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Monte del Templo

El Monte del Templo ( hebreo : הַר הַבַּיִת , romanizado:  Har haBayīt , lit.  'Monte del Templo'), también conocido como Haram al -Sharif ( árabe : الحرم الشريف, lit. ' El Noble Santuario'), recinto de la mezquita al-Aqsa , o simplemente al-Aqsa ( / ælˈæksə / ; المسجد الأقصى , al-Masjid al-Aqṣā , lit. 'La Mezquita Más Lejana'), [ 2] y a veces como la explanada sagrada de Jerusalén , [ 3] [4] es una colina en la Ciudad Vieja de Jerusalén que ha sido venerada como un lugar sagrado durante miles de años, incluso en el judaísmo . , Cristianismo e Islam . [5] [6]

El sitio actual es una plaza plana rodeada de muros de contención (incluido el Muro Occidental ), que fueron construidos originalmente por el rey Herodes en el siglo I a. C. para una expansión del Segundo Templo judío . La plaza está dominada por dos estructuras monumentales construidas originalmente durante los califatos Rashidun y Omeya temprano después de la captura de la ciudad en 637 d. C.: [7] la sala de oración principal de la mezquita de al-Aqsa y la Cúpula de la Roca , cerca del centro de la colina, que se completó en 692 d. C., lo que la convierte en una de las estructuras islámicas existentes más antiguas del mundo. Los muros y puertas herodianos , con añadidos de los períodos bizantino tardío , musulmán temprano , mameluco y otomano , flanquean el sitio, al que se puede llegar a través de once puertas , diez reservadas para musulmanes y una para no musulmanes, con puestos de guardia de la Policía de Israel en las proximidades de cada una. [8] El patio está rodeado al norte y al oeste por dos pórticos de la época mameluca ( riwaq ) y cuatro minaretes .

El Monte del Templo es el lugar más sagrado del judaísmo, [9] [10] [a] y donde una vez estuvieron dos templos judíos. [12] [13] [14] Según la tradición y las escrituras judías, [15] el Primer Templo fue construido por el rey Salomón , hijo del rey David , en 957 a. C., y fue destruido por el Imperio neobabilónico , junto con Jerusalén , en 587 a. C. No se ha encontrado evidencia arqueológica que verifique la existencia del Primer Templo, y las excavaciones científicas han sido limitadas debido a sensibilidades religiosas. [16] [17] [18] El Segundo Templo, construido bajo Zorobabel en 516 a. C., fue renovado más tarde por el rey Herodes y finalmente destruido por el Imperio romano en 70 d. C. La tradición judía ortodoxa sostiene que es aquí donde se construirá el tercer y último Templo cuando venga el Mesías . [19] El Monte del Templo es el lugar hacia el que los judíos se vuelven durante la oración. Las actitudes judías hacia la entrada al sitio varían. Debido a su extrema santidad, muchos judíos no caminan sobre el Monte mismo, para evitar entrar involuntariamente en el área donde se encontraba el Lugar Santísimo , ya que, según la ley rabínica, todavía hay algún aspecto de la presencia divina en el lugar. [20] [21] [22]

El recinto de la mezquita de Al-Aqsa , en la cima del sitio, es la segunda mezquita más antigua del Islam , [23] y una de las tres Mezquitas Sagradas, los lugares más sagrados del Islam ; es venerada como "el Noble Santuario". [24] Su patio ( sahn ) [25] puede albergar a más de 400.000 fieles, lo que la convierte en una de las mezquitas más grandes del mundo . [23] Tanto para los musulmanes sunitas como para los chiítas , se ubica como el tercer lugar más sagrado del Islam . La plaza incluye el lugar considerado como el lugar donde el profeta islámico Mahoma ascendió al cielo , [26] y sirvió como la primera " qibla ", la dirección hacia la que se giran los musulmanes cuando rezan. Al igual que en el judaísmo, los musulmanes también asocian el sitio con Salomón y otros profetas que también son venerados en el Islam. [27] El sitio, y el término "al-Aqsa", en relación con toda la plaza, también es un símbolo de identidad central para los palestinos , incluidos los cristianos palestinos . [28] [29] [30]

Desde las Cruzadas , la comunidad musulmana de Jerusalén ha administrado el sitio a través del Waqf islámico de Jerusalén . El sitio, junto con toda Jerusalén Este (que incluye la Ciudad Vieja), estuvo controlado por Jordania desde 1948 hasta 1967 y ha estado ocupado por Israel desde la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967. Poco después de capturar el sitio, Israel devolvió su administración al Waqf bajo la custodia hachemita jordana , al tiempo que mantuvo el control de seguridad israelí. [31] El gobierno israelí aplica una prohibición de la oración a los no musulmanes como parte de un acuerdo generalmente conocido como el "statu quo". [32] [33] [34] El sitio sigue siendo un importante punto focal del conflicto israelí-palestino . [35]

Terminología

El nombre del sitio es objeto de controversia, principalmente entre musulmanes y judíos, en el contexto del actual conflicto entre israelíes y palestinos . Algunos comentaristas y eruditos árabes musulmanes intentan negar la conexión judía con el Monte del Templo , mientras que algunos comentaristas y eruditos judíos intentan menospreciar la importancia del sitio en el Islam. [36] [37] Durante una disputa de 2016 sobre el nombre del sitio, la Directora General de la UNESCO, Irina Bokova, declaró: "Distintos pueblos adoran los mismos lugares, a veces bajo diferentes nombres. El reconocimiento, uso y respeto de estos nombres es primordial". [38]

Monte del Templo

El término Har haBayīt –comúnmente traducido como «Monte del Templo» en español– fue utilizado por primera vez en los libros de Miqueas (4:1) y Jeremías (26:18), literalmente como «Monte de la Casa», una variación literaria de la frase más larga «Monte de la Casa del Señor». La abreviatura no se volvió a utilizar en los libros posteriores de la Biblia hebrea [39] ni en el Nuevo Testamento . [40] El término siguió utilizándose durante todo el período del Segundo Templo , aunque el término «Monte Sión», que hoy se refiere a la colina oriental de la antigua Jerusalén, se utilizó con más frecuencia. Ambos términos se utilizan en el Libro de los Macabeos . [41] El término Har haBayīt se utiliza en toda la Mishná y en textos talmúdicos posteriores. [42] [43]

El momento exacto en el que surgió por primera vez el concepto del Monte como una característica topográfica separada del Templo o de la ciudad misma es un tema de debate entre los eruditos. [41] Según Eliav, fue durante el siglo I d.C., después de la destrucción del Segundo Templo. [44] Shahar y Shatzman llegaron a conclusiones diferentes. [45] [46] En los Libros de Crónicas , editados al final del período persa , ya se hace referencia al monte como una entidad distinta. En 2 Crónicas, el Templo de Salomón se construyó en el Monte Moriah (3:1), y la expiación de Manasés por sus pecados se asocia con el Monte de la Casa del Señor (33:15). [47] [48] [41] La concepción del Templo como ubicado en una montaña sagrada que posee cualidades especiales se encuentra repetidamente en los Salmos, y el área circundante se considera una parte integral del Templo mismo. [49]

La organización gubernamental que administra el sitio, el Waqf Islámico de Jerusalén (parte del gobierno jordano), ha declarado que el nombre "Monte del Templo" es un "nombre extraño y ajeno" y un "término de judaización de nueva creación". [50] En 2014, la Organización para la Liberación de Palestina (OLP) emitió un comunicado de prensa instando a los periodistas a no utilizar el término "Monte del Templo" al referirse al sitio. [51] En 2017, se informó de que los funcionarios del Waqf acosaron a arqueólogos como Gabriel Barkay y guías turísticos que utilizaron el término en el sitio. [52] Según Jan Turek y John Carman, en el uso moderno, el término Monte del Templo puede implicar potencialmente apoyo al control israelí del sitio. [53]

Otros términos hebreos

2 Crónicas 3:1 [47] se refiere al Monte del Templo en el tiempo anterior a la construcción del templo como el Monte Moriah ( en hebreo : הַר הַמֹּורִיָּה , har ha-Môriyyāh ).

Varios pasajes de la Biblia hebrea indican que durante la época en que fueron escritos, el Monte del Templo se identificaba como el Monte Sión. [54] El Monte Sión mencionado en las partes posteriores del Libro de Isaías (Isaías 60:14), [55] en el Libro de los Salmos y el Primer Libro de los Macabeos ( c.  siglo II a. C. ) parece referirse a la cima de la colina, generalmente conocida como el Monte del Templo. [54] Según el Libro de Samuel , el Monte Sión era el sitio de la fortaleza jebusea llamada la "fortaleza de Sión", pero una vez que se erigió el Primer Templo, según la Biblia, en la cima de la Colina Oriental ("Monte del Templo"), el nombre "Monte Sión" migró allí también. [54] El nombre migró más tarde por última vez, esta vez a la Colina Occidental de Jerusalén. [54]

Mezquita de Al-Aqsa

Extracto de un mapa británico de 1841 que muestra tanto "Mesjid el-Aksa" como "Jami el-Aksa"

El término inglés "Mezquita al-Aqsa" es una traducción de al-Masjid al-'Aqṣā ( árabe : ٱلْمَسْجِد ٱلْأَقْصَىٰ ) o al-Jâmi' al-Aqṣā ( árabe : ٱلْـجَـامِـع الْأَقْـصّى ). [56] [57] [58] Al-Masjid al-'Aqṣā – "la mezquita más lejana" – se deriva de la Sura 17 del Corán ("El viaje nocturno") que escribe que Mahoma viajó desde La Meca a la mezquita, desde donde posteriormente ascendió al Cielo . [59] [60] Escritores árabes y persas como el geógrafo del siglo X Al-Maqdisi , [61] el erudito del siglo XI Nasir Khusraw , [61] el geógrafo del siglo XII Muhammad al-Idrisi [62] y el erudito islámico del siglo XV Mujir al-Din , [63] [64] así como los orientalistas estadounidenses y británicos del siglo XIX Edward Robinson , [56] Guy Le Strange y Edward Henry Palmer explicaron que el término Masjid al-Aqsa se refiere a toda la explanada de la plaza que es el tema de este artículo - toda el área incluyendo la Cúpula de la Roca , las fuentes, las puertas y los cuatro minaretes - porque ninguno de estos edificios existía en el momento en que se escribió el Corán. [57] [65] [66]

Al-Jâmi' al-Aqṣá se refiere al sitio específico del edificio de la mezquita congregacional con cúpula plateada , [56] [57] [58] también conocida como Mezquita Qibli o Capilla Qibli ( al-Jami' al-Aqsa o al-Qibli , o Masjid al-Jumah o al-Mughata ), en referencia a su ubicación en el extremo sur del complejo como resultado del traslado de la qibla islámica de Jerusalén a La Meca. [67] Los dos términos árabes diferentes traducidos como "mezquita" en inglés son paralelos a los dos términos griegos diferentes traducidos como "templo" en el Nuevo Testamento : griego : ίερόν , romanizadohieron (equivalente a Masjid) y griego : ναός , romanizadonaos (equivalente a Jami'a), [56] [63] [68] y el uso del término "mezquita" para todo el complejo sigue el uso del mismo término para otros sitios islámicos tempranos con grandes patios como la Mezquita de Ibn Tulun en El Cairo, la Mezquita Omeya en Damasco y la Gran Mezquita de Kairuán . [69] Otras fuentes y mapas han utilizado el término al-Masjid al-'Aqṣā para referirse a la mezquita congregacional en sí. [70] [71] [72]

Extracto de un mapa británico de 1936 que muestra todo el sitio como "Moriah" o "Haram esh-Sharif"; la mezquita Al-Aqsa aparece como "Mesjid el-Aksa"

El término "al-Aqsa" como símbolo y marca se ha vuelto popular y prevaleciente en la región. [73] Por ejemplo, la Intifada de Al-Aqsa (el levantamiento de septiembre de 2000), las Brigadas de los Mártires de Al-Aqsa (una coalición de milicias nacionalistas palestinas en Cisjordania), Al-Aqsa TV (el canal de televisión oficial dirigido por Hamás), la Universidad de Al-Aqsa (universidad palestina establecida en 1991 en la Franja de Gaza), Jund al-Aqsa (una organización yihadista salafista que estuvo activa durante la Guerra Civil Siria), el periódico militar jordano publicado desde principios de la década de 1970, y las asociaciones de las ramas sur y norte del Movimiento Islámico en Israel se llaman Al-Aqsa en honor a este sitio. [73]

Haram al-Sharif

Durante el período de los mamelucos [74] (1260-1517) y el dominio otomano (1517-1917), el complejo más amplio comenzó a ser conocido popularmente como Haram al-Sharif, o al-Ḥaram ash-Sharīf (árabe: اَلْـحَـرَم الـشَّـرِيْـف ), que se traduce como el "Santuario Noble". Refleja la terminología de la Masjid al-Haram en La Meca ; [75] [76] [77] [78] Este término elevó el complejo a la categoría de Haram , que anteriormente había estado reservado para la Masjid al-Haram en La Meca y la Al-Masjid an-Nabawi en Medina . Otras figuras islámicas disputaron el estatus de haram del sitio. [73] El uso del nombre Haram al-Sharif por los palestinos locales ha disminuido en las últimas décadas, en favor del nombre tradicional de Mezquita Al-Aqsa. [73]

La explanada sagrada de Jerusalén

Algunos eruditos han utilizado los términos Explanada Sagrada o Explanada Sagrada como un "término estrictamente neutral" para el sitio. [5] [6] Un ejemplo notable de este uso es la obra de 2009 Donde el Cielo y la Tierra se encuentran: la Explanada Sagrada de Jerusalén , escrita como un proyecto conjunto de 21 eruditos judíos, musulmanes y cristianos. [79] [80]

La Explanada Santa de Jerusalén

En los últimos años, el término "Santa Explanada" ha sido utilizado por las Naciones Unidas , por su Secretario General y por los órganos subsidiarios de la ONU. [81]

Ubicación y dimensiones

Mapa topográfico de Jerusalén, que muestra el Monte del Templo en el pico oriental

El Monte del Templo forma la parte norte de un estrecho espolón de colina que desciende abruptamente de norte a sur. Elevándose sobre el valle de Cedrón al este y el valle de Tiropeón al oeste, [82] su pico alcanza una altura de 740 m (2428 pies) sobre el nivel del mar. [83] Alrededor del año 19 a. C., Herodes el Grande extendió la meseta natural del Monte al encerrar el área con cuatro enormes muros de contención y rellenar los vacíos. Esta expansión artificial dio como resultado una gran extensión plana que hoy forma la sección oriental de la Ciudad Vieja de Jerusalén . La plataforma con forma de trapecio mide 488 m (1601 pies) a lo largo del oeste, 470 m (1540 pies) a lo largo del este, 315 m (1033 pies) a lo largo del norte y 280 m (920 pies) a lo largo del sur, lo que da un área total de aproximadamente 150 000 m 2 (37 acres). [84] El muro norte del Monte, junto con la sección norte del muro occidental, está oculto detrás de edificios residenciales. La sección sur del flanco occidental está expuesta y contiene lo que se conoce como el Muro Occidental . Los muros de contención en estos dos lados descienden muchos metros por debajo del nivel del suelo. Una parte norte del muro occidental se puede ver desde dentro del Túnel del Muro Occidental , que fue excavado a través de edificios adyacentes a la plataforma. En los lados sur y este, los muros son visibles casi en toda su altura. La plataforma en sí está separada del resto de la Ciudad Vieja por el Valle de Tyropeon, aunque este valle, una vez profundo, ahora está en gran parte oculto debajo de depósitos posteriores y es imperceptible en algunos lugares. Se puede llegar a la plataforma a través de la Puerta de la Calle de las Cadenas, una calle en el Barrio Musulmán al nivel de la plataforma, que en realidad se asienta sobre un puente monumental; [85] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] el puente ya no es visible externamente debido al cambio en el nivel del suelo, pero se puede ver desde abajo a través del Túnel del Muro Occidental. [86]

Sitio patrimonial

En 1980, Jordania propuso que la Ciudad Vieja fuera incluida en la Lista del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO [87] y fue añadida a la Lista en 1981. [88] En 1982, fue añadida a la Lista del Patrimonio Mundial en Peligro . [89]

El 26 de octubre de 2016, la UNESCO aprobó la Resolución sobre la Palestina ocupada , que condenaba lo que describía como "la escalada de las agresiones israelíes" y las medidas ilegales contra el waqf, pedía la restauración del acceso musulmán y exigía que Israel respetara el statu quo histórico [90] [91] [92] y también criticaba a Israel por su continua "negativa a permitir que los expertos del organismo accedan a los lugares sagrados de Jerusalén para determinar su estado de conservación". [93] [94] Si bien el texto reconocía la "importancia de la Ciudad Vieja de Jerusalén y sus murallas para las tres religiones monoteístas", se refería al recinto sagrado de la cima de la colina en la Ciudad Vieja de Jerusalén solo por su nombre musulmán Al-Haram al-Sharif.

En respuesta, Israel denunció la resolución de la UNESCO por su omisión de las palabras "Monte del Templo" o "Har HaBayit", afirmando que negaba los vínculos judíos con el sitio. [92] [95] Israel congeló todos los vínculos con la UNESCO. [96] [97] En octubre de 2017, Israel y los Estados Unidos anunciaron que se retirarían de la UNESCO, citando un sesgo antiisraelí. [98] [99]

El 6 de abril de 2022, la UNESCO adoptó por unanimidad una resolución que reiteraba las 21 resoluciones anteriores relativas a Jerusalén. [100]

Importancia religiosa

El Monte del Templo tiene importancia histórica y religiosa para las tres principales religiones abrahámicas : el judaísmo, el cristianismo y el islam. Tiene una importancia religiosa particular para el judaísmo y el islam.

judaísmo

El Monte del Templo es considerado el lugar más sagrado del judaísmo. [101] [102] [11] Según la tradición judía, ambos Templos se encontraban en el Monte del Templo. [103] La tradición judía además ubica al Monte del Templo como el lugar de una serie de eventos importantes que ocurrieron en la Biblia, incluyendo la Atadura de Isaac , el sueño de Jacob y la oración de Isaac y Rebeca . [104] Según el Talmud, la Piedra Fundacional es el lugar desde donde el mundo fue creado y se expandió a su forma actual. [105] [106] La tradición judía ortodoxa sostiene que es aquí donde se construirá el tercer y último Templo cuando venga el Mesías . [107]

El Monte del Templo es el lugar al que se dirigen los judíos durante la oración. Las actitudes de los judíos respecto de entrar en el lugar varían. Debido a su extrema santidad, muchos judíos no caminan por el Monte mismo, para evitar entrar sin querer en la zona donde se encontraba el Santo de los Santos , ya que, según la ley rabínica, todavía hay algún aspecto de la presencia divina en el lugar. [108] [109] [110]

El templo

La maqueta de Jerusalén de la Tierra Santa representa a Jerusalén durante el período tardío del Segundo Templo . El Monte del Templo y el Templo de Herodes se muestran en el medio. Vista desde el este.

Según la Biblia hebrea , el Monte del Templo era originalmente una era propiedad de Arauna , un jebuseo . [111] La Biblia narra cómo David unió a las doce tribus israelitas , conquistó Jerusalén y trajo el artefacto central de los israelitas , el Arca de la Alianza , a la ciudad. [112] Cuando una gran plaga azotó a Israel, un ángel destructor apareció en la era de Arauna. El profeta Gad sugirió entonces a David la zona como un lugar apropiado para la erección de un altar a Yahvé . [113] David compró la propiedad a Arauna, por cincuenta piezas de plata, y erigió el altar. Dios respondió a sus oraciones y detuvo la plaga. Posteriormente, David eligió el sitio para un futuro templo para reemplazar el Tabernáculo y albergar el Arca de la Alianza; [114] [115] Sin embargo, Dios le prohibió construirlo, porque había "derramado mucha sangre". [116]

El Primer Templo fue construido bajo el mando del hijo de David , Salomón , [117] quien se convirtió en un ambicioso constructor de obras públicas en el antiguo Israel : [118]

Entonces Salomón comenzó a edificar la casa de Jehová en Jerusalén, en el monte Moriah, donde Jehová se había aparecido a David su padre; para lo cual se había preparado en la casa de David, en la era de Ornán jebuseo.

—  2 Crónicas 3:1 [119]

Salomón colocó el Arca en el Lugar Santísimo, el santuario más interior y sin ventanas y la zona más sagrada del templo en la que reposaba la presencia de Dios; [120] la entrada al Lugar Santísimo estaba muy restringida, y solo el Sumo Sacerdote de Israel entraba en el santuario una vez al año en Yom Kippur , llevando la sangre de un cordero sacrificial y quemando incienso . [120] Según la Biblia, el sitio funcionaba como el centro de toda la vida nacional: un centro gubernamental, judicial y religioso. [121]

El Génesis Rabba , que probablemente fue escrito entre 300 y 500 d.C., afirma que este sitio es uno de los tres sobre los cuales las naciones del mundo no pueden burlarse de Israel y decir: "los has robado", ya que fue comprado "por su precio completo" por David. [122]

El Primer Templo fue destruido en 587/586 a. C. por el Imperio Neobabilónico bajo el segundo rey babilónico, Nabucodonosor II , quien posteriormente exilió a los judíos a Babilonia tras la caída del Reino de Judá y su anexión como provincia babilónica . A los judíos que habían sido deportados tras la conquista babilónica de Judá finalmente se les permitió regresar tras una proclamación del rey persa Ciro el Grande que se emitió después de la caída de Babilonia ante el Imperio aqueménida . En 516 a. C., la población judía que regresó a Judá, bajo el gobierno provincial persa , reconstruyó el Templo de Jerusalén bajo los auspicios de Zorobabel , produciendo lo que se conoce como el Segundo Templo .

Durante el Período del Segundo Templo , Jerusalén era el centro de la vida religiosa y nacional de los judíos, incluidos los de la diáspora . [123] Se cree que el Segundo Templo atrajo a decenas y tal vez cientos de miles de personas durante las Tres Fiestas de Peregrinación . [123] La festividad de Hanukkah conmemora la rededicación del Templo al comienzo de la revuelta macabea en el siglo II a. C. Durante el siglo I a. C., el Templo fue renovado por Herodes . Fue destruido por el Imperio Romano en el apogeo de la Primera Guerra Judeo-Romana en el año 70 d. C. Tisha B'Av , un día de ayuno anual en el judaísmo , marca la destrucción del Primer y Segundo Templos, que según la tradición judía, ocurrió el mismo día en el calendario hebreo .

