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Arte indio

Arte indio

El arte indio se compone de una variedad de formas artísticas, entre las que se incluyen la pintura , la escultura , la cerámica y las artes textiles , como la seda tejida . Geográficamente, se extiende por todo el subcontinente indio , incluidos lo que hoy es la India , Pakistán , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , Nepal , Bután y, en ocasiones, el este de Afganistán . Un fuerte sentido del diseño es característico del arte indio y se puede observar en sus formas modernas y tradicionales.

El origen del arte indio se remonta a los asentamientos prehistóricos del tercer milenio a. C. En su camino hacia los tiempos modernos, el arte indio ha tenido influencias culturales, así como influencias religiosas como el hinduismo , el budismo , el jainismo , el sijismo y el islam . A pesar de esta compleja mezcla de tradiciones religiosas, por lo general, el estilo artístico predominante en cualquier momento y lugar ha sido compartido por los principales grupos religiosos.

En el arte histórico, la escultura en piedra y metal, principalmente de tipo religioso, ha sobrevivido al clima indio mejor que otros medios y proporciona la mayoría de los mejores restos. Muchos de los hallazgos antiguos más importantes que no están tallados en piedra proceden de las regiones circundantes, más secas, y no de la propia India. Las tradiciones funerarias y filosóficas indias excluyen los ajuares funerarios , que son la principal fuente de arte antiguo en otras culturas.

Históricamente, los estilos de los artistas indios siguieron las religiones indias fuera del subcontinente, y tuvieron una influencia especialmente grande en el Tíbet , el sudeste asiático y China . El arte indio también recibió influencias en ocasiones, especialmente de Asia central e Irán , y Europa.

Arte indio primitivo

Arte rupestre

El arte rupestre de la India incluye relieves , grabados y pinturas, algunos (pero no todos) de la Edad de Piedra del sur de Asia . Se estima que existen alrededor de 1300 sitios de arte rupestre con más de un cuarto de millón de figuras y figurillas. [1] Los primeros grabados rupestres de la India fueron descubiertos por Archibald Carlleyle , doce años antes de la cueva de Altamira en España , [2] aunque su trabajo solo salió a la luz mucho más tarde a través de J Cockburn (1899). [3]

El Dr. V. S. Wakankar descubrió varios refugios rocosos pintados en la India central , situados alrededor de la cordillera de Vindhya . De estos, los aproximadamente 750 sitios que componen los refugios rocosos de Bhimbetka han sido inscritos como Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO ; las pinturas más antiguas tienen unos 10.000 años de antigüedad. [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Las pinturas de estos sitios solían representar escenas de la vida humana junto a animales y cacerías con herramientas de piedra. Su estilo variaba según la región y la edad, pero la característica más común era un lavado rojo hecho con un mineral en polvo llamado geru , que es una forma de óxido de hierro ( hematita ). [9]

Civilización del valle del Indo (do. 3300 a. C. – c. 1750 a. C.)

La bailarina de Mohenjo- daro

A pesar de su amplia difusión y sofisticación, la civilización del valle del Indo parece no haber mostrado interés por el arte público a gran escala, a diferencia de muchas otras civilizaciones tempranas. Varias figurillas de oro , terracota y piedra de niñas en poses de baile revelan la presencia de algunas formas de danza . Además, las figurillas de terracota incluían vacas, osos, monos y perros.

La forma más común de arte figurativo encontrada son los pequeños sellos tallados . Se han recuperado miles de sellos de esteatita y su carácter físico es bastante consistente. Su tamaño varía de 34 pulgadas a 1 12 pulgadas cuadradas. En la mayoría de los casos tienen un saliente perforado en la parte posterior para acomodar un cordón para manipularlos o para usarlos como adorno personal. Se han encontrado sellos en Mohenjo-Daro que representan una figura de pie sobre su cabeza y otra, en el sello Pashupati , sentada con las piernas cruzadas en una pose similar al yoga . Esta figura ha sido identificada de diversas formas. Sir John Marshall identificó un parecido con el dios hindú , Shiva . [10]

El animal representado en la mayoría de los sellos de los yacimientos del periodo maduro no ha sido claramente identificado. Mitad toro, mitad cebra, con un cuerno majestuoso, ha sido fuente de especulación. Hasta el momento, no hay pruebas suficientes para fundamentar las afirmaciones de que la imagen tenía un significado religioso o de culto, pero la prevalencia de la imagen plantea la cuestión de si los animales en las imágenes del IVC son o no símbolos religiosos. [11] La pieza más famosa es la Bailarina de bronce de Mohenjo-Daro , que muestra un modelado notablemente avanzado de la figura humana para esta fecha temprana. [12]

Tras el fin de la civilización del valle del Indo, se observa una sorprendente ausencia de arte de gran grado de sofisticación hasta la era budista. Se cree que esto refleja en parte el uso de materiales orgánicos perecederos como la madera. [13]

Período védico

Artefacto simbólico, posiblemente antropomorfológico. Cultura del Tesoro de Cobre (II milenio a. C.). Museo de Mathura .

