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Crisis financiera de 2007-2008

Una acumulación continua de activos tóxicos en forma de hipotecas de alto riesgo adquiridas por Lehman Brothers finalmente condujo a la quiebra de la empresa en septiembre de 2008. El colapso de Lehman Brothers se cita a menudo como la culminación de la crisis de las hipotecas de alto riesgo y el catalizador de la Gran Recesión en los Estados Unidos .
El diferencial TED , un indicador del riesgo crediticio percibido en la economía en general, aumentó significativamente durante la crisis financiera. El diferencial TED se disparó en julio de 2007, se mantuvo volátil durante un año y luego se disparó aún más en septiembre de 2008, alcanzando un récord de 4,65% el 10 de octubre de 2008.

La crisis financiera de 2007-2008 , o crisis financiera global ( GFC ), fue la crisis económica mundial más grave desde la Gran Depresión . Los préstamos abusivos en forma de hipotecas de alto riesgo dirigidas a compradores de viviendas de bajos ingresos, [1] la toma excesiva de riesgos por parte de las instituciones financieras globales , [2] una acumulación continua de activos tóxicos dentro de los bancos y el estallido de la burbuja inmobiliaria de los Estados Unidos culminaron en una " tormenta perfecta ", que condujo a la Gran Recesión .

Los títulos respaldados por hipotecas (MBS) vinculados a bienes raíces estadounidenses , así como una vasta red de derivados vinculados a esos MBS, se desplomaron . Las instituciones financieras de todo el mundo sufrieron graves daños, [3] que alcanzaron su clímax con la quiebra de Lehman Brothers el 15 de septiembre de 2008 y la posterior crisis bancaria internacional . [4]

Las condiciones previas para la crisis financiera fueron complejas y multifacéticas. [5] [6] [7] Casi dos décadas antes, el gobierno de los EE. UU. había aprobado una legislación que permitía una financiación más flexible para promover la vivienda asequible. [8] En 1999, se derogaron partes de la legislación Glass-Steagall , lo que permitía a las instituciones financieras mezclar operaciones de bajo riesgo, como la banca comercial y los seguros , con operaciones de mayor riesgo, como el comercio por cuenta propia y la banca de inversión . [9]

Se podría decir que el mayor factor que contribuyó a las condiciones necesarias para el colapso financiero fue el rápido desarrollo de productos financieros dirigidos a compradores de viviendas de bajos ingresos y escasa información, que en su mayoría pertenecían a minorías raciales . [10] Este desarrollo del mercado no fue atendido por los reguladores y, por lo tanto, tomó por sorpresa al gobierno de los EE. UU . [11]

Tras el inicio de la crisis, los gobiernos desplegaron rescates masivos de instituciones financieras y otras políticas monetarias y fiscales paliativas para evitar un colapso del sistema financiero global . [12] En los EE.UU., la Ley de Estabilización Económica de Emergencia de 2008 , de 800 mil millones de dólares, del 3 de octubre, no logró frenar la caída libre económica, pero la Ley de Recuperación y Reinversión Estadounidense de 2009 , de tamaño similar , que incluía un crédito sustancial al impuesto sobre la nómina , vio cómo los indicadores económicos se revertían y se estabilizaban menos de un mes después de su promulgación el 17 de febrero. [13] La crisis desencadenó la Gran Recesión , que resultó en aumentos del desempleo [14] y el suicidio, [15] y disminuciones de la confianza institucional [16] y la fertilidad, [17] entre otras métricas. La recesión fue una precondición significativa para la crisis de la deuda europea .

En 2010, en Estados Unidos se promulgó la Ley Dodd-Frank de Reforma de Wall Street y Protección del Consumidor como respuesta a la crisis para "promover la estabilidad financiera de Estados Unidos". [18] Los estándares de capital y liquidez de Basilea III también fueron adoptados por países de todo el mundo. [19] [20]

Fondo

Mapa mundial que muestra las tasas de crecimiento del PIB real en 2009 (los países en marrón estaban en recesión)
Participación del sector financiero de Estados Unidos en el PIB desde 1860 [21]

La crisis desencadenó la Gran Recesión , que, en ese momento, fue la recesión mundial más grave desde la Gran Depresión. [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] También fue seguida por la crisis de la deuda europea, que comenzó con un déficit en Grecia a fines de 2009, y la crisis financiera islandesa de 2008-2011 , que involucró la quiebra bancaria de los tres principales bancos de Islandia y, en relación con el tamaño de su economía, fue el mayor colapso económico sufrido por cualquier país en la historia. [27] Fue una de las cinco peores crisis financieras que el mundo había experimentado y condujo a una pérdida de más de $ 2 billones de la economía mundial. [28] [29] La deuda hipotecaria de vivienda de EE. UU. en relación con el PIB aumentó de un promedio de 46% durante la década de 1990 a 73% durante 2008, alcanzando $ 10,5 billones (~ $ 14,6 billones en 2023). [30] El aumento de las refinanciaciones con retiro de efectivo , a medida que subían los valores de las viviendas, impulsó un aumento del consumo que ya no podía sostenerse cuando los precios de las viviendas bajaron. [31] [32] [33] Muchas instituciones financieras poseían inversiones cuyo valor se basaba en hipotecas de viviendas, como títulos respaldados por hipotecas o derivados de crédito utilizados para asegurarlos contra quiebras, cuyo valor se redujo significativamente. [34] [35] [36] El Fondo Monetario Internacional estimó que los grandes bancos estadounidenses y europeos perdieron más de un billón de dólares en activos tóxicos y préstamos incobrables desde enero de 2007 hasta septiembre de 2009. [37]

La falta de confianza de los inversores en la solvencia bancaria y la disminución de la disponibilidad de crédito llevaron a una caída en picado de los precios de las acciones y las materias primas a finales de 2008 y principios de 2009. [38] La crisis se extendió rápidamente a un shock económico mundial, lo que resultó en varias quiebras bancarias . [39] Las economías de todo el mundo se desaceleraron durante este período debido a que el crédito se endureció y el comercio internacional disminuyó. [40] Los mercados de la vivienda sufrieron y el desempleo se disparó, lo que resultó en desalojos y ejecuciones hipotecarias . Varias empresas fracasaron. [41] [42] Desde su pico en el segundo trimestre de 2007 con 61,4 billones de dólares, la riqueza de los hogares en los Estados Unidos cayó 11 billones de dólares, a 50,4 billones de dólares a finales del primer trimestre de 2009, lo que resultó en una disminución del consumo, luego una disminución de la inversión empresarial. [43] [44] En el cuarto trimestre de 2008, la disminución trimestral del PIB real en los EE. UU. fue del 8,4%. [45] La tasa de desempleo en Estados Unidos alcanzó un máximo del 11,0% en octubre de 2009, la más alta desde 1983 y aproximadamente el doble de la tasa anterior a la crisis. Las horas promedio por semana laboral descendieron a 33, el nivel más bajo desde que el gobierno comenzó a recopilar los datos en 1964. [46] [47]

La crisis económica comenzó en los EE. UU. pero se extendió al resto del mundo. [41] El consumo estadounidense representó más de un tercio del crecimiento del consumo global entre 2000 y 2007 y el resto del mundo dependió del consumidor estadounidense como fuente de demanda. [ cita requerida ] [48] [49] Los valores tóxicos eran propiedad de inversores corporativos e institucionales a nivel mundial. Los derivados como los swaps de incumplimiento crediticio también aumentaron el vínculo entre las grandes instituciones financieras. El desapalancamiento de las instituciones financieras, ya que los activos se vendieron para pagar obligaciones que no podían refinanciarse en mercados crediticios congelados, aceleró aún más la crisis de solvencia y causó una disminución del comercio internacional. Las reducciones en las tasas de crecimiento de los países en desarrollo se debieron a caídas en el comercio, los precios de las materias primas, la inversión y las remesas enviadas por los trabajadores migrantes (ejemplo: Armenia [50] ). Los estados con sistemas políticos frágiles temían que los inversores de los estados occidentales retiraran su dinero debido a la crisis. [51]

