclaimed in the Declaration of Independence. This dual reference can also be found in the Articles of Confederation and the Northwest Ordinance.[135][better source needed]

The closing endorsement serves an authentication function only. It neither assigns powers to the federal government nor does it provide specific limitations on government action. It does, however, provide essential documentation of the Constitution's validity, a statement of "This is what was agreed to." It records who signed the Constitution, and when and where.[citation needed]

Amendments

The United States Bill of Rights, currently housed in the National Archives in Washington, D.C.

The procedure for amending the Constitution is outlined in Article V (see above). The process is overseen by the archivist of the United States. Between 1949 and 1985, it was overseen by the administrator of General Services, and before that by the secretary of state.[131]

Under Article Five, a proposal for an amendment must be adopted either by two-thirds of both houses of Congress or by a national convention that had been requested by two-thirds of the state legislatures.[131] Once the proposal has passed by either method, Congress must decide whether the proposed amendment is to be ratified by state legislatures or by state ratifying conventions. The proposed amendment along with the method of ratification is sent to the Office of the Federal Register, which copies it in slip law format and submits it to the states.[131] To date, the convention method of proposal has never been tried and the convention method of ratification has only been used once, for the Twenty-first Amendment.[129]

A proposed amendment becomes an operative part of the Constitution as soon as it is ratified by three-fourths of the States (currently 38 of the 50 states). There is no further step. The text requires no additional action by Congress or anyone else after ratification by the required number of states.[136] Thus, when the Office of the Federal Register verifies that it has received the required number of authenticated ratification documents, it drafts a formal proclamation for the Archivist to certify that the amendment is valid and has become part of the nation's frame of government. This certification is published in the Federal Register and United States Statutes at Large and serves as official notice to Congress and to the nation that the ratification process has been successfully completed.[131]

The Constitution has twenty-seven amendments. Structurally, the Constitution's original text and all prior amendments remain untouched. The precedent for this practice was set in 1789, when Congress considered and proposed the first several Constitutional amendments. Among these, Amendments 1–10 are collectively known as the Bill of Rights, and Amendments 13–15 are known as the Reconstruction Amendments. Excluding the Twenty-seventh Amendment, which was pending before the states for 202 years, 225 days, the longest pending amendment that was successfully ratified was the Twenty-second Amendment, which took 3 years, 343 days. The Twenty-sixth Amendment was ratified in the shortest time, 100 days. The average ratification time for the first twenty-six amendments was 1 year, 252 days; for all twenty-seven, 9 years, 48 days.

The first ten Amendments introduced were referred to as the Bill of Rights which consists of 10 amendments that were added to the Constitution in 1791, as supporters of the Constitution had promised critics during the debates of 1788.[137]

Safeguards of liberty (Amendments 1, 2, and 3)

The First Amendment (1791) prohibits Congress from obstructing the exercise of certain individual freedoms: freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and right to petition. Its Free Exercise Clause guarantees a person's right to hold whatever religious beliefs they want, and to freely exercise that belief, and its Establishment Clause prevents the federal government from creating an official national church or favoring one set of religious beliefs over another. The amendment guarantees an individual's right to express and to be exposed to a wide range of opinions and views. It was intended to ensure a free exchange of ideas, even unpopular ones. It also guarantees an individual's right to physically gather or associate with others in groups for economic, political or religious purposes. Additionally, it guarantees an individual's right to petition the government for a redress of grievances.[138]

The Second Amendment (1791) protects the right of individuals[139][140] to keep and bear arms.[141][142][143][144] The Supreme Court has ruled that this right applies to individuals, not merely to collective militias. It has also held that the government may regulate or place some limits on the manufacture, ownership and sale of firearms or other weapons.[145][146] Requested by several states during the Constitutional ratification debates, the amendment reflected the lingering resentment over the widespread efforts of the British to confiscate the colonists' firearms at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. Patrick Henry had rhetorically asked, shall we be stronger, "when we are totally disarmed, and when a British Guard shall be stationed in every house?"[147]

The Third Amendment (1791) prohibits the federal government from forcing individuals to provide lodging to soldiers in their homes during peacetime without their consent. Requested by several states during the Constitutional ratification debates, the amendment reflected the lingering resentment over the Quartering Acts passed by the British Parliament during the Revolutionary War, which had allowed British soldiers to take over private homes for their own use.[148]

Safeguards of justice (Amendments 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8)

The Fourth Amendment (1791) protects people against unreasonable searches and seizures of either self or property by government officials. A search can mean everything from a frisking by a police officer or to a demand for a blood test to a search of an individual's home or car. A seizure occurs when the government takes control of an individual or something in the possession of the individual. Items that are seized often are used as evidence when the individual is charged with a crime. It also imposes certain limitations on police investigating a crime and prevents the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial.[149]