En profecía

El libro de Isaías predice la importancia internacional del Monte del Templo:

Y acontecerá en lo postrero de los tiempos, que será confirmado el monte de la casa de Jehová como cabeza de los montes, y será exaltado sobre los collados, y correrán a él todas las naciones. Y vendrán muchos pueblos, y dirán: Venid, y subamos al monte de Jehová, a la casa del Dios de Jacob; y nos enseñará sus caminos, y andaremos por sus sendas. Porque de Sión saldrá la ley, y de Jerusalén la palabra de Jehová.

—  Isaías 2:2–3 [124]

La atadura de Isaac

En la tradición judía, también se cree que el Monte del Templo es el lugar donde Abraham ató a Isaac . 2 Crónicas 3:1 [47] se refiere al Monte del Templo en la época anterior a la construcción del templo como Monte Moriah ( en hebreo : הַר הַמֹּורִיָּה , har ha-Môriyyāh ). La « tierra de Moriah » ( אֶרֶץ הַמֹּרִיָּה , eretṣ ha-Môriyyāh ) es el nombre dado por el Génesis al lugar donde ataron a Isaac. [125] Desde al menos el siglo I d. C., los dos sitios han sido identificados entre sí en el judaísmo, y esta identificación ha sido posteriormente perpetuada por la tradición judía y cristiana . La erudición moderna tiende a considerarlos distintos (véase Moriah ).

Creación del mundo

Imagen que muestra lo que se presume es la Piedra Fundacional , o gran parte de ella.

Según los sabios rabínicos cuyos debates produjeron el Talmud , la Piedra Fundacional , que se encuentra debajo de la Cúpula de la Roca , fue el lugar desde donde se creó el mundo y se expandió hasta su forma actual, [105] [106] y donde Dios reunió el polvo utilizado para crear al primer ser humano, Adán . [125]

Tercer Templo

Los textos judíos predicen que el Monte será el sitio de un Tercer y último Templo , que será reconstruido con la llegada del Mesías . La reconstrucción del Templo siguió siendo un tema recurrente entre generaciones, particularmente en la Amidá (oración de pie) tres veces al día, la oración central de la liturgia judía , que contiene una petición para la construcción de un Tercer Templo y la restauración de los servicios sacrificiales . Varios grupos judíos vocales ahora abogan por la construcción del Tercer Templo sin demora para hacer realidad los "planes proféticos de Dios para el fin de los tiempos para Israel y el mundo entero". [126]

cristianismo

El Templo era de importancia central en el culto judío en el Tanaj ( Antiguo Testamento ). En el Nuevo Testamento , el Templo de Herodes fue el lugar de varios eventos en la vida de Jesús , y la lealtad cristiana al sitio como punto focal permaneció mucho después de su muerte. [127] [128] [129] Después de la destrucción del Templo en el año 70 d. C., que llegó a ser considerada por los primeros cristianos, como lo fue por Josefo y los sabios del Talmud de Jerusalén , como un acto divino de castigo por los pecados del pueblo judío, [130] [131] el Monte del Templo perdió su importancia para el culto cristiano y los cristianos lo consideraron un cumplimiento de la profecía de Cristo en, por ejemplo, Mateo 23:38 [132] y Mateo 24:2. [133] Fue con este fin, prueba de una profecía bíblica cumplida y de la victoria del cristianismo sobre el judaísmo con el Nuevo Pacto , [134] que los primeros peregrinos cristianos también visitaron el sitio. [135] Los cristianos bizantinos, a pesar de algunos signos de trabajo constructivo en la explanada, [136] generalmente descuidaron el Monte del Templo, especialmente cuando un intento judío de reconstruir el Templo fue destruido por el terremoto de 363. [ 137] Se convirtió en un vertedero de basura local desolado, tal vez fuera de los límites de la ciudad, [138] cuando el culto cristiano en Jerusalén se trasladó a la Iglesia del Santo Sepulcro , y la centralidad de Jerusalén fue reemplazada por Roma. [139]

Durante la era bizantina , Jerusalén era principalmente cristiana y los peregrinos acudían por decenas de miles para experimentar los lugares por los que caminó Jesús. [ cita requerida ] Después de la invasión persa en 614, muchas iglesias fueron arrasadas y el sitio se convirtió en un vertedero. Los árabes conquistaron la ciudad del Imperio bizantino que la había retomado en 629. La prohibición bizantina sobre los judíos se levantó y se les permitió vivir dentro de la ciudad y visitar los lugares de culto. Los peregrinos cristianos pudieron venir y experimentar el área del Monte del Templo. [140] La guerra entre los selyúcidas y el Imperio bizantino y la creciente violencia musulmana contra los peregrinos cristianos a Jerusalén instigaron las Cruzadas . Los cruzados capturaron Jerusalén en 1099 y la Cúpula de la Roca fue entregada a los agustinos , quienes la convirtieron en una iglesia, y la Mezquita al-Aqsa se convirtió en el palacio real de Balduino I de Jerusalén en 1104. Los Caballeros Templarios , que creían que la Cúpula de la Roca era el sitio del Templo de Salomón , le dieron el nombre de " Templum Domini " y establecieron su cuartel general en la Mezquita al-Aqsa adyacente a la Cúpula durante gran parte del siglo XII. [ cita requerida ]

En el arte cristiano , la circuncisión de Jesús fue representada convencionalmente como ocurriendo en el Templo, aunque hasta hace poco los artistas europeos no tenían forma de saber cómo era el Templo y los Evangelios no afirman que el evento tuvo lugar en el Templo. [141]

Aunque algunos cristianos creen que el Templo será reconstruido antes o al mismo tiempo que la Segunda Venida de Jesús (véase también dispensacionalismo ), la peregrinación al Monte del Templo no se considera importante en las creencias y el culto de la mayoría de los cristianos. El Nuevo Testamento relata la historia de una mujer samaritana que le preguntó a Jesús cuál era el lugar apropiado para adorar, Jerusalén (como lo era para los judíos) o el Monte Gerizim (como lo era para los samaritanos ), a lo que Jesús responde:

Mujer, créeme, llega la hora en que ni en este monte ni en Jerusalén adoraréis al Padre. Vosotros adoráis lo que no sabéis; nosotros adoramos lo que conocemos, porque la salvación viene de los judíos. Pero llega la hora, y ya está aquí, en que los verdaderos adoradores adorarán al Padre en espíritu y en verdad, porque el Padre tales adoradores busca. Dios es Espíritu, y los que le adoran deben adorar en espíritu y en verdad.

—  Juan 4:21–24 [142]

Esto se ha interpretado en el sentido de que Jesús prescindió de la ubicación física para el culto, que era más bien una cuestión de espíritu y verdad. [143]

islam

Aproximadamente 300.000 musulmanes rezando durante el Ramadán , 1996
Fachada de la principal sala de oración de al-Aqsa, la Mezquita Qibli , vista desde el norte.
Decoración interior de la Cúpula de la Roca
La Cúpula de la Roca como santuario islámico, vista desde el norte

Entre los musulmanes sunitas y chiítas , [ cita requerida ] toda la plaza, conocida como la mezquita al-Aqsa, también conocida como Haram al-Sharif o "el Noble Santuario", se considera el tercer lugar más sagrado del Islam . [24] Según la tradición islámica, la plaza es el lugar de la ascensión de Mahoma al cielo desde Jerusalén , y sirvió como la primera " qibla ", la dirección hacia la que se giran los musulmanes cuando rezan. Al igual que en el judaísmo, los musulmanes también asocian el sitio con Abraham y otros profetas que también son venerados en el Islam. [27] Los musulmanes ven el sitio como uno de los primeros y más notables lugares de adoración a Dios . Prefirieron usar la explanada como el corazón del barrio musulmán, ya que había sido abandonada por los cristianos, para evitar perturbar los barrios cristianos de Jerusalén. [144] Los califas omeyas encargaron la construcción de la mezquita al-Aqsa en el sitio, incluido el santuario conocido como la " Cúpula de la Roca ". [145] La Cúpula se completó en el año 692 d. C., lo que la convierte en una de las estructuras islámicas más antiguas que aún se conservan en el mundo. La Mezquita Al-Aqsa , a veces conocida como la Mezquita Qibli, se encuentra en el extremo sur del Monte, frente a La Meca .

En el Islam primitivo

El Islam primitivo consideraba que la Piedra Fundamental era la ubicación del Templo de Salomón, y las primeras iniciativas arquitectónicas en el Monte del Templo buscaban glorificar a Jerusalén presentando al Islam como una continuación del judaísmo y el cristianismo. [36] Casi inmediatamente después de la conquista musulmana de Jerusalén en 638 d. C., el califa 'Omar ibn al Khatab , al parecer disgustado por la suciedad que cubría el lugar, lo hizo limpiar a fondo, [146] y concedió a los judíos el acceso al lugar. [147] Según los primeros intérpretes coránicos y lo que generalmente se acepta como tradición islámica, en 638 d. C. Umar, al entrar en una Jerusalén conquistada, consultó con Ka'ab al-Ahbar -un judío convertido al Islam que vino con él desde Medina- sobre cuál sería el mejor lugar para construir una mezquita. Al-Ahbar le sugirió que debería estar detrás de la Roca "... para que toda Jerusalén estuviera ante ti". Umar respondió: "¡Tú correspondes al judaísmo!" Inmediatamente después de esta conversación, Umar comenzó a limpiar el lugar –que estaba lleno de basura y escombros– con su manto, y otros seguidores musulmanes lo imitaron hasta que el lugar quedó limpio. Luego, Umar rezó en el lugar donde se creía que Mahoma había rezado antes de su viaje nocturno, recitando la sura coránica Sad . [148] Así, según esta tradición, Umar volvió a consagrar el lugar como mezquita. [149]

Las interpretaciones musulmanas del Corán coinciden en que el Monte es el sitio del Templo construido originalmente por Salomón , considerado un profeta en el Islam , que luego fue destruido. [150] [151] Después de la construcción, creen los musulmanes, el templo fue utilizado para la adoración del único Dios por muchos profetas del Islam, incluido Jesús. [152] [153] [154] Otros eruditos musulmanes han utilizado la Torá (llamada Tawrat en árabe) para ampliar los detalles del templo. [155] El término Bayt al-Maqdis (o Bayt al-Muqaddas ), que aparece con frecuencia como nombre de Jerusalén en las primeras fuentes islámicas, es un cognado del término hebreo bēt ha-miqdāsh (בית המקדש), el Templo en Jerusalén. [156] [157] [158] Mujir al-Din , un cronista jerosolimitano del siglo XV, menciona una tradición anterior relatada por al-Wasti, según la cual "después de que David construyó muchas ciudades y la situación de los hijos de Israel mejoró, quiso construir Bayt al-Maqdis y construir una cúpula sobre la roca en el lugar que Alá santificó en Aelia". [36]

Isra y Mi'raj

Según el Corán , Mahoma fue transportado a un sitio llamado Mezquita Al-Aqsa - "el lugar más alejado de la oración" ( al-Masjid al-'Aqṣā ) durante su Viaje Nocturno ( Isra y Mi'raj ). [159] El Corán describe cómo Mahoma fue llevado por el corcel milagroso Buraq desde la Gran Mezquita de La Meca a la Mezquita al-Aqsa donde oró. [160] [159] [161] Después de que Mahoma terminó sus oraciones, el ángel Jibril ( Gabriel ) viajó con él al cielo, donde conoció a varios otros profetas y los guió en la oración: [162] [163] [164]

¡Gloria a Aquel que llevó a Su siervo Muhammad de noche desde la Mezquita Sagrada a la Mezquita más alejada, cuyos alrededores bendecimos, para mostrarle algunos de Nuestros signos! En verdad, sólo Él es Quien todo lo oye, Quien todo lo ve.

—  Sura Al-Isra 17:1

El Corán no menciona la ubicación exacta del «lugar de oración más alejado», y la ciudad de Jerusalén no es mencionada por ninguno de sus nombres en el Corán. [165] [151] Según la Enciclopedia del Islam , la frase se entendió originalmente como una referencia a un sitio en los cielos. [166] Un grupo de eruditos islámicos entendió la historia de la ascensión de Mahoma desde la mezquita de Al-Aqsa como relacionada con el Templo judío en Jerusalén . Otro grupo no estuvo de acuerdo con esta identificación y prefirió el significado del término como una referencia al cielo. [167] Se cree que Al-Bujari y Al-Tabari , por ejemplo, rechazaron la identificación con Jerusalén. [166] [168] Finalmente, surgió un consenso en torno a la identificación del «lugar de oración más alejado» con Jerusalén, y por implicación el Monte del Templo. [167] [169] Los hadices posteriores se refirieron a Jerusalén como el sitio de la mezquita de Al-Aqsa: [170]

Narró Jabir bin `Abdullah:
Que escuchó al Mensajero de Allah decir: "Cuando la gente de Quraish no me creyó (es decir, la historia de mi Viaje Nocturno), me puse de pie en Al-Hijr y Allah mostró Jerusalén frente a mí, y comencé a describírsela mientras la miraba".

—  Sahih al-Bujari 3886
Una representación del ascenso de Mahoma al cielo por el sultán Mohammed

Algunos estudiosos señalan los motivos políticos de la dinastía Omeya que llevaron a la santificación de Jerusalén en el Islam. Según la Enciclopedia del Islam, los omeyas asociaron el Viaje Nocturno con Jerusalén como un medio político para promover la gloria de Jerusalén y competir con la gloria del santuario de La Meca, entonces controlado por Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr . [166] [171] La construcción de la Cúpula de la Roca fue interpretada por Ya'qubi , un historiador abasí del siglo IX , como un intento omeya de redirigir el Hajj desde La Meca a Jerusalén creando un rival para la Kaaba . [172]

Otros académicos atribuyen la santidad de Jerusalén al surgimiento y expansión de un cierto tipo de género literario, conocido como al-Fadhail o historia de las ciudades. El Fadhail de Jerusalén inspiró a los musulmanes, especialmente durante el período omeya, a embellecer la santidad de la ciudad más allá de su estatus en los textos sagrados. [173] Basándose en los escritos de los historiadores del siglo VIII Al-Waqidi [174] y al-Azraqi , algunos eruditos han sugerido que la mezquita de al-Aqsa mencionada en el Corán no está en Jerusalén sino en el pueblo de al-Ju'ranah , a 18 millas al noreste de La Meca. [168] [175] [176]

Los escritos medievales posteriores, así como los tratados políticos modernos, tienden a clasificar la mezquita de Al-Aqsa como el tercer lugar más sagrado del Islam. [177]

Primera qibla

La mezquita de Al-Aqsa en 2019

La importancia histórica de la mezquita de al-Aqsa en el Islam se enfatiza aún más por el hecho de que los musulmanes se volvieron hacia al-Aqsa cuando oraron durante un período de 16 o 17 meses después de la migración a Medina en 624; por lo tanto, se convirtió en la qibla ("dirección") a la que los musulmanes se orientaban para la oración. [178] Mahoma más tarde oró hacia la Kaaba en La Meca después de recibir una revelación durante una sesión de oración [179] [180] en la Masjid al-Qiblatayn . [181] [182] La qibla fue reubicada en la Kaaba, donde los musulmanes han sido dirigidos a orar desde entonces. [183]

Estatus religioso

La Organización para la Cooperación Islámica se refiere a la Mezquita Al-Aqsa como el tercer lugar más sagrado del Islam (y pide la soberanía árabe sobre ella). [184]

Historia

Preisraelita

Se cree que la colina ha estado habitada desde el cuarto milenio a . C. [ cita requerida ] En 2012, el Proyecto de Cribado del Monte del Templo descubrió en el sitio un amuleto con el cartucho de Tutmosis III (r. 1479-1425 a. C.). [ 185 ]

Período israelita

Según los arqueólogos, el Monte del Templo sirvió como centro de la vida religiosa de la Jerusalén bíblica, así como acrópolis real del Reino de Judá . [186] Se cree que el Primer Templo alguna vez fue parte de un complejo real mucho más grande. [187] La ​​Biblia también menciona varios otros edificios construidos por Salomón en el sitio, incluido el palacio real, la "Casa del Bosque del Líbano", el "Salón de los Pilares", el "Salón del Trono" y la "Casa de la Hija del Faraón". [41] [188] Algunos eruditos creen que, de acuerdo con los relatos bíblicos, el complejo real y religioso en el Monte del Templo fue construido por Salomón durante el siglo X a. C. como una entidad separada, que luego se incorporó a la ciudad. [186]  Knauf argumentó que el Monte del Templo ya servía como centro de culto y gobierno de Jerusalén ya en la Edad del Bronce Tardío . [189] Alternativamente, Naamán sugirió que Salomón construyó el Templo en una escala mucho más pequeña que la descrita en la Biblia, que fue ampliada o reconstruida durante el siglo VIII a. C. [190] En 2014, Finkelstein , Koch y Lipschits propusieron que el testimonio de la antigua Jerusalén se encuentra debajo del complejo moderno, en lugar del sitio arqueológico cercano conocido como la Ciudad de David , como cree la arqueología convencional; [191] sin embargo, esta propuesta fue rechazada por otros estudiosos del tema. [192]

La bula de Immer (siglos VII-VI a. C.), escrita en escritura paleohebrea , fue descubierta durante el Proyecto de Cribado del Monte del Templo . Lleva el nombre de Immer , registrado en la Biblia como el nombre de un importante funcionario del Templo de Salomón.

Todos los eruditos coinciden en que el Monte del Templo de la Edad de Hierro era más pequeño que el complejo herodiano aún visible hoy en día. Algunos eruditos, como Kenyon y Ritmeyer , argumentaron que los muros del complejo del Primer Templo se extendían hacia el este hasta el Muro Oriental . [186] [187] Ritmeyer identifica hiladas específicas de sillares visibles ubicados al norte y al sur de la Puerta Dorada como de estilo de la Edad de Hierro de Judea, y los data de la construcción de este muro por Ezequías . Se supone que más piedras de este tipo sobreviven bajo tierra. [193] [194] Ritmeyer también ha sugerido que uno de los escalones que conducen a la Cúpula de la Roca es en realidad la parte superior de una hilera de piedras restante del muro occidental del complejo de la Edad de Hierro. [195] [196]

Restos de un muro en la parte noroeste de la plataforma elevada; Ritmeyer sugirió que se trata de la parte superior de una hilera de piedras restante del muro occidental del recinto de la Edad de Hierro.

El Primer Templo fue destruido en 587/586 a. C. por el Imperio Neobabilónico bajo el mando de Nabucodonosor II .

Períodos persa, helenístico y asmoneo

La construcción del Segundo Templo comenzó bajo el reinado de Ciro alrededor del año 538 a. C. y se completó en el año 516 a. C. Se construyó en el sitio original del Templo de Salomón. [197] [41]

Según Patrich y Edelcopp, el área ideal del complejo, descrita en Ezequiel como 50x50 codos, fue alcanzada por los asmoneos , quizás bajo Juan Hircano ; este es el mismo tamaño mencionado más tarde por la Mishná . [41]

El arqueólogo Leen Ritmeyer ha recuperado evidencia de una expansión asmonea del Monte del Templo .

En el año 67 a. C. estalló una disputa entre Aristóbulo II e Hircano II por el trono asmoneo. El general romano Pompeyo , que había sido invitado a intervenir en el conflicto, se puso del lado de Hircano; Aristóbulo y sus seguidores se atrincheraron dentro del Monte del Templo y destruyeron el puente que lo unía a la ciudad. Cuando el ejército romano llegó a Jerusalén, Pompeyo ordenó que se rellenara el foso que defendía el Monte del Templo desde el norte. Para lograrlo, Pompeyo esperó a que llegaran los sabbats , para que los defensores no interrumpieran el trabajo. Después de un asedio de tres meses , los romanos pudieron derribar una de las torres de vigilancia y asaltar el Monte del Templo. El propio Pompeyo entró en el Lugar Santísimo , pero no dañó el Templo y permitió que los sacerdotes continuaran con su trabajo como de costumbre. [198] [199] [200]

Períodos herodianos y romanos tempranos

Alrededor del año 19 a. C., Herodes el Grande amplió aún más el Monte del Templo y reconstruyó el templo . El ambicioso proyecto, que implicó el empleo de 10.000 trabajadores, [201] duplicó con creces el tamaño del Monte del Templo hasta aproximadamente 36 acres (150.000 m2 ) . Herodes niveló el área cortando la roca en el lado noroeste y elevando el terreno inclinado hacia el sur. Logró esto construyendo enormes muros de contrafuerte y bóvedas y rellenando las secciones necesarias con tierra y escombros. [202] El resultado fue el temenos más grande del mundo antiguo. [203]

Las entradas principales al Monte del Templo herodiano eran dos juegos de puertas construidas en el muro sur, junto con otras cuatro puertas a las que se podía llegar desde el lado occidental por escaleras y puentes. Grandes stoas rodeaban la plataforma por tres lados, y en su lado sur se encontraba una magnífica basílica a la que Josefo se refirió como la Stoa Real . [203] La Stoa Real servía como centro para las transacciones comerciales y legales de la ciudad, y tenía acceso independiente a la ciudad de abajo a través del paso elevado del Arco de Robinson . [204] El Templo en sí y sus patios estaban ubicados en una plataforma elevada en medio del complejo más grande. Además de la restauración del Templo, sus patios y pórticos, Herodes también construyó la Fortaleza Antonia , que dominaba la esquina noroeste del Monte del Templo, y un depósito de agua de lluvia, Birket Israel , en el noreste. Una calle monumental, hoy conocida como la " Calle Escalonada ", llevaba a los peregrinos desde la puerta sur de la ciudad a través del Valle de Tiropeón hasta el lado occidental del Monte del Templo. En 2019 se propuso que Poncio Pilato construyó la carretera durante los años 30. [205]

Durante las primeras fases de la Primera Guerra Judeo-Romana (66-70 d. C.), el Monte del Templo se convirtió en un centro de lucha para varias facciones judías que luchaban por el control de la ciudad, con diferentes facciones que controlaban el área durante el conflicto. En abril del 70, el ejército romano bajo el mando de Tito llegó a Jerusalén y comenzó a sitiar la ciudad . Los romanos tardaron cuatro meses en derrotar a los defensores del Monte del Templo y tomar el sitio. Los romanos destruyeron por completo el Templo y todas las demás estructuras en la plataforma. [206] Se descubrieron enormes derrumbes de piedra de los muros superiores sobre la calle Herodiana que corre a lo largo de la parte sur del Muro Occidental, [207] con algunas de las piedras quemadas a temperaturas que alcanzaron los 800 °C (1472 °F). [208] La inscripción del Lugar de las Trompetas , una inscripción hebrea monumental que fue arrojada por legionarios romanos, fue encontrada en una de estas pilas de piedras. [209]

Montones de piedras (a lo largo del muro occidental, cerca del extremo sur) de los muros del Monte del Templo
Se cree que la inscripción del Lugar de las Trompetas , una piedra (2,43x1 m) con la inscripción en hebreo לבית התקיעה להב "Al Lugar de las Trompetas" excavada por Benjamin Mazar al pie sur del Monte del Templo, es parte del Segundo Templo.