Como parte de la respuesta de la política fiscal nacional a la Gran Recesión , los gobiernos y los bancos centrales, incluida la Reserva Federal , el Banco Central Europeo y el Banco de Inglaterra , proporcionaron billones de dólares en rescates y estímulos sin precedentes en ese momento, incluida una política fiscal y monetaria expansiva para compensar la disminución del consumo y la capacidad de préstamo, evitar un mayor colapso, alentar los préstamos, restaurar la confianza en los mercados integrales de papel comercial , evitar el riesgo de una espiral deflacionaria y proporcionar a los bancos fondos suficientes para permitir que los clientes realicen retiros. [52] En efecto, los bancos centrales pasaron de ser el " prestamista de última instancia " al "prestamista de única instancia" para una parte significativa de la economía. En algunos casos, la Fed fue considerada el "comprador de última instancia". [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] Durante el cuarto trimestre de 2008, estos bancos centrales compraron US$2,5 billones (~$3,47 billones en 2023) de deuda gubernamental y activos privados en problemas de los bancos. Esta fue la mayor inyección de liquidez en el mercado crediticio y la mayor medida de política monetaria en la historia mundial. Siguiendo un modelo iniciado por el paquete de rescate bancario del Reino Unido de 2008 , [58] [59] los gobiernos de las naciones europeas y los Estados Unidos garantizaron la deuda emitida por sus bancos y aumentaron el capital de sus sistemas bancarios nacionales, comprando finalmente 1,5 billones de dólares en acciones preferentes recién emitidas en los principales bancos. [44] La Reserva Federal creó entonces cantidades significativas de nueva moneda como método para combatir la trampa de liquidez . [60]

Los rescates se dieron en forma de billones de dólares en préstamos, compras de activos, garantías y gastos directos. [61] Los rescates estuvieron acompañados de una gran controversia, como en el caso de la controversia sobre los pagos de bonificaciones de AIG , lo que llevó al desarrollo de una variedad de "marcos de toma de decisiones" para ayudar a equilibrar los intereses políticos en competencia durante tiempos de crisis financiera. [62] Alistair Darling , el Ministro de Hacienda del Reino Unido en el momento de la crisis, declaró en 2018 que Gran Bretaña estuvo a horas de "un colapso de la ley y el orden" el día en que se rescató al Royal Bank of Scotland . [63] En lugar de financiar más préstamos internos, algunos bancos gastaron parte del dinero del estímulo en áreas más rentables, como invertir en mercados emergentes y monedas extranjeras. [64]

En julio de 2010, se promulgó en Estados Unidos la Ley Dodd-Frank de Reforma de Wall Street y Protección del Consumidor para "promover la estabilidad financiera de Estados Unidos". [65] Las normas de capital y liquidez de Basilea III se adoptaron en todo el mundo. [66] Desde la crisis financiera de 2008, los reguladores de consumo en Estados Unidos han supervisado más de cerca a los vendedores de tarjetas de crédito e hipotecas para viviendas con el fin de disuadir las prácticas anticompetitivas que llevaron a la crisis. [67]

El Congreso de Estados Unidos elaboró ​​al menos dos informes importantes sobre las causas de la crisis: el informe de la Comisión de Investigación de la Crisis Financiera , publicado en enero de 2011, y un informe del Subcomité Permanente de Investigaciones de Seguridad Nacional del Senado de Estados Unidos titulado Wall Street y la crisis financiera: anatomía de un colapso financiero , publicado en abril de 2011.

En total, 47 banqueros cumplieron condena como resultado de la crisis, más de la mitad de los cuales eran de Islandia , donde la crisis fue la más severa y condujo al colapso de los tres principales bancos islandeses. [68] En abril de 2012, Geir Haarde de Islandia se convirtió en el único político en ser condenado como resultado de la crisis. [69] [70] Solo un banquero en los Estados Unidos cumplió condena como resultado de la crisis, Kareem Serageldin , un banquero de Credit Suisse que fue sentenciado a 30 meses de cárcel y devolvió $ 24,6 millones en compensación por manipular los precios de los bonos para ocultar $ 1 mil millones de pérdidas. [71] [68] Ningún individuo en el Reino Unido fue condenado como resultado de la crisis. [72] [73] Goldman Sachs pagó $ 550 millones para resolver los cargos de fraude después de supuestamente anticipar la crisis y vender inversiones tóxicas a sus clientes. [74]

Al haber menos recursos para arriesgar en la destrucción creativa, el número de solicitudes de patentes se mantuvo estable, en comparación con los aumentos exponenciales de las solicitudes de patentes en años anteriores. [75]

Porcentaje de ingresos que va al 1% más rico de los que más ganan, una medida de la desigualdad económica en Estados Unidos entre 1913 y 2008.

Las familias típicas estadounidenses no tuvieron buena suerte, ni tampoco las familias "ricas pero no más ricas" que se encuentran justo debajo de la cima de la pirámide. [76] [77] [78] Sin embargo, la mitad de las familias más pobres de los Estados Unidos no sufrieron ninguna disminución de su riqueza durante la crisis porque, en general, no poseían inversiones financieras cuyo valor puede fluctuar. La Reserva Federal encuestó a 4.000 hogares entre 2007 y 2009 y descubrió que la riqueza total del 63% de todos los estadounidenses disminuyó en ese período y que el 77% de las familias más ricas tuvieron una disminución de su riqueza total, mientras que sólo el 50% de las que se encuentran en la base de la pirámide sufrieron una disminución. [79] [80] [81]

Cronología

A continuación se presenta una cronología de los principales acontecimientos de la crisis financiera, incluidas las respuestas gubernamentales y la recuperación económica posterior. [82] [83] [84] [85]

Antes de 2007

Costo de la vivienda por Estado del año 2000 al 2022

2007 (enero-agosto)

2007 (septiembre-diciembre)

Personas haciendo cola fuera de una sucursal de Northern Rock en el Reino Unido para retirar sus ahorros durante la crisis financiera

2008 (enero-agosto)

2008 (septiembre)

2008 (octubre)

Durante la crisis financiera mundial de 2008, el índice SENSEX de la Bolsa de Valores de Boston (BSE) sufrió una fuerte caída: pasó de más de 21.000 puntos en enero de 2008 a menos de 8.000 puntos en octubre de 2008. [159]

2008 (noviembre-diciembre)

Restaurante en Bristol , Reino Unido , que anuncia un almuerzo barato para personas con crisis crediticia

2009

La Ley de Recuperación y Reinversión Estadounidense de 2009 proporcionó un crédito fiscal sobre la nómina que fue derogado a fines de 2010.

2010

Después de 2010

En la tabla, los nombres de las economías emergentes y en desarrollo se muestran en negrita, mientras que los nombres de las economías desarrolladas aparecen en tipo romano (regular).

La acción de la Reserva Federal ante la crisis

Proyecto de ley de reforma de la financiación de la vivienda

La expansión de los préstamos del banco central en respuesta a la crisis no se limitó sólo a la prestación de ayuda por parte de la Reserva Federal a las instituciones financieras individuales. La Reserva Federal también ha llevado a cabo una serie de programas de préstamos innovadores con el objetivo de mejorar la liquidez y fortalecer diferentes instituciones y mercados financieros, como Freddie Mac y Fannie Mae . En este caso, el principal problema en el mercado es la falta de reservas de efectivo libres y flujos para garantizar los préstamos. La Reserva Federal tomó una serie de medidas para hacer frente a las preocupaciones sobre la liquidez en los mercados financieros. Una de estas medidas fue una línea de crédito para los principales operadores, que actúan como socios de la Reserva Federal en las actividades de mercado abierto. [229] Además, se establecieron programas de préstamos para flexibilizar los fondos mutuos del mercado monetario y el mercado de papel comercial. Además, se puso en marcha el Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility (TALF) gracias a un esfuerzo conjunto con el Departamento del Tesoro de los EE. UU. Este plan tenía por objeto facilitar a los consumidores y las empresas la obtención de crédito al dar más crédito a los estadounidenses que poseían valores respaldados por activos de alta calidad.

Antes de la crisis, las existencias de títulos del Tesoro de la Reserva Federal se vendieron para pagar el aumento del crédito. Este método tenía por objeto evitar que los bancos trataran de entregar sus ahorros adicionales, lo que podría hacer que la tasa de los fondos federales cayera por debajo del nivel en que se suponía que debía estar. [230] Sin embargo, en octubre de 2008, se le otorgó a la Reserva Federal la facultad de proporcionar a los bancos pagos de intereses sobre sus reservas excedentes. Esto creó una motivación para que los bancos mantuvieran sus reservas en lugar de desembolsarlas, reduciendo así la necesidad de que la Reserva Federal cubriera su mayor concesión de préstamos con reducciones en los activos alternativos. [231]

Los fondos del mercado monetario también sufrieron corridas cuando la gente perdió la fe en el mercado. Para evitar que la situación fuera a peor, la Reserva Federal dijo que daría dinero a las compañías de fondos mutuos. Además, el Departamento del Tesoro dijo que cubriría brevemente los activos del fondo. Ambas cosas ayudaron a que el mercado de fondos volviera a la normalidad, lo que ayudó al mercado de papel comercial, que la mayoría de las empresas utilizan para funcionar. La FDIC también hizo una serie de cosas, como aumentar el límite del seguro de $100,000 a $250,000, para impulsar la confianza de los clientes.