The Fifth Amendment (1791) establishes the requirement that a trial for a major crime may commence only after an indictment has been handed down by a grand jury; protects individuals from double jeopardy, being tried and put in danger of being punished more than once for the same criminal act; prohibits punishment without due process of law, thus protecting individuals from being imprisoned without fair procedures; and provides that an accused person may not be compelled to reveal to the police, prosecutor, judge, or jury any information that might incriminate or be used against him or her in a court of law. Additionally, the Fifth Amendment also prohibits government from taking private property for public use without "just compensation", the basis of eminent domain in the United States.[150]

The Sixth Amendment (1791) provides several protections and rights to an individual accused of a crime. The accused has the right to a fair and speedy trial by a local and impartial jury. Likewise, a person has the right to a public trial. This right protects defendants from secret proceedings that might encourage abuse of the justice system, and serves to keep the public informed. This amendment also guarantees a right to legal counsel if accused of a crime, guarantees that the accused may require witnesses to attend the trial and testify in the presence of the accused, and guarantees the accused a right to know the charges against them. In 1966, the Supreme Court ruled that, with the Fifth Amendment, this amendment requires what has become known as the Miranda warning.[151]

The Seventh Amendment (1791) extends the right to a jury trial to federal civil cases, and inhibits courts from overturning a jury's findings of fact. Although the Seventh Amendment itself says that it is limited to "suits at common law", meaning cases that triggered the right to a jury under English law, the amendment has been found to apply in lawsuits that are similar to the old common law cases. For example, the right to a jury trial applies to cases brought under federal statutes that prohibit race or gender discrimination in housing or employment. Importantly, this amendment guarantees the right to a jury trial only in federal court, not in state court.[152]

The Eighth Amendment (1791) protects people from having bail or fines set at an amount so high that it would be impossible for all but the richest defendants to pay, and also protects people from being subjected to cruel and unusual punishment. Although this phrase originally was intended to outlaw certain gruesome methods of punishment, it has been broadened over the years to protect against punishments that are grossly disproportionate to or too harsh for the particular crime. This provision has also been used to challenge prison conditions such as extremely unsanitary cells, overcrowding, insufficient medical care and deliberate failure by officials to protect inmates from one another.[153]

Unenumerated rights and reserved powers (Amendments 9 and 10)

The Ninth Amendment (1791) declares that individuals have other fundamental rights, in addition to those stated in the Constitution. During the Constitutional ratification debates, Anti-Federalists argued that a Bill of Rights should be added. The Federalists opposed it on grounds that a list would necessarily be incomplete but would be taken as explicit and exhaustive, thus enlarging the power of the federal government by implication. The Anti-Federalists persisted, and several state ratification conventions refused to ratify the Constitution without a more specific list of protections, so the First Congress added what became the Ninth Amendment as a compromise. Because the rights protected by the Ninth Amendment are not specified, they are referred to as "unenumerated". The Supreme Court has found that unenumerated rights include such important rights as the right to travel, the right to vote, the right to privacy, and the right to make important decisions about one's health care or body.[154]

The Tenth Amendment (1791) was included in the Bill of Rights to further define the balance of power between the federal government and the states. The amendment states that the federal government has only those powers specifically granted by the Constitution. These powers include the power to declare war, to collect taxes, to regulate interstate business activities and others that are listed in the articles or in subsequent constitutional amendments. Any power not listed is, says the Tenth Amendment, left to the states or the people. While there is no specific list of what these "reserved powers" may be, the Supreme Court has ruled that laws affecting family relations, commerce within a state's own borders, abortion, and local law enforcement activities, are among those specifically reserved to the states or the people.[155][156]

Governmental authority (Amendments 11, 16, 18, and 21)

The Eleventh Amendment (1795) specifically prohibits federal courts from hearing cases in which a state is sued by an individual from another state or another country, thus extending to the states sovereign immunity protection from certain types of legal liability. Article Three, Section 2, Clause 1 has been affected by this amendment, which also overturned the Supreme Court's decision in Chisholm v. Georgia (1793)[157][158]

The Sixteenth Amendment (1913) removed existing Constitutional constraints that limited the power of Congress to lay and collect taxes on income. Specifically, the apportionment constraints delineated in Article 1, Section 9, Clause 4 have been removed by this amendment, which also overturned an 1895 Supreme Court decision, in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., that declared an unapportioned federal income tax on rents, dividends, and interest unconstitutional. This amendment has become the basis for all subsequent federal income tax legislation and has greatly expanded the scope of federal taxing and spending in the years since.[159]

The Eighteenth Amendment (1919) prohibited the making, transporting, and selling of alcoholic beverages nationwide. It also authorized Congress to enact legislation enforcing this prohibition. Adopted at the urging of a national temperance movement, proponents believed that the use of alcohol was reckless and destructive and that prohibition would reduce crime and corruption, solve social problems, decrease the need for welfare and prisons, and improve the health of all Americans. During prohibition, it is estimated that alcohol consumption and alcohol related deaths declined dramatically. But prohibition had other, more negative consequences. The amendment drove the lucrative alcohol business underground, giving rise to a large and pervasive black market. In addition, prohibition encouraged disrespect for the law and strengthened organized crime. Prohibition came to an end in 1933, when this amendment was repealed.[160]