El milenio posterior al colapso de la civilización del valle del Indo, que coincidió con la migración indoaria durante el período védico , carece de representaciones antropomórficas . [14] Se ha sugerido que la religión védica primitiva se centraba exclusivamente en la adoración de fuerzas puramente "elementales de la naturaleza mediante sacrificios elaborados", que no se prestaban fácilmente a representaciones antropomorfológicas. [15] [16] Varios artefactos pueden pertenecer a la cultura del Tesoro de Cobre (segundo milenio a. C.), algunos de ellos sugiriendo características antropomorfológicas. [17] Las interpretaciones varían en cuanto al significado exacto de estos artefactos, o incluso la cultura y la periodización a la que pertenecían. [17] Algunos ejemplos de expresión artística también aparecen en diseños de cerámica abstracta durante la cultura de la cerámica negra y roja (1450-1200 a. C.) o la cultura de la cerámica gris pintada (1200-600 a. C.), con hallazgos en una amplia zona, incluida el área de Mathura. [17]

Después de un intervalo de unos mil años, la mayoría de los primeros hallazgos corresponden a lo que se denomina el "segundo período de urbanización", a mediados del primer milenio a. C. [17] La ​​representación antropomórfica de varias deidades aparentemente comenzó a mediados del primer milenio a. C., posiblemente como consecuencia de la afluencia de estímulos extranjeros iniciados con la conquista aqueménida del valle del Indo y el surgimiento de religiones locales alternativas que desafiaban al vedismo , como el budismo , el jainismo y los cultos populares locales. [14]

Arte Maurya (do. 322 a. C. – c. 185 a. C.)

El capitel de Pataliputra , un ejemplo temprano de escultura de piedra de Maurya, que muestra influencias persas y helenísticas . Siglo III a. C., Museo de Patna

El Imperio Maurya del norte de la India floreció desde el 322 a. C. hasta el 185 a. C., y en su máxima extensión controló todo el subcontinente excepto el extremo sur, así como las influencias de las antiguas tradiciones indias y la antigua Persia , [18] como lo demuestra la capital Pataliputra .

El emperador Ashoka , que murió en el año 232 a. C., adoptó el budismo aproximadamente a la mitad de su reinado de 40 años y patrocinó varias estupas de gran tamaño en lugares clave de la vida de Buda , aunque sobrevive muy poca decoración del período Maurya y es posible que no haya habido mucha en primer lugar. Hay más de varios sitios tempranos de arquitectura india excavada en la roca .

Las supervivencias más famosas son los grandes animales que coronan varios de los pilares de Ashoka , que mostraban un estilo y una artesanía seguros y audazmente maduros y la primera fundición de hierro de su tipo sin óxido hasta la fecha, que estaba en uso por la gente védica en las áreas rurales del país, aunque tenemos muy pocos restos que muestren su desarrollo. [19] El famoso capitel de león independiente de Ashoka , con cuatro animales, fue adoptado como emblema oficial de la India después de la independencia de la India . [20] La escultura y la arquitectura Maurya se caracterizan por un pulido Maurya muy fino dado a la piedra, que rara vez se encuentra en períodos posteriores.

En la arqueología se han recuperado numerosas figurillas populares de terracota de pequeño tamaño , en una gama de estilos a menudo vigorosos aunque algo rudimentarios. Se han encontrado tanto animales como figuras humanas, generalmente mujeres que se supone que son deidades. [21]

Estatuas colosales de Yaksha (siglo II a. C.)