Sistema de la Reserva Federal

Se pusieron en marcha medidas de flexibilización cuantitativa , que sumaron más de 4 billones de dólares al sistema financiero y consiguieron que los bancos volvieran a prestarse dinero, tanto entre ellos como a la gente. Muchos propietarios de viviendas que estaban tratando de evitar que sus casas cayeran en mora consiguieron créditos para la vivienda. Se aprobó un paquete de políticas que permitían a los prestatarios refinanciar sus préstamos aunque el valor de sus viviendas fuera inferior a lo que aún debían por sus hipotecas . [232]

Causas

La Reserva Federal aumentó la tasa de fondos federales, lo que provocó una curva de rendimiento invertida para desacelerar la inflación y reducir los precios de las materias primas , lo que generalmente lleva a la economía a una recesión .
   Bono del Tesoro a 10 años
   Bono del Tesoro a 2 años
   Bono del Tesoro a 3 meses
   Tasa de fondos federales efectiva
   Inflación del IPC año/año
  Recesiones

Si bien las causas de la burbuja y la crisis posterior son objeto de debate, el factor desencadenante de la crisis financiera de 2007-2008 fue el estallido de la burbuja inmobiliaria de los Estados Unidos y la posterior crisis de las hipotecas de alto riesgo , que se produjo debido a una alta tasa de impago y las consiguientes ejecuciones hipotecarias , en particular las hipotecas de tipo variable . Algunos o todos los siguientes factores contribuyeron a la crisis: [233] [88] [89]

Préstamos de alto riesgo

Los préstamos de alto riesgo en Estados Unidos se expandieron drásticamente entre 2004 y 2006

La flexibilización de las normas de concesión de créditos por parte de los bancos de inversión y los bancos comerciales permitió un aumento significativo de los préstamos de alto riesgo . Los préstamos de alto riesgo no se habían vuelto menos riesgosos; Wall Street simplemente aceptó este mayor riesgo. [272]

Debido a la competencia entre los prestamistas hipotecarios por los ingresos y la cuota de mercado, y cuando la oferta de prestatarios solventes era limitada, los prestamistas hipotecarios relajaron las normas de suscripción y originaron hipotecas más riesgosas para prestatarios menos solventes. En opinión de algunos analistas, las relativamente conservadoras empresas patrocinadas por el gobierno (GSE) vigilaban a los originadores de hipotecas y mantenían normas de suscripción relativamente altas antes de 2003. Sin embargo, a medida que el poder de mercado pasó de los titulizadores a los originadores, y a medida que la intensa competencia de los titulizadores privados socavó el poder de las GSE, las normas hipotecarias disminuyeron y proliferaron los préstamos riesgosos. Los préstamos más riesgosos se originaron en 2004-2007, los años de la competencia más intensa entre los titulizadores y la cuota de mercado más baja para las GSE. Las GSE finalmente relajaron sus normas para tratar de alcanzar a los bancos privados. [273] [274]

Una opinión contraria es que Fannie Mae y Freddie Mac lideraron el camino hacia estándares de suscripción relajados, a partir de 1995, al promover el uso de sistemas automatizados de suscripción y evaluación fáciles de calificar, al diseñar productos sin pago inicial emitidos por prestamistas, al promover miles de pequeños corredores hipotecarios y por su estrecha relación con agregadores de préstamos de alto riesgo como Countrywide . [275] [276]

Dependiendo de cómo se definan las hipotecas "de alto riesgo", se mantuvieron por debajo del 10% de todas las hipotecas originadas hasta 2004, cuando aumentaron a casi el 20% y se mantuvieron allí hasta el pico de 2005-2006 de la burbuja inmobiliaria de los Estados Unidos . [277]

El papel de los programas de vivienda asequible

El informe mayoritario de la Comisión de Investigación de la Crisis Financiera , escrito por los seis designados demócratas, el informe minoritario, escrito por tres de los cuatro designados republicanos, los estudios de los economistas de la Reserva Federal y el trabajo de varios académicos independientes, en general, sostienen que la política gubernamental de vivienda asequible no fue la causa principal de la crisis financiera. Aunque admiten que las políticas gubernamentales tuvieron algún papel en causar la crisis, sostienen que los préstamos de las GSE tuvieron un mejor desempeño que los préstamos titulizados por bancos de inversión privados y que algunos préstamos originados por instituciones que tenían préstamos en sus propias carteras.

En su opinión discrepante con el informe mayoritario de la Comisión de Investigación de la Crisis Financiera, el miembro conservador del American Enterprise Institute Peter J. Wallison [278] manifestó que cree que las raíces de la crisis financiera se pueden rastrear directa y principalmente a las políticas de vivienda asequible iniciadas por el Departamento de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano de los Estados Unidos (HUD) en los años 1990 y a las compras masivas de préstamos riesgosos por parte de las entidades patrocinadas por el gobierno Fannie Mae y Freddie Mac. Basándose en la información contenida en el caso de fraude de valores de la SEC de diciembre de 2011 contra seis ex ejecutivos de Fannie y Freddie, Peter Wallison y Edward Pinto estimaron que, en 2008, Fannie y Freddie tenían 13 millones de préstamos de baja calidad por un total de más de 2 billones de dólares. [279]

A principios y mediados de la década de 2000, la administración Bush pidió en numerosas ocasiones que se investigaran las cuestiones de seguridad y solidez de las GSE y su creciente cartera de hipotecas de alto riesgo. El 10 de septiembre de 2003, el Comité de Servicios Financieros de la Cámara de Representantes de los Estados Unidos celebró una audiencia, a instancias de la administración, para evaluar las cuestiones de seguridad y solidez y revisar un informe reciente de la Oficina de Supervisión de Empresas de Vivienda Federal (OFHEO) que había descubierto discrepancias contables dentro de las dos entidades. [280] [281] Las audiencias nunca dieron lugar a una nueva legislación o una investigación formal de Fannie Mae y Freddie Mac, ya que muchos de los miembros del comité se negaron a aceptar el informe y, en cambio, reprendieron a la OFHEO por su intento de regulación. [282] Algunos, como Wallison, creen que esto fue una advertencia temprana sobre el riesgo sistémico que el creciente mercado de hipotecas de alto riesgo planteaba al sistema financiero estadounidense, que no fue atendido. [283]

Un estudio del Departamento del Tesoro de los Estados Unidos sobre las tendencias crediticias en 305 ciudades entre 1993 y 1998, realizado en 2000, mostró que 467.000 millones de dólares en préstamos hipotecarios fueron otorgados por prestamistas cubiertos por la Ley de Reinversión en la Comunidad (CRA) a prestatarios y vecindarios de ingresos bajos y medios (LMI), lo que representa el 10% de todos los préstamos hipotecarios de los Estados Unidos durante el período. La mayoría de estos préstamos eran de primera clase. Los préstamos de alto riesgo otorgados por instituciones cubiertas por la CRA constituyeron una participación de mercado del 3% de los préstamos de bajo nivel en 1998, [284] pero en el período previo a la crisis, el 25% de todos los préstamos de alto riesgo se produjeron en instituciones cubiertas por la CRA y otro 25% de los préstamos de alto riesgo tenían alguna conexión con la CRA. [285] Sin embargo, la mayoría de los préstamos de alto riesgo no se hicieron a los prestatarios de LMI a los que apuntaba la CRA, [ cita requerida ] [286] [287] especialmente en los años 2005-2006 que llevaron a la crisis, [ cita requerida ] [288] [287] [289] tampoco encontró ninguna evidencia de que los préstamos bajo las reglas de la CRA aumentaran las tasas de morosidad o que la CRA influyera indirectamente en los prestamistas hipotecarios independientes para que aumentaran los préstamos de alto riesgo. [290] [ verificación necesaria ]

Para otros analistas, el retraso entre los cambios de las normas de la CRA en 1995 y la explosión de los préstamos de alto riesgo no es sorprendente y no exculpa a la CRA. Sostienen que hubo dos causas relacionadas con la crisis: la relajación de las normas de suscripción en 1995 y las tasas de interés ultrabajas iniciadas por la Reserva Federal después del ataque terrorista del 11 de septiembre de 2001. Ambas causas tenían que estar presentes antes de que pudiera producirse la crisis. [291] Los críticos también señalan que los compromisos de préstamos de la CRA anunciados públicamente fueron enormes, totalizando 4,5 billones de dólares en los años entre 1994 y 2007. [292] También argumentan que la clasificación de la Reserva Federal de los préstamos de la CRA como "de primera" se basa en la suposición errónea y egoísta de que los préstamos con tasas de interés altas (3 puntos porcentuales por encima del promedio) son iguales a los préstamos "de alto riesgo". [293]

Otros han señalado que no se concedieron suficientes préstamos de este tipo para provocar una crisis de esta magnitud. En un artículo de la revista Portfolio , Michael Lewis habló con un operador que señaló que "no había suficientes estadounidenses con [mal] crédito que solicitaran [préstamos malos] para satisfacer el apetito de los inversores por el producto final". En esencia, los bancos de inversión y los fondos de cobertura utilizaron la innovación financiera para permitir que se hicieran grandes apuestas, mucho más allá del valor real de los préstamos hipotecarios subyacentes, utilizando derivados llamados swaps de incumplimiento crediticio, obligaciones de deuda colateralizadas y CDO sintéticos .