The Twenty-first Amendment (1933) repealed the Eighteenth Amendment and returned the regulation of alcohol to the states. Each state sets its own rules for the sale and importation of alcohol, including the drinking age. Because a federal law provides federal funds to states that prohibit the sale of alcohol to minors under the age of twenty-one, all fifty states have set their drinking age there. Rules about how alcohol is sold vary greatly from state to state.[161]

Safeguards of civil rights (Amendments 13, 14, 15, 19, 23, 24, and 26)

The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime, and authorized Congress to enforce abolition. Though millions of slaves had been declared free by the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, their post Civil War status was unclear, as was the status of other millions.[162] Congress intended the Thirteenth Amendment to be a proclamation of freedom for all slaves throughout the nation and to take the question of emancipation away from politics. This amendment rendered inoperative or moot several of the original parts of the constitution.[163]

The Fourteenth Amendment (1868) granted United States citizenship to former slaves and to all persons "subject to U.S. jurisdiction." It also contained three new limits on state power: a state shall not violate a citizen's privileges or immunities; shall not deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; and must guarantee all persons equal protection of the laws. These limitations dramatically expanded the protections of the Constitution. This amendment, according to the Supreme Court's Doctrine of Incorporation, makes most provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to state and local governments as well. It superseded the mode of apportionment of representatives delineated in Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3, and also overturned the Supreme Court's decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857).[164]

The Fifteenth Amendment (1870) prohibits the use of race, color, or previous condition of servitude in determining which citizens may vote. The last of three post Civil War Reconstruction Amendments, it sought to abolish one of the key vestiges of slavery and to advance the civil rights and liberties of former slaves.[165]

The Nineteenth Amendment (1920) prohibits the government from denying women the right to vote on the same terms as men. Prior to the amendment's adoption, only a few states permitted women to vote and to hold office.[166]

The Twenty-third Amendment (1961) extends the right to vote in presidential elections to citizens residing in the District of Columbia by granting the District electors in the Electoral College, as if it were a state. When first established as the nation's capital in 1800, the District of Columbia's five thousand residents had neither a local government, nor the right to vote in federal elections. By 1960 the population of the District had grown to over 760,000.[167]

The Twenty-fourth Amendment (1964) prohibits a poll tax for voting. Although passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments helped remove many of the discriminatory laws left over from slavery, they did not eliminate all forms of discrimination. Along with literacy tests and durational residency requirements, poll taxes were used to keep low-income (primarily African American) citizens from participating in elections. The Supreme Court has since struck down these discriminatory measures.[168]

The Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971) prohibits the government from denying the right of United States citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age. The drive to lower the voting age was driven in large part by the broader student activism movement protesting the Vietnam War. It gained strength following the Supreme Court's decision in Oregon v. Mitchell (1970).[169]

Government processes and procedures (Amendments 12, 17, 20, 22, 25, and 27)

The Twelfth Amendment (1804) modifies the way the Electoral College chooses the president and vice president. It stipulates that each elector must cast a distinct vote for president and vice president, instead of two votes for president. It also suggests that the president and vice president should not be from the same state. Article II, Section 1, Clause 3 is superseded by this amendment, which also extends the eligibility requirements to become president to the vice president.[170]

The Seventeenth Amendment (1913) modifies the way senators are elected. It stipulates that senators are to be elected by direct popular vote. The amendment supersedes Article 1, Section 3, Clauses 1 and 2, under which the two senators from each state were elected by the state legislature. It also allows state legislatures to permit their governors to make temporary appointments until a special election can be held.[171]

The Twentieth Amendment (1933) changes the date on which a new president, Vice President and Congress take office, thus shortening the time between Election Day and the beginning of Presidential, Vice Presidential and Congressional terms.[172] Originally, the Constitution provided that the annual meeting was to be on the first Monday in December unless otherwise provided by law. This meant that, when a new Congress was elected in November, it did not come into office until the following March, with a "lame duck" Congress convening in the interim. By moving the beginning of the president's new term from March 4 to January 20 (and in the case of Congress, to January 3), proponents hoped to put an end to lame duck sessions, while allowing for a speedier transition for the new administration and legislators.[173]

The Twenty-second Amendment (1951) limits an elected president to two terms in office, a total of eight years. However, under some circumstances it is possible for an individual to serve more than eight years. Although nothing in the original frame of government limited how many presidential terms one could serve, the nation's first president, George Washington, declined to run for a third term, suggesting that two terms of four years were enough for any president. This precedent remained an unwritten rule of the presidency until broken by Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was elected to a third term as president 1940 and in 1944 to a fourth.[174]