" Mudgarpani " Yaksha , alrededor del año 100 a.C. [22] Arte de Mathura , Museo Mathura

Los yakshas parecen haber sido objeto de un culto importante en los primeros períodos de la historia de la India, y muchos de ellos son conocidos como Kubera , rey de los yakshas, ​​Manibhadra o Mudgarpani . [23] Los yakshas son una amplia clase de espíritus de la naturaleza, generalmente benévolos, pero a veces traviesos o caprichosos, relacionados con el agua, la fertilidad, los árboles, el bosque, el tesoro y la naturaleza salvaje, [24] [25] y fueron objeto de adoración popular. [26] Muchos de ellos se incorporaron más tarde al budismo, el jainismo o el hinduismo. [23]

En el siglo II a. C., los Yakshas se convirtieron en el foco de la creación de imágenes de culto colosales, típicamente de alrededor de 2 metros o más de altura, que se consideran probablemente las primeras producciones antropomórficas indias en piedra. [27] [23] Aunque pocas estatuas antiguas de Yaksha permanecen en buenas condiciones, el vigor del estilo ha sido aplaudido y expresa cualidades esencialmente indias. [27] A menudo son barrigones, tienen dos brazos y un aspecto feroz. [23] Los Yakshas a menudo se representan con armas o atributos, como el Yaksha Mudgarpani que en la mano derecha sostiene una maza de mudgar , y en la mano izquierda la figura de un pequeño devoto o niño de pie uniendo las manos en oración. [28] [23] A menudo se sugiere que el estilo de la estatuaria colosal de Yaksha tuvo una influencia importante en la creación de imágenes divinas y figuras humanas posteriores en la India. [29] El equivalente femenino de las Yakshas eran las Yakshinis, a menudo asociadas con árboles y niños, y cuyas voluptuosas figuras se volvieron omnipresentes en el arte indio. [23]

Se ha sugerido cierta influencia helenística , como los pliegues geométricos de los drapeados o la postura al caminar de las estatuas. [27] Según John Boardman , el dobladillo del vestido en las monumentales estatuas tempranas de Yaksha se deriva del arte griego. [27] Al describir el drapeado de una de estas estatuas, John Boardman escribe: "No tiene antecedentes locales y se parece más a un manierismo arcaico tardío griego", y sugiere que posiblemente se derive del arte helenístico de la cercana Bactria , donde se conoce este diseño. [27]

En la producción de colosales estatuas de Yaksha talladas en bulto redondo, que se pueden encontrar en varios lugares del norte de la India, el arte de Mathura se considera el más avanzado en calidad y cantidad durante este período. [30]

Arte budista (do. 150 a. C. – c. 500 d.C.)

Medallón transversal con elefante y jinetes, arte de Mathura , alrededor del año 150 a. C. [31]

Los principales restos de arte budista se remontan al período posterior a los Maurya, del que sobreviven grandes cantidades de esculturas. Algunos de los sitios clave son Sanchi , Bharhut y Amaravati , algunos de los cuales permanecen in situ , mientras que otros se encuentran en museos de la India o de todo el mundo. Las estupas estaban rodeadas de vallas ceremoniales con cuatro toranas o portales ornamentales profusamente tallados que miraban hacia los puntos cardinales. Estos están hechos de piedra, aunque claramente adoptan formas desarrolladas en madera. Tanto ellos como las paredes de la propia estupa pueden estar profusamente decorados con relieves, que en su mayoría ilustran la vida de Buda. Poco a poco se fueron esculpiendo figuras de tamaño natural, inicialmente en relieve profundo, pero luego de forma independiente. [32]

Mathura fue el centro más importante de este desarrollo, que se aplicó tanto al arte hindú y jainista como al budista. [33] Las fachadas e interiores de las salas de oración chaitya excavadas en la roca y los viharas monásticos han sobrevivido mejor que las estructuras independientes similares en otros lugares, que durante mucho tiempo fueron principalmente de madera. Las cuevas de Ajanta , Karle , Bhaja y otros lugares contienen esculturas tempranas, a menudo superadas en número por obras posteriores como figuras icónicas de Buda y bodhisattvas , que no se encontraron antes del año 100 d. C. como mínimo.

El budismo desarrolló un énfasis cada vez mayor en las estatuas de Buda, que fue muy influenciado por el arte figurativo religioso hindú y jainista, las figuras de este período que también fueron influenciadas por el arte greco-budista de los siglos posteriores a las conquistas de Alejandro Magno . Esta fusión se desarrolló en el extremo noroeste de la India, especialmente Gandhara en el Afganistán y Pakistán modernos . [34] El Imperio indio Kushan se extendió desde Asia Central para incluir el norte de la India en los primeros siglos d.C., y encargó brevemente grandes estatuas que eran retratos de la dinastía real. [35]

Dinastía Shunga (c. 185 a. C. – 72 a. C.)