En marzo de 2011, la FDIC había pagado 9.000 millones de dólares (unos 12.000 millones de dólares en 2023 [294] ) para cubrir las pérdidas por préstamos incobrables en 165 instituciones financieras en quiebra. [295] [296] La Oficina de Presupuesto del Congreso estimó, en junio de 2011, que el rescate a Fannie Mae y Freddie Mac supera los 300.000 millones de dólares (unos 401.000 millones de dólares en 2023 [294] ) (calculado añadiendo los déficits de valor razonable de las entidades a los fondos de rescate directo en ese momento). [297]

En enero de 2010, el economista Paul Krugman sostuvo que el crecimiento simultáneo de las burbujas de precios de los bienes raíces residenciales y comerciales y la naturaleza global de la crisis socavan los argumentos de quienes sostienen que Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, CRA o los préstamos predatorios fueron las causas principales de la crisis. En otras palabras, se desarrollaron burbujas en ambos mercados a pesar de que sólo el mercado residencial se vio afectado por esas posibles causas. [298]

En contra de Krugman, Wallison escribió: "No es cierto que cada burbuja, incluso una gran burbuja, tenga el potencial de causar una crisis financiera cuando se desinfla". Wallison señala que otros países desarrollados tuvieron "grandes burbujas durante el período 1997-2007", pero "las pérdidas asociadas con las moras e impagos hipotecarios cuando estas burbujas se desinflaron fueron mucho menores que las pérdidas sufridas en Estados Unidos cuando se desinfló la [burbuja] de 1997-2007". Según Wallison, la razón por la que la burbuja inmobiliaria estadounidense (a diferencia de otros tipos de burbujas) llevó a la crisis financiera fue que estuvo respaldada por una enorme cantidad de préstamos de baja calidad, generalmente con pagos iniciales bajos o nulos. [299]

La afirmación de Krugman (que el crecimiento de una burbuja inmobiliaria comercial indica que la política de vivienda de los EE.UU. no fue la causa de la crisis) es cuestionada por un análisis adicional. Después de investigar el impago de los préstamos comerciales durante la crisis financiera, Xudong An y Anthony B. Sanders informaron (en diciembre de 2010): "Encontramos evidencia limitada de que el deterioro sustancial en la suscripción de préstamos CMBS [títulos respaldados por hipotecas comerciales] ocurrió antes de la crisis". [300] Otros analistas apoyan la afirmación de que la crisis en el sector inmobiliario comercial y los préstamos relacionados tuvo lugar después de la crisis en el sector inmobiliario residencial. La periodista de negocios Kimberly Amadeo informó: "Los primeros signos de declive en el sector inmobiliario residencial se produjeron en 2006. Tres años más tarde, el sector inmobiliario comercial comenzó a sentir los efectos". [ Verificación necesaria ] [301] Denice A. Gierach, abogada inmobiliaria y contadora pública, escribió:

... la mayoría de los préstamos inmobiliarios comerciales eran buenos préstamos destruidos por una economía realmente mala. En otras palabras, los prestatarios no causaron que los préstamos salieran mal, sino la economía. [302]

Crecimiento de la burbuja inmobiliaria

Un gráfico que muestra los precios de venta medianos y promedio de las casas nuevas vendidas en los Estados Unidos entre 1963 y 2016 (sin ajustar por inflación) [88]

Entre 1998 y 2006, el precio de la vivienda típica estadounidense aumentó un 124%. [303] Durante los años 1980 y 1990, el precio medio nacional de la vivienda osciló entre 2,9 y 3,1 veces el ingreso familiar medio. En cambio, esta relación aumentó a 4,0 en 2004 y a 4,6 en 2006. [304] Esta burbuja inmobiliaria hizo que muchos propietarios refinanciaran sus viviendas a tipos de interés más bajos o financiaran el gasto de consumo contratando segundas hipotecas garantizadas por la apreciación de los precios.

En un programa ganador del premio Peabody , los corresponsales de la NPR argumentaron que una "gigante masa de dinero" (representada por 70 billones de dólares en inversiones de renta fija en todo el mundo) buscaba rendimientos más altos que los ofrecidos por los bonos del Tesoro de Estados Unidos a principios de la década. Esta masa de dinero había duplicado su tamaño entre 2000 y 2007, pero la oferta de inversiones relativamente seguras y generadoras de ingresos no había crecido tan rápido. Los bancos de inversión de Wall Street respondieron a esta demanda con productos como los títulos respaldados por hipotecas y las obligaciones de deuda colateralizadas , a los que las agencias de calificación crediticia les asignaron calificaciones seguras . [3]

En efecto, Wall Street conectó este fondo de dinero al mercado hipotecario de Estados Unidos, con enormes comisiones que se acumulaban a lo largo de la cadena de suministro de hipotecas , desde el corredor hipotecario que vendía los préstamos hasta los pequeños bancos que financiaban a los corredores y los grandes bancos de inversión que estaban detrás de ellos. Hacia 2003, la oferta de hipotecas originadas en los estándares de préstamo tradicionales se había agotado, y la fuerte demanda continua comenzó a hacer bajar los estándares de préstamo. [3]

En particular, la obligación de deuda colateralizada permitió a las instituciones financieras obtener fondos de inversores para financiar préstamos de alto riesgo y de otro tipo, lo que prolongó o aumentó la burbuja inmobiliaria y generó grandes comisiones. Esto, en esencia, coloca los pagos en efectivo de múltiples hipotecas u otras obligaciones de deuda en un solo fondo del que se extraen valores específicos en una secuencia específica de prioridad. Los primeros en la fila recibieron calificaciones de grado de inversión de las agencias de calificación. Los valores con menor prioridad tenían calificaciones crediticias más bajas, pero teóricamente una tasa de retorno más alta sobre la cantidad invertida. [305]

En septiembre de 2008, los precios promedio de las viviendas en Estados Unidos habían disminuido más de un 20% desde su pico de mediados de 2006. [306] [307] A medida que los precios bajaban, los prestatarios con hipotecas de tasa ajustable no podían refinanciarlas para evitar los pagos más altos asociados con las tasas de interés en aumento y comenzaron a incurrir en impagos. Durante 2007, los prestamistas iniciaron procedimientos de ejecución hipotecaria sobre casi 1,3 millones de propiedades, un aumento del 79% con respecto a 2006. [308] Esta cifra aumentó a 2,3 millones en 2008, un aumento del 81% con respecto a 2007. [309] En agosto de 2008, aproximadamente el 9% de todas las hipotecas pendientes en Estados Unidos estaban en mora o en ejecución hipotecaria. [310] En septiembre de 2009, esta cifra había aumentado al 14,4%. [311] [312]

Después de que estallara la burbuja, el economista australiano John Quiggin escribió: "Y, a diferencia de la Gran Depresión, esta crisis fue enteramente producto de los mercados financieros. No hubo nada parecido a la agitación de posguerra de los años 1920, las luchas por la convertibilidad del oro y las reparaciones, o el arancel Smoot-Hawley , todos los cuales han compartido la culpa por la Gran Depresión". En cambio, Quiggin atribuye la culpa por el colapso casi total de 2008 a los mercados financieros, a las decisiones políticas de regularlos a la ligera y a las agencias de calificación que tenían incentivos egoístas para otorgar buenas calificaciones. [313]

Condiciones de crédito fáciles

Los tipos de interés más bajos estimularon el endeudamiento. Entre 2000 y 2003, la Reserva Federal redujo el tipo de interés de los fondos federales del 6,5% al ​​1,0%. [314] [315] Esto se hizo para suavizar los efectos del colapso de la burbuja puntocom y los ataques del 11 de septiembre , así como para combatir un riesgo percibido de deflación . [316] Ya en 2002, era evidente que el crédito estaba impulsando la vivienda en lugar de la inversión empresarial, ya que algunos economistas llegaron al extremo de defender que la Reserva Federal "necesita crear una burbuja inmobiliaria que reemplace a la burbuja del Nasdaq". [317] Además, estudios empíricos que utilizan datos de países avanzados muestran que el crecimiento excesivo del crédito contribuyó en gran medida a la gravedad de la crisis. [318 ]

Déficit de cuenta corriente de Estados Unidos

Una presión adicional a la baja sobre las tasas de interés fue creada por el creciente déficit de cuenta corriente de Estados Unidos, que alcanzó su punto máximo junto con la burbuja inmobiliaria en 2006. El presidente de la Reserva Federal, Ben Bernanke, explicó cómo los déficits comerciales requerían que Estados Unidos tomara dinero prestado del exterior, lo que en el proceso hizo subir los precios de los bonos y redujo las tasas de interés. [319]

Bernanke explicó que entre 1996 y 2004, el déficit de cuenta corriente de Estados Unidos aumentó en 650.000 millones de dólares, pasando del 1,5% al ​​5,8% del PIB. Para financiar estos déficits, el país tuvo que pedir prestado grandes sumas de dinero al exterior, gran parte de ellas a países con superávits comerciales, principalmente las economías emergentes de Asia y los países exportadores de petróleo. La identidad de la balanza de pagos exige que un país (como Estados Unidos) que tenga un déficit de cuenta corriente tenga también un superávit de cuenta de capital (inversión) de la misma cuantía. Por consiguiente, grandes y crecientes cantidades de fondos extranjeros (capital) fluyeron hacia Estados Unidos para financiar sus importaciones.