Período romano medio

La ciudad de Aelia Capitolina fue construida en el año 130 d. C. por el emperador romano Adriano y ocupada por una colonia romana en el sitio de Jerusalén, que todavía estaba en ruinas desde la Primera Revuelta Judía en el año 70 d. C. Aelia proviene del nomen gentile de Adriano , Aelius , mientras que Capitolina significaba que la nueva ciudad estaba dedicada a Júpiter Capitolino , a quien se le construyó un templo superpuesto al sitio del anterior segundo templo judío, el Monte del Templo. [210]

Adriano había pensado en la construcción de la nueva ciudad como un regalo a los judíos, pero como había construido una estatua gigante de sí mismo frente al Templo de Júpiter y el Templo de Júpiter tenía una enorme estatua de Júpiter en su interior, había ahora en el Monte del Templo dos enormes imágenes esculpidas , que los judíos consideraban idólatras. También era costumbre en los ritos romanos sacrificar un cerdo en las ceremonias de purificación de la tierra. [211] Después de la Tercera Revuelta Judía , a todos los judíos se les prohibió bajo pena de muerte entrar en la ciudad o en el territorio circundante a la ciudad. [212]

Período romano tardío

Un relieve de un centauro romano (135–325 d. C.) reutilizado como panel de suelo en la mezquita de Al-Aqsa fue encontrado durante los trabajos de restauración en la década de 1930.

Desde el siglo I hasta el VII, el cristianismo se extendió por todo el Imperio Romano, se convirtió gradualmente en la religión predominante de Palestina y, bajo los bizantinos, la propia Jerusalén era casi completamente cristiana, y la mayor parte de la población era cristiana jacobita de rito sirio . [134] [137]

El emperador Constantino I promovió la cristianización de la sociedad romana, dándole prioridad sobre los cultos paganos. [213] Una consecuencia fue que el Templo de Júpiter de Adriano en el Monte del Templo fue demolido inmediatamente después del Primer Concilio de Nicea en el año 325 d. C. por orden de Constantino. [214]

El peregrino de Burdeos , que visitó Jerusalén en 333-334, durante el reinado del emperador Constantino I, escribió que «hay dos estatuas de Adriano y, no lejos de ellas, una piedra horadada a la que los judíos acuden cada año y se ungen. Se lamentan y rasgan sus vestiduras, y luego se van». [215] Se supone que la ocasión fue Tisha b'Av , ya que décadas después Jerónimo relató que ese era el único día en el que se permitía a los judíos entrar en Jerusalén. [216]

En el año 363, el emperador Juliano , sobrino de Constantino , concedió permiso a los judíos para reconstruir el Templo. [216] [217] En una carta atribuida a Juliano, escribió a los judíos: «Debéis hacer esto para que, cuando haya concluido con éxito la guerra en Persia, pueda reconstruir con mis propios esfuerzos la ciudad sagrada de Jerusalén, que durante tantos años habéis anhelado ver habitada, y pueda traer colonos allí y, junto con vosotros, glorificar allí al Dios Altísimo». [216] Juliano veía al Dios judío como un miembro adecuado del panteón de dioses en los que creía, y también era un fuerte oponente del cristianismo. [216] [218] Los historiadores de la Iglesia escribieron que los judíos comenzaron a limpiar las estructuras y los escombros del Monte del Templo, pero se vieron frustrados, primero por un gran terremoto y luego por milagros que incluyeron fuego que brotó de la tierra. [219] Sin embargo, ninguna fuente judía contemporánea menciona este episodio directamente. [216]

Periodo bizantino

Durante sus excavaciones en la década de 1930, Robert Hamilton descubrió porciones de un piso de mosaico multicolor con patrones geométricos dentro de la mezquita al-Aqsa, pero no las publicó. [220] La fecha del mosaico es discutida: Zachi Dvira considera que son del período bizantino preislámico, mientras que Baruch, Reich y Sandhaus favorecen un origen omeya mucho más posterior debido a su similitud con un mosaico omeya conocido. [220]

Periodo sasánida

En el año 610, el Imperio sasánida expulsó al Imperio bizantino de Oriente Medio, lo que permitió a los judíos controlar Jerusalén por primera vez en siglos. A los judíos de Palestina se les permitió establecer un estado vasallo bajo el Imperio sasánida llamado la Mancomunidad Judía Sasánida , que duró cinco años. Los rabinos judíos ordenaron que se reanudaran los sacrificios de animales por primera vez desde la época del Segundo Templo y comenzaron a reconstruir el Templo judío. Poco antes de que los bizantinos recuperaran la zona cinco años después, en el año 615, los persas cedieron el control a la población cristiana, que derribó el edificio parcialmente construido del Templo judío y lo convirtió en un vertedero de basura, [221] que era cuando el califa Umar tomó la ciudad en el año 637 .

Periodo musulmán temprano

El qanatir (arco) suroeste del Haram al Sharif, Qubat al-Nahawiyya, también es parcialmente visible a la derecha.

En 637, los árabes sitiaron y capturaron la ciudad del Imperio bizantino, que había derrotado a las fuerzas persas y sus aliados, y reconquistaron la ciudad. No hay registros contemporáneos, pero sí muchas tradiciones, sobre el origen de los principales edificios islámicos en el monte. [222] [223] Un relato popular de siglos posteriores es que el califa Rashidun Umar fue llevado al lugar de mala gana por el patriarca cristiano Sofronio . [224] Lo encontró cubierto de escombros, pero la Roca sagrada fue encontrada con la ayuda de un judío converso, Ka'b al-Ahbar . [224] Al-Ahbar le aconsejó a Umar que construyera una mezquita al norte de la roca, para que los fieles estuvieran de cara tanto a la roca como a La Meca, pero en cambio Umar eligió construirla al sur de la roca. [224] Se conoció como la mezquita de al-Aqsa. Según fuentes musulmanas, los judíos participaron en la construcción del haram, sentando las bases tanto para al-Aqsa como para la mezquita de la Cúpula de la Roca. [225] El primer testimonio conocido de un testigo ocular es el del peregrino Arculf , que lo visitó alrededor del año 670. Según el relato de Arculf registrado por Adomnán , vio una casa de oración rectangular de madera construida sobre unas ruinas, lo suficientemente grande como para albergar a 3.000 personas. [222] [226]

En 691, el califa Abd al-Malik construyó un edificio islámico octogonal coronado por una cúpula alrededor de la roca, por una miríada de razones políticas, dinásticas y religiosas, basándose en tradiciones locales y coránicas que articulaban la santidad del lugar, un proceso en el que las narrativas textuales y arquitectónicas se reforzaban mutuamente. [227] El santuario llegó a ser conocido como la Cúpula de la Roca ( قبة الصخرة , Qubbat as-Sakhra ). (La cúpula misma fue cubierta de oro en 1920.) En 715, los omeyas, liderados por el califa al-Walid I , construyeron la mezquita de al-Aqsa ( المسجد الأقصى , al-Masjid al-'Aqṣā , lit.  "Mezquita más alejada"), correspondiente a la creencia islámica del milagroso viaje nocturno de Mahoma tal como se relata en el Corán y los hadices . El término "Noble Santuario" o "Haram al-Sharif", como lo llamaron más tarde los mamelucos y los otomanos , se refiere a toda el área que rodea esa Roca. [228]

Período de las Cruzadas y Ayyubí

Balduino II de Jerusalén , asignando la mezquita Al-Aqsa capturada a Hugues de Payens y Godofredo

El período de las Cruzadas comenzó en 1099 con la toma de Jerusalén por parte de la Primera Cruzada . Después de la conquista de la ciudad, a la orden de las Cruzadas conocida como los Caballeros Templarios se le concedió el uso de la Mezquita de Al-Aqsa para que la utilizara como su cuartel general. Esto fue probablemente otorgado por Balduino II de Jerusalén y Warmund, Patriarca de Jerusalén en el Concilio de Nablus en enero de 1120. [229] El Monte del Templo tenía una mística porque estaba sobre lo que se creía que eran las ruinas del Templo de Salomón . [230] [231] Por lo tanto, los Cruzados se referían a la Mezquita de Al-Aqsa como el Templo de Salomón, y fue de esta ubicación que la nueva Orden tomó el nombre de "Pobres Caballeros de Cristo y del Templo de Salomón", o caballeros "Templarios".

En 1187, una vez que recuperó Jerusalén, Saladino eliminó todo rastro de culto cristiano del Monte del Templo y devolvió la Cúpula de la Roca y la mezquita de Al-Aqsa a sus usos musulmanes. A partir de entonces, la mezquita permaneció en manos musulmanas, incluso durante los períodos relativamente breves de dominio cruzado posteriores a la Sexta Cruzada .

Período mameluco

Hay varios edificios mamelucos en la explanada del Haram y sus alrededores, como la madrasa al-Ashrafiyya de finales del siglo XV y la fuente Sabil de Qaytbay . Los mamelucos también elevaron el nivel del valle central o tirolés de Jerusalén, que bordea el Monte del Templo por el oeste, construyendo enormes subestructuras sobre las que luego construyeron a gran escala. Las subestructuras y los edificios sobre el suelo del período mameluco cubren así gran parte del muro occidental herodiano del Monte del Templo.

Periodo otomano

Tras la conquista otomana de Palestina en 1516, las autoridades otomanas continuaron con la política de prohibir a los no musulmanes poner un pie en el Monte del Templo hasta principios del siglo XIX, cuando se les permitió nuevamente visitar el lugar. [232] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ]

Monte del Templo, fotografiado por Francis Bedford , 1862

En 1867, un equipo de los Ingenieros Reales , dirigido por el teniente Charles Warren y financiado por el Fondo de Exploración de Palestina ( PEF), descubrió una serie de túneles cerca del Monte del Templo. Warren excavó en secreto algunos túneles cerca de los muros del Monte del Templo y fue el primero en documentar sus cursos inferiores. Warren también realizó algunas excavaciones a pequeña escala dentro del Monte del Templo, retirando escombros que bloqueaban los pasajes que conducían a la cámara de la Puerta Doble .

Período del Mandato Británico

Entre 1922 y 1924, el Consejo Superior Islámico restauró la Cúpula de la Roca. [233] El movimiento sionista de la época se oponía firmemente a cualquier idea de que se pudiera reconstruir el Templo. De hecho, su brazo armado, la milicia Haganah , asesinó a un judío cuando su plan de volar los lugares islámicos del Haram llegó a su conocimiento en 1931. [234]

Período jordano

El rey Hussein sobrevolando el Monte del Templo mientras estaba bajo control jordano , 1965

Jordan llevó a cabo dos renovaciones de la Cúpula de la Roca: reemplazó la cúpula interior de madera con goteras por una cúpula de aluminio en 1952 y, cuando la nueva cúpula comenzó a gotear, realizó una segunda restauración entre 1959 y 1964. [233]

Ni los árabes israelíes ni los judíos israelíes pudieron visitar sus lugares sagrados en los territorios jordanos durante este período. [235] [236]

Período israelí

Paracaidistas israelíes ingresando al Monte del Templo a través de la Puerta de los Leones en 1967

El 7 de junio de 1967, durante la Guerra de los Seis Días , las fuerzas israelíes avanzaron más allá de la Línea del Acuerdo de Armisticio de 1949 hacia territorios de Cisjordania , tomando el control de la Ciudad Vieja de Jerusalén , incluido el Monte del Templo.

El Gran Rabino de las Fuerzas de Defensa de Israel , Shlomo Goren , dirigió a los soldados en las celebraciones religiosas en el Monte del Templo y en el Muro Occidental. El Gran Rabinato israelí también declaró una festividad religiosa en el aniversario, llamada " Yom Yerushalayim " (Día de Jerusalén), que se convirtió en una fiesta nacional para conmemorar la reunificación de Jerusalén . Muchos vieron la captura de Jerusalén y el Monte del Templo como una liberación milagrosa de proporciones bíblicas-mesiánicas. [237] Unos días después de la guerra, más de 200.000 judíos acudieron al Muro Occidental en la primera peregrinación judía masiva cerca del Monte desde la destrucción del Templo en el año 70 d. C. Las autoridades islámicas no molestaron a Goren cuando fue a rezar al Monte hasta que, el noveno día de Av , trajo a 50 seguidores e introdujo un shofar y un arca portátil para rezar, una innovación que alarmó a las autoridades del Waqf y provocó un deterioro de las relaciones entre las autoridades musulmanas y el gobierno israelí. [238]

En junio de 1969, un australiano prendió fuego a la mezquita Jami'a al-Aqsa . El 11 de abril de 1982, un judío se escondió en la Cúpula de la Roca y disparó, matando a 2 palestinos e hiriendo a 44; en 1974, 1977 y 1983, grupos liderados por Yoel Lerner conspiraron para hacer estallar tanto la Cúpula de la Roca como al-Aqsa. El 26 de enero de 1984, los guardias del Waqf detectaron a miembros de B'nei Yehuda, un culto mesiánico de antiguos gánsteres convertidos en místicos con sede en Lifta , que intentaban infiltrarse en la zona para hacerla estallar. [239] [240] [241]

El 15 de enero de 1988, durante la Primera Intifada , las tropas israelíes dispararon balas de goma y gases lacrimógenos contra los manifestantes que se encontraban fuera de la mezquita, hiriendo a 40 fieles. [242] [243]

El 8 de octubre de 1990, las fuerzas israelíes que patrullaban el lugar impidieron que los fieles llegaran al mismo. Se detonó una bomba de gas lacrimógeno entre las mujeres fieles, lo que provocó una escalada de los acontecimientos. El 12 de octubre de 1990, los musulmanes palestinos protestaron violentamente por la intención de algunos judíos extremistas de colocar una piedra angular en el sitio para un Nuevo Templo como preludio a la destrucción de las mezquitas musulmanas. El intento fue bloqueado por las autoridades israelíes, pero se informó ampliamente de que los manifestantes habían apedreado a los judíos en el Muro Occidental. [239] [244] Según el historiador palestino Rashid Khalidi , el periodismo de investigación ha demostrado que esta acusación es falsa. [245] Finalmente, se lanzaron piedras, mientras que las fuerzas de seguridad dispararon ráfagas que mataron a 21 personas e hirieron a otras 150. [239] Una investigación israelí encontró a las fuerzas israelíes culpables, pero también concluyó que no se podían presentar cargos contra ningún individuo en particular. [246]

El 8 de octubre de 1990, 22 palestinos fueron asesinados y más de 100 heridos por la policía fronteriza israelí durante las protestas que se desencadenaron por el anuncio de los Fieles del Monte del Templo , un grupo de judíos religiosos, de que iban a colocar la piedra angular del Tercer Templo. [247] [248] Entre 1992 y 1994, el gobierno jordano emprendió la medida sin precedentes de dorar la cúpula de la Cúpula de la Roca, cubriéndola con 5000 placas de oro, y restaurando y reforzando la estructura. También se reconstruyó el minbar de Saladino . El proyecto fue pagado personalmente por el rey Hussein , con un costo de $8 millones. [233] El Monte del Templo permanece, según los términos del tratado de paz entre Israel y Jordania de 1994 , bajo custodia jordana . [249] En diciembre de 1997, los servicios de seguridad israelíes frustraron un intento de extremistas judíos de arrojar una cabeza de cerdo envuelta en las páginas del Corán a la zona, con el fin de provocar un motín y avergonzar al gobierno. [239]

El 28 de septiembre de 2000, el entonces líder de la oposición israelí Ariel Sharon y miembros del partido Likud , junto con 1.000 guardias armados, visitaron el complejo de Al-Aqsa. La visita fue vista como un gesto provocador por muchos palestinos, que se congregaron alrededor del lugar. Después de que Sharon y los miembros del partido Likud se marcharan, estalló una manifestación y los palestinos que se encontraban en el recinto de Haram al-Sharif comenzaron a arrojar piedras y otros proyectiles a la policía antidisturbios israelí. La policía disparó gases lacrimógenos y balas de goma contra la multitud, hiriendo a 24 personas. La visita desencadenó un levantamiento palestino que duró cinco años, comúnmente conocido como la Intifada de Al-Aqsa , aunque algunos comentaristas, citando discursos posteriores de funcionarios de la Autoridad Palestina, en particular Imad Falouji y Yasar Arafat , afirman que la Intifada había sido planeada con meses de antelación, ya en julio, tras el regreso de Arafat de las conversaciones de Camp David en los Estados Unidos. [250] [251] [252] El 29 de septiembre, el gobierno israelí desplegó 2.000 policías antidisturbios en la mezquita. Cuando un grupo de palestinos abandonó la mezquita después de las oraciones del viernes ( Yumu'ah ), lanzaron piedras a la policía. La policía irrumpió entonces en el recinto de la mezquita, disparando munición real y balas de goma contra el grupo de palestinos, matando a cuatro e hiriendo a unos 200. [253]

El 3 de enero de 2023, el ministro de Seguridad Nacional israelí, Itamar Ben-Gvir , visitó el Monte del Templo en Jerusalén , lo que provocó protestas de los palestinos y la condena de varios países árabes . [254]

Status quo

Bajo control musulmán

A los judíos no se les permitió visitar el país durante aproximadamente mil años. [ ¿Cuándo? ] [255]

Mandato británico

En los primeros diez años del gobierno británico en Palestina, a todos se les permitía la entrada al complejo del Monte del Templo/Haram al-Sharif. A veces estallaba violencia en la entrada entre judíos y musulmanes. Durante los disturbios palestinos de 1929 , se acusó a los judíos de violar el statu quo. [256] [257] Después de los disturbios, el Consejo Supremo Musulmán y el Waqf Islámico de Jerusalén prohibieron a los judíos entrar por las puertas del sitio. Durante el período del mandato, los líderes judíos celebraron antiguas prácticas religiosas en el Muro Occidental. La prohibición a los visitantes continuó hasta 1948 [258]

Control jordano

Aunque el Acuerdo de Armisticio de 1949 preveía "la reanudación del funcionamiento normal de las instituciones culturales y humanitarias del Monte Scopus y el libre acceso a las mismas; el libre acceso a los Santos Lugares y a las instituciones culturales y el uso del cementerio del Monte de los Olivos", en la práctica, las barreras de alambre y hormigón eran la realidad. Los lugares culturales y religiosos de ambos lados de la ciudad fueron destruidos y abandonados y la comunidad judía fue excluida de sus lugares sagrados. [259]

Bajo control israelí

Unos días después de la Guerra de los Seis Días , el 17 de junio de 1967, se celebró una reunión en la mezquita de al-Aqsa entre Moshe Dayan y las autoridades religiosas musulmanas de Jerusalén para reformular el statu quo. [260] A los judíos se les dio el derecho de visitar el Monte del Templo sin obstáculos y de forma gratuita si respetaban los sentimientos religiosos de los musulmanes y actuaban decentemente, pero no se les permitió rezar. El Muro Occidental seguiría siendo el lugar de oración judío. La "soberanía religiosa" seguiría siendo de los musulmanes mientras que la "soberanía general" pasaría a ser israelí. [238] Los musulmanes se opusieron a la oferta de Dayan, ya que rechazaban por completo la conquista israelí de Jerusalén y el Monte del Templo. Algunos judíos, encabezados por Shlomo Goren , entonces rabino jefe militar, también se habían opuesto, alegando que la decisión entregaba el complejo a los musulmanes, ya que la santidad del Muro Occidental se deriva del Monte y simboliza el exilio, mientras que rezar en el Monte simboliza la libertad y el regreso del pueblo judío a su patria. [260] El presidente del Tribunal Superior de Justicia, Aharon Barak , en respuesta a una apelación en 1976 contra la interferencia policial con el supuesto derecho de un individuo a rezar en el sitio, expresó la opinión de que, si bien los judíos tenían derecho a rezar allí, no era absoluto sino que estaba sujeto al interés público y a los derechos de otros grupos. Los tribunales de Israel han considerado la cuestión como algo que estaba más allá de su competencia y, dada la delicadeza del asunto, bajo jurisdicción política. [260] Barak escribió:

El principio básico es que todo judío tiene derecho a entrar en el Monte del Templo, a rezar allí y a tener comunión con su Creador. Esto forma parte de la libertad religiosa de culto y de la libertad de expresión. Sin embargo, como ocurre con todo derecho humano, no es un derecho absoluto, sino relativo... De hecho, en un caso en el que existe una certeza casi absoluta de que se puede causar daño al interés público si se respetan los derechos de culto religioso y de libertad de expresión de una persona, es posible limitar los derechos de la persona a fin de defender el interés público. [238]

La policía siguió prohibiendo a los judíos rezar en el Monte del Templo. [260] Posteriormente, varios primeros ministros también intentaron cambiar el statu quo, pero fracasaron. En octubre de 1986, un acuerdo entre los Fieles del Monte del Templo , el Consejo Supremo Musulmán y la policía, que permitiría visitas breves en grupos pequeños, se ejerció una vez y nunca se repitió, después de que 2.000 musulmanes armados con piedras y botellas atacaran al grupo y apedrearan a los fieles en el Muro Occidental. Durante la década de 1990, se hicieron intentos adicionales de oración judía en el Monte del Templo, que fueron detenidos por la policía israelí. [260]

Hasta el año 2000, los visitantes no musulmanes podían entrar en la Cúpula de la Roca, la Mezquita de Al-Aqsa y el Museo Islámico con una entrada en el Waqf . Este procedimiento terminó cuando estalló la Segunda Intifada . Quince años después, las negociaciones entre Israel y Jordania podrían dar como resultado [ necesita actualización ] la reapertura de esos lugares una vez más. [261]

En la década de 2010, surgió entre los palestinos el temor de que Israel planeara cambiar el statu quo y permitir las oraciones judías o que Israel pudiera dañar o destruir la mezquita de Al-Aqsa. Al-Aqsa se utilizó como base para ataques contra los visitantes y la policía desde donde se arrojaron piedras, bombas incendiarias y fuegos artificiales. La policía israelí nunca había entrado en la mezquita de Al-Aqsa hasta el 5 de noviembre de 2014, cuando fracasó el diálogo con los líderes del Waqf y los alborotadores. Esto resultó en la imposición de estrictas limitaciones a la entrada de visitantes al Monte del Templo. El liderazgo israelí declaró repetidamente que el statu quo no cambiaría. [262] Según el entonces comisionado de policía de Jerusalén, Yohanan Danino, el lugar está en el centro de una "guerra santa" y "cualquiera que quiera cambiar el statu quo en el Monte del Templo no debería ser permitido subir allí", citando una "agenda de extrema derecha para cambiar el statu quo en el Monte del Templo"; Hamás y la Yihad Islámica siguieron afirmando erróneamente que el gobierno israelí planeaba destruir la mezquita de Al-Aqsa, lo que dio lugar a ataques terroristas crónicos y disturbios. [263]

Se han producido varios cambios en el status quo:

  1. Las visitas judías suelen verse impedidas o restringidas considerablemente.
  2. Los judíos y otros visitantes no islámicos sólo pueden visitar el lugar de domingo a jueves, durante cuatro horas cada día.
  3. No se permiten visitas al interior de las mezquitas.
  4. Los judíos con apariencia religiosa deben realizar visitas en grupos vigilados por guardias del Waqf y policías. [262]

Muchos palestinos creen que el statu quo está amenazado, ya que los israelíes de derechas lo han estado desafiando con más fuerza y ​​frecuencia, afirmando un derecho religioso a rezar allí. Hasta que Israel los prohibió, los miembros de Murabitat , un grupo de mujeres, gritaban "Alá Akbar" a los grupos de visitantes judíos para recordarles que el Monte del Templo todavía estaba en manos musulmanas. [264] [265] En octubre de 2021, un tribunal israelí anuló la prohibición de un hombre judío, Aryeh Lippo, a quien la policía israelí prohibió la entrada al Monte del Templo durante quince días después de ser sorprendido rezando en silencio, con el argumento de que su comportamiento no había violado las instrucciones de la policía. [266] Hamás calificó la sentencia como "una clara declaración de guerra". [267] Un tribunal superior israelí revocó rápidamente la sentencia del tribunal inferior. [268]

Gestión y acceso

Una puerta de seguridad que custodia la entrada al sitio.