La Gran Stupa de Sanchi, c. 273 a. C. – 232 a. C. (Imperio Maurya), ampliada c. 150 a. C. – 50 a. C. (Dinastía Shunga)

Con la caída del Imperio Maurya , el control de la India volvió a manos de las antiguas dinastías regionales, una de las más importantes de las cuales fue la dinastía Shunga (c. 185 a. C. - 72 a. C.) de la India central. Durante este período, así como durante la dinastía Satavahana, que se produjo simultáneamente con la dinastía Shunga en el sur de la India, se creó parte de la arquitectura budista temprana más importante. Podría decirse que la arquitectura más importante de esta dinastía es la estupa, un monumento religioso que suele albergar una reliquia sagrada del budismo. Estas reliquias a menudo, pero no siempre, estaban conectadas de alguna manera directamente con el Buda. Debido al hecho de que estas estupas contenían restos del propio Buda, cada estupa era venerada como una extensión del cuerpo del Buda, su iluminación y su logro del nirvana. La forma en que los budistas veneran la estupa es caminando alrededor de ella en el sentido de las agujas del reloj. [36]

Una cueva monumental excavada en la roca, la Gran Chaitya en las cuevas de Karla , construida alrededor del año 120 d. C.

Uno de los ejemplos más notables de la estupa budista de la dinastía Shunga es la Gran Estupa de Sanchi, que se cree que fue fundada por el emperador Maurya Ashoka c. 273 a. C. - 232 a. C. durante el Imperio Maurya. [37] La ​​Gran Estupa se amplió a su diámetro actual de 120 pies, se cubrió con una carcasa de piedra, se remató con un balcón y una sombrilla, y se rodeó con una barandilla de piedra durante la dinastía Shunga c. 150 a. C. - 50 a. C.

Además de la arquitectura, otra forma de arte significativa de la dinastía Shunga son las elaboradas placas de terracota moldeadas. Como se ha visto en ejemplos anteriores del Imperio Maurya, un estilo en el que los detalles superficiales, la desnudez y la sensualidad se mantienen en las placas de terracota de la dinastía Shunga. Las representaciones figurativas más comunes que se ven en estas placas son mujeres, algunas de las cuales se cree que son diosas, que en su mayoría se muestran con el torso desnudo y con elaborados tocados. [38]

Dinastía Satavahana (c. siglo I/III a.C. – c. siglo III d.C.)

La dinastía Satavahana gobernó en la India central y patrocinó muchos grandes monumentos budistas, stupas , templos y salas de oración, incluida la estupa Amaravati , las cuevas de Karla y la primera fase de las cuevas de Ajanta . [39]

Bimbisara con su cortejo real saliendo de la ciudad de Rajagriha para visitar al Buda.

Las estupas son monumentos religiosos construidos sobre túmulos funerarios, que contienen reliquias debajo de una cúpula sólida. Las estupas en diferentes áreas de la India pueden variar en estructura, tamaño y diseño; sin embargo, sus significados representativos son bastante similares. Están diseñadas en base a un mandala , un gráfico del cosmos específico del budismo. Una estupa tradicional tiene una barandilla que proporciona un camino sagrado para que los seguidores budistas practiquen la circunvalación devocional en entornos rituales. Además, los antiguos indios consideraban las cuevas como lugares sagrados ya que estaban habitadas por hombres santos y monjes. Una chaitya se construía a partir de una cueva. [36]

Las esculturas en relieve de figuras budistas y los epígrafes escritos en caracteres Brahmi se encuentran a menudo en lugares divinos específicos del budismo. [40] Para celebrar lo divino, los Satavahana también hacían imágenes de piedra como decoración en las arquitecturas budistas. Basándose en el conocimiento de la geometría y la geología, creaban imágenes ideales utilizando un conjunto de técnicas y herramientas complejas como cinceles, martillos y brújulas con puntas de hierro. [41]

Además, las delicadas monedas Satavahana muestran la capacidad de crear arte en ese período. Los Satavahanas emitieron monedas principalmente en cobre, plomo y potin . Más tarde, la plata comenzó a utilizarse para producir monedas. Las monedas suelen tener retratos detallados de gobernantes e inscripciones escritas en los idiomas tamil y telugu . [40]

Imperio Kushan (c. 30 d. C. - c. 375 d. C.)