The Twenty-fifth Amendment (1967) clarifies what happens upon the death, removal, or resignation of the President or Vice President and how the Presidency is temporarily filled if the President becomes disabled and cannot fulfill the responsibilities of the office. It supersedes the ambiguous succession rule established in Article II, Section 1, Clause 6. A concrete plan of succession has been needed on multiple occasions since 1789. However, for nearly 20% of U.S. history, there has been no vice president in office who can assume the presidency.[175]

The Twenty-seventh Amendment (1992) prevents members of Congress from granting themselves pay raises during the current session. Rather, any raises that are adopted must take effect during the next session of Congress. Its proponents believed that Federal legislators would be more likely to be cautious about increasing congressional pay if they have no personal stake in the vote. Article One, section 6, Clause 1 has been affected by this amendment, which remained pending for over two centuries as it contained no time limit for ratification.[176]

Unratified amendments

Collectively, members of the House and Senate propose around 150 amendments during each two-year term of Congress.[177] Most however, never get out of the Congressional committees in which they are proposed, and only a fraction of those approved in committee receive sufficient support to win Congressional approval and actually enter the constitutional ratification process.[citation needed]

Six amendments approved by Congress and proposed to the states for consideration have not been ratified by the required number of states to become part of the Constitution. Four of these are technically still pending, as Congress did not set a time limit (see also Coleman v. Miller) for their ratification. The other two are no longer pending, as both had a time limit attached and in both cases the time period set for their ratification expired.[citation needed]

Pending

Expired

Judicial review

The National Archives' Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom in Washington, D.C. where, in-between two Barry Faulkner murals, the original Constitution, Bill of Rights, Declaration of Independence, and other American founding documents are publicly exhibited.

The way the Constitution is understood is influenced by court decisions, especially those of the Supreme Court. These decisions are referred to as precedents. Judicial review is the power of the Court to examine federal legislation, federal executive, and all state branches of government, to decide their constitutionality, and to strike them down if found unconstitutional.[citation needed]

Judicial review includes the power of the Court to explain the meaning of the Constitution as it applies to particular cases. Over the years, Court decisions on issues ranging from governmental regulation of radio and television to the rights of the accused in criminal cases have changed the way many constitutional clauses are interpreted, without amendment to the actual text of the Constitution.[citation needed]

Legislation passed to implement the Constitution, or to adapt those implementations to changing conditions, broadens and, in subtle ways, changes the meanings given to the words of the Constitution. Up to a point, the rules and regulations of the many federal executive agencies have a similar effect. If an action of Congress or the agencies is challenged, however, the court system ultimately decides whether these actions are permissible under the Constitution.[citation needed]

Scope and theory

Courts established by the Constitution can regulate government under the Constitution, the supreme law of the land.[j] First, they have jurisdiction over actions by an officer of government and state law. Second, federal courts may rule on whether coordinate branches of national government conform to the Constitution. Until the twentieth century, the Supreme Court of the United States may have been the only high tribunal in the world to use a court for constitutional interpretation of fundamental law, others generally depending on their national legislature.[187]

The basic theory of American judicial review is summarized by constitutional legal scholars and historians as follows: the written Constitution is fundamental law within the states. It can change only by extraordinary legislative process of national proposal, then state ratification. The powers of all departments are limited to enumerated grants found in the Constitution. Courts are expected (a) to enforce provisions of the Constitution as the supreme law of the land, and (b) to refuse to enforce anything in conflict with it.[188]

As to judicial review and the Congress, the first proposals by Madison (Virginia) and Wilson (Pennsylvania) called for a supreme court veto over national legislation. In this it resembled the system in New York, where the Constitution of 1777 called for a "Council of Revision" by the governor and justices of the state supreme court. The council would review and veto any passed legislation; violating the spirit of the Constitution before it went into effect. The nationalist's proposal in convention was defeated three times and replaced by a presidential veto with congressional over-ride. Judicial review relies on the jurisdictional authority in Article III, and the Supremacy Clause.[189]

The justification for judicial review is to be explicitly found in the open ratifications held in the states and reported in their newspapers. John Marshall in Virginia, James Wilson in Pennsylvania and Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut all argued for Supreme Court judicial review of acts of state legislature. In Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton advocated the doctrine of a written document held as a superior enactment of the people. "A limited constitution can be preserved in practice no other way" than through courts which can declare void any legislation contrary to the Constitution. The preservation of the people's authority over legislatures rests "particularly with judges."[190][k]

The Supreme Court was initially made up of jurists who had been intimately connected with the framing of the Constitution and the establishment of its government as law. John Jay (New York), a co-author of The Federalist Papers, served as chief justice for the first six years. The second chief justice, John Rutledge (South Carolina), was appointed by Washington in 1795 as a recess appointment, but was not confirmed by the Senate. Resigning later that year, he was succeeded in 1796 by the third chief justice, Oliver Ellsworth (Connecticut).[192] Both Rutledge and Ellsworth were delegates to the Constitutional Convention. John Marshall (Virginia), the fourth chief justice, had served in the Virginia Ratification Convention in 1788. His 34 years of service on the Court would see some of the most important rulings to help establish the nation the Constitution had begun. Other early members of the Supreme Court who had been delegates to the Constitutional Convention included James Wilson (Pennsylvania) for ten years, and John Blair Jr. (Virginia) for five years.[citation needed]