Un Waqf islámico ha administrado el Monte del Templo de manera continua desde la reconquista musulmana del Reino Latino de Jerusalén en 1187. El 7 de junio de 1967, poco después de que Israel tomara el control de la zona durante la Guerra de los Seis Días , el Primer Ministro Levi Eshkol aseguró que "no se causará daño alguno a los lugares sagrados para todas las religiones". Junto con la extensión de la jurisdicción y administración israelíes sobre Jerusalén oriental, el Knesset aprobó la Ley de Preservación de los Lugares Santos [269], asegurando la protección de los Lugares Santos contra la profanación, así como la libertad de acceso a los mismos. [270] El sitio permanece dentro del área controlada por el Estado de Israel , y la administración del sitio permanece en manos del Waqf islámico de Jerusalén.

Aunque la libertad de acceso estaba consagrada en la ley, como medida de seguridad, el gobierno israelí ahora aplica una prohibición a la oración de los no musulmanes en el lugar. Los no musulmanes que son vistos rezando en el lugar están sujetos a expulsión por la policía. [271] En varias ocasiones, cuando existe el temor de disturbios árabes en el monte que resulten en el lanzamiento de piedras desde arriba hacia la Plaza del Muro Occidental, Israel ha impedido que los hombres musulmanes menores de 45 años recen en el complejo, citando estas preocupaciones. [272] A veces, tales restricciones han coincidido con las oraciones de los viernes durante el mes sagrado islámico del Ramadán . [273] Normalmente, a los palestinos de Cisjordania se les permite el acceso a Jerusalén solo durante las festividades islámicas, y el acceso generalmente está restringido a los hombres mayores de 35 años y a las mujeres de cualquier edad que reúnan los requisitos para obtener permisos para ingresar a la ciudad. [274] Los residentes palestinos de Jerusalén, que debido a la anexión de Jerusalén por parte de Israel, tienen tarjetas de residencia permanente israelíes, y los árabes israelíes, tienen permitido el acceso sin restricciones al Monte del Templo. [ cita requerida ] La Puerta de los Magrebíes es la única entrada al Monte del Templo accesible para los no musulmanes. [275] [276] [277]

Actitudes judías hacia el ingreso al sitio

Cartel en hebreo e inglés fuera del Monte del Templo que dice: "Según la Torá , está prohibido que cualquier persona entre en el área del Monte del Templo debido a su carácter sagrado".

Due to religious restrictions on entering the most sacred areas of the Temple Mount (see following section), the Western Wall, a retaining wall for the Temple Mount and remnant of the Second Temple structure, is considered by some rabbinical authorities to be the holiest accessible site for Jews to pray. A 2013 Knesset committee hearing considered allowing Jews to pray at the site, amidst heated debate. Arab-Israeli MPs were ejected for disrupting the hearing, after shouting at the chairman, calling her a "pyromaniac". Religious Affairs Minister Eli Ben-Dahan of Jewish Home said his ministry was seeking legal ways to enable Jews to pray at the site.[278]

Jewish religious law concerning entry to the site

During Temple times, entry to the Mount was limited by a complex set of purity laws. Persons suffering from corpse uncleanness were not allowed to enter the inner court.[279] Non-Jews were also prohibited from entering the inner court of the Temple.[280] A hewn stone measuring 60 cm × 90 cm (24 in × 35 in) and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered in 1871 near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem in which it outlined this prohibition:

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ΠΕΡΙΒΟΛΟΥΟΣΔΑΝΛΗ
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ΤΑΙΔΙΑΤΟΕΞΑΚΟΛΟΥ
ΘΕΙΝΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ

Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death." Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul's Museum of Antiquities.

Maimonides wrote that it was only permitted to enter the site to fulfill a religious precept. After the destruction of the Temple there was discussion as to whether the site, bereft of the Temple, still maintained its holiness. Jewish codifiers accepted the opinion of Maimonides who ruled that the holiness of the Temple sanctified the site for eternity and consequently the restrictions on entry to the site remain in force.[232] While secular Jews ascend freely, the question of whether ascending is permitted is a matter of some debate among religious authorities, with a majority holding that it is permitted to ascend to the Temple Mount, but not to step on the site of the inner courtyards of the ancient Temple.[232] The question then becomes whether the site can be ascertained accurately.[232][better source needed]

There is debate over whether reports that Maimonides himself ascended the Mount are reliable.[281] One such report[citation needed] claims that he did so on Thursday, October 21, 1165, during the Crusader period. Some early scholars however, claim that entry onto certain areas of the Mount is permitted. It appears that Radbaz also entered the Mount and advised others how to do this. He permits entry from all the gates into the 135 x 135 cubits of the Women's Courtyard in the east, since the biblical prohibition only applies to the 187 x 135 cubits of the Temple in the west.[282] There are also Christian and Islamic sources which indicate that Jews visited the site,[283] but these visits may have been made under duress.[284]

Opinions of contemporary rabbis concerning entry to the site

Haredi Jews visiting the Temple Mount during Passover

A few hours after the Temple Mount came under Israeli control during the Six-Day War, a message from the Chief Rabbis of Israel, Isser Yehuda Unterman and Yitzhak Nissim was broadcast, warning that Jews were not permitted to enter the site.[285] This warning was reiterated by the Council of the Chief Rabbinate a few days later, which issued an explanation written by Rabbi Bezalel Jolti (Zolti) that "Since the sanctity of the site has never ended, it is forbidden to enter the Temple Mount until the Temple is built."[285] The signatures of more than 300 prominent rabbis were later obtained.[286]

A major critic of the decision of the Chief Rabbinate was Rabbi Shlomo Goren, the chief rabbi of the IDF.[285] According to General Uzi Narkiss, who led the Israeli force that conquered the Temple Mount, Goren proposed to him that the Dome of the Rock be immediately blown up.[286] After Narkiss refused, Goren unsuccessfully petitioned the government to close off the Mount to Jews and non-Jews alike.[286] Later he established his office on the Mount and conducted a series of demonstrations on the Mount in support of the right of Jewish men to enter there.[285] His behavior displeased the government, which restricted his public actions, censored his writings, and in August prevented him from attending the annual Oral Law Conference at which the question of access to the Mount was debated.[287] Although there was considerable opposition, the conference consensus was to confirm the ban on entry to Jews.[287] The ruling said "We have been warned, since time immemorial [lit.'for generations and generations'], against entering the entire area of the Temple Mount and have indeed avoided doing so."[286][287] According to Ron Hassner, the ruling "brilliantly" solved the government's problem of avoiding ethnic conflict, since those Jews who most respected rabbinical authority were those most likely to clash with Muslims on the Mount.[287]

Rabbinical consensus in the post-1967 period, held that it is forbidden for Jews to enter any part of the Temple Mount,[288] and in January 2005, a declaration was signed confirming the 1967 decision.[289]

Most Haredi rabbis are of the opinion that the Mount is off limits to Jews and non-Jews alike.[290] Their opinions against entering the Temple Mount are based on the current political climate surrounding the Mount,[291] along with the potential danger of entering the hallowed area of the Temple courtyard and the impossibility of fulfilling the ritual requirement of cleansing oneself with the ashes of a red heifer.[292][293] The boundaries of the areas which are completely forbidden, while having large portions in common, are delineated differently by various rabbinic authorities.

However, there is a growing body of Modern Orthodox and national religious rabbis who encourage visits to certain parts of the Mount, which they believe are permitted according to most medieval rabbinical authorities.[232][better source needed] These rabbis include: Shlomo Goren (former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Chaim David Halevi (former Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv and Yafo); Dov Lior (Rabbi of Kiryat Arba); Yosef Elboim; Yisrael Ariel; She'ar Yashuv Cohen (Chief Rabbi of Haifa); Yuval Sherlo (rosh yeshiva of the hesder yeshiva of Petah Tikva); Meir Kahane. One of them, Shlomo Goren, held that it is possible that Jews are even allowed to enter the heart of the Dome of the Rock in time of war, according to Jewish Law of Conquest.[294] These authorities demand an attitude of veneration on the part of Jews ascending the Temple Mount, ablution in a mikveh prior to the ascent, and the wearing of non-leather shoes.[232][better source needed] Some rabbinic authorities are now of the opinion that it is imperative for Jews to ascend in order to halt the ongoing process of Islamization of the Temple Mount. Maimonides, perhaps the greatest codifier of Jewish Law, wrote in Laws of the Chosen House ch 7 Law 15 "One may bring a dead body in to the (lower sanctified areas of the) Temple Mount and there is no need to say that the ritually impure (from the dead) may enter there, because the dead body itself can enter". One who is ritually impure through direct or in-direct contact of the dead cannot walk in the higher sanctified areas. For those who are visibly Jewish, they have no choice, but to follow a peripheral route[295] as it has become unofficially part of the status quo on the Mount. Many of these recent opinions rely on archaeological evidence.[232][better source needed]

In December 2013, the two Chief Rabbis of Israel, David Lau and Yitzhak Yosef, reiterated the ban on Jews entering the Temple Mount.[296] They wrote, "In light of [those] neglecting [this ruling], we once again warn that nothing has changed and this strict prohibition remains in effect for the entire area [of the Temple Mount]".[296] In November 2014, the Sephardic chief rabbi Yitzhak Yosef reiterated the point of view held by many rabbinic authorities that Jews should not visit the Mount.[249]

On the occasion of an upsurge in Palestinian knifing attacks on Israelis, associated with fears that Israel was changing the status quo on the Mount, the Haredi newspaper Mishpacha ran a notification in Arabic asking, 'their cousins', Palestinians, to stop trying to murder members of their congregation, since they were vehemently opposed to ascending the Mount and consider such visits proscribed by Jewish law.[297]

Features

Courtyard

The large courtyard (sahn)[25] can host more than 400,000 worshippers, making it one of the largest mosques in the world.[23]

Upper platform

The upper platform surrounds the Dome of the Rock, beneath which lies the Well of Souls, originally accessible only by a narrow hole in the Sakhrah, the foundation stone on which the Dome of the Rock site and after which it is named, until the Crusaders dug a new entrance to the cave from the south.[298] The platform is accessible via eight staircases, each of which is topped by a free-standing arcade known in Arabic as the qanatir or mawazin. The arcades were erected in different periods from the 10th to 15th centuries.[299]

There is also a smaller domed building on the upper platform, to the east of the Dome of the Rock, known as the Dome of the Chain (Qubbat al-Sisila in Arabic).[300][301] Its exact origin and purpose is uncertain but historical sources indicate it was built under the reign of Abd al-Malik, the same Umayyad caliph who built the Dome of the Rock.[302] Two other small domes stand to the northwest of the Dome of the Rock. The Dome of the Ascension (Qubbat al-Miraj in Arabic) has an inscription with a date corresponding to 1201 CE.[299][303] It may have been a former Crusader structure, possibly a baptistery, that was repurposed at this time,[303] or it may be a structure that was built after Saladin's capture of the city and reused some Crusader-era materials, including its columns.[304] Per its name, this dome commemorates the spot where, according to some, Muhammad ascended to heaven.[305] The Dome of the Spirits or Dome of the Winds (Qubbat al-Arwah in Arabic) stands a little further north and is dated to the 16th century.[306][299]

Southern edge of the upper platform, with view of the Summer Pulpit (left) and the southern qanatir behind it

In the southwest corner of the upper platform is a quadrangular structure which includes a portion topped by another dome. It is known as the Dome of Literature (Qubba Nahwiyya in Arabic) and dated to 1208.[299] Standing further east, close to one of the southern entrance arcades, is a stone minbar known as the "Summer Pulpit" or Minbar of Burhan al-Din, used for open-air prayers. It appears to be an older ciborium from the Crusader period, as attested by its sculptural decoration, which was then reused under the Ayyubids. Sometime after 1345, a Mamluk judge named Burhan al-Din (d. 1388) restored it and added a stone staircase, giving it its present form.[307][308]

Lower platform

The al-Kas ablution fountain for Muslim worshippers on the southern portion of the lower platform

The lower platform – which constitutes most of the surface of the Temple Mount – has at its southern end al-Aqsa Mosque, which takes up most of the width of the Mount. Gardens take up the eastern and most of the northern side of the platform; the far north of the platform houses an Islamic school.[309]

The lower platform also houses an ablution fountain (known as al-Kas), originally supplied with water via a long narrow aqueduct leading from the so-called Solomon's Pools near Bethlehem, but now supplied from Jerusalem's water mains.

There are several cisterns beneath the lower platform, designed to collect rainwater as a water supply. These have various forms and structures, seemingly built in different periods, ranging from vaulted chambers built in the gap between the bedrock and the platform, to chambers cut into the bedrock itself. Of these, the most notable are (numbering traditionally follows Wilson's scheme[310]):

Gates

The eastern set of Hulda gates
Robinson's Arch, situated on the southwestern flank, once supported a staircase that led to the Mount.
Sealed gates

The retaining walls of the platform contain several gateways, all now blocked. In the eastern wall is the Golden Gate, through which legend states the Jewish Messiah would enter Jerusalem. On the southern face are the Hulda Gates – the triple gate (which has three arches) and the double gate (which has two arches and is partly obscured by a Crusader building); these were the entrance and exit (respectively) to the Temple Mount from Ophel (the oldest part of Jerusalem), and the main access to the Mount for ordinary Jews. In the western face, near the southern corner, is the Barclay's Gate – only half visible due to a building (the "house of Abu Sa'ud") on the northern side. Also in the western face, hidden by later construction but visible via the recent Western Wall Tunnels, and only rediscovered by Warren, is Warren's Gate; the function of these western gates is obscure, but many Jews view Warren's Gate as particularly holy, due to its location due west of the Dome of the Rock. The current location of the Dome of the Rock is considered one of the possible locations where the Holy of Holies was placed; numerous alternative opinions exist, based on study and calculations, such as those of Tuvia Sagiv.

Warren was able to investigate the inside of these gates. Warren's Gate and the Golden Gate simply head toward the centre of the Mount, giving access to the surface by steps.[314] Barclay's Gate is similar, but abruptly turns south as it does so; the reason for this is unknown. The double and triple gates (the Huldah Gates) are more substantial; heading into the Mount for some distance they each finally have steps rising to the surface just north of al-Aqsa Mosque.[315] The passageway for each is vaulted, and has two aisles (in the case of the triple gate, a third aisle exists for a brief distance beyond the gate); the eastern aisle of the double gates and western aisle of the triple gates reach the surface, the other aisles terminating some way before the steps. Warren believed that one aisle of each original passage was extended when al-Aqsa Mosque blocked the original surface exits.

In the process of investigating Cistern 10, Warren discovered tunnels that lay under the Triple Gate passageway.[316] These passages lead in erratic directions, some leading beyond the southern edge of the Temple Mount (they are at a depth below the base of the walls); their purpose is unknown – as is whether they predate the Temple Mount – a situation not helped by the fact that apart from Warren's expedition no one else is known to have visited them.

Altogether, there are six major sealed gates and a postern, listed here counterclockwise, dating from either the Roman/Herodian, Byzantine, or Early Muslim periods:

Bab al-Rahma (Door of Mercy) is the southern opening,
Bab al-Tauba (Door of Repentance) is the northern opening
Open gates of the Haram

There are now eleven open gates offering access to the Muslim Haram al-Sharif.

Two twin gates follow south of the Ablution Gate, the Tranquility Gate and the Gate of the Chain:

A twelfth gate still open during Ottoman rule is now closed to the public:

Solomon's Stables/Marwani Mosque

East of and joined to the triple gate passageway is a large vaulted area, supporting the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount platform – which is substantially above the bedrock at this point – the vaulted chambers here are popularly referred to as Solomon's Stables.[317] They were used as stables by the Crusaders, but were built by Herod the Great – along with the platform they were built to support.

Northern and western porticos

The complex is bordered on the south and east by the outer walls of the Old City of Jerusalem. On the north and west it is bordered by two long porticos (riwaq), built during the Mamluk period.[318] A number of other structures were also built along these areas, mainly also from the Mamluk period. On the north side, they include the Isardiyya Madrasa, built before 1345, and the Almalikiyya Madrasa, dated to 1340.[319] On the west side, they include the Ashrafiyya Madrasa, built by Sultan Qaytbay between 1480 and 1482,[320] and the adjacent Uthmaniyya Madrasa, dated to 1437.[321] The Sabil of Qaytbay, contemporary with the Ashrafiyya Madrasa, also stands nearby.[320]

Minarets

The existing four minarets include three along the western perimeter of the esplanade and one along the northern wall. The earliest dated minaret was constructed on the northwest corner of the Temple Mount in 1298, with three other minarets added over the course of the 14th century.[322][323]

Archaeology, site alterations

Due to the extreme political sensitivity of the site, no real archaeological excavations have ever been conducted on the Temple Mount itself. Protests commonly occur whenever archaeologists conduct projects near the Mount. This sensitivity has not, however, protected both Jewish and Muslim works from accusations of destroying archeological evidence on a number of occasions.[324][325][326] Aside from visual observation of surface features, most other archaeological knowledge of the site comes from the 19th-century survey carried out by Charles Wilson and Charles Warren and others. Since the Waqf is granted almost full autonomy on the Islamic holy sites, Israeli archaeologists have been prevented from inspecting the area, and are restricted to conducting excavations around the Temple Mount.