Oficialmente establecido por Kujula Kadphises , el primer emperador kushan que unió a las tribus yuezhi , el imperio kushan fue un imperio sincrético en el centro y sur de Asia, incluidas las regiones de Gandhara y Mathura en el norte de la India. Desde 127 a 151 d. C., Gandharan alcanzó su apogeo bajo el reinado de Kanishka el Grande. En este período, el arte kushan heredó el arte grecobudista . [42] El budismo mahayana floreció y las representaciones de Buda como una forma humana aparecieron por primera vez en el arte. Buda, que vestía una túnica de monje y una larga tela que le cubría el hombro izquierdo y el cuerpo, fue representado con 32 lakshanas (marcas distintivas) importantes, incluyendo un cuerpo de color dorado, una ushnisha (una protuberancia) en la parte superior de su cabeza, pesados ​​pendientes, lóbulos de las orejas alargados, brazos largos, la impresión de un chakra (rueda) en las palmas de sus manos y las plantas de sus pies, y la urna (una marca entre sus cejas). [36]

Una de las características distintivas del arte gandhariano es su relación con el naturalismo del arte helenístico . Las características naturalistas que se encuentran en las esculturas gandharianas incluyen el tratamiento tridimensional de los drapeados, con pliegues no regularizados que forman patrones realistas de forma y grosor aleatorios. La forma física del Buda y sus bodhisattvas está bien definida, es sólida y musculosa, con pechos, brazos y abdomen abultados. [43] El budismo y el arte budista se extendieron a Asia central y al lejano Oriente a través de Bactria y Sogdia , donde el Imperio Kushan se encontró con la dinastía Han de China. [44]

Arte Gupta (do. 320 d. C. – c. 550 d. C.)

El período Gupta se considera generalmente como el punto culminante del arte del norte de la India para todos los grupos religiosos importantes. Aunque la pintura estaba evidentemente muy extendida y sobrevive en las cuevas de Ajanta , las obras que sobreviven son casi todas esculturas religiosas.

En este período surgieron las icónicas deidades talladas en piedra del arte hindú, así como las figuras de Buda y las tirthankaras jainistas , estas últimas a menudo de gran tamaño. Los principales centros de escultura fueron Mathura Sarnath y Gandhara , este último el centro del arte grecobudista .

El período Gupta marcó la "edad de oro" del hinduismo clásico, [45] y vio la arquitectura de templos hindúes construidos más tempranos , aunque las supervivencias no son numerosas.

Los reinos medios y el período medieval temprano (do. 600 d.C. – c. 1206 d. C./1526 d. C.)

Durante este período, la arquitectura de los templos hindúes maduró y dio lugar a una serie de estilos regionales, y una gran parte del registro histórico artístico de este período consiste en esculturas de templos, muchas de las cuales aún se conservan en su lugar. La historia política de los reinos medios de la India vio a la India dividida en muchos estados, y dado que gran parte de los edificios más grandiosos fueron encargados por los gobernantes y su corte, esto contribuyó al desarrollo de las diferencias regionales. La pintura, tanto a gran escala en las paredes como en formas en miniatura, sin duda fue una práctica muy extendida, pero los restos son escasos. Los bronces medievales que han sobrevivido con mayor frecuencia proceden del sur tamil o de las estribaciones del Himalaya.

Dinastías del sur de la India (do. Siglo III d.C. – c. 1200 d. C.)

Las inscripciones en los pilares de Ashoka mencionan la coexistencia de los reinos del norte con el triunvirato de las dinastías tamiles Chola , Chera y Pandya , situadas al sur de las montañas Vindhya . [46] El período medieval fue testigo del ascenso y caída de estos reinos, en conjunción con otros reinos de la zona. Es durante el declive y resurgimiento de estos reinos que el hinduismo se renovó. Fomentó la construcción de numerosos templos y esculturas.

El Templo de la Costa en Mamallapuram construido por los Pallavas simboliza la arquitectura hindú temprana , con su relieve de roca monolítica y esculturas de deidades hindúes. Fueron sucedidos por gobernantes Chola que fueron prolíficos en su búsqueda de las artes . Los Grandes Templos Chola Vivientes de este período son conocidos por su madurez, grandeza y atención al detalle, y han sido reconocidos como Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO . [47] El período Chola también es conocido por sus esculturas de bronce, la técnica de fundición a la cera perdida y las pinturas al fresco . Gracias a los reyes hindúes de la dinastía Chalukya , el jainismo floreció junto con el islam, evidenciado por el cuarto de los templos de la cueva de Badami que es jainista en lugar de védico . Los reinos del sur de la India continuaron gobernando sus tierras hasta las invasiones musulmanas que establecieron sultanatos allí y destruyeron gran parte de los templos y maravillosos ejemplos de arquitecturas y esculturas.