Todo esto creó una demanda de diversos tipos de activos financieros, lo que elevó los precios de esos activos y redujo las tasas de interés. Los inversores extranjeros tenían esos fondos para prestar porque tenían tasas de ahorro personales muy altas (hasta el 40% en China) o porque los precios del petróleo eran altos. Ben Bernanke se refirió a esto como un " exceso de ahorro ". [320]

A flood of funds (capital or liquidity) reached the U.S. financial markets. Foreign governments supplied funds by purchasing Treasury bonds and thus avoided much of the direct effect of the crisis. U.S. households, used funds borrowed from foreigners to finance consumption or to bid up the prices of housing and financial assets. Financial institutions invested foreign funds in mortgage-backed securities.[citation needed]

The Fed then raised the Fed funds rate significantly between July 2004 and July 2006.[321] This contributed to an increase in one-year and five-year adjustable-rate mortgage (ARM) rates, making ARM interest rate resets more expensive for homeowners.[322] This may have also contributed to the deflating of the housing bubble, as asset prices generally move inversely to interest rates, and it became riskier to speculate in housing.[323][324] U.S. housing and financial assets dramatically declined in value after the housing bubble burst.[325][44]

Weak and fraudulent underwriting practices

Subprime lending standards declined in the U.S.: in early 2000, a subprime borrower had a FICO score of 660 or less. By 2005, many lenders dropped the required FICO score to 620, making it much easier to qualify for prime loans and making subprime lending a riskier business. Proof of income and assets were de-emphasized. Loans at first required full documentation, then low documentation, then no documentation. One subprime mortgage product that gained wide acceptance was the no income, no job, no asset verification required (NINJA) mortgage. Informally, these loans were aptly referred to as "liar loans" because they encouraged borrowers to be less than honest in the loan application process.[326] Testimony given to the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission by whistleblower Richard M. Bowen III, on events during his tenure as the Business Chief Underwriter for Correspondent Lending in the Consumer Lending Group for Citigroup, where he was responsible for over 220 professional underwriters, suggests that by 2006 and 2007, the collapse of mortgage underwriting standards was endemic. His testimony stated that by 2006, 60% of mortgages purchased by Citigroup from some 1,600 mortgage companies were "defective" (were not underwritten to policy, or did not contain all policy-required documents)—this, despite the fact that each of these 1,600 originators was contractually responsible (certified via representations and warrantees) that its mortgage originations met Citigroup standards. Moreover, during 2007, "defective mortgages (from mortgage originators contractually bound to perform underwriting to Citi's standards) increased ... to over 80% of production".[327]

In separate testimony to the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission, officers of Clayton Holdings, the largest residential loan due diligence and securitization surveillance company in the United States and Europe, testified that Clayton's review of over 900,000 mortgages issued from January 2006 to June 2007 revealed that scarcely 54% of the loans met their originators' underwriting standards. The analysis (conducted on behalf of 23 investment and commercial banks, including 7 "too big to fail" banks) additionally showed that 28% of the sampled loans did not meet the minimal standards of any issuer. Clayton's analysis further showed that 39% of these loans (i.e. those not meeting any issuer's minimal underwriting standards) were subsequently securitized and sold to investors.[328][329]

Predatory lending

Predatory lending refers to the practice of unscrupulous lenders, enticing borrowers to enter into "unsafe" or "unsound" secured loans for inappropriate purposes.[330][331][332]

In June 2008, Countrywide Financial was sued by then California Attorney General Jerry Brown for "unfair business practices" and "false advertising", alleging that Countrywide used "deceptive tactics to push homeowners into complicated, risky, and expensive loans so that the company could sell as many loans as possible to third-party investors".[333] In May 2009, Bank of America modified 64,000 Countrywide loans as a result.[334] When housing prices decreased, homeowners in ARMs then had little incentive to pay their monthly payments, since their home equity had disappeared. This caused Countrywide's financial condition to deteriorate, ultimately resulting in a decision by the Office of Thrift Supervision to seize the lender. One Countrywide employee—who would later plead guilty to two counts of wire fraud and spent 18 months in prison—stated that, "If you had a pulse, we gave you a loan."[335]

Former employees from Ameriquest, which was United States' leading wholesale lender, described a system in which they were pushed to falsify mortgage documents and then sell the mortgages to Wall Street banks eager to make fast profits. There is growing evidence that such mortgage frauds may be a cause of the crisis.[336]

Deregulation and lack of regulation

According to Barry Eichengreen, the roots of the financial crisis lay in the deregulation of financial markets.[337] A 2012 OECD study[338] suggest that bank regulation based on the Basel accords encourage unconventional business practices and contributed to or even reinforced the financial crisis. In other cases, laws were changed or enforcement weakened in parts of the financial system. Key examples include:

A 2011 paper suggested that Canada's avoidance of a banking crisis in 2008 (as well as in prior eras) could be attributed to Canada possessing a single, powerful, overarching regulator, while the United States had a weak, crisis prone and fragmented banking system with multiple competing regulatory bodies.[356]

Increased debt burden or overleveraging

Leverage ratios of investment banks increased significantly between 2003 and 2007
Household debt relative to disposable income and GDP

Prior to the crisis, financial institutions became highly leveraged, increasing their appetite for risky investments and reducing their resilience in case of losses. Much of this leverage was achieved using complex financial instruments such as off-balance sheet securitization and derivatives, which made it difficult for creditors and regulators to monitor and try to reduce financial institution risk levels.[357][verification needed]

U.S. households and financial institutions became increasingly indebted or overleveraged during the years preceding the crisis.[358] This increased their vulnerability to the collapse of the housing bubble and worsened the ensuing economic downturn.[359] Key statistics include:

Free cash used by consumers from home equity extraction doubled from $627 billion in 2001 to $1,428 billion in 2005 as the housing bubble built, a total of nearly $5 trillion over the period, contributing to economic growth worldwide.[31][32][33] U.S. home mortgage debt relative to GDP increased from an average of 46% during the 1990s to 73% during 2008, reaching $10.5 trillion (c. $14.6 trillion in 2023[294]).[30]

U.S. household debt as a percentage of annual disposable personal income was 127% at the end of 2007, versus 77% in 1990.[358] In 1981, U.S. private debt was 123% of GDP; by the third quarter of 2008, it was 290%.[360]

From 2004 to 2007, the top five U.S. investment banks each significantly increased their financial leverage, which increased their vulnerability to a financial shock. Changes in capital requirements, intended to keep U.S. banks competitive with their European counterparts, allowed lower risk weightings for AAA-rated securities. The shift from first-loss tranches to AAA-rated tranches was seen by regulators as a risk reduction that compensated the higher leverage.[361] These five institutions reported over $4.1 trillion in debt for fiscal year 2007, about 30% of U.S. nominal GDP for 2007. Lehman Brothers went bankrupt and was liquidated, Bear Stearns and Merrill Lynch were sold at fire-sale prices, and Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley became commercial banks, subjecting themselves to more stringent regulation. With the exception of Lehman, these companies required or received government support.[362]

Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, two U.S. government-sponsored enterprises, owned or guaranteed nearly $5 trillion (c. $6.95 trillion in 2023[294]) trillion in mortgage obligations at the time they were placed into conservatorship by the U.S. government in September 2008.[363][364]

These seven entities were highly leveraged and had $9 trillion in debt or guarantee obligations; yet they were not subject to the same regulation as depository banks.[347][365]

Behavior that may be optimal for an individual, such as saving more during adverse economic conditions, can be detrimental if too many individuals pursue the same behavior, as ultimately one person's consumption is another person's income. Too many consumers attempting to save or pay down debt simultaneously is called the paradox of thrift and can cause or deepen a recession. Economist Hyman Minsky also described a "paradox of deleveraging" as financial institutions that have too much leverage (debt relative to equity) cannot all de-leverage simultaneously without significant declines in the value of their assets.[359]

In April 2009, Federal Reserve vice-chair Janet Yellen discussed these paradoxes:

Once this massive credit crunch hit, it didn't take long before we were in a recession. The recession, in turn, deepened the credit crunch as demand and employment fell, and credit losses of financial institutions surged. Indeed, we have been in the grips of precisely this adverse feedback loop for more than a year. A process of balance sheet deleveraging has spread to nearly every corner of the economy. Consumers are pulling back on purchases, especially on durable goods, to build their savings. Businesses are cancelling planned investments and laying off workers to preserve cash. And financial institutions are shrinking assets to bolster capital and improve their chances of weathering the current storm. Once again, Minsky understood this dynamic. He spoke of the paradox of deleveraging, in which precautions that may be smart for individuals and firms—and indeed essential to return the economy to a normal state—nevertheless magnify the distress of the economy as a whole.[359]

Financial innovation and complexity

IMF Diagram of CDO and RMBS

The term financial innovation refers to the ongoing development of financial products designed to achieve particular client objectives, such as offsetting a particular risk exposure (such as the default of a borrower) or to assist with obtaining financing. Examples pertinent to this crisis included: the adjustable-rate mortgage; the bundling of subprime mortgages into mortgage-backed securities (MBS) or collateralized debt obligations (CDO) for sale to investors, a type of securitization; and a form of credit insurance called credit default swaps (CDS). The usage of these products expanded dramatically in the years leading up to the crisis. These products vary in complexity and the ease with which they can be valued on the books of financial institutions.[citation needed]

CDO issuance grew from an estimated $20 billion in Q1 2004 to its peak of over $180 billion by Q1 2007, then declined back under $20 billion by Q1 2008. Further, the credit quality of CDO's declined from 2000 to 2007, as the level of subprime and other non-prime mortgage debt increased from 5% to 36% of CDO assets. As described in the section on subprime lending, the CDS and portfolio of CDS called synthetic CDO enabled a theoretically infinite amount to be wagered on the finite value of housing loans outstanding, provided that buyers and sellers of the derivatives could be found. For example, buying a CDS to insure a CDO ended up giving the seller the same risk as if they owned the CDO, when those CDO's became worthless.[366]

Diagram of CMLTI 2006 – NC2

This boom in innovative financial products went hand in hand with more complexity. It multiplied the number of actors connected to a single mortgage (including mortgage brokers, specialized originators, the securitizers and their due diligence firms, managing agents and trading desks, and finally investors, insurances and providers of repo funding). With increasing distance from the underlying asset these actors relied more and more on indirect information (including FICO scores on creditworthiness, appraisals and due diligence checks by third party organizations, and most importantly the computer models of rating agencies and risk management desks). Instead of spreading risk this provided the ground for fraudulent acts, misjudgments and finally market collapse.[367] Economists have studied the crisis as an instance of cascades in financial networks, where institutions' instability destabilized other institutions and led to knock-on effects.[368][369]

Martin Wolf, chief economics commentator at the Financial Times, wrote in June 2009 that certain financial innovations enabled firms to circumvent regulations, such as off-balance sheet financing that affects the leverage or capital cushion reported by major banks, stating: "an enormous part of what banks did in the early part of this decade—the off-balance-sheet vehicles, the derivatives and the 'shadow banking system' itself—was to find a way round regulation."[370]

Incorrect pricing of risk

A protester on Wall Street in the wake of the AIG bonus payments controversy is interviewed by news media.

Mortgage risks were underestimated by almost all institutions in the chain from originator to investor by underweighting the possibility of falling housing prices based on historical trends of the past 50 years. Limitations of default and prepayment models, the heart of pricing models, led to overvaluation of mortgage and asset-backed products and their derivatives by originators, securitizers, broker-dealers, rating-agencies, insurance underwriters and the vast majority of investors (with the exception of certain hedge funds).[371][372] While financial derivatives and structured products helped partition and shift risk between financial participants, it was the underestimation of falling housing prices and the resultant losses that led to aggregate risk.[372]

For a variety of reasons, market participants did not accurately measure the risk inherent with financial innovation such as MBS and CDOs or understand its effect on the overall stability of the financial system.[260] The pricing model for CDOs clearly did not reflect the level of risk they introduced into the system. Banks estimated that $450 billion of CDO were sold between "late 2005 to the middle of 2007"; among the $102 billion of those that had been liquidated, JPMorgan estimated that the average recovery rate for "high quality" CDOs was approximately 32 cents on the dollar, while the recovery rate for mezzanine capital CDO was approximately five cents for every dollar.

AIG insured obligations of various financial institutions through the usage of credit default swaps. The basic CDS transaction involved AIG receiving a premium in exchange for a promise to pay money to party A in the event party B defaulted. However, AIG did not have the financial strength to support its many CDS commitments as the crisis progressed and was taken over by the government in September 2008. U.S. taxpayers provided over $180 billion in government loans and investments in AIG during 2008 and early 2009, through which the money flowed to various counterparties to CDS transactions, including many large global financial institutions.[373][unreliable source?][374]

The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC) made the major government study of the crisis. It concluded in January 2011:

The Commission concludes AIG failed and was rescued by the government primarily because its enormous sales of credit default swaps were made without putting up the initial collateral, setting aside capital reserves, or hedging its exposure—a profound failure in corporate governance, particularly its risk management practices. AIG's failure was possible because of the sweeping deregulation of over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives, including credit default swaps, which effectively eliminated federal and state regulation of these products, including capital and margin requirements that would have lessened the likelihood of AIG's failure.[375][376][377]

The limitations of a widely used financial model also were not properly understood.[378][379] This formula assumed that the price of CDS was correlated with and could predict the correct price of mortgage-backed securities. Because it was highly tractable, it rapidly came to be used by a huge percentage of CDO and CDS investors, issuers, and rating agencies.[379] According to one Wired article:

Then the model fell apart. Cracks started appearing early on, when financial markets began behaving in ways that users of Li's formula hadn't expected. The cracks became full-fledged canyons in 2008—when ruptures in the financial system's foundation swallowed up trillions of dollars and put the survival of the global banking system in serious peril ... Li's Gaussian copula formula will go down in history as instrumental in causing the unfathomable losses that brought the world financial system to its knees.[379]

As financial assets became more complex and harder to value, investors were reassured by the fact that the international bond rating agencies and bank regulators accepted as valid some complex mathematical models that showed the risks were much smaller than they actually were.[380] George Soros commented that "The super-boom got out of hand when the new products became so complicated that the authorities could no longer calculate the risks and started relying on the risk management methods of the banks themselves. Similarly, the rating agencies relied on the information provided by the originators of synthetic products. It was a shocking abdication of responsibility."[381]

A conflict of interest between investment management professional and institutional investors, combined with a global glut in investment capital, led to bad investments by asset managers in over-priced credit assets. Professional investment managers generally are compensated based on the volume of client assets under management. There is, therefore, an incentive for asset managers to expand their assets under management in order to maximize their compensation. As the glut in global investment capital caused the yields on credit assets to decline, asset managers were faced with the choice of either investing in assets where returns did not reflect true credit risk or returning funds to clients. Many asset managers continued to invest client funds in over-priced (under-yielding) investments, to the detriment of their clients, so they could maintain their assets under management. They supported this choice with a "plausible deniability" of the risks associated with subprime-based credit assets because the loss experience with early "vintages" of subprime loans was so low.[382]

Despite the dominance of the above formula, there are documented attempts of the financial industry, occurring before the crisis, to address the formula limitations, specifically the lack of dependence dynamics and the poor representation of extreme events.[383] The volume Credit Correlation: Life After Copulas, published in 2007 by World Scientific, summarizes a 2006 conference held by Merrill Lynch in London where several practitioners attempted to propose models rectifying some of the copula limitations. See also the article by Donnelly and Embrechts[384] and the book by Brigo, Pallavicini and Torresetti, that reports relevant warnings and research on CDOs appeared in 2006.[385]

Boom and collapse of the shadow banking system

Securitization markets were impaired during the crisis

There is strong evidence that the riskiest, worst performing mortgages were funded through the "shadow banking system" and that competition from the shadow banking system may have pressured more traditional institutions to lower their underwriting standards and originate riskier loans.