Establishment

When John Marshall followed Oliver Ellsworth as chief justice of the Supreme Court in 1801, the federal judiciary had been established by the Judiciary Act, but there were few cases, and less prestige. "The fate of judicial review was in the hands of the Supreme Court itself." Review of state legislation and appeals from state supreme courts was understood. But the Court's life, jurisdiction over state legislation was limited. The Marshall Court's landmark Barron v. Baltimore held that the Bill of Rights restricted only the federal government, and not the states.[190]

In the landmark Marbury v. Madison case, the Supreme Court asserted its authority of judicial review over Acts of Congress. Its findings were that Marbury and the others had a right to their commissions as judges in the District of Columbia. Marshall, writing the opinion for the majority, announced his discovered conflict between Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789 and Article III.[l][193][m] In this case, both the Constitution and the statutory law applied to the particulars at the same time. "The very essence of judicial duty" according to Marshall was to determine which of the two conflicting rules should govern. The Constitution enumerates powers of the judiciary to extend to cases arising "under the Constitution". Further, justices take a Constitutional oath to uphold it as "Supreme law of the land."[194] Therefore, since the United States government as created by the Constitution is a limited government, the federal courts were required to choose the Constitution over congressional law if there were deemed to be a conflict.[citation needed]

"This argument has been ratified by time and by practice ..."[n][o] The Supreme Court did not declare another act of Congress unconstitutional until the controversial Dred Scott decision in 1857, held after the voided Missouri Compromise statute had already been repealed. In the eighty years following the Civil War to World War II, the Court voided congressional statutes in 77 cases, on average almost one a year.[196]

A crisis arose when, in 1935 and 1936, the Supreme Court handed down twelve decisions voiding acts of Congress relating to the New Deal. President Franklin D. Roosevelt then responded with his abortive "court packing plan". Other proposals have suggested a Court super-majority to overturn Congressional legislation, or a constitutional amendment to require that the justices retire at a specified age by law. To date, the Supreme Court's power of judicial review has persisted.[191]

Self-restraint

The power of judicial review could not have been preserved long in a democracy unless it had been "wielded with a reasonable measure of judicial restraint, and with some attention, as Mr. Dooley said, to the election returns." Indeed, the Supreme Court has developed a system of doctrine and practice that self-limit its power of judicial review.[197]

The Court controls almost all of its business by choosing what cases to consider, writs of certiorari. In this way, it can avoid opinions on embarrassing or difficult cases. The Supreme Court limits itself by defining what is a "justiciable question". First, the Court is fairly consistent in refusing to make any "advisory opinions" in advance of actual cases.[p] Second, "friendly suits" between those of the same legal interest are not considered. Third, the Court requires a "personal interest", not one generally held, and a legally protected right must be immediately threatened by government action. Cases are not taken up if the litigant has no standing to sue. Simply having the money to sue and being injured by government action are not enough.[197]

These three procedural ways of dismissing cases have led critics to charge that the Supreme Court delays decisions by unduly insisting on technicalities in their "standards of litigability". They say cases are left unconsidered which are in the public interest, with genuine controversy, and resulting from good faith action. "The Supreme Court is not only a court of law but a court of justice."[198]

Separation of powers

The Supreme Court balances several pressures to maintain its roles in national government. It seeks to be a co-equal branch of government, but its decrees must be enforceable. The Court seeks to minimize situations where it asserts itself superior to either president or Congress, but federal officers must be held accountable. The Supreme Court assumes power to declare acts of Congress as unconstitutional but it self-limits its passing on constitutional questions.[199] But the Court's guidance on basic problems of life and governance in a democracy is most effective when American political life reinforces its rulings.[200]

Justice Brandeis summarized four general guidelines that the Supreme Court uses to avoid constitutional decisions relating to Congress:[q] The Court will not anticipate a question of constitutional law nor decide open questions unless a case decision requires it. If it does, a rule of constitutional law is formulated only as the precise facts in the case require. The Court will choose statutes or general law for the basis of its decision if it can without constitutional grounds. If it does, the Court will choose a constitutional construction of an act of Congress, even if its constitutionality is seriously in doubt.[199]

Likewise with the executive department, Edwin Corwin observed that the Court does sometimes rebuff presidential pretensions, but it more often tries to rationalize them. Against Congress, an act is merely "disallowed". In the executive case, exercising judicial review produces "some change in the external world" beyond the ordinary judicial sphere.[201] The "political question" doctrine especially applies to questions which present a difficult enforcement issue. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes addressed the Court's limitation when political process allowed future policy change, but a judicial ruling would "attribute finality". Political questions lack "satisfactory criteria for a judicial determination."[202]

John Marshall recognized that the president holds "important political powers" which as executive privilege allows great discretion. This doctrine was applied in Court rulings on President Grant's duty to enforce the law during Reconstruction. It extends to the sphere of foreign affairs. Justice Robert Jackson explained, foreign affairs are inherently political, "wholly confided by our Constitution to the political departments of the government ... [and] not subject to judicial intrusion or inquiry."[203]

Critics of the Court object in two principal ways to self-restraint in judicial review, deferring as it does as a matter of doctrine to acts of Congress and presidential actions.