Otros estados hindúes son conocidos principalmente por sus templos supervivientes y sus esculturas anexas. Entre ellos se encuentran la arquitectura Badami Chalukya (siglos V y VI), la arquitectura Chalukya occidental (siglos XI y XII) y la arquitectura Hoysala (siglos XI y XIV), todas ellas centradas en el Karnataka moderno .

India oriental

En el este de la India, Odisha y Bengala Occidental , la arquitectura Kalinga era el estilo general de templo, con variantes locales, antes de la conquista musulmana.

En la antigüedad, Bengala fue pionera en la pintura en Asia bajo el Imperio Pala. La pintura en miniatura y en pergaminos floreció durante el Imperio mogol. La pintura Kalighat o Kalighat Pat se originó en la Bengala del siglo XIX, en las cercanías del templo Kalighat Kali de Calcuta, y de ser objetos de recuerdo que llevaban los visitantes del templo Kali, con el tiempo las pinturas se desarrollaron como una escuela distinta de la pintura india. A partir de la representación de dioses hindúes y otros personajes mitológicos, las pinturas Kalighat evolucionaron para reflejar una variedad de temas.

Período medieval tardío y época colonial (do. 1526 d. C. – c. 1757 d. C.)

Arte mogol

Aunque las conquistas islámicas en la India se produjeron ya en la primera mitad del siglo X, no fue hasta el Imperio mogol cuando se empezó a observar a emperadores que patrocinaran las bellas artes. El emperador Humayun , durante el restablecimiento del sultanato de Delhi en 1555, trajo consigo a Mir Sayyid Ali y Abd al-Samad , dos de los mejores pintores del famoso taller del persa Shah Tahmasp .

During the reign of Akbar (1556–1605), the number of painters grew from around 30 during the creation of the Hamzanama in the mid-1560s, to around 130 by the mid-1590s.[48] According to court historian Abu'l-Fazal, Akbar was hands-on in his interest of the arts, inspecting his painters regularly and rewarding the best.[49] It is during this time that Persian artists were attracted to bringing their unique style to the empire. Indian elements were present in their works from the beginning, with the incorporation of local Indian flora and fauna that were otherwise absent from the traditional Persian style. The paintings of this time reflected the vibrancy and inclusion of Akbar's kingdom, with production of Persian miniatures, the Rajput paintings (including the Kangra school) and the Pahari style of Northern India. They also influenced the Company style watercolor paintings created during the British rule many years later.

With the death of Akbar, his son Jahangir (1605–1627) took the throne. He preferred each painter work on a single piece rather than the collaboration fostered during Akbar's time. This period marks the emergence of distinct individual styles, notably Bishan Das, Manohar Das, Abu al-Hasan, Govardhan, and Daulat.[50] Jahangir himself had the capability to identify the work of each individual artist, even if the work was unnamed. The Razmnama (Persian translation of the Hindu epic Mahabharata) and an illustrated memoir of Jahangir, named Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, were created under his rule. Jahangir was succeeded by Shah Jahan (1628–1658), whose most notable architectural contribution is the Taj Mahal. Paintings under his rule were more formal, featuring court scenes, in contrast to the personal styles from his predecessor's time. Aurangzeb (1658–1707), who held increasingly orthodox Sunni beliefs, forcibly took the throne from his father Shah Jahan. With a ban of music and painting in 1680, his reign saw the decline of Mughal patronage of the arts.

As painting declined in the imperial court, artists and the general influence of Mughal painting spread to the princely courts and cities of north India, where both portraiture, the illustration of the Indian epics, and Hindu religious painting developed in many local schools and styles. Notable among these were the schools of Rajput, Pahari, Deccan, Kangra painting.

Other medieval Indian kingdoms

The last empire in southern India has left spectacular remains of Vijayanagara architecture, especially at Hampi, Karnataka, often heavily decorated with sculpture. These developed the Chola tradition. After the Mughal conquest, the temple tradition continued to develop, mainly in the expansion of existing temples, which added new outer walls with increasingly large gopurams, often dwarfing the older buildings in the centre. These became usually thickly covered with plaster statues of deities and other religious figures, which need have their brightly coloured paint kept renewed at intervals so they do not erode away.