Southern Wall of Temple Mount, southwestern corner

After the Six-Day War of 1967, Israeli archeologists began a series of excavations near the site at the southern wall that uncovered finds from the Second Temple period through Roman, Umayyad and Crusader times.[327] Israeli archaeological digs at the southwestern corner of Temple Mount discovered traces of four Muslim palaces built under the Umayyad Caliphate, though the remains have not been well preserved but instead had a museum built upon them. The former UN envoy to Jerusalem, Raymond M. Lemaire, criticised "the construction of a metallic pergola in the middle of the courtyard of one of the Umayyad palaces, which disfigures the site." Upon visiting Jerusalem in September 1999, medieval art historian Léon Pressouyre noted that the palaces had lost their archaeological features due to neglect, "for in the guise of highlighting the remains of previous periods [the Israeli authorities] trivialise the Umayyad palaces, major monuments in the area".[328]

Over the period 1970–1988, a number of tunnels were excavated in the vicinity, including one that passed to the west of the Mount and became known as the Western Wall Tunnel, which was opened to the public in 1996.[329][330] The same year the Waqf began construction of a new mosque in the structures known since Crusader times as Solomon's Stables. Many Israelis regarded this as a radical change of the status quo, which should not have been undertaken without first consulting the Israeli government. The project was done without attention to the possibility of disturbing historically significant archaeological material, with stone and ancient artifacts treated without regard to their preservation.[331]

Israeli organizations such as the Committee to Prevent the Destruction of Antiquities on the Temple Mount argue that Palestinians are deliberately removing significant amounts of archaeological evidence about the Jewish past of the site and claim to have found significant artifacts in the fill removed by bulldozers and trucks from the Temple Mount.[332][333] Since the late 1990s, the Temple Mount Sifting Project has been reclaiming earth from similar illegal excavations on the mount that had been dumped in the nearby Kidron Valley that had yielded important finds, including Iron Age figurines, an 8th or 7th centuries BCE clay sealing inscribed in Hebrew, Persian period YHD coins, Herodian opus sectile tiles, Byzantine tesserae, and arrowheads, mostly from the Crusader period.[332][334][335][336]

Gabriel Barkay presents Moshe Ya'alon with the reconstructions of the opus sectile floors of the Herodian period plaza

In late 2002, a bulge of about 700 mm (28 in) was reported in the southern retaining wall part of the Temple Mount. A Jordanian team of engineers recommended replacing or resetting most of the stones in the affected area.[337] In February 2004, the eastern wall of the Mount was damaged by an earthquake. The damage threatened to topple sections of the wall into the area known as Solomon's Stables.[338] A few days later, a portion of retaining wall, supporting the earthen ramp that led from the Western Wall plaza to the Gate of the Moors on the Temple Mount, collapsed.[339] In 2007 the Israel Antiquities Authority started construction of a temporary wooden pedestrian pathway to replace the Mugrabi Gate ramp after a landslide in 2005 made it unsafe and in danger of collapse.[340] The works sparked condemnation from Arab leaders.[341]

In July 2007 the Muslim religious trust which administers the Mount began digging a 400-metre-long (1,300 ft), 1.5-metre-deep (4.9 ft) trench[342] from the northern side of the Temple Mount compound to the Dome of the Rock[343] in order to replace 40-year-old[344] electric cables in the area. Israeli archaeologists accused the waqf of a deliberate act of cultural vandalism.[343] Accusations of vandalism at the site resurfaced in 2018 and again in 2022.[332][345][346]

Noteworthy events

February 2004
Partially collapsed Mughrabi-Bridge: An 800-year-old wall holding back part of the hill jutting out from the Western Wall leading up to the Mughrabi Gate partially collapsed. Authorities believed a recent earthquake may have been responsible.[347][348]
March 2005
Allah inscription: The word "Allah", in approximately a one-foot-tall (0.30 m) Arabic script, was found newly carved into the ancient stones, an act viewed by Jews as vandalism. The carving was attributed to a team of Jordanian engineers and Palestinian laborers in charge of strengthening that section of the wall. The discovery caused outrage among Israeli archaeologists and many Jews were angered by the inscription at Judaism's holiest site.[349]
October 2006
Synagogue proposal: Uri Ariel, a member of the Knesset from the National Union party (a right-wing opposition party) ascended to the mount,[350] and said that he is preparing a plan where a synagogue will be built on the mount. His proposed synagogue would not be built instead of the mosques but in a separate area in accordance with rulings of 'prominent rabbis.' He said he believed that this will be correcting a historical injustice and that it is an opportunity for the Muslim world to prove that it is tolerant to all faiths.[351]
Minaret proposal: Plans are mooted to build a new minaret on the mount, the first of its kind for 600 years.[352] King Abdullah II of Jordan announced a competition to design a fifth minaret for the walls of the Temple Mount complex. He said it would "reflect the Islamic significance and sanctity of the mosque". The scheme, estimated to cost $300,000, is for a seven-sided tower – after the seven-pointed Hashemite star – and at 42 metres (138 ft), it would be 3.5 metres (11 ft) taller than the next-largest minaret. The minaret would be constructed on the eastern wall of the Temple Mount near the Golden Gate.
February 2007
Mugrabi Gate ramp reconstruction: Repairs to an earthen ramp leading to the Mugrabi Gate sparked Arab protests.
May 2007
Right-wing Jews ascend the Mount: A group of right-wing Religious Zionist rabbis entered the Temple Mount.[353] This elicited widespread criticism from other religious Jews and from secular Israelis, accusing the rabbis of provoking the Arabs. An editorial in the newspaper Haaretz accused the rabbis of 'knowingly and irresponsibly bringing a burning torch closer to the most flammable hill in the Middle East,' and noted that rabbinical consensus in both the Haredi and the Religious Zionist worlds forbids Jews from entering the Temple Mount.[354] On May 16, Rabbi Avraham Shapira, former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel and rosh yeshiva of the Mercaz HaRav yeshiva, reiterated his opinion that it is forbidden for Jews to enter the Temple Mount.[355] The Litvish Haredi newspaper Yated Ne'eman, which is controlled by leading Litvish Haredi rabbis including Rabbi Yosef Shalom Eliashiv and Rabbi Nissim Karelitz, accused the rabbis of transgressing a decree punishable by 'death through the hands of heaven.'[293]
July 2007
Temple Mount cable replacement: The Waqf began digging a ditch from the northern side of the Temple Mount compound to the Dome of the Rock as a prelude to infrastructure work in the area. Although the dig was approved by the police, it generated protests from archaeologists.
October 2009
Clashes: Palestinian protesters gathered at the site after rumours that an extreme Israeli group would harm the site, which the Israeli government denied.[356] Israeli police assembled at the Temple Mount complex to disperse Palestinian protesters who were throwing stones at them. The police used stun grenades on the protesters, of which 15 were later arrested, including the Palestinian President's adviser on Jerusalem affairs.[357][358] Eighteen Palestinians and 3 police officers were injured.[359]
July 2010
A public opinion poll in Israel showed that 49% of Israelis want the Temple to be rebuilt, with 27% saying the government should make active steps towards such reconstruction. The poll was conducted by channel 99, the government-owned Knesset channel, in advance of the ninth day of the Hebrew month of Av, on which Jews commemorate the destruction of both the first and second Temples, which stood at this site.[360]
Knesset Member Danny Danon visited the Temple Mount in accordance with rabbinical views of Jewish Law on the ninth of the Hebrew Month of Av. The Knesset member condemned the conditions imposed by Muslims upon religious Jews at the site and vowed to work to improve conditions.[361]
July 2017
Temple Mount shooting: Three men from the Israeli-Arab city of Umm al-Fahm opened fire on two Israeli Druze policemen at the Lions' Gate.[362] Gun attacks have been unusual at the Temple Mount in recent decades.[363]
Following the July 14 attack, the site was shut down, and reopened on July 16 with metal detector-equipped checkpoints, spurring calls for protests by Muslim leaders associated with the site.[364]
April 2022
Al-Aqsa Mosque clashes: On 15 April 2022, clashes erupted between Palestinians and Israeli Security Forces on the Temple Mount. The clashes began when Palestinians threw stones, firecrackers, and other heavy objects at Israeli police officers. The policemen responded with various riot control measures.[365][366][367] Some Palestinians then barricaded themselves inside al-Aqsa Mosque and continued throwing stones at the policemen.[365][368] In response, police raided the mosque, arresting those who had barricaded themselves inside. Some damage was done to the mosque's structure.[365][369][370]
April 2023
Al-Aqsa Mosque clashes

Panorama

Panorama of the Temple Mount, seen from the Mount of Olives

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ To the Jews the Temple Mount is the holiest place on Earth, the place where God manifested himself to King David and where two Jewish temples – Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple – were located.[11]