  1. Its inaction is said to allow "a flood of legislative appropriations" which permanently create an imbalance between the states and federal government.
  2. Supreme Court deference to Congress and the executive compromises American protection of civil rights, political minority groups and aliens.[204]

Subsequent Courts

Supreme Courts under the leadership of subsequent chief justices have also used judicial review to interpret the Constitution among individuals, states and federal branches. Notable contributions were made by the Chase Court, the Taft Court, the Warren Court, and the Rehnquist Court.[citation needed]

Salmon P. Chase was a Lincoln appointee, serving as chief justice from 1864 to 1873. His career encompassed service as a U.S. senator and Governor of Ohio. He coined the slogan, "Free soil, free Labor, free men." One of Lincoln's "team of rivals", he was appointed Secretary of Treasury during the Civil War, issuing "greenbacks". Partly to appease the Radical Republicans, Lincoln appointed him chief justice upon the death of Roger B. Taney.

In one of his first official acts, Chase admitted John Rock, the first African American to practice before the Supreme Court. The Chase Court is famous for Texas v. White, which asserted a permanent Union of indestructible states. Veazie Bank v. Fenno upheld the Civil War tax on state banknotes. Hepburn v. Griswold found parts of the Legal Tender Acts unconstitutional, though it was reversed under a late Supreme Court majority.

William Howard Taft was a Harding appointment to chief justice from 1921 to 1930. A Progressive Republican from Ohio, he was a one-term President.

As chief justice, he advocated the Judiciary Act of 1925 that brought the Federal District Courts under the administrative jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Taft successfully sought the expansion of Court jurisdiction over non-states such as District of Columbia and Territories of Alaska and Hawaii.

In 1925, the Taft Court issued a ruling overturning a Marshall Court ruling on the Bill of Rights. In Gitlow v. New York, the Court established the doctrine of "incorporation", which applied the Bill of Rights to the states. Important cases included the Board of Trade of City of Chicago v. Olsen, which upheld Congressional regulation of commerce. Olmstead v. United States allowed exclusion of evidence obtained without a warrant based on application of the 14th Amendment proscription against unreasonable searches. Wisconsin v. Illinois ruled the equitable power of the United States can impose positive action on a state to prevent its inaction from damaging another state.

Earl Warren was an Eisenhower nominee, chief justice from 1953 to 1969. Warren's Republican career in the law reached from county prosecutor, California state attorney general, and three consecutive terms as governor. His programs stressed progressive efficiency, expanding state education, re-integrating returning veterans, infrastructure, and highway construction.

In 1954, the Warren Court overturned a landmark Fuller Court ruling on the Fourteenth Amendment interpreting racial segregation as permissible in government and commerce providing "separate but equal" services. Warren built a coalition of justices after 1962 that developed the idea of natural rights as guaranteed in the Constitution. Brown v. Board of Education banned segregation in public schools. Baker v. Carr and Reynolds v. Sims established Court ordered "one-man-one-vote". Bill of Rights Amendments were incorporated into the states. Due process was expanded in Gideon v. Wainwright and Miranda v. Arizona. First Amendment rights were addressed in Griswold v. Connecticut concerning privacy, and Engel v. Vitale relative to free speech.

William Rehnquist was a Reagan-appointed chief justice, serving from 1986 to 2005. While he would concur with overthrowing a state supreme court's decision, as in Bush v. Gore, he built a coalition of Justices after 1994 that developed the idea of federalism as provided for in the Tenth Amendment. In the hands of the Supreme Court, the Constitution and its amendments were to restrain Congress, as in City of Boerne v. Flores.

Nevertheless, the Rehnquist Court was noted in the contemporary "culture wars" for overturning state laws relating to privacy, prohibiting late-term abortions in Stenberg v. Carhart, prohibiting sodomy in Lawrence v. Texas, or ruling so as to protect free speech in Texas v. Johnson or affirmative action in Grutter v. Bollinger.