In a June 2008 speech, President and CEO of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York Timothy Geithner—who in 2009 became United States Secretary of the Treasury—placed significant blame for the freezing of credit markets on a run on the entities in the "parallel" banking system, also called the shadow banking system. These entities became critical to the credit markets underpinning the financial system, but were not subject to the same regulatory controls. Further, these entities were vulnerable because of asset–liability mismatch, meaning that they borrowed short-term in liquid markets to purchase long-term, illiquid and risky assets. This meant that disruptions in credit markets would force them to engage in rapid deleveraging, selling their long-term assets at depressed prices. He described the significance of these entities:

In early 2007, asset-backed commercial paper conduits, in structured investment vehicles, in auction-rate preferred securities, tender option bonds and variable rate demand notes, had a combined asset size of roughly $2.2 trillion. Assets financed overnight in tri-party repo grew to $2.5 trillion. Assets held in hedge funds grew to roughly $1.8 trillion. The combined balance sheets of the five largest investment banks totaled $4 trillion. In comparison, the total assets of the top five bank holding companies in the United States at that point were just over $6 trillion, and total assets of the entire banking system were about $10 trillion. The combined effect of these factors was a financial system vulnerable to self-reinforcing asset price and credit cycles.[386]

Economist Paul Krugman, laureate of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, described the run on the shadow banking system as the "core of what happened" to cause the crisis. He referred to this lack of controls as "malign neglect" and argued that regulation should have been imposed on all banking-like activity.[347] Without the ability to obtain investor funds in exchange for most types of mortgage-backed securities or asset-backed commercial paper, investment banks and other entities in the shadow banking system could not provide funds to mortgage firms and other corporations.[386][347]

This meant that nearly one-third of the U.S. lending mechanism was frozen and continued to be frozen into June 2009.[387] According to the Brookings Institution, at that time the traditional banking system did not have the capital to close this gap: "It would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume." The authors also indicate that some forms of securitization were "likely to vanish forever, having been an artifact of excessively loose credit conditions". While traditional banks raised their lending standards, it was the collapse of the shadow banking system that was the primary cause of the reduction in funds available for borrowing.[41]

The securitization markets supported by the shadow banking system started to close down in the spring of 2007 and nearly shut-down in the fall of 2008. More than a third of the private credit markets thus became unavailable as a source of funds.[387] According to the Brookings Institution in June 2009, the traditional banking system did not have the capital to close this gap: "It would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume" and some forms of securitization are "likely to vanish forever, having been an artifact of excessively loose credit conditions".[41]

Commodity prices

Global copper prices
Fertilizer prices
  DAP
  Urea

In a 2008 paper, Ricardo J. Caballero, Emmanuel Farhi, and Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas argued that the financial crisis was attributable to "global asset scarcity, which led to large capital flows toward the United States and to the creation of asset bubbles that eventually burst".[388] Caballero, Farhi, and Gourinchas argued "that the sharp rise in oil prices following the subprime crisis – nearly 100 percent in just a matter of months and on the face of recessionary shocks – was the result of a speculative response to the financial crisis itself, in an attempt to rebuild asset supply. That is, the global economy was subject to one shock with multiple implications rather than to two separate shocks (financial and oil)."[388]

Long-only commodity index funds became popular – by one estimate investment increased from $90 billion in 2006 to $200 billion at the end of 2007, while commodity prices increased 71% – which raised concern as to whether these index funds caused the commodity bubble. The empirical research has been mixed.[389]

The Globals Savings Glut

The cause of the global asset bubble can be partially attributable to the global savings glut. As theorized by Andrew Metrick, the demand for safe assets following the Asian Financial Crisis coupled with the lack of circulating treasuries created an unmet demand for "risk free" assets. Thus, institutional investors like sovereign wealth funds and pension funds began purchasing synthetic safe assets like Triple-A Mortgage Backed Securities.[390]

As a consequence, the demand for so-called safe assets fueled the free flow of capital into housing in the United States. This greatly worsened the crisis as banks and other financial institutions were incentivized to issue more mortgages than before.

Systemic crisis of capitalism

In a 1998 book, John McMurtry suggested that a financial crisis is a systemic crisis of capitalism itself.[391]

In his 1978 book, The Downfall of Capitalism and Communism, Ravi Batra suggests that growing inequality of financial capitalism produces speculative bubbles that burst and result in depression and major political changes. He also suggested that a "demand gap" related to differing wage and productivity growth explains deficit and debt dynamics important to stock market developments.[392]

John Bellamy Foster, a political economy analyst and editor of the Monthly Review, believed that the decrease in GDP growth rates since the early 1970s is due to increasing market saturation.[393]

Marxian economics followers Andrew Kliman, Michael Roberts, and Guglielmo Carchedi, in contradistinction to the Monthly Review school represented by Foster, pointed to capitalism's long-term tendency of the rate of profit to fall as the underlying cause of crises generally. From this point of view, the problem was the inability of capital to grow or accumulate at sufficient rates through productive investment alone. Low rates of profit in productive sectors led to speculative investment in riskier assets, where there was potential for greater return on investment. The speculative frenzy of the late 1990s and 2000s was, in this view, a consequence of a rising organic composition of capital, expressed through the fall in the rate of profit. According to Michael Roberts, the fall in the rate of profit "eventually triggered the credit crunch of 2007 when credit could no longer support profits".[394]

In 2005 book, The Battle for the Soul of Capitalism, John C. Bogle wrote that "Corporate America went astray largely because the power of managers went virtually unchecked by our gatekeepers for far too long". Echoing the central thesis of James Burnham's 1941 seminal book, The Managerial Revolution, Bogle cites issues, including:[395]

In his book The Big Mo, Mark Roeder, a former executive at the Swiss-based UBS Bank, suggested that large-scale momentum, or The Big Mo, "played a pivotal role" in the financial crisis. Roeder suggested that "recent technological advances, such as computer-driven trading programs, together with the increasingly interconnected nature of markets, has magnified the momentum effect. This has made the financial sector inherently unstable."[396]

Robert Reich attributed the economic downturn to the stagnation of wages in the United States, particularly those of the hourly workers who comprise 80% of the workforce. This stagnation forced the population to borrow to meet the cost of living.[397]

Economists Ailsa McKay and Margunn Bjørnholt argued that the financial crisis and the response to it revealed a crisis of ideas in mainstream economics and within the economics profession, and call for a reshaping of both the economy, economic theory and the economics profession.[398]

Wrong banking model: resilience of credit unions

A report by the International Labour Organization concluded that cooperative banking institutions were less likely to fail than their competitors during the crisis. The cooperative banking sector had 20% market share of the European banking sector, but accounted for only 7% of all the write-downs and losses between the third quarter of 2007 and first quarter of 2011.[399] In 2008, in the U.S., the rate of commercial bank failures was almost triple that of credit unions, and almost five times the credit union rate in 2010.[400] Credit unions increased their lending to small- and medium-sized businesses while overall lending to those businesses decreased.[401]

Prediction by economists

Economists, particularly followers of mainstream economics, mostly failed to predict the crisis.[402] The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania's online business journal examined why economists failed to predict a major global financial crisis and concluded that economists used mathematical models that failed to account for the critical roles that banks and other financial institutions, as opposed to producers and consumers of goods and services, play in the economy.[403]

Several followers of heterodox economics predicted the crisis, with varying arguments. Dirk Bezemer[404] credits 12 economists with predicting the crisis: Dean Baker (US), Wynne Godley (UK), Fred Harrison (UK), Michael Hudson (US), Eric Janszen (US), Steve Keen (Australia), Jakob Broechner Madsen & Jens Kjaer Sørensen (Denmark), Med Jones (US)[405] Kurt Richebächer (US), Nouriel Roubini (US), Peter Schiff (US), and Robert Shiller (US).

Shiller, a founder of the Case–Shiller index that measures home prices, wrote an article a year before the collapse of Lehman Brothers in which he predicted that a slowing U.S. housing market would cause the housing bubble to burst, leading to financial collapse.[406] Peter Schiff regularly appeared on television in the years before the crisis and warned of the impending real estate collapse.[407]

The Austrian School regarded the crisis as a vindication and classic example of a predictable credit-fueled bubble caused by laxity in monetary supply.[408]

There were other economists that did warn of a pending crisis.[409]

The former Governor of the Reserve Bank of India, Raghuram Rajan, had predicted the crisis in 2005 when he became chief economist at the International Monetary Fund. In 2005, at a celebration honoring Alan Greenspan, who was about to retire as chairman of the US Federal Reserve, Rajan delivered a controversial paper that was critical of the financial sector.[410] In that paper, Rajan "argued that disaster might loom".[411] Rajan argued that financial sector managers were encouraged to "take risks that generate severe adverse consequences with small probability but, in return, offer generous compensation the rest of the time. These risks are known as tail risks. But perhaps the most important concern is whether banks will be able to provide liquidity to financial markets so that if the tail risk does materialize, financial positions can be unwound and losses allocated so that the consequences to the real economy are minimized."