Citations

  1. ^ "New Jerusalem Finds Point to the Temple Mount". cbn.com.
  2. ^ * Where Heaven and Earth Meet, p. 13: "Nowadays, while oral usage of the term Haram persists, Palestinians tend to use in formal texts the name Masjid al-Aqsa, habitually rendered into English as 'the Aqsa Mosque'."
    • Tucker, S.C.; Roberts, P. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO History Reference Online. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-85109-842-2. Al-Aqsa Mosque The al-Aqsa Mosque (literally, "farthest mosque") is both a building and a complex of religious buildings in Jerusalem. It is known to Muslims as al-Haram al-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) and to Jews and Christians as the Har ha-Bayit or Temple Mount. The whole area of the Noble Sanctuary is considered by Muslims to be the al-Aqsa Mosque, and the entire precinct is inviolable according to Islamic law. It is considered specifically part of the waqf (endowment) land that had included the Western Wall (Wailing Wall), property of an Algerian family, and more generally a waqf of all of Islam. When viewed as a complex of buildings, the al-Aqsa Mosque is dominated and bounded by two major structures: the al-Aqsa Mosque building on the east and the Dome of the Rock (or the Mosque of Omar) on the west. The Dome of the Rock is the oldest holy building in Islam.
    • "Jerusalem holy site clashes fuel fears of return to war". BBC News. 2022-04-22. Whole site also considered by Muslims as Al Aqsa Mosque
    • UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2022-04-04). "39 COM 7A.27 – Decision". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2022-05-29. …the historic Gates and windows of the Qibli Mosque inside Al-Aqsa Mosque/ Al-Haram Al-Sharif, which is a Muslim holy site of worship and an integral part of a World Heritage Site.
    • PEF Survey of Palestine, 1883, volume III Jerusalem, p. 119: "The Jamia el Aksa, or 'distant mosque' (that is, distant from Mecca), is on the south, reaching to the outer wall. The whole enclosure of the Haram is called by Moslem writers Masjid el Aksa, 'praying-place of the Aksa,' from this mosque."
    • Yitzhak Reiter: "This article deals with the employment of religious symbols for national identities and national narratives by using the sacred compound in Jerusalem (The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa) as a case study. The narrative of The Holy Land involves three concentric circles, each encompassing the other, with each side having its own names for each circle. These are: Palestine/Eretz Israel (i.e., the Land of Israel); Jerusalem/al-Quds and finally The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa compound...Within the struggle over public awareness of Jerusalem's importance, one particular site is at the eye of the storm – the Temple Mount and its Western Wall – the Jewish Kotel – or, in Muslim terminology, the al-Aqsa compound (alternatively: al-Haram al-Sharif) including the al-Buraq Wall... "Al-Aqsa" for the Palestinian-Arab-Muslim side is not merely a mosque mentioned in the Quran within the context of the Prophet Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey to al-Aqsa which, according to tradition, concluded with his ascension to heaven (and prayer with all of the prophets and the Jewish and Christian religious figures who preceded him); rather, it also constitutes a unique symbol of identity, one around which various political objectives may be formulated, plans of action drawn up and masses mobilized for their realization", "Narratives of Jerusalem and its Sacred Compound", Israel Studies 18(2): 115–32 (July 2013).
    • Annika Björkdahl and Susanne Buckley-Zistel: "The site is known in Arabic as Haram al-Sharif – the Noble Sanctuary – and colloquially as the Haram or the al-Aqsa compound; while in Hebrew, it is called Har HaBeit – the Temple Mount." Annika Björkdahl; Susanne Buckley-Zistel (2016). Spatialising Peace and Conflict: Mapping the Production of Places, Sites and Scales of Violence. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 243–. ISBN 978-1-137-55048-4.
    • Mahdi Abdul Hadi:"Al-Aqsa Mosque, also referred to as Al-Haram Ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary), comprises the entire area within the compound walls (a total area of 144,000 m2) – including all the mosques, prayer rooms, buildings, platforms and open courtyards located above or under the grounds – and exceeds 200 historical monuments pertaining to various Islamic eras. According to Islamic creed and jurisprudence, all these buildings and courtyards enjoy the same degree of sacredness since they are built on Al-Aqsa's holy grounds. This sacredness is not exclusive to the physical structures allocated for prayer, like the Dome of the Rock or Al-Qibly Mosque (the mosque with the large silver dome)" Mahdi Abdul Hadi Archived 2020-02-16 at the Wayback Machine Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs; Tim Marshall: "Many people believe that the mosque depicted is called the Al-Aqsa; however, a visit to one of Palestine's most eminent intellectuals, Mahdi F. Abdul Hadi, clarified the issue. Hadi is chairman of the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, based in East Jerusalem. His offices are a treasure trove of old photographs, documents, and symbols. He was kind enough to spend several hours with me. He spread out maps of Jerusalem's Old City on a huge desk and homed in on the Al-Aqsa compound, which sits above the Western Wall. "The mosque in the Al- Aqsa [Brigades] flag is the Dome of the Rock. Everyone takes it for granted that it is the Al-Aqsa mosque, but no, the whole compound is Al-Aqsa, and on it are two mosques, the Qibla mosque and the Dome of the Rock, and on the flags of both Al-Aqsa Brigades and the Qassam Brigades, it is the Dome of the Rock shown," he said. Tim Marshall (2017). A Flag Worth Dying For: The Power and Politics of National Symbols. Simon & Schuster. pp. 151–. ISBN 978-1-5011-6833-8.
    • USA Today: "A view of the Al-Aqsa compound (Temple Mount) in Jerusalem's Old City" [1].
    • Al Jazeera: "Israeli Deputy Minister Tzipi Hotovely referred to the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound as 'the centre of Israeli sovereignty, the capital of Israel'...In response, Netanyahu's office later that night put out a statement saying that 'non-Muslims visit the Temple Mount [Al-Aqsa compound]' but are not permitted to pray there.'" [2]
  3. ^ Kedar, Benjamin (2012). Rival Conceptualizations of a Single Space: Jerusalem's sacred esplanade. Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. The author intends … to deal with a single space – the space which, if we wish to use a strictly neutral term, may be called 'Jerusalem's sacred esplanade'.
  4. ^ Weaver, A.E. (2018). Inhabiting the Land: Thinking Theologically about the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict. Cascade Companions. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4982-9431-7. Retrieved 2022-05-21. The conflict about sovereignty over Jerusalem encompasses conflict over control of the Holy Esplanade, called al-Haram ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) by Muslims and Har HaBayit (the Temple Mount) by Jews.
  5. ^ a b Kedar, Benjamin (2012). Rival Conceptualizations of a Single Space: Jerusalem's sacred esplanade. Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. The author intends … to deal with a single space – the space which, if we wish to use a strictly neutral term, may be called 'Jerusalem's sacred esplanade'.
  6. ^ a b Weaver, A.E. (2018). Inhabiting the Land: Thinking Theologically about the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict. Cascade Companions. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4982-9431-7. Retrieved 2022-05-21. The conflict about sovereignty over Jerusalem encompasses conflict over control of the Holy Esplanade, called al-Haram ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) by Muslims and Har HaBayit (the Temple Mount) by Jews.
  7. ^ Nicolle, David (1994). Yarmuk AD 636: The Muslim Conquest of Syria. Osprey Publishing.
  8. ^ "Temple Mount/Al Haram Ash Sharif". Lonely Planet. Retrieved April 17, 2018.
  9. ^ Marshall J., Breger; Ahimeir, Ora (2002). Jerusalem: A City and Its Future. Syracuse University Press. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-8156-2912-2. OCLC 48940385.
  10. ^ Cohen-Hattab, Kobi; Bar, Doron (2020). The Western Wall: The Dispute over Israel's Holiest Jewish Site, 1967–2000. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-43133-1.
  11. ^ a b Gonen 2003, p. 4.
  12. ^ Sporty, Lawrence D. (1990). "The Location of the Holy House of Herod's Temple: Evidence from the Pre-Destruction Period". The Biblical Archaeologist. 53 (4): 194–204. doi:10.2307/3210164. ISSN 0006-0895. JSTOR 3210164. S2CID 224797947. The holy house has most commonly assumed to be located on the same spot as the Moslem holy structure known as the Dome of the Rock. This assumption has been held for centuries for the following reasons: The rock out-cropping under the Dome of the Rock is the main natural feature within the Haram enclosure; the Dome of the Rock is centrally located within the esplanade, and, at 2,440 feet above sea level, the Dome of the Rock is one of the highests point within the area.
  13. ^ "Temple Mount | Definition, Jerusalem, Bible, & History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-05-07. Retrieved 2024-05-27. Temple Mount, site of the Temple of Jerusalem, which was destroyed by the Romans on the 9th/10th of Av in 70 CE (see Tisha be-Av). It consists of a raised platform that, since the 7th century, has been home to the Islamic holy sites of the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque. The lower section of the compound's Western Wall, which dates to the 2nd century BCE, is the only remnant of the retaining wall that surrounded the Temple. It has served as a site of pilgrimage for Jews since the Temple's destruction.
  14. ^ "Old City of Jerusalem | Map, Quarters, Gates, History, Pictures, & Importance | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-04-23. Retrieved 2024-05-27. The Old City is dominated by the raised platform of the Temple Mount – known in Hebrew as Har Ha-Bayit, the site of the First and Second Temples, and known to Islam as Al-Ḥaram al-Sharīf ("The Noble Sanctuary"), a Muslim holy place containing the Dome of the Rock, Al-Aqsa Mosque, and other structures.
  15. ^ 2 Chron. 3:1–2.
  16. ^ Reich, Ronny; Baruch, Yuval (2016). "The Meaning of the Inscribed Stones at the Corners of the Herodian Temple Mount". Revue Biblique (1946–). 123 (1): 118–24. ISSN 0035-0907. JSTOR 44092415. The Temple Mount has never been the focus of a modern archaeological excavation
  17. ^ Wendy Pullan; Maximilian Sternberg; Lefkos Kyriacou; Craig Larkin; Michael Dumper (2013). The Struggle for Jerusalem's Holy Places. Routledge. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-317-97556-4. The sources for the first temple are solely biblical, and no substantial archaeological remains have been verified.
  18. ^ Yitzhak Reiter (2017). "Post-1967 Struggle over Al-Haram Al-Sharif/Temple Mount". Contested Holy Places in Israel–Palestine. London: Routledge. pp. 20–50. doi:10.4324/9781315277271-3. ISBN 978-1-315-27727-1. Retrieved 2022-05-22.
  19. ^ Baker, Eric W.. The Eschatological Role of the Jerusalem Temple: An Examination of the Jewish Writings Dating from 586 BCE to 70 CE. Germany: Anchor Academic Publishing, 2015, pp. 361–62
  20. ^ Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Avoda, Beit haBechira, 6:14.
  21. ^ Sidra DeKoven Ezrahi, Bernard Avishai, 'Jews Don’t Have a ‘Holiest’ Site,' Haaretz 13 May :’The point is, this kind of recklessness not only offended secular democrats, it vulgarized what “holy” has meant for most observant Jews, too. Not coincidentally, more than 85 percent of Israel’s Haredi Jews oppose prayer on the Mount, for reasons having to do with purity and impurity that cannot be resolved in “our time.” Advocates of such prayer and sacrifice tend to be, like Goren, Orthodox-nationalist zealots educated in local yeshivas and identified with the neo-Zionist settlement project. They are, like Islamists, fanatics warped by violence and nationalist fantasy – “Jewists,” not Jews.‘
  22. ^ Sam Sokol, Should Jews Be Allowed to Pray on the Temple Mount? Many Israelis Think So, Poll Shows,' Haaretz 3 May 2022: '86.5 percent of ultra-Orthodox Jews opposed prayer for reasons of halakha, while national religious (51 percent), traditional religious (54.5 percent) and traditional non-religious respondents (49 percent) supported worship on the mount for nationalist reasons. Many rabbis, and almost all ultra-Orthodox ones, prohibit their followers from ascending the Temple Mount due to concerns over ritual purity.'
  23. ^ a b c National Geographic Society (U.S.); de Blij, H.J.; Downs, R.; John Wiley & Sons (2007). Wiley/National Geographic College Atlas of the World. Wiley. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-471-74117-6. Retrieved 2022-06-15. Al 'Aqsa is the second oldest mosque in Islam after the Kaaba in Mecca and is third in holiness after the mosques in Mecca and Medina. It holds up to 400,000 worshippers at one time.
  24. ^ a b * Kasolowsky, Raissa; Blair, Edmund (2023-04-06). "Factbox: Where is Al Aqsa mosque and why is it so important in Islam?". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-07-23. Where and What Is the al-Aqua Mosque? The Al-Aqsa lies at the heart of Jerusalem's Old City on a hill known to Jews as Har ha-Bayit, or Temple Mount, and to Muslims internationally as al-Haram al-Sharif, or The Noble Sanctuary. Muslims regard the site as the third holiest in Islam, after Mecca and Medina. Al-Aqsa is the name given to the whole compound and is home to two Muslim holy places: the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque, also known as the Qibli Mosque, which was built in the 8th century AD.
    • Where Heaven and Earth Meet, p. 13: "Nowadays, while oral usage of the term Haram persists, Palestinians tend to use in formal texts the name Masjid al-Aqsa, habitually rendered into English as 'the Aqsa Mosque'".
    • Tucker, S.C.; Roberts, P. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO history reference online. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-85109-842-2. Al-Aqsa Mosque The al-Aqsa Mosque (literally, "farthest mosque") is both a building and a complex of religious buildings in Jerusalem. It is known to Muslims as al-Haram al-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) and to Jews and Christians as the Har ha-Bayit or Temple Mount. The whole area of the Noble Sanctuary is considered by Muslims to be the al-Aqsa Mosque, and the entire precinct is inviolable according to Islamic law. It is considered specifically part of the waqf (endowment) land that had included the Western Wall (Wailing Wall), property of an Algerian family, and more generally a waqf of all of Islam. When viewed as a complex of buildings, the al-Aqsa Mosque is dominated and bounded by two major structures: the al-Aqsa Mosque building on the east and the Dome of the Rock (or the Mosque of Omar) on the west. The Dome of the Rock is the oldest holy building in Islam.
    • "Jerusalem holy site clashes fuel fears of return to war". BBC News. 2022-04-22. Whole site also considered by Muslims as Al Aqsa Mosque.
    • UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2022-04-04). "39 COM 7A.27 – Decision". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2022-05-29. …the historic Gates and windows of the Qibli Mosque inside Al-Aqsa Mosque/ Al-Haram Al-Sharif, which is a Muslim holy site of worship and an integral part of a World Heritage Site.
    • PEF Survey of Palestine, 1883, volume III Jerusalem, p. 119: "The Jamia el Aksa, or 'distant mosque' (that is, distant from Mecca), is on the south, reaching to the outer wall. The whole enclosure of the Haram is called by Moslem writers Masjid el Aksa, 'praying-place of the Aksa,' from this mosque."
    • Yitzhak Reiter: "This article deals with the employment of religious symbols for national identities and national narratives by using the sacred compound in Jerusalem (The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa) as a case study. The narrative of The Holy Land involves three concentric circles, each encompassing the other, with each side having its own names for each circle. These are: Palestine/Eretz Israel (i.e., the Land of Israel); Jerusalem/al-Quds and finally The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa compound...Within the struggle over public awareness of Jerusalem's importance, one particular site is at the eye of the storm – the Temple Mount and its Western Wall – the Jewish Kotel – or, in Muslim terminology, the al-Aqsa compound (alternatively: al-Haram al-Sharif) including the al-Buraq Wall... "Al-Aqsa" for the Palestinian-Arab-Muslim side is not merely a mosque mentioned in the Quran within the context of the Prophet Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey to al-Aqsa which, according to tradition, concluded with his ascension to heaven (and prayer with all of the prophets and the Jewish and Christian religious figures who preceded him); rather, it also constitutes a unique symbol of identity, one around which various political objectives may be formulated, plans of action drawn up and masses mobilized for their realization", "Narratives of Jerusalem and its Sacred Compound", Israel Studies 18(2): 115–32 (July 2013).
    • Annika Björkdahl and Susanne Buckley-Zistel: "The site is known in Arabic as Haram al-Sharif – the Noble Sanctuary – and colloquially as the Haram or the al-Aqsa compound; while in Hebrew, it is called Har HaBeit – the Temple Mount." Annika Björkdahl; Susanne Buckley-Zistel (2016). Spatialising Peace and Conflict: Mapping the Production of Places, Sites and Scales of Violence. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 243–. ISBN 978-1-137-55048-4.
    • Mahdi Abdul Hadi: "Al-Aqsa Mosque, also referred to as Al-Haram Ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary), comprises the entire area within the compound walls (a total area of 144,000 m2) – including all the mosques, prayer rooms, buildings, platforms and open courtyards located above or under the grounds – and exceeds 200 historical monuments pertaining to various Islamic eras. According to Islamic creed and jurisprudence, all these buildings and courtyards enjoy the same degree of sacredness since they are built on Al-Aqsa's holy grounds. This sacredness is not exclusive to the physical structures allocated for prayer, like the Dome of the Rock or Al-Qibly Mosque (the mosque with the large silver dome)"Mahdi Abdul Hadi Archived 2020-02-16 at the Wayback Machine Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs; Tim Marshall: "Many people believe that the mosque depicted is called the Al-Aqsa; however, a visit to one of Palestine's most eminent intellectuals, Mahdi F. Abdul Hadi, clarified the issue. Hadi is chairman of the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, based in East Jerusalem. His offices are a treasure trove of old photographs, documents, and symbols. He was kind enough to spend several hours with me. He spread out maps of Jerusalem's Old City on a huge desk and homed in on the Al-Aqsa compound, which sits above the Western Wall. "The mosque in the Al-Aqsa [Brigades] flag is the Dome of the Rock. Everyone takes it for granted that it is the Al-Aqsa mosque, but no, the whole compound is Al-Aqsa, and on it are two mosques, the Qibla mosque and the Dome of the Rock, and on the flags of both Al-Aqsa Brigades and the Qassam Brigades, it is the Dome of the Rock shown," he said. Tim Marshall (2017). A Flag Worth Dying For: The Power and Politics of National Symbols. Simon & Schuster. pp. 151–. ISBN 978-1-5011-6833-8.
    • USA Today: "A view of the Al-Aqsa compound (Temple Mount) in Jerusalem's Old City" [3].
    • Al Jazeera: "Israeli Deputy Minister Tzipi Hotovely referred to the Al-Aqsa Mosque compound as 'the centre of Israeli sovereignty, the capital of Israel'... In response, Netanyahu's office later that night put out a statement saying that 'non-Muslims visit the Temple Mount [Al-Aqsa compound]' but are not permitted to pray there.'" [4]
  25. ^ a b Prawer, P.M.H.J.; Prawer, J.; Ben-Shammai, H.; Ben-Tsevi, Yad Yitshak; Universiṭah ha-ʻIvrit bi-Yerushalayim (1996). The History of Jerusalem: The Early Muslim Period (638–1099). New York University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-8147-6639-2. Retrieved 2022-05-31. ... The Temple Mount, al-Haram al-Sharif, is a large esplanade (sahn in Arabic) ...
  26. ^ Colby, Frederick S. (2008). Narrating Muhammad's Night Journey: Tracing the Development of the Ibn 'Abbas Ascension Discourse. SUNY Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-7914-7788-5. Archived from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
  27. ^ a b Quran 2:4, 34:13–14.
  28. ^ Cohen, Hillel (2017). "The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa in Zionist and Palestinian National Consciousness: A Comparative View". Israel Studies Review. 32 (1). Berghahn Books: 1, 8–9, 17. doi:10.3167/isr.2017.320102. eISSN 2159-0389. ISSN 2159-0370. JSTOR 45238302. The holy site known to Jews as the Temple Mount and to Muslims as Haram al-Sharif or al-Aqsa is central to both the Jewish and Palestinian Arab national movements… Al-Aqsa can thus be seen as the central symbol of Palestinian nationalism... One should bear in mind that since the emergence of nationalism in the Arab world, important schools have insisted on separation of religion and state. In addition, a degree of tension exists between al-Aqsa's two aspects, as a national symbol uniting Palestinian Muslims and Christians, and al-Aqsa as an exclusively Muslim symbol. In other words, the intentions of Palestinians united under the banner of al-Aqsa are not all the same… For the Palestinians, al-Aqsa is a singular focal point of self-respect and religious destiny. This heightens their commitment to the site, without connection to their religious affiliation (Muslim or Christian) or level of religious belief and observance.
  29. ^ Reiter, Yitzhak (2013). "Narratives of Jerusalem and its Sacred Compound". Israel Studies. 18 (2). Indiana University Press: 115–32. doi:10.2979/israelstudies.18.2.115. ISSN 1084-9513. S2CID 143739581. This article deals with the employment of religious symbols for national identities and national narratives by using the sacred compound in Jerusalem (The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa) as a case study. The narrative of The Holy Land involves three concentric circles, each encompassing the other, with each side having its own names for each circle. These are: Palestine/Eretz Israel (i.e., the Land of Israel); Jerusalem/al-Quds and finally The Temple Mount/al-Aqsa compound...Within the struggle over public awareness of Jerusalem's importance, one particular site is at the eye of the storm – the Temple Mount and its Western Wall – the Jewish Kotel – or, in Muslim terminology, the al-Aqsa compound (alternatively: al-Haram al-Sharif) including the al-Buraq Wall... "Al-Aqsa" for the Palestinian-Arab-Muslim side is not merely a mosque mentioned in the Quran within the context of the Prophet Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey to al-Aqsa which, according to tradition, concluded with his ascension to heaven (and prayer with all of the prophets and the Jewish and Christian religious figures who preceded him); rather, it also constitutes a unique symbol of identity, one around which various political objectives may be formulated, plans of action drawn up and masses mobilized for their realization.
  30. ^ Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs; Tim Marshall: "Many people believe that the mosque depicted is called the Al-Aqsa; however, a visit to one of Palestine's most eminent intellectuals, Mahdi F. Abdul Hadi, clarified the issue. Hadi is chairman of the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, based in East Jerusalem. His offices are a treasure trove of old photographs, documents, and symbols. He was kind enough to spend several hours with me. He spread out maps of Jerusalem's Old City on a huge desk and homed in on the Al-Aqsa compound, which sits above the Western Wall. "The mosque in the Al-Aqsa [Brigades] flag is the Dome of the Rock. Everyone takes it for granted that it is the Al-Aqsa mosque, but no, the whole compound is Al-Aqsa, and on it are two mosques, the Qibla mosque and the Dome of the Rock, and on the flags of both Al-Aqsa Brigades and the Qassam Brigades, it is the Dome of the Rock shown," he said. Tim Marshall (2017). A Flag Worth Dying For: The Power and Politics of National Symbols. Simon & Schuster. pp. 151–. ISBN 978-1-5011-6833-8.; Mahdi Abdul Hadi, Mahdi Abdul Hadi Archived 2020-02-16 at the Wayback Machine: "Al-Aqsa Mosque, also referred to as Al-Haram Ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary), comprises the entire area within the compound walls (a total area of 144,000 m2) – including all the mosques, prayer rooms, buildings, platforms and open courtyards located above or under the grounds – and exceeds 200 historical monuments pertaining to various Islamic eras. According to Islamic creed and jurisprudence, all these buildings and courtyards enjoy the same degree of sacredness since they are built on Al-Aqsa's holy grounds. This sacredness is not exclusive to the physical structures allocated for prayer, like the Dome of the Rock or Al-Qibly Mosque (the mosque with the large silver dome)."
  31. ^ Lieber, Dov (July 20, 2017). "Amid Temple Mount tumult, the who, what and why of its Waqf rulers". Times of Israel. Retrieved April 16, 2018.
  32. ^ "What Are the Temple Movements and Why Should We Be Worried?". Ir Amim.
  33. ^ Gilbert, Lela (21 September 2015). "The Temple Mount – Outrageous Lies and Escalating Dangers". Hudson Institute. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
  34. ^ Yashar, Ari (28 October 2015). "Watch: Waqf bans 'Religious Christians' from Temple Mount". Arutz Sheva. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
  35. ^ "Israeli Police Storm Disputed Jerusalem Holy Site". Archived from the original on October 31, 2009.
  36. ^ a b c Reiter, Yitzhak (2017). Contested Holy places in Israel/Palestine: Sharing and Conflict Resolution. Routledge. pp. 21–23. ISBN 978-1-138-24349-1. OCLC 960842983. The HS is also the third holiest site in Islam. Early Islam identified the location of the Holy Rock (known as the Foundation Stone among Jews) with the Temple of Solomon. The Dome of the Rock, built by the Caliph 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan at the end of the seventh century CE, was aimed to glorify the place with the understanding of Islam as a continuation of Judaism (and Christianity). Muslim writers related to the site with respect to its sacred continuity. For example, the fifteenth-century Arab historian of Jerusalem Mujir al-Din quotes an early tradition narrated by al-Wasti stating, "After David built many cities and the situation of the children of Israel was improved, he wanted to construct Bayt al-Maqdis [Jerusalem] and build a dome over the rock in the place that Allah sanctified in Aelia [the Roman Byzantine name of Jerusalem]". In another place, he writes, "Suleiman (Solomon) built Masjid Bayt al-Maqdis by the order of his father Da'ud (David)." However, during the twentieth century, against the backdrop of the struggle between the Zionist and the Palestinian-Arab national movements, a new Arab-Muslim trend of denying Jewish attachment to the Temple Mount arose. On the Jewish side, meanwhile, some nationalists and academics also belittled the importance to Muslims of the sacred site in particular and of Jerusalem in general, highlighting the fact that Jerusalem's name never appears in the Qur'an and that the city never served as an Arab political center.
  37. ^ Omar, Abdallah Marouf (2017). "Al-Aqsa Mosque's Incident in July 2017: Affirming the Policy of Deterrence". Insight Turkey. 19 (3): 69–82. doi:10.25253/99.2017193.05. ISSN 1302-177X. JSTOR 26300531. As shown before, Israel tried first to play with the definition of al-Aqsa as being only the Qibli Mosque building. This would give Israel an excuse to request a share in administrating the whole compound, claiming that not all of it is al-Aqsa Mosque.
  38. ^ "Israel freezes Unesco ties for 'denying Jewish holy sites'". BBC News. 2016-10-14. Retrieved 2022-07-17.
  39. ^ Eliav 2008, p. 50-51: "The pair of words Temple Mount also debuted in the works of the prophets. The copyright for this name is reserved to the prophet Micah, who incorporated it into his famous admonitory prophecy: Therefore shall Zion for your sake be plowed as a field, and Jerusalem shall become heaps, and the mountain of the house as the high places of the forest (Micah 3:12). It is quite doubtful, however, that the book of Micah preserved a concrete name that was actually used in the day-to-day lexicon of the prophet's generation. A close-reading of this passage shows that the phrase Mountain of the House is a literary variation of a longer term, the mountain of the House of the Lord (three words in Hebrew), which appears in verse 4:1. The author places the complete term in the middle and plays with its constituent parts (both pieces come out to two words in Hebrew) in the previous and subsequent verses (3:12; 4:2). In verse 4:1 the name Lord is deleted, leaving the term Mount of the House, or Temple Mount. This, then, is not a case of terms taken from the vocabulary of daily life but rather variations characteristic of the common literary diction used by the prophets. Furthermore, nearly one thousand years will pass from the alleged time of Micah until the specific term Temple Mount reappears in the Mishnah. In the interim, the term Temple Mount is not used in even one of the numerous existing sources, except in works quoting and using the entire phrase from Micah. This is conclusive evidence that the name Temple Mount was not used in earlier periods, even though the image of a mountain as a place for a temple was both known and probably, at least to some degree, widespread."