Civic religion

There is a viewpoint that some Americans have come to see the documents of the Constitution, along with the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights, as being a cornerstone of a type of civil religion. Some commentators depict the multi-ethnic, multi-sectarian United States as held together by political orthodoxy, in contrast with a nation-state of people having more "natural" ties.[205][206]

Worldwide influence

The United States Constitution has been a notable model for governance worldwide, especially through the 1970s. Its international influence is found in similarities in phrasing and borrowed passages in other constitutions, as well as in the principles of the rule of law, separation of powers, and recognition of individual rights.[citation needed]

The American experience of fundamental law with amendments and judicial review has motivated constitutionalists at times when they were considering the possibilities for their nation's future.[207] It informed Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War,[v] his contemporary and ally Benito Juárez of Mexico,[w] and the second generation of 19th-century constitutional nationalists, José Rizal of the Philippines[x] and Sun Yat-sen of China.[y] The framers of the Australian constitution integrated federal ideas from the U.S. and other constitutions.[213]

Since the 1980s, the influence of the United States Constitution has been waning as other countries have created new constitutions or updated older constitutions, a process which Sanford Levinson believes to be more difficult in the United States than in any other country.[214][215][216]

Criticisms

The United States Constitution has faced various criticisms since its inception in 1787.

The Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote; the notable exception was New Jersey, where women were able to vote on the same basis as men.[217][218][219] Until the Reconstruction Amendments were adopted between 1865 and 1870, the five years immediately following the American Civil War, the Constitution did not abolish slavery, nor give citizenship and voting rights to former slaves.[220] These amendments did not include a specific prohibition on discrimination in voting on the basis of sex; it took another amendment—the Nineteenth, ratified in 1920—for the Constitution to prohibit any United States citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex.[221]

According to a 2012 study by David Law and Mila Versteeg published in the New York University Law Review, the U.S. Constitution guarantees relatively few rights compared to the constitutions of other countries and contains fewer than half (26 of 60) of the provisions listed in the average bill of rights. It is also one of the few in the world today that still features the right to keep and bear arms; the other two being the constitutions of Guatemala and Mexico.[215][216]

Difficult to amend

Sanford Levinson wrote in 2006 that it has been the most difficult constitution in the world to amend since the fall of Yugoslavia.[214][222] Levitsky and Ziblatt argue that the US Constitution is the most difficult in the world to amend, and that this helps explain why the US still has so many undemocratic institutions that most or all other democracies have reformed, directly allowing significant democratic backsliding in the United States.[223]

Preamble

Many have criticized the opening statement "We the People," questioning who they intended by "we" and "the People" when they excluded so many groups of people, such as Native Americans and African slaves, and women could not vote. The apparent intended meaning is that "the People" are only European males of Protestant or Deist backgrounds.[224][225][226]

Commemorations

In 1937, the U.S. Post Office, at the prompting of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, an avid stamp collector himself, released a commemorative postage stamp celebrating the 150th anniversary of the signing of the U.S. Constitution. The engraving on this issue is after an 1856 painting by Junius Brutus Stearns of Washington and shows delegates signing the Constitution at the 1787 Convention.[227] The following year another commemorative stamp was issued celebrating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Constitution.[228] In 1987 the U.S. Government minted a 1987 silver dollar in celebration of the 200th anniversary of the signing of the Constitution.[citation needed]