Stock trader and financial risk engineer Nassim Nicholas Taleb, author of the 2007 book The Black Swan, spent years warning against the breakdown of the banking system in particular and the economy in general owing to their use of and reliance on bad risk models and reliance on forecasting, and framed the problem as part of "robustness and fragility".[412][413] He also took action against the establishment view by making a big financial bet on banking stocks and making a fortune from the crisis ("They didn't listen, so I took their money").[414] According to David Brooks from The New York Times, "Taleb not only has an explanation for what's happening, he saw it coming."[415]

Popular articles published in the mass media have led the general public to believe that the majority of economists have failed in their obligation to predict the financial crisis. For example, an article in The New York Times noted that economist Nouriel Roubini warned of such crisis as early as September 2006, and stated that the profession of economics is bad at predicting recessions.[416] According to The Guardian, Roubini was ridiculed for predicting a collapse of the housing market and worldwide recession, while The New York Times labelled him "Dr. Doom".[417]

In a 2012 article in the journal Japan and the World Economy, Andrew K. Rose and Mark M. Spiegel used a Multiple Indicator Multiple Cause (MIMIC) model on a cross-section of 107 countries to evaluate potential causes of the 2008 crisis. The authors examined various economic indicators, ignoring contagion effects across countries. The authors concluded: "We include over sixty potential causes of the crisis, covering such categories as: financial system policies and conditions; asset price appreciation in real estate and equity markets; international imbalances and foreign reserve adequacy; macroeconomic policies; and institutional and geographic features. Despite the fact that we use a wide number of possible causes in a flexible statistical framework, we are unable to link most of the commonly cited causes of the crisis to its incidence across countries. This negative finding in the cross-section makes us skeptical of the accuracy of 'early warning' systems of potential crises, which must also predict their timing."[418]

IndyMac

The first visible institution to run into trouble in the United States was the Southern California–based IndyMac, a spin-off of Countrywide Financial. Before its failure, IndyMac Bank was the largest savings and loan association in the Los Angeles market and the seventh largest mortgage loan originator in the United States.[419] The failure of IndyMac Bank on July 11, 2008, was the fourth largest bank failure in United States history up until the crisis precipitated even larger failures,[420] and the second largest failure of a regulated thrift.[421] IndyMac Bank's parent corporation was IndyMac Bancorp until the FDIC seized IndyMac Bank.[422] IndyMac Bancorp filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in July 2008.[422]

IndyMac Bank was founded as Countrywide Mortgage Investment in 1985 by David S. Loeb and Angelo Mozilo[423][424] as a means of collateralizing Countrywide Financial loans too big to be sold to Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae. In 1997, Countrywide spun off IndyMac as an independent company run by Mike Perry, who remained its CEO until the downfall of the bank in July 2008.[425]

The primary causes of its failure were largely associated with its business strategy of originating and securitizing Alt-A loans on a large scale. This strategy resulted in rapid growth and a high concentration of risky assets. From its inception as a savings association in 2000, IndyMac grew to the seventh largest savings and loan and ninth largest originator of mortgage loans in the United States. During 2006, IndyMac originated over $90 billion (~$131 billion in 2023) of mortgages.

IndyMac's aggressive growth strategy, use of Alt-A and other nontraditional loan products, insufficient underwriting, credit concentrations in residential real estate in the California and Florida markets—states, alongside Nevada and Arizona, where the housing bubble was most pronounced—and heavy reliance on costly funds borrowed from a Federal Home Loan Bank (FHLB) and from brokered deposits, led to its demise when the mortgage market declined in 2007.

IndyMac often made loans without verification of the borrower's income or assets, and to borrowers with poor credit histories. Appraisals obtained by IndyMac on underlying collateral were often questionable as well. As an Alt-A lender, IndyMac's business model was to offer loan products to fit the borrower's needs, using an extensive array of risky option-adjustable-rate mortgages (option ARMs), subprime loans, 80/20 loans, and other nontraditional products. Ultimately, loans were made to many borrowers who simply could not afford to make their payments. The thrift remained profitable only as long as it was able to sell those loans in the secondary mortgage market. IndyMac resisted efforts to regulate its involvement in those loans or tighten their issuing criteria: see the comment by Ruthann Melbourne, Chief Risk Officer, to the regulating agencies.[426][427][428]

On May 12, 2008, in the "Capital" section of its last 10-Q, IndyMac revealed that it may not be well capitalized in the future.[429]

IndyMac reported that during April 2008, Moody's and Standard & Poor's downgraded the ratings on a significant number of Mortgage-backed security (MBS) bonds—including $160 million (~$222 million in 2023) issued by IndyMac that the bank retained in its MBS portfolio. IndyMac concluded that these downgrades would have harmed its risk-based capital ratio as of June 30, 2008. Had these lowered ratings been in effect on March 31, 2008, IndyMac concluded that the bank's capital ratio would have been 9.27% total risk-based. IndyMac warned that if its regulators found its capital position to have fallen below "well capitalized" (minimum 10% risk-based capital ratio) to "adequately capitalized" (8–10% risk-based capital ratio) the bank might no longer be able to use brokered deposits as a source of funds.

Senator Charles Schumer (D-NY) later pointed out that brokered deposits made up more than 37% of IndyMac's total deposits, and ask the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) whether it had considered ordering IndyMac to reduce its reliance on these deposits.[430] With $18.9 billion in total deposits reported on March 31,[429] Senator Schumer would have been referring to a little over $7 billion in brokered deposits. While the breakout of maturities of these deposits is not known exactly, a simple averaging would have put the threat of brokered deposits loss to IndyMac at $500 million a month, had the regulator disallowed IndyMac from acquiring new brokered deposits on June 30.

IndyMac was taking new measures to preserve capital, such as deferring interest payments on some preferred securities. Dividends on common shares had already been suspended for the first quarter of 2008, after being cut in half the previous quarter. The company still had not secured a significant capital infusion nor found a ready buyer.[431]

IndyMac reported that the bank's risk-based capital was only $47 million above the minimum required for this 10% mark. But it did not reveal some of that $47 million (~$65.3 million in 2023) capital it claimed it had, as of March 31, 2008, was fabricated.[432]

When home prices declined in the latter half of 2007 and the secondary mortgage market collapsed, IndyMac was forced to hold $10.7 billion (~$15.2 billion in 2023) of loans it could not sell in the secondary market. Its reduced liquidity was further exacerbated in late June 2008 when account holders withdrew $1.55 billion (~$2.15 billion in 2023) or about 7.5% of IndyMac's deposits.[429] This bank run on the thrift followed the public release of a letter from Senator Charles Schumer to the FDIC and OTS. The letter outlined the Senator's concerns with IndyMac. While the run was a contributing factor in the timing of IndyMac's demise, the underlying cause of the failure was the unsafe and unsound way it was operated.[426]

On June 26, 2008, Senator Charles Schumer (D-NY), a member of the Senate Banking Committee, chairman of Congress' Joint Economic Committee and the third-ranking Democrat in the Senate, released several letters he had sent to regulators, in which he was"concerned that IndyMac's financial deterioration poses significant risks to both taxpayers and borrowers." Some worried depositors began to withdraw money.[433][434]

On July 7, 2008, IndyMac announced on the company blog that it:

IndyMac announced the closure of both its retail lending and wholesale divisions, halted new loan submissions, and cut 3,800 jobs.[435]

On July 11, 2008, citing liquidity concerns, the FDIC put IndyMac Bank into conservatorship. A bridge bank, IndyMac Federal Bank, FSB, was established to assume control of IndyMac Bank's assets, its secured liabilities, and its insured deposit accounts. The FDIC announced plans to open IndyMac Federal Bank, FSB on July 14, 2008. Until then, depositors would have access to their insured deposits through ATMs, their existing checks, and their existing debit cards. Telephone and Internet account access was restored when the bank reopened.[133][436][437] The FDIC guarantees the funds of all insured accounts up to US$100,000, and declared a special advance dividend to the roughly 10,000 depositors with funds in excess of the insured amount, guaranteeing 50% of any amounts in excess of $100,000.[421] Yet, even with the pending sale of Indymac to IMB Management Holdings, an estimated 10,000 uninsured depositors of Indymac are still at a loss of over $270 million.[438][439]

With $32 billion in assets, IndyMac Bank was one of the largest bank failures in American history.[440]

IndyMac Bancorp filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy on July 31, 2008.[422]

Initially the companies affected were those directly involved in home construction and mortgage lending such as Northern Rock and Countrywide Financial, as they could no longer obtain financing through the credit markets. Over 100 mortgage lenders went bankrupt during 2007 and 2008. Concerns that investment bank Bear Stearns would collapse in March 2008 resulted in its fire-sale to JP Morgan Chase. The financial institution crisis hit its peak in September and October 2008. Several major institutions either failed, were acquired under duress, or were subject to government takeover. These included Lehman Brothers, Merrill Lynch, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, Washington Mutual, Wachovia, Citigroup, and AIG.[44] On October 6, 2008, three weeks after Lehman Brothers filed the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history, Lehman's former CEO Richard S. Fuld Jr. found himself before Representative Henry A. Waxman, the California Democrat who chaired the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. Fuld said he was a victim of the collapse, blaming a "crisis of confidence" in the markets for dooming his firm.[441]

Notable books and movies

See also

References

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The initial articles and some subsequent material were adapted from the Wikinfo article Financial crisis of 2007–2008 released under the GNU Free Documentation License Version 1.2

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