  40. ^ Eliav 2008, p. 56: "Various passages of the New Testament use the images of the Temple and Jerusalem, whether to express the Heavenly Jerusalem or, on occasion, as a label for the actual community. And what of the Temple Mount? The word combination Temple and Mount is never to be found throughout the entire corpus of the New Testament."
  41. ^ a b c d e f Patrich, Joseph; Edelcopp, Marcos (2013). "Four stages in the evolution of the Temple Mount". Revue Biblique (1946–). 120 (3): 321–61. ISSN 0035-0907. JSTOR 44092217.
  42. ^ Eliav, Yaron Z. (2003). "The Temple Mount, the Rabbis, and the Poetics of Memory". Hebrew Union College Annual. 74. Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion: 49–113. ISSN 0360-9049. JSTOR 23509245. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
  43. ^ Eliav 2008, p. 59b.
  44. ^ Eliav 2008, p. 64: "Surprisingly, it was only in the aftermath of the Second Temple's destruction, when Jerusalem lost its own role as a political and religious center, that the Temple Mount gained prominence."
  45. ^ Shahar, Y. (2008) "The concept of the Temple Mount in the Second Tem period," New Studies on Jerusalem, pp. 14, 203–10 (Hebrew with an English abstract on p. 4).
  46. ^ Shatzman, I. (2009). Appendix H, in: Yosef Ben Matityahu ([Titus] Flavius Josephus), History of the Jewish War Against the Romans (tr. L. Ulman), Jerusalem, pp. 646–59 (Heb).
  47. ^ a b c 2 Chronicles 3:1.
  48. ^ 2 Chronicles 33:15.
  49. ^ Eliav 2008, p. 54: "The name Temple Mount appears but once throughout the multitude of available sources (in 1 Maccabees, which will be discussed below). Even there, it operates only as a literary construction, inspired by the biblical verse in Micah. This is a decisive finding, which proves that the term Temple Mount was not an integral part of the Second Temple period's lexicon...The most important question, however, is: how was this surrounding territory perceived by those living at the time, and how did it rank, if at all, in their world-view? It seems to me that throughout most of the period, the area did not possess any independent identity and was considered an integral part of the Temple itself. From a semantic standpoint, the various names given to the compound – hatser (courtyard) in Hebrew, or the Greek peribolos and temenos – describe a space that surrounds another architectural element. The Temple, then, was perceived as an architectural complex containing different components. Just as the altar was part of the Temple structure, so were the surrounding elements – courtyards and galleries. This is not to say that all these parts shared an equal status or degree of holiness. There was a definite, hierarchical system: the outer enclosure was not on a par with the inner court, and the inner court was not equivalent to the Holy of Holies. They were all grasped, however, as parts of a whole, which together formed the Temple. The sacredness of these territories is almost self-evident and is certainly no surprise. The expression "my holy courts" appears already in early, First Temple texts (for example, Isaiah 62:9), and it is only natural that the areas that form part of the Temple should possess some of its holiness. For example, the codes of purity were strictly enforced in these courts, in order to prevent the penetration of defilement into the inner sanctuary. The compounds surrounding the Temple, then, did not possess an independent character, and constituted an integral part of the Temple. People didn't refer to these areas as the "Temple Mount," and they were not even perceived in their consciousness as a mountain.
  50. ^ Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, The Ministry of Awqaf and Islamic Affairs, The Administration Department of Awgaf and Al-Aqsa Mosque Affairs, Jerusalem: Al-Aqsa Mosque: "They all reassure their rejection of the attempts to Judaize al-Aqsa Mosque or any of its components by the Israeli Occupation Authorities, its various organs and the Jewish organizations, which interfering with its extreme Jewish organizations, which attempt interfering with its administration, hampering its reconstruction, and forcing strange and alien names [such as "The Temple Mount"] among other newly-created Judaization terms."
  51. ^ Ynetnews (2014-11-06). "PLO urge journalists: Don't use term 'Temple Mount'". Ynetnews. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
  52. ^ Zion, Ilan Ben (2022-03-07). "Islamic guards try to boot guide for saying 'Temple Mount' on Temple Mount". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
  53. ^ Carman, John; Turek, Jan (2016). "Looking Back and Forward". Archaeologies. 12 (3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 231–39. doi:10.1007/s11759-017-9304-z. ISSN 1555-8622. S2CID 157370997. In part, the issue is one of the technical interpretations of WAC Statutes which require WAC to adhere to UN and UNESCO principles of Human Rights and official languages: whether the latter extends to adoption of UNESCO names for things and places is less clear. But it goes further than this: the names applied to places are also indications of claims of ownership and stakeholder status. Since WAC is also bound to defy the forcible occupation of territory and the oppression of peoples, to recognise 'Temple Mount' as a legitimate title is potentially to recognise Israeli claims and therefore implicitly offer support for Israeli occupation of Jerusalem in defiance of international condemnation.
  54. ^ a b c d Pixner, Bargil (2010). Rainer Riesner (ed.). Paths of the Messiah. Translated by Keith Myrick and Miriam Randall. Ignatius Press. pp. 320–322. ISBN 978-0-89870-865-3.
  55. ^ Isaiah 60:14.
  56. ^ a b c d Robinson, E.; Smith, E. (1841). Biblical Researches in Palestine. John Murray. The Jámi'a el-Aksa is the mosk alone; the Mesjid el-Aksa is the mosk with all the sacred enclosure and precincts, including the Sükhrah. Thus the words Mesjid and Jāmi'a differ in usage somewhat like the Greek ίερόν and ναός.
  57. ^ a b c Palmer, E.H. (1871). "History of the Haram Es Sherif: Compiled from the Arabic Historians". Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 3 (3): 122–132. doi:10.1179/peq.1871.012. ISSN 0031-0328. Excursus in the Name Masjid el Aksa. In order to understand the native accounts of the sacred area at Jerusalem, it is essentially necessary to keep in mind the proper application of the various names by which it is spoken of. When the Masjid el Aksa is mentioned, that name is usually supposed to refer to the well-known mosque on the south side of the Haram, but such is not really the case. The latter building is called El Jámʻi el Aksa, or simply El Aksa, and the substructures are called El Aksa el Kadímeh (the ancient Aksa), while the title El Masjid el Aksa is applied to the whole sanctuary. The word Jámi is exactly equivalent in sense to the Greek συναγωγή, and is applied to the church or building in which the worshippers congregate. Masjid, on the other hand, is a much more general term; it is derived from the verb sejada "to adore," and is applied to any spot, the sacred character of which would especially incite the visitor to an act of devotion. Our word mosque is a corruption of masjid, but it is usually misapplied, as the building is never so designated, although the whole area on which it stands may be so spoken of. The Cubbet es Sakhrah, El Aksa, Jam'i el Magharibeh, &c., are each called a Jami, but the entire Haram is a masjid. This will explain how it is that 'Omar, after visiting the churches of the Anastasis, Sion, &c., was taken to the "Masjid" of Jerusalem, and will account for the statement of Ibn el 'Asa'kir and others, that the Masjid el Aksa measured over 600 cubits in length-that is, the length of the whole Haram area. The name Masjid el Aksa is borrowed from the passage in the Coran (xvii. 1), when allusion is made to the pretended ascent of Mohammed into heaven from ·the temple of Jerusalem; "Praise be unto Him who transported His servant by night from El Masjid el Haram (i.e., 'the Sacred place of Adoration' at Mecca) to El Masjid el Aksa (i.e., 'the Remote place of Adoration' at Jerusalem), the precincts of which we have blessed," &c. The title El Aksa, "the Remote," according to the Mohammedan doctors, is applied to the temple of Jerusalem "either because of its distance from Mecca, or because it is in the centre of the earth."
  58. ^ a b PEF Survey of Palestine, 1883, volume III Jerusalem, p. 119: "The Jamia el Aksa, or 'distant mosque' (that is, distant from Mecca), is on the south, reaching to the outer wall. The whole enclosure of the Haram is called by Moslem writers Masjid el Aksa, 'praying-place of the Aksa,' from this mosque."
  59. ^ "Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem". Atlas Travel and Tourist Agency. Archived from the original on 26 July 2008. Retrieved 29 June 2008.
  60. ^ "Lailat al Miraj". BBC News. BBC MMVIII. Retrieved 29 June 2008.
  61. ^ a b Le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 96. Great confusion is introduced into the Arab descriptions of the Noble Sanctuary by the indiscriminate use of the terms Al Masjid or Al Masjid al Akså, Jami' or Jami al Aksâ; and nothing but an intimate acquaintance with the locality described will prevent a translator, ever and again, misunderstanding the text he has before him-since the native authorities use the technical terms in an extraordinarily inexact manner, often confounding the whole, and its part, under the single denomination of "Masjid." Further, the usage of various writers differs considerably on these points : Mukaddasi invariably speaks of the whole Haram Area as Al Masjid, or as Al Masjid al Aksî, "the Akså Mosque," or "the mosque," while the Main-building of the mosque, at the south end of the Haram Area, which we generally term the Aksa, he refers to as Al Mughattâ, "the Covered-part." Thus he writes "the mosque is entered by thirteen gates," meaning the gates of the Haram Area. So also "on the right of the court," means along the west wall of the Haram Area; "on the left side" means the east wall; and "at the back" denotes the northern boundary wall of the Haram Area. Nasir-i-Khusrau, who wrote in Persian, uses for the Main-building of the Aksâ Mosque the Persian word Pushish, that is, "Covered part," which exactly translates the Arabic Al Mughatta. On some occasions, however, the Akså Mosque (as we call it) is spoken of by Näsir as the Maksurah, a term used especially to denote the railed-off oratory of the Sultan, facing the Mihrâb, and hence in an extended sense applied to the building which includes the same. The great Court of the Haram Area, Nâsir always speaks of as the Masjid, or the Masjid al Akså, or again as the Friday Mosque (Masjid-i-Jum'ah).
  62. ^ Idrīsī, Muhammad; Jaubert, Pierre Amédée (1836). Géographie d'Édrisi (in French). à l'Imprimerie royale. pp. 343–44. Sous la domination musulmane il fut agrandi, et c'est (aujourd'hui) la grande mosquée connue par les Musulmans sous le nom de Mesdjid el-Acsa مسجد الأقصى. Il n'en existe pas au monde qui l'égale en grandeur, si l'on en excepte toutefois la grande mosquée de Cordoue en Andalousie ; car, d'après ce qu'on rapporte, le toit de cette mosquée est plus grand que celui de la Mesdjid el-Acsa. Au surplus, l'aire de cette dernière forme un parallelogramme dont la hauteur est de deux cents brasses (ba'a), et le base de cents quatre-vingts. La moitié de cet espace, celle qui est voisin du Mihrab, est couverte d'un toit (ou plutôt d'un dôme) en pierres soutenu par plusieurs rangs de colonnes ; l'autre est à ciel ouvert. Au centre de l'édifice est un grand dôme connu sous le nom de Dôme de la roche; il fut orné d'arabesques en or et d'autres beaux ouvrages, par les soins de divers califes musulmans. Le dôme est percé de quatre portes; en face de celle qui est à l'occident, on voit l'autel sur lequel les enfants d'Israël offraient leurs sacrifices; auprès de la porte orientale est l'église nommée le saint des saints, d'une construction élégante ; au midi est une chapelle qui était à l'usage des Musulmans; mais les chrétiens s'en sont emparés de vive force et elle est restée en leur pouvoir jusqu'à l'époque de la composition du présent ouvrage. Ils ont converti cette chapelle en un couvent où résident des religieux de l'ordre des templiers, c'est-à-dire des serviteurs de la maison de Dieu. Also at Williams, G.; Willis, R. (1849). "Account of Jerusalem during the Frank Occupation, extracted from the Universal Geography of Edrisi. Climate III. sect. 5. Translated by P. Amédée Jaubert. Tome 1. pp. 341–45.". The Holy City: Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem. J.W. Parker.
  63. ^ a b Williams, George (1849). The Holy City: Historical, Topographical and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem. Parker. pp. 143–60. The following detailed account of the Haram es-Sherif, with some interesting notices of the City, is extracted from an Arabic work entitled " The Sublime Companion to the History of Jerusalem and Hebron, by Kadi Mejir-ed-din, Ebil-yemen Abd-er-Rahman, El-Alemi," who died A.H. 927, (A.D. 1521)… "I have at the commencement called attention to the fact that the place now called by the name Aksa (i. e. the most distant), is the Mosk [Jamia] properly so called, at the southern extremity of the area, where is the Minbar and the great Mihrab. But in fact Aksa is the name of the whole area enclosed within the walls, the dimensions of which I have just given, for the Mosk proper [Jamia], the Dome of the Rock, the Cloisters, and other buildings, are all of late construction, and Mesjid el-Aksa is the correct name of the whole area." and also von Hammer-Purgstall, J.F. (1811). "Chapitre vingtième. Description de la mosquée Mesdjid-ol-aksa, telle qu'elle est de nos jours, (du temps de l'auteur, au dixième siècle de l'Hégire, au seizième après J.C.)". Fundgruben des Orients (in French). Vol. 2. Gedruckt bey A. Schmid. p. 93. Nous avons dès le commencement appelé l'attention sur que l'endroit, auquel les hommes donnent aujourd'hui le nom d'Aksa, c'est à-dire, la plus éloignée, est la mosquée proprement dite, bâtie à l'extrêmité méridionale de l'enceinte où se trouve la chaire et le grand autel. Mais en effet Aksa est le nom de l'enceinte entière, en tant qu'elle est enfermée de murs, dont nous venons de donner la longueur et la largeur, car la mosquée proprement dite, le dôme de la roche Sakhra, les portiques et les autres bâtimens, sont tous des constructions récentes, et Mesdjidol-aksa est le véritable nom de toute l'enceinte. (Le Mesdjid des arabes répond à l'ίερόν et le Djami au ναός des grecs.)
  64. ^ Abu Sway, Mustafa (Fall 2000). "The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Islamic Sources". Journal of the Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR): 60–68. Quoting Mujir al-Din: "Verily, 'Al-Aqsa' is a name for the whole mosque which is surrounded by the wall, the length and width of which are mentioned here, for the building that exists in the southern part of the Mosque, and the other ones such as the Dome of the Rock and the corridors and other [buildings] are novel."
  65. ^ Le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers. Houghton, Mifflin. The Askà Mosque. The great mosque of Jerusalem, Al Masjid al Aksà, the "Further Mosque," derives its name from the traditional Night Journey of Muhammad, to which allusion is made in the words of the Kuran (xvii. I)... the term "Mosque" being here taken to denote the whole area of the Noble Sanctuary, and not the Main-building of the Aksà only, which, in the Prophet's days, did not exist.
  66. ^ Strange, Guy le (1887). "Description of the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem in 1470 A.D., by Kamâl (or Shams) ad Dîn as Suyûtî". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 19 (2). Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 247–305. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00019420. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25208864. S2CID 163050043. …the term Masjid (whence, through the Spanish Mezquita, our word Mosque) denotes the whole of the sacred edifice, comprising the main building and the court, with its lateral arcades and minor chapels. The earliest specimen of the Arab mosque consisted of an open courtyard, within which, round its four walls, run colonades or cloisters to give shelter to the worshippers. On the side of the court towards the Kiblah (in the direction of Mekka), and facing which the worshipper must stand, the colonade, instead of being single, is, for the convenience of the increased numbers of the congregation, widened out to form the Jami' or place of assembly… coming now to the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem, we must remember that the term 'Masjid' belongs not only to the Aksa mosque (more properly the Jami' or place of assembly for prayer), but to the whole enclosure with the Dome of the Rock in the middle, and all the other minor domes and chapels.
  67. ^ * Abu-Sway, Mustafa (2013-03-31). "Al-Aqsa Mosque: Do Not Intrude!". Palestine-Israel Journal. Not only do the Israeli occupation authorities prevent freedom of movement and freedom of worship, they interfere in defining Al-Aqsa Mosque by restricting the meaning of Al-Aqsa Mosque to the southernmost building, Qibli Mosque, rather than all 144 dunums or 36 acres.
    • Omar, Abdallah Marouf (2017). "Al-Aqsa Mosque's Incident in July 2017: Affirming the Policy of Deterrence". Insight Turkey. 19 (3): 69–82. doi:10.25253/99.2017193.05. ISSN 1302-177X. JSTOR 26300531. As shown before, Israel tried first to play with the definition of al-Aqsa as being only the Qibli Mosque building. This would give Israel an excuse to request a share in administrating the whole compound, claiming that not all of it is al-Aqsa Mosque.
    • UNESCO World Heritage Centre (2022-04-04). "39 COM 7A.27 – Decision". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 2022-05-29. …the historic Gates and windows of the Qibli Mosque inside Al-Aqsa Mosque/ Al-Haram Al-Sharif, which is a Muslim holy site of worship and an integral part of a World Heritage Site.
    • Jordan-PLO Agreement on the Jerusalem Holy Sites – English (2013): "Recalling the unique religious importance, to all Muslims, of al-Masjid al-Aqsa with its 144 Dunums, which include the Qibli Mosque of al-Aqsa, the Mosque of the Dome of the Rock and all its mosques, buildings, walls, courtyards, attached areas over and beneath the ground and the Waqf properties tied-up to al-Masjid al-Aqsa, to its environs or to its pilgrims (hereinafter referred to as "Al-Haram Al-Sharif")."
    • Yehia Hassan Wazeri "The Farthest Mosque or the Alleged Temple an Analytic Study", Journal of Islamic Architecture Vol. 2 Iss. 3 June 2013, “The blessed Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa, which is mentioned in the Ever Glorious Qur'an (in Sura Al-Isra'), is the blessed spot that is now called Al-Haram Al-Qudsi and is surrounded by the great wall along with the buildings and monuments that have been built on it, on top of which is Al-Masjid Al-Qibli (covered Masjid) and the Dome of the Rock.”
    • Kamil, Meryem (2020-09-01). "Postspatial, Postcolonial". Social Text. 38 (3). Duke University Press: 55–82. doi:10.1215/01642472-8352247. ISSN 0164-2472. S2CID 234613673. The compound is an enclosed platform, with its western portion demarcated as the Jewish holy site of the Wailing Wall. Within the com- pound are two hallowed buildings: the Dome of the Rock and al-Qibli mosque.19 Muslims venerate the Dome of the Rock as the site where Muhammad ascended to heaven, and Jews honor the site where Abraham sacrificed Isaac. Al-Qibli mosque is noted by Muslims as the initial direction for prayer before Mecca.
    • Omran M. Hassan, A Graphical Vision of Aesthetics of Al-Quds Architecture through the Digital Technology, International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology Vol. 29, No. 7s, (2020), pp. 2819–38: “As shown, it is a part of the building of Al-Qibli mosque which is part of Al-Aqsa Mosque and one of its monuments with a roofed building topped by a dome covered by a layer of lead, located in the south side of Al-Aqsa Mosque towards Al-Qiblah in which the name Al-Qibli came from.”
    • Mahdi Abdul Hadi, Al-Aqsa Mosque Archived 16 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs: "Al-Aqsa Mosque, also referred to as Al-Haram Ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary), comprises the entire area within the compound walls (a total area of 144,000 m2) – including all the mosques, prayer rooms, buildings, platforms and open courtyards located above or under the grounds – and exceeds 200 historical monuments pertaining to various Islamic eras. According to Islamic creed and jurisprudence, all these buildings and courtyards enjoy the same degree of sacredness since they are built on Al-Aqsa’s holy grounds. This sacredness is not exclusive to the physical structures allocated for prayer, like the Dome of the Rock or Al-Qibly Mosque (the mosque with the large silver dome).
    • Tim Marshall (2017). A Flag Worth Dying For: The Power and Politics of National Symbols. Simon & Schuster. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-5011-6833-8.: "Many people believe that the mosque depicted is called the Al-Aqsa; however, a visit to one of Palestine's most eminent intellectuals, Mahdi F. Abdul Hadi, clarified the issue. Hadi is chairman of the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, based in East Jerusalem. His offices are a treasure trove of old photographs, documents, and symbols. He was kind enough to spend several hours with me. He spread out maps of Jerusalem's Old City on a huge desk and homed in on the Al-Aqsa compound, which sits above the Western Wall. "The mosque in the Al-Aqsa [Brigades] flag is the Dome of the Rock. Everyone takes it for granted that it is the Al-Aqsa mosque, but no, the whole compound is Al-Aqsa, and on it are two mosques, the Qibla mosque and the Dome of the Rock, and on the flags of both Al-Aqsa Brigades and the Qassam Brigades, it is the Dome of the Rock shown", he said."
  68. ^ Carpenter, E.E.; Comfort, P.W. (2000). Holman Treasury of Key Bible Words: 200 Greek and 200 Hebrew Words Defined and Explained. B&H Publishing Group. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-8054-9352-8. Retrieved 2022-07-25. The New Testament writers used two different Greek words to describe the "temple": naos and hieron. Naos refers to the actual "sanctuary" of the temple, the place of God's dwelling. Hieron refers to the "temple precincts" as well as to the "sanctuary." Generally speaking, naos was used to designate the inner section of the temple known as the "holy place" and the "holy of holies," whereas hieron would designate the outer court and the temple proper.
  69. ^ Le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Medieval Arab Geographers. Houghton, Mifflin. pp. 94–96. The main characteristics of the primitive Arab mosque are well exemplified in the accompanying plan representing the Jâmi' of Ibn Talûn. This is the oldest mosque in Cairo… As here seen in its simplest form, the mosque primarily consisted of an open courtyard, within which, and round its four walls, ran colonnades or cloisters, to give shelter to the worshippers. On the side of the court towards the Kiblah (in the direction of Makkah), and facing which the worshipper must stand and kneel during prayers, the colonnade, instead of being single, is, for the convenience of the increased numbers of the congregation, widened out to form the Jâmi', or "place of assembly." In the case of Ibn Talūn's Mosque, five rows of columns, with the boundary-wall, form the five transverse aisles (A to a). In the centre of the boundary-wall on the Makkah side is set the great Mihrab of the mosque (a), indicating the direction of the Kiblah. Now in all descriptions of a mosque it is taken for granted that the visitor is standing in the Court (as Sahn) of the mosque, and facing the Kiblah. Fronting him therefore is the Main-building, called the "covered-part" (al Mughattâ), or the "fore-part" (al Mukaddamah) of the mosque (A to a); while in his rear is the colonnade (B), single or double, against the wall of the courtyard, furthest from the Makkah-side, and this is called the "back" of the mosque (al Muakhkharah). The "right-hand side " of the mosque is in the neighbourhood of the colonnades (C), along the wall on the right of the Court when you face the Mihrab, and the "left-hand side" is on the opposite side (D). In the Court (as Sahn) thus enclosed, are often other buildings, such as tombs or minor chapels. In the Mosque of Ibn Tulan there is a domed building (E), originally intended to serve as the mausoleum of the founder, but which, as he died far away in Syria, was.subsequently fitted up with a water-tank to serve as a place for the ablution before prayer. Turning now to the Arab descriptions of the Haram Area at Jerusalem, the point it is of importance to remember is that the term Masjid (whence through the Egyptian pronunciation of Masgid, and the Spanish Mezquita, our word "mosque") applies to the whole of the Haram Area, not to the Aksâ alone. Masjid in Arabic means "a place of prostration (in prayer);" and therefore to revert once again to Ibn Tûlûn's Mosque, (1) the Mainbuilding, A; (2) the Court, and (3) the Colonnades at the back, B; with those (4) to the right, C; to the left, D; as also (5) the Dome E in the Court-one and all form essential parts of the mosque, and are all comprehended by the term "Al Masjid.' Bearing these points in mind, and coming to the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem, we find that the term "Masjid," as already stated, is commonly applied not only to the Aksâ Mosque (more properly the Jâmi', or "place of assembly," for prayer), but to the whole enclosure of the great Court, with the Dome of the Rock in the middle, and all the other minor domes, and chapels, and colonnades. The Dome of the Rock (misnamed by the Franks "the Mosque of 'Omar"), is not itself a mosque or place for public prayer, but merely the largest of the many cupolas in the Court of the Mosque, and in this instance was built to cover and do honour to the Holy Rock which lies beneath it.
  70. ^ Yavuz, Yildirim (1996). "The Restoration Project of the Masjid Al-Aqsa by Mi̇mar Kemaletti̇n (1922–26)". Muqarnas. 13: 149–164. doi:10.2307/1523257. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 1523257.
  71. ^ Salameh, Khader (2009). "A New Saljuq Inscription in the Masjid al-Aqsa, Jerusalem". Levant. 41 (1): 107–17. doi:10.1179/175638009x427620. ISSN 0075-8914. S2CID 162230613.
  72. ^ 1936 Survey of Palestine map of the Old City of Jerusalem.
  73. ^ a b c d Reiter, Yitzhak (2008). Jerusalem and Its Role in Islamic Solidarity. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 21–23. ISBN 978-0-230-61271-6. During the Middle Ages, when the issue of Jerusalem's status was a point of controversy, the supporters of Jerusalem's importance (apparently after its liberation from Crusader control) succeeded in attributing to al-Quds or to Bayt-al-Maqdis (the Arabic names for Jerusalem) the status of haram that had been accorded to the sacred compound. The site was thus called al-Haram al-Sharif, or al-Haram al-Qudsi al-Sharif. Haram, from an Arabic root meaning "prohibition," is a place characterized by a particularly high level of sanctity – a protected place in which blood may not be shed, trees may not be felled, and animals may not be hunted. The status of haram was given in the past to the Sacred Mosque in Mecca and to the Mosque of the Prophet in al-Madina (and some also accorded this status to the Valley of Wajj in Ta'if on the Arabian Peninsula?). Thus, al-Masjid al-Aqsa became al-Haram al-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) in order to emphasize its exalted status alongside the two other Muslim sanctuaries. Although, as noted before, Ibn-Taymiyya refuted the haram status of the Jerusalem mosque, al-Aqsa's upgrading to haram status was successful and has prevailed. It became a commonly accepted idea and one referred to in international forums and documents. It was, therefore, surprising that during the 1980s the Palestinians gradually abandoned the name that had been given to the Haram/Temple Mount compound in apparent honor of Jerusalem's status as third in sanctity – al-Haram al-Sharif – in favor of its more traditional name-al-Aqsa. An examination of relevant religious texts clarifies the situation: since the name al-Aqsa appears in the Quran, all Muslims around the world should be familiar with it; thus it is easier to market the al-Aqsa brand-name. An additional factor leading to a return to the Qur'anic name is an Israeli demand to establish a Jewish prayer space inside the open court of the compound. The increased use of the name al-Aqsa is particularly striking against the background of what is written on the Web site of the Jerusalem Waqf, under the leadership of (former) Palestinian mufti Sheikh Ikrima Sabri. There it is asserted that "al Masjid al-Aqsa was erroneously called by the name al-Haram al-Qudsi al-Sharif," and that the site's correct name is al-Aqsa. This statement was written in the context of a fatwa in response to a question addressed to the Web site's scholars regarding the correct interpretation of the Isra' verse in the Quran (17:1), which tells of the Prophet Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey from the "Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque" – al-Aqsa. In proof of this, Sabri quotes Ibn-Taymiyya, who denied the existence of haram in Jerusalem, a claim that actually serves those seeking to undermine the city's sacred status. Sabri also states that Arab historians such as Mujir al-Din al-Hanbali, author of the famed fifteenth-century work on Jerusalem, do not make use of the term "haram" in connection with the al-Aqsa site. Both Ibn-Taymiyya and Mujir al-Din were affiliated with the Hanbali School of law-the relatively more puritan stream in Islam that prevailed in Saudi Arabia. The Hanbalies rejected innovations, such as the idea of a third haram. One cannot exclude the possibility that the Saudis, who during the 1980s and 1990s donated significant funds to Islamic institutions in Jerusalem, exerted pressure on Palestinian-Muslim figures to abandon the term "haram" in favor of "al-Aqsa". The "al-Aqsa" brand-name has thus become popular and prevalent. Al-Haram al-Sharif is still used by official bodies (the Organization of the Islamic Conference [OIC], the Arab League), in contrast to religious entities. The public currently uses the two names interchangeably. During the last generation, increasing use has been made of the term "al-Aqsa" as a symbol and as the name of various institutions and organizations. Thus, for example, the Jordanian military periodical that has been published since the early 1970s is called al-Aqsa; the Palestinian police unit established by the PA in Jericho is called the Al-Aqsa Division; the Fatah's armed organization is called the Al-Aqsa Brigades; the Palestinian Police camp in Jericho is called the Al-Aqsa Camp; the Web sites of the southern and northern branches of the Islamic movement in Israel and the associations that they have established are called al-Aqsa; the Intifada that broke out in September 2000 is called the al-Aqsa Intifada and the Arab summit that was held in the wake of the Intifada's outbreak was called the al-Aqsa Summit. These are only a few examples of a growing phenomenon.