See also

Related documents

Notes

  1. ^ Other countries, such as the United Kingdom, Canada, and New Zealand, and other Commonwealth countries, have constitutional provisions such as the Bill of Rights 1689, among other statutes, that are older than the United States Constitution that are still in force to this day.
  2. ^ Historically, the first written constitution of an independent polity which was adopted by representatives elected by the people was the 1755 Corsican Constitution, despite being short-lived, drafted by Pasquale Paoli, whose work was an inspiration for many American patriots,[25] including the Hearts of Oak, originally named "The Corsicans", and the Sons of Liberty.[26]Earlier written constitutions of independent states exist but were not adopted by bodies elected by the people, such as the Swedish Constitution of 1772, adopted by the king, the Constitution of San Marino of 1600 which is the oldest surviving constitution in the world, or the Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk, the first establishing separation of powers.
  3. ^ The Judiciary Act of 1789 established six Supreme Court justices. The number was periodically increased, reaching ten in 1863, allowing Lincoln additional appointments. After the Civil War, vacancies reduced the number to seven. Congress finally fixed the number at nine.
  4. ^ The four concepts which determine "justiciability", the formula for a federal court taking and deciding a case, are the doctrines of (a) standing, (b) real and substantial interests, (c) adversity, and (d) avoidance of political questions.[126]
  5. ^ Judicial Review is explained in Hamilton's Federalist No. 78. It also has roots in Natural Law expressions in the Declaration of Independence. The Supreme Court first ruled an act of Congress unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison, the second was Dred Scott.[126]
  6. ^ For instance, 'collateral estoppel' directs that when a litigant wins in a state court, they cannot sue in federal court to get a more favorable outcome.
  7. ^ Recently numerous habeas corpus reforms have tried to preserve a working "relationship of comity" and simultaneously streamline the process for state and lower courts to apply Supreme Court interpretations.[126]
  8. ^ Contrary to this source when viewed, the Constitution provides that punishments, including forfeiture of income and property, must apply to the person convicted. "No attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture" on the convicted traitor's children or heirs. This avoids the perpetuation of civil war into the generations by Parliamentary majorities as in the Wars of the Roses.[126]
  9. ^ Three states have ratified the ERA in recent years (Virginia, Illinois and Nevada), purportedly bringing the number of ratifications to 38. In January 2020, after the Justice Department issued an opinion that the deadline for passage of the amendment expired at the time of the original 1979 deadline, the attorneys general of those three states filed suit in U.S. District Court in Washington, D.C. challenging that opinion. As reported by CNN, they are asking the court to force the archivist of the United States to "carry out his statutory duty of recognizing the complete and final adoption" of the ERA as the Twenty-eighth Amendment to the Constitution.[185]
  10. ^ In this context, colonial territories held by the U.S. are not considered part of the land, so the constitution does not apply to them.[186]
  11. ^ The Supreme Court found 658 cases of invalid state statutes from 1790 to 1941 before the advent of civil rights cases in the last half of the twentieth century[191]
  12. ^ In this, John Marshall leaned on the argument of Hamilton in Federalist No. 78.
  13. ^ Although it may be that the true meaning of the Constitution to the people of the United States in 1788 can only be divined by a study of the state ratification conventions, the Supreme Court has used The Federalist Papers as a supplemental guide to the Constitution since their co-author, John Jay, was the first Chief Justice.
  14. ^ The entire quote reads, "This argument has been ratified by time and by practice, and there is little point in quibbling with it. Of course, the president also takes an oath to support the Constitution."[195]
  15. ^ The presidential reference is to Andrew Jackson's disagreement with Marshall's Court over Worcester v. Georgia, finding Georgia could not impose its laws in Cherokee Territory. Jackson replied, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!", and the Trail of Tears proceeded. Jackson would not politically interpose the U.S. Army between Georgia and the Cherokee people as Eisenhower would do between Arkansas and the integrating students.
  16. ^ "Advisory opinions" are not the same as "declaratory judgments". (a) These address rights and legal relationships in cases of "actual controversy", and (b) the holding has the force and effect of a final judgment. (c) There is no coercive order, as the parties are assumed to follow the judgment, but a "declaratory judgment" is the basis of any subsequent ruling in case law.
  17. ^ Louis Brandeis concurring opinion, Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority, 1936.
  18. ^ The Chase Court, 1864–1873, in 1865 were Salmon P. Chase (chief Justice); Hon. Nathan Clifford, Maine; Stephen J. Field, Justice Supreme Court, U.S.; Hon. Samuel F. Miller, U.S. Supreme Court; Hon. Noah H. Swayne, Justice Supreme Court, U.S.; Judge Morrison R. Waite
  19. ^ The Taft Court, 1921–1930, in 1925 were James Clark McReynolds, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., William Howard Taft (chief justice), Willis Van Devanter, Louis Brandeis. Edward Sanford, George Sutherland, Pierce Butler, Harlan Fiske Stone
  20. ^ The Warren Court, 1953–1969, in 1963 were Felix Frankfurter; Hugo Black; Earl Warren (chief justice); Stanley Reed; William O. Douglas. Tom Clark; Robert H. Jackson; Harold Burton; Sherman Minton
  21. ^ The Rehnquist Court, 1986–2005.
  22. ^ "Secession was indeed unconstitutional ... military resistance to secession was not only constitutional but also morally justified.[208] "the primary purpose of the Constitution was ... to create 'a more perfect union' ... the Constitution was an exercise in nation building.[209]
  23. ^ Juarez regarded the United States as a model of republican democracy and consistently supported Abraham Lincoln.[210]
  24. ^ The institutions of the two countries which have most influenced constitutional development are Spain and the United States". One of the reforms, "sine quibus non", to use the words of Rizal and Mabini, always insisted upon by the Filipinos, was Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes, the promulgation in the Islands of the Spanish Constitution, and the complete assimilation equal to that of any in the Spanish provinces on the continent.[211]
  25. ^ In the modern history of China, there were many revolutionaries who tried to seek the truth from the West in order to overthrow the feudal system of the Qing dynasty. Sun Yat-sen, for example, was much influenced by American democracy, especially the U.S. Constitution.[212]

Citations

  1. ^ John H. Lienhard. "Engrossed in the Constitution". Retrieved April 8, 2022.
  2. ^ 16 Am. Jur. 2d Constitutional Law § 10; "The Constitution went into effect in March of 1789." Referring to Owings v. Speed, 18 U.S. 420, 5 L. Ed. 124 (1820), "The present Constitution of the United States did not commence its operation until the first Wednesday in March, 1789."
  3. ^ Maier 2010, p. 35.
  4. ^ Goodlatte says U.S. has the oldest working national constitution, Politifact Virginia website, September 22, 2014.
  5. ^ Maier 2010, pp. 27–28.
  6. ^ a b c "America's Founding Fathers-Delegates to the Constitutional Convention". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. October 30, 2015. Retrieved February 22, 2023.
  7. ^ Maier 2010, pp. 11–13.
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Bibliography

Further reading

External links

U.S. government sources

Non-governmental sources