In South-Central India, during the late fifteenth century after the Middle kingdoms, the Bahmani sultanate disintegrated into the Deccan sultanates centered at Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar. They used vedic techniques of metal casting, stone carving, and painting, as well as a distinctive architectural style with the addition of citadels and tombs from Mughal architecture. For instance, the Baridi dynasty (1504–1619) of Bidar saw the invention of bidri ware, which was adopted from Vedic and Maurya period ashoka pillars of zinc mixed with copper, tin, and lead and inlaid with silver or brass, then covered with a mud paste containing sal ammoniac, which turned the base metal black, highlighting the colour and sheen of the inlaid metal. Only after the Mughal conquest of Ahmadnagar in 1600 did the Persian influence patronized by the Turco-Mongol Mughals begin to affect Deccan art.

British period (1857–1947)

British colonial rule had a great impact on Indian art, especially from the mid-19th century onwards. Many old patrons of art became less wealthy and influential, and Western art more ubiquitous as the British Empire established schools of art in major cities. The oldest, the Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai, was established in 1850. In major cities with many Europeans, the Company style of small paintings became common, created by Indian artists working for European patrons of the East India Company. The style mainly used watercolour, to convey soft textures and tones, in a style combining influences from Western prints and Mughal painting.[51] By 1858, the British government took over the task of administration of India under the British Raj. Many commissions by Indian princes were now wholly or partly in Western styles, or the hybrid Indo-Saracenic architecture. The fusion of Indian traditions with European style at this time is evident from Raja Ravi Varma's oil paintings of sari-clad women in a graceful manner.

Bengal School of Art

The Bengal School of Art commonly referred as Bengal School, was an art movement and a style of Indian painting that originated in Bengal, primarily Kolkata and Shantiniketan, and flourished throughout the Indian subcontinent, during the British Raj in the early 20th century. Also known as 'Indian style of painting' in its early days, it was associated with Indian nationalism (swadeshi) and led by Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951), but was also promoted and supported by British arts administrators like E. B. Havell, the principal of the Government College of Art and Craft, Kolkata from 1896; eventually it led to the development of the modern Indian painting.

Tagore later attempted to develop links with Japanese artists as part of an aspiration to construct a pan-Asianist model of art. Through the paintings of 'Bharat Mata', Abanindranath established the pattern of patriotism. Painters and artists of Bengal school were Nandalal Bose, M.A.R Chughtai, Sunayani Devi (sister of Abanindranath Tagore), Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, Kalipada Ghoshal, Asit Kumar Haldar, Sudhir Khastgir, Kshitindranath Majumdar, Sughra Rababi, Sukhvir Sanghal.[52]

Between 1920 and 1925, Gaganendranath pioneered experiments in modernist painting. Partha Mitter describes him as "the only Indian painter before the 1940s who made use of the language and syntax of Cubism in his painting". From 1925 onwards, the artist developed a complex post-cubist style.

With the Swadeshi Movement gaining momentum by 1905, Indian artists attempted to resuscitate the cultural identities suppressed by the British, rejecting the Romanticized style of the Company paintings and the mannered work of Raja Ravi Varma and his followers. Thus was created what is known today as the Bengal School of Art, led by the reworked Asian styles (with an emphasis on Indian nationalism) of Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951), who has been referred to as the father of Modern Indian art.[53] Other artists of the Tagore family, such as Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) and Gaganendranath Tagore (1867–1938) as well as new artists of the early 20th century such as Amrita Sher-Gil (1913–1941) were responsible for introducing Avant-garde western styles into Indian Art. Many other artists like Jamini Roy and later S.H. Raza took inspiration from folk traditions. In 1944, K.C.S. Paniker founded the Progressive Painters' Association (PPA) thus giving rise to the "madras movement" in art.[54]

Contemporary art (c. 1900 CE-present)

In 1947, India became independent of British rule. A group of six artists – K. H. Ara, S. K. Bakre, H. A. Gade, M.F. Husain, S.H. Raza and Francis Newton Souza – founded the Bombay Progressive Artists' Group in the year 1952, to establish new ways of expressing India in the post-colonial era. Though the group was dissolved in 1956, it was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian art. Almost all India's major artists in the 1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who are well-known today are Bal Chabda, Manishi Dey, V. S. Gaitonde, Krishen Khanna, Ram Kumar, Tyeb Mehta, K. G. Subramanyan, A. Ramachandran, Devender Singh, Akbar Padamsee, John Wilkins, Himmat Shah and Manjit Bawa.[55] Present-day Indian art is varied as it had been never before. Among the best-known artists of the newer generation include Bose Krishnamachari and Bikash Bhattacharjee.

Painting and sculpture remained important in the later half of the twentieth century, though in the work of leading artists such as Nalini Malani, Subodh Gupta, Narayanan Ramachandran, Vivan Sundaram, Jitish Kallat, GR Iranna, Bharati Kher, Chittravanu Muzumdar, they often found radical new directions. Bharti Dayal has chosen to handle the traditional Mithila painting in most contemporary way and created her own style through the exercises of her own imagination, they appear fresh and unusual.

The increase in discourse about Indian art, in English as well as vernacular Indian languages, changed the way art was perceived in the art schools. Critical approach became rigorous; critics like Geeta Kapur, R. Siva Kumar,[56][57] Shivaji K. Panikkar, Ranjit Hoskote, amongst others, contributed to re-thinking contemporary art practice in India.

By materials and art forms

Sculpture

Chola bronze of Shiva as Nataraja ("Lord of Dance"), Tamil Nadu, 10th or 11th century.

The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilisation (3300–1700 BC), found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-day Pakistan. These include the famous small bronze male dancerNataraja. However such figures in bronze and stone are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery figurines and stone seals, often of animals or deities very finely depicted. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there is little record of sculpture until the Buddhist era, apart from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat controversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad.[58]

The great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone appears to begin relatively late, with the reign of Ashoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts and topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of which six survive.[59] Large amounts of figurative sculpture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pilgrimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition using wood.[60] Indeed, wood continued to be the main sculptural and architectural medium in Kerala throughout all historic periods until recent decades.[61]

During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northern India, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara from what is now southern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha's life and teachings. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time, but only through some of his symbols. This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.

The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflected both native Indian traditions and the Western influences received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and effectively established the basis for subsequent Indian religious sculpture.[60] The style was developed and diffused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550) which remains a "classical" period for Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves,[62] though the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later.[63] Later large scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, often reverting to simple frontal standing poses for deities, though the attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figure in high relief. The celebrated lost wax bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850–1250) from south India, many designed to be carried in processions, include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja,[64] with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava dynasty.[65]The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.[66] Among the existing specimens in the various museums of the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi, Siva saints and many more.[67]

Wall painting

Fresco from the Ajanta Caves, c. 450-500

The tradition and methods of Indian cliff painting gradually evolved throughout many thousands of years – there are multiple locations found with prehistoric art. The early caves included overhanging rock decorated with rock-cut art and the use of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 BCE). Their use has continued in some areas into historic times.[68] The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are on the edge of the Deccan Plateau where deep erosion has left huge sandstone outcrops. The many caves and grottos found there contain primitive tools and decorative rock paintings that reflect the ancient tradition of human interaction with their landscape, an interaction that continues to this day.[69]

The oldest surviving frescoes of the historical period have been preserved in the Ajanta Caves with Cave 10 having some from the 1st century CE, though the larger and more famous groups are from the 5th century. Despite climatic conditions that tend to work against the survival of older paintings, in total there are known more than 20 locations in India with paintings and traces of former paintings of ancient and early medieval times (up to the 8th to 10th centuries CE),[70] although these are just a tiny fraction of what would have once existed. The most significant frescoes of the ancient and early medieval period are found in the Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora, and Sittanavasal caves, the last being Jain of the 7th-10th centuries. Although many show evidence of being by artists mainly used to decorating palaces, no early secular wall-paintings survive.[71]

The Chola fresco paintings were discovered in 1931 within the circumambulatory passage of the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, and are the first Chola specimens discovered. Researchers have discovered the technique used in these frescoes. A smooth batter of limestone mixture is applied over the stones, which took two to three days to set. Within that short span, such large paintings were painted with natural organic pigments. During the Nayak period the Chola paintings were painted over. The Chola frescoes lying underneath have an ardent spirit of saivism is expressed in them. They probably synchronised with the completion of the temple by Rajaraja Cholan the Great.

Kerala mural painting has well-preserved fresco or mural or wall painting in temple walls in Pundarikapuram, Ettumanoor and