  74. ^ St Laurent, B., & Awwad, I. (2013). The Marwani Musalla in Jerusalem: New Findings. Jerusalem Quarterly.
  75. ^ Jarrar, Sabri (1998). "Suq al-Ma'rifa: An Ayyubid Hanbalite Shrine in Haram al-Sharif". In Necipoğlu, Gülru (ed.). Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World (Illustrated, annotated ed.). Brill. p. 85. ISBN 978-90-04-11084-7. Al-Masjid al-Aqsa' was the standard designation for the whole sanctuary until the Ottoman period, when it was superseded by 'al-Haram al-Sharif'; 'al-Jami' al-Aqsa' specifically referred to the Aqsa Mosque, the mughatta or the covered aisles, the site on which 'Umar founded the first mosque amidst ancient ruins.
  76. ^ Grabar, Oleg (2000). "The Haram al-Sharif: An Essay in Interpretation" (PDF). Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies. Constructing the Study of Islamic Art. 2 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-04-14. It is only at a relatively late date that the Muslim holy space in Jerusalem came to be referred to as al-haram al-sharif (literally, the Noble Sacred Precinct or Restricted Enclosure, often translated as the Noble Sanctuary and usually simply referred to as the Haram). While the exact early history of this term is unclear, we know that it only became common in Ottoman times, when administrative order was established over all matters pertaining to the organization of the Muslim faith and the supervision of the holy places, for which the Ottomans took financial and architectural responsibility. Before the Ottomans, the space was usually called al-masjid al-aqsa (the Farthest Mosque), a term now reserved to the covered congregational space on the Haram, or masjid bayt al-maqdis (Mosque of the Holy City) or, even, like Mecca's sanctuary, al-masjid al-ḥarâm.
  77. ^ Schick, Robert (2009). "Geographical Terminology in Mujir al-Din's History of Jerusalem". In Khalid El-Awaisi (ed.). Geographical Dimensions of Islamic Jerusalem. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. pp. 91–106. ISBN 978-1-4438-0834-7. Mujir al-Din defined al-Masjid al-Aqsā as the entire compound, acknowledging that in common usage it referred to the roofed building at the south end of the compound. As he put it (1999 v. 2, p. 45; 1973 v. 2, p. 11), the jami' that is in the core of al-Masjid al-Aqsa at the qiblah where the Friday service takes place is known among the people as "al-Masjid al-Aqsa", and (1999 v. 2, pp. 63–64; 1973 v. 2, p. 24) what is known among the people as "al-Aqsa" is the jami in the core of the masjid in the direction of the giblah, where the minbar and the large mihrab are. The truth of the matter is that the term "al-Aqsa" is for all of the masjid and what the enclosure walls surround. What is intended by "al-Masjid al-Aqsā" is everything that the enclosure walls surround. Mujir al-Din did not identify al-Masjid al-Aqsā by the alternative term "al-Haram al-Sharif". That term began to be used in the Mamluk period and came into more general use in the Ottoman period. He only used the term when giving the official title of the government-appointed inspector of the two noble harams of Jerusalem and Hebron (Nazir al-Haramavn al-Sharifayn). While Mujir al-Din did not explicitly discuss why the masjid of Bayt al-Magdis 'is not called the haram' (1999 v. 1, p. 70; 1973 v. 1, p. 7), he may well have adopted the same position as Ibn Taymiyah, his fellow Hanbali in the early 14th century (Ziyarat Bayt al-Maqdis Matthews 1936, p. 13; Iqtida' al-Sirat al-Mustaqim Mukhalafat Ashab al-Jahim Memon 1976: 316) in rejecting the idea that al-Masjid al-Aqsa (or the tomb of Abraham in Hebron) can legitimately be called a haram, because there are only three harams (where God prohibited hunting): Makkah, Madinah, and perhaps Täif. However Mujir al-Din was not fully consistent and also used al-Masiid al-Aqsã to refer to the roofed building, as for example when he referred to al-Nasir Muhammad installing marble in al-Masjid al-Aqsà (1999 v. 2, p. 161; 1973 v. 2, p. 92); he used the term al-Jami al-Aqsa in the parallel passage (1999 v. 2, p. 396; 1973 v. 2, p. 271).
  78. ^ Wazeri, Yehia Hassan (2014-02-20). "The Farthest Mosque or the Alleged Temple an Analytic Study". Journal of Islamic Architecture. 2 (3). Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University. doi:10.18860/jia.v2i3.2462. ISSN 2356-4644. S2CID 190588084. Many people think that Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa is only the mosque established south of the Dome of the Rock, where the obligatory five daily prayers are performed now. Actually, Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa is a term that applies to all parts of the Masjid, including the area encompassed within the wall, such as the gates, the spacious yards, the mosque itself, the Dome of the Rock, Al-Musalla Al-Marawani, the corridors, domes, terraces, free drinking water (springs), and other landmarks, like minarets on the walls. Furthermore, the whole mosque is unroofed with the exception of the building of the Dome of the Rock and Al-Musalla Al-Jami`, which is known by the public as Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa. The remaining area, however, is a yard of the mosque. This is agreed upon by scholars and historians, and accordingly, the doubled reward for performing prayer therein is attained if the prayer is performed in any part of the area encompassed by the wall. Indeed, Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa, which is mentioned in Almighty Allah's Glorious Book in the first verse of Sura Al-Isra' is the blessed place that is now called the Noble Sanctuary (Al-Haram Al-Qudsi Ash-Sharif) which is enclosed within the great fence and what is built over it. Moreover, what applies to the mosque applies by corollary to the wall encircling it, since it is part of it. Such is the legal definition of Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa. Regarding the concept (definition) of Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa, Shaykh `Abdul-Hamid Al-Sa'ih, former Minister of (Religious) Endowments and Islamic Sanctuaries in Jordan said: "The term Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa, for the Muslim public, denotes all that is encircled by the wall of Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa, including the gates". Therefore, (the legally defined) Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa and Al-Haram Al-Qudsi Ash-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) are two names for the same place, knowing that Al-Haram Ash-Sharif is a name that has only been coined recently.
  79. ^ Grabar, Oleg; Binyamin, Kedar (2009). Where Heaven and Earth Meet: Jerusalem's Sacred Esplanade. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72272-9.
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  81. ^ "Provocations on Jerusalem's Holy Esplanade Must Stop Now, Secretary-General Says, Stressing Need to Respect, Uphold Status Quo at Holy Sites". 15 April 2022.
     • "Middle East Report N°159 – The Status of the Status Quo at Jerusalem's Holy Esplanade". 15 April 2022.
     • "Statement By UN Special Coordinator For The Middle East Peace Process, Tor Wennesland, On The Security Situation In Jerusalem". 15 April 2022.
  82. ^ Gonen 2003, p. 9–11.
  83. ^ Lundquist (2007), p. 103.
  84. ^ Finkelstein, Horbury, Davies & Sturdy (1999), p. 43.
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  86. ^ Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2011). Jerusalem: The Biography. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 371. ISBN 978-0-307-59448-8.
  87. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2024-03-09.
  88. ^ "Report of the 1st Extraordinary Session of the World Heritage Committee". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
  89. ^ "Justification for inscription on the List of World Heritage in Danger, 1982: Report of the 6th Session of the World Heritage Committee". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
  90. ^ Sharaf, Nabil (15 May 2023). "Jerusalem's Status Quo Agreement: History and Challenges to Its Viability". Arab Center Washington DC.
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  92. ^ a b "UNESCO adopts anti-Israel resolution on al-Aqsa Mosque". aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  93. ^ Meskell, Lynn (2018). A Future in Ruins:UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace. Oxford University Press. pp. 165–66. mention is made of "illegal archaeological excavations" and the "continuous, intrusive archaeological demolitions and excavations in and around the Mughrabi Gate Ascent." The text notes that "damage caused by the Israeli security forces ... to the historic Gates and windows of the Qibli Mosque inside Al-Aqsa Mosque" occurred in 2014.
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  98. ^ "The United States Withdraws From UNESCO". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2017.
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  100. ^ "UNESCO unanimously adopts resolution on old Jerusalem". 7 April 2022.
  101. ^ Marshall J., Breger; Ahimeir, Ora (2002). Jerusalem: A City and Its Future. Syracuse University Press. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-8156-2912-2. OCLC 48940385.
  102. ^ Cohen-Hattab, Kobi; Bar, Doron (2020). The Western Wall: The Dispute over Israel's Holiest Jewish Site, 1967–2000. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-43133-1.
  103. ^ "BBC – Science & Nature – Horizon". BBC.
  104. ^ Toledot 25:21.
  105. ^ a b Babylonian Talmud Yoma, 54b.
  106. ^ a b "Jerusalem: Eye of the Universe". torah.org. Archived from the original on 2010-06-16.
  107. ^ Baker, Eric W. The Eschatological Role of the Jerusalem Temple: An Examination of the Jewish Writings Dating from 586 BCE to 70 CE. Germany: Anchor Academic Publishing, 2015, pp. 361–62.
  108. ^ Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Avoda, Beit haBechira, 6:14.
  109. ^ Sidra DeKoven Ezrahi, Bernard Avishai, 'Jews Don’t Have a ‘Holiest’ Site,' Haaretz 13 May:’The point is, this kind of recklessness not only offended secular democrats, it vulgarized what “holy” has meant for most observant Jews, too. Not coincidentally, more than 85 percent of Israel’s Haredi Jews oppose prayer on the Mount, for reasons having to do with purity and impurity that cannot be resolved in “our time.” Advocates of such prayer and sacrifice tend to be, like Goren, Orthodox-nationalist zealots educated in local yeshivas and identified with the neo-Zionist settlement project. They are, like Islamists, fanatics warped by violence and nationalist fantasy – “Jewists,” not Jews.‘
  110. ^ Sam Sokol, Should Jews Be Allowed to Pray on the Temple Mount? Many Israelis Think So, Poll Shows,' Haaretz 3 May 2022: '86.5 percent of ultra-Orthodox Jews opposed prayer for reasons of halakha, while national religious (51 percent), traditional religious (54.5 percent) and traditional non-religious respondents (49 percent) supported worship on the mount for nationalist reasons. Many rabbis, and almost all ultra-Orthodox ones, prohibit their followers from ascending the Temple Mount due to concerns over ritual purity.'
  111. ^ 2 Samuel 24:18–25.
  112. ^ Pruitt 2014. King David later took the Ark to Jerusalem.
  113. ^ II Sam. xxiv. 16 et seq.; I Chron. xxi. 15 et seq.
  114. ^ Temple of Jerusalem.
  115. ^ "Moriah". Easton's Bible Dictionary. Retrieved July 14, 2008.
  116. ^ Jonker 1990, p. 656.
  117. ^ Garfinkel, Yosef; Mumcuoglu, Madeleine (2019-03-15). "The Temple of Solomon in Iron Age Context". Religions. 10 (3): 198. doi:10.3390/rel10030198. ISSN 2077-1444.
  118. ^ Stefon 2020.
  119. ^ 2 Chronicles 3:1
  120. ^ a b Britannica: Holy of Holies.
  121. ^ Deuteronomy 12:5–26; 14:23–25; 15:20; 16:2–16; 17:8–10; 26:2; 31:11; Isaiah 2:2–5; Obadiah 1:21; Psalms 48.
  122. ^ Genesis Rabba 79.7: "And he bought the parcel of ground, where he had spread his tent...for a hundred pieces of money." Rav Yudan son of Shimon said: 'This is one of the three places where the non-Jews cannot deceive the Jewish People by saying that they stole it from them, and these are the places: Ma'arat HaMachpela, the Temple and Joseph's burial place. Ma'arat HaMachpela because it is written: 'And Abraham hearkened unto Ephron; and Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver,' (Genesis, 23:16); the Temple because it is written: 'So David gave to Ornan for the place,' (I Chronicles, 21:26); and Joseph's burial place because it is written: 'And he bought the parcel of ground...Jacob bought Shechem.' (Genesis, 33:19)." See also: Kook, Abraham Issac, Moadei Hare'iya, pp. 413–15.
  123. ^ a b Levine, Lee I. (2002). Jerusalem: portrait of the city in the Second Temple period (538 BCE – 70 CE) (1st ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Jewish Publication Society, published in cooperation with the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. pp. 15–20. ISBN 978-0-8276-0956-3. OCLC 698161941.
  124. ^ Isaiah 2:2–3
  125. ^ a b Carol Delaney, Abraham on Trial: The Social Legacy of Biblical Myth, Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 120.
  126. ^ Todd Gitlin, 'Apocalypse Soonest,' Tablet 11 November 2014.
  127. ^ Jonathan Klawans, Purity, Sacrifice, and the Temple: Symbolism and Supersessionism in the Study of Ancient Judaism, Oxford University Press, US, 2006 p. 236: "Some analyses rest on the assumption that the ancient Jewish temple was inherently flawed, and in need of replacement. This kind of approach is contradicted by the rather significant evidence that can be marshaled to the effect that early Christians remained loyal to the Jerusalem temple, long after Jesus' death."
  128. ^ Jervell, Jacob (1996). The Theology of the Acts of the Apostles. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-316-58247-3.
  129. ^ Anderson, Jeff S. (2002). The Internal Diversification of Second Temple Judaism: An Introduction to the Second Temple Period. University Press of America. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-7618-2327-8.
  130. ^ Catherine Hezser, 'The (In)Significance of Jerusalem in the Yerushalmi Talmud,' in Peter Schäfer, Catherine Hezser (eds.) The Talmud Yerushalmi and Graeco-Roman Culture, Mohr Siebeck, Vol. 2, 2000, pp. 11–49 [17].
  131. ^ Klawans, Jonathan (2013). Josephus and the Theologies of Ancient Judaism. Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-19-992862-0.
  132. ^ Matthew 23:28.
  133. ^ Matthew 24:2.
  134. ^ a b Andrew Marsham, 'The Architecture of Allegiance in Early Islamic Late Antiquity,' in Alexander Beihammer, Stavroula Constantinou, Maria G. Parani (eds.), Court Ceremonies and Rituals of Power in Byzantium and the Medieval Mediterranean: Comparative Perspectives, Brill, 2013, pp. 87–114 [106].
  135. ^ Kofsky, Arieh (2000). Eusebius of Caesarea Against Paganism. Brill. p. 303. ISBN 978-90-04-11642-9.
  136. ^ Avni, Gideon (2014). The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press Oxford. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-19-150734-2.
  137. ^ a b Robert Shick, 'A Christian City with a Major Muslim Shrine: Jerusalem in the Umayyad Period,' in Arietta Papaconstantinou (ed.), Conversion in Late Antiquity: Christianity, Islam, and Beyond: Papers from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Sawyer Seminar, University of Oxford, 2009–2010 pp. 299–317, 300, Routledge 2016.
  138. ^ Shick, p. 301.
  139. ^ Lundquist, John M. (2008). The Temple of Jerusalem: Past, Present, and Future. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-275-98339-0.
  140. ^ Davidson, Linda Kay; Gitlitz, David M. (2002). Pilgrimage [2 Volumes]: From the Ganges to Graceland, An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-57607-004-8.
  141. ^ Schiller, Gertud. Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I, 1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, ISBN 978-0-85331-270-3; Penny, Nicholas. National Gallery Catalogues (new series): The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings, Volume I, 2004, National Gallery Publications Ltd., ISBN 978-1-85709-908-9.
  142. ^ John 4:21–24
  143. ^ Andreas J. Köstenberger, 'The Destruction of the Second Temple and the Composition of the Fourth Gospel,' in John Lierman (ed.)Challenging Perspectives on the Gospel of John, Mohr Siebeck, 2006, pp. 69–108 [101–02].
  144. ^ Avni, Gideon (2014). The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach. Oxford University Press Oxford. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-19-968433-5.
  145. ^ Nicolle, David (1994). Yarmuk AD 636: The Muslim Conquest of Syria. Osprey Publishing.
  146. ^ Coogan, Michael D. (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. p. 443. ISBN 978-0-19-988148-2.
  147. ^ Frank, Daniel (2004). Search Scripture Well: Karaite Exegetes and the Origins of the Jewish Bible Commentary in the Islamic East. Brill. p. 209. ISBN 978-90-04-13902-2.
  148. ^ Mosaad, Mohamed. Bayt al-Maqdis: An Islamic Perspective Archived 10 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine pp. 3–8
  149. ^ "History of Al-Aqsa Mosque: Chapter one – The History of Palestine". www.mustaqim.co.uk. Retrieved 2024-03-09.
  150. ^ "The Farthest Mosque must refer to the site of the Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem on the hill of Moriah, at or near which stands the Dome of the Rock... it was a sacred place to both Jews and Christians... The chief dates in connection with the Temple in Jerusalem are: It was finished by Solomon about 1004 BCE; destroyed by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar about 586 BCE; rebuilt under Ezra and Nehemiah about 515 BCE; turned into a heathen idol temple by one of Alexander the Great's successors, Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 BCE; restored by Herod, 17 BCE to 29; and completely razed to the ground by the Emperor Titus in 70. These ups and downs are among the greater signs in religious history." (Yusuf Ali, Commentary on the Koran, p. 2168.)
  151. ^ a b Khalek, N. (2011). "Jerusalem in Medieval Islamic Tradition". Religion Compass, 5(10), pp. 624–30, doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2011.00305.x. "One of the most pressing issues in both medieval and contemporary scholarship related to Jerusalem is whether the city is explicitly referenced in the text of the Qur'an. Sura 17, verse 1, which reads [...] has been variously interpreted as referring to the miraculous Night Journey and Ascension of Muhammad, events recorded in medieval sources and known as the isra and miraj. As we will see, this association is a rather late and even a contested one. [...] The earliest Muslim work on the Religious Merits of Jerusalem was the Fada'il Bayt al-Maqdis by al-Walid ibn Hammad al-Ramli (d. 912 CE), a text which is recoverable from later works. [...] He relates the significance of Jerusalem vis-a-vis the Jewish Temple, conflating 'a collage of biblical narratives' and comments pilgrimage to Jerusalem, a practice which was controversial in later Muslim periods."
  152. ^ "The city of Jerusalem was chosen at the command of Allah by Prophet David in the tenth century BCE. After him his son, the Prophet Solomon built a mosque in Jerusalem according to the revelation that he received from Allah. For several centuries this mosque was used for the worship of Allah by many Prophets and Messengers of Allah. It was destroyed by the Babylonians in the year 586 BCE., but it was soon rebuilt and was rededicated to the worship of Allah in 516 BCE. It continued afterwards for several centuries until the time of Prophet Jesus. After he departed this world, it was destroyed by the Romans in the year 70 CE." (Siddiqi, Dr. Muzammil. Status of Al-Aqsa Mosque Archived 2011-02-11 at the Wayback Machine, IslamOnline, May 21, 2007. Retrieved July 12, 2007.)
  153. ^ "Early Muslims regarded the building and destruction of the Temple of Solomon as a major historical and religious event, and accounts of the Temple are offered by many of the early Muslim historians and geographers (including Ibn Qutayba, Ibn al-Faqih, Mas'udi, Muhallabi, and Biruni). Fantastic tales of Solomon's construction of the Temple also appear in the Qisas al-anbiya', the medieval compendia of Muslim legends about the pre-Islamic prophets." (Kramer, Martin. The Temples of Jerusalem in Islam, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, September 18, 2000. Retrieved November 21, 2007.)
    • "While there is no scientific evidence that Solomon's Temple existed, all believers in any of the Abrahamic faiths perforce must accept that it did." (Khalidi, Rashid. Transforming the Face of the Holy City: Political Messages in the Built Topography of Jerusalem, Bir Zeit University, November 12, 1998.)
  154. ^ A Brief Guide to al-Haram al-Sharif, a booklet published in 1925 Archived 2009-01-05 at the Wayback Machine (and earlier) by the "Supreme Moslem Council", a body established by the British government to administer waqfs and headed by Hajj Amin al-Husayni during the British Mandate period, states on page 4: "The site is one of the oldest in the world. Its sanctity dates from the earliest (perhaps from pre-historic) times. Its identity with the site of Solomon's Temple is beyond dispute. This, too, is the spot, according to universal belief, on which 'David built there an altar unto the Lord, and offered burnt offerings and peace offerings.'(2 Samuel 24:25)"
  155. ^ "The Rock was in the time of Solomon the son of David 12 cubits high and there was a dome over it...It is written in the Tawrat [Bible]: 'Be happy Jerusalem,' which is Bayt al-Maqdis and the Rock which is called Haykal." al-Wasati, Fada'il al Bayt al-Muqaddas, ed. Izhak Hasson (Jerusalem, 1979) pp. 72ff.
  156. ^ Di Cesare, M. (2017). "A Lost Inscription from the Dome of the Rock?: the Western Attitude Towards Islamic Epigraphy in 17th-Century Jerusalem", pp. 77–86.
  157. ^ Jacobson, D.M. The Enigma of the Name Īliyā (= Aelia) for Jerusalem in Early Islam. Dio, 69, 1.
  158. ^ Carroll, James (2011). Jerusalem, Jerusalem: How the Ancient City Ignited Our Modern World. HMH. ISBN 978-0-547-54905-7.
  159. ^ a b Buchanan, Allen (2004). States, Nations, and Borders: The Ethics of Making Boundaries. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52575-6.
  160. ^ Vuckovic, Brooke Olson (2003). Heavenly Journeys, Earthly Concerns: The Legacy of the Mi'raj in the Formation of Islam. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-48747-1.
  161. ^ Martin, Richard C.; Arjom, Said Amir; Hermansen, Marcia; Tayob, Abdulkader; Davis, Rochelle; Voll, John Obert, eds. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 482. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.
  162. ^ Religion and the Arts, Volume 12. 2008. pp. 329–42.
  163. ^ Vuckovic, Brooke Olson (2004). Heavenly Journeys, Earthly Concerns: The Legacy of the Mi'raj in the Formation of Islam (Religion in History, Society and Culture). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96785-3.
  164. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari 7517.
  165. ^ el-Khatib, Abdallah (1 May 2001). "Jerusalem in the Qur'ān". British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. 28 (1): 25–53. doi:10.1080/13530190120034549. S2CID 159680405. Archived from the original on 9 December 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
  166. ^ a b c "Miʿrād̲j̲". The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7 (New ed.). Brill. 2006. pp. 97–105. For this verse, tradition gives three interpretations: The oldest one, which disappears from the more recent commentaries, detects an allusion to Muhammad's Ascension to Heaven. This explanation interprets the expression al-masjid al-aksa, "the further place of worship" in the sense of "Heaven" and, in fact, in the older tradition isra is often used as synonymous with miradj (see Isl., vi, 14). The second explanation , the only one given in all the more modern commentaries, interprets masjid al-aksa as "Jerusalem" and this for no very apparent reason. It seems to have been an Umayyad device intended to further the glorification of Jerusalem as against that of the holy territory (cf. Goldziher, Muh. Stud., ii, 55–56; Isl, vi, 13 ff), then ruled by Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr. Al-Tabarl seems to reject it. He does not mention it in his History and seems rather to adopt the first explanation.
  167. ^ a b Colby, Frederick S. (2008). Narrating Muhammad's Night Journey: Tracing the Development of the Ibn 'Abbas Ascension Discourse. SUNY Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-7914-7788-5. Archived from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2018. If Muslims interpret the qur'anic phrase "the sacred place of prayer" in diverse ways, one encounters even more debate over the destination of the night journey, the "furthest place of prayer". From the earliest extant Muslim texts, it becomes clear that a group of Muslims from the beginning interpreted "furthest place of prayer" with the city of Jerusalem in general and its Herodian/Solomonic Temple in particular. It is equally clear that other early Muslims disputed this connection, identifying the "furthest place of prayer" instead as a reference to a site in the heavens. Eventually a general consensus formed around the idea that Muhammad's journey did indeed take him to Jerusalem. Even if the night journey verse were thought to refer first and foremost to the terrestrial portion of Muhammad's journey, nevertheless for centuries scholars and storytellers also continued to connect this verse with the idea of an ascent through the levels of the heavens.
  168. ^ a b Grabar, Oleg (1959). "The Umayyad Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem". Ars Orientalis. 3: 33–62. ISSN 0571-1371. JSTOR 4629098. Bevan has shown that among early traditionists there are many who do not accept the identification of the masjid al-aqsd, and among them are to be found such great names as al-Bukhari and Tabarl. Both Ibn Ishaq an al-Ya'qubi precede their accounts with expressions which indicate that these are stories which are not necessarily accepted as dogma. It was suggested by J. Horovitz that in the early period of Islam there is little justification for assuming that the Koranic expression in any way referred to Jerusalem. But while Horovitz thought that it referred to a place in heaven, A. Guillaume's careful analysis of the earliest texts (al-Waqidi and al-Azraqi, both in the later second century A.H.) has convincingly shown that the Koranic reference to the masjid al-aqsa applies specifically to al-Ji'ranah, near Mekkah, where there were two sanctuaries (masjid al-adnai and masjid al-aqsa), and where Muhammad so-journed in dha al-qa'dah of the eighth year after the Hijrah.
  169. ^ Busse, H. (1968). The sanctity of Jerusalem in Islam. Judaism, 17(4), 441. "Tradition varies as to the location of the Ascension; Syrian local tradition was able to prevail, by maintaining that the Ascension started in Jerusalem rather than in Mecca, directly following the Night Journey".
  170. ^ Historic Cities of the Islamic World, edited by Clifford Edmund Bosworth, p. 226.
  171. ^ Silverman, Jonathan (6 May 2005). "The opposite of holiness". Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 12 September 2006. Retrieved 17 November 2006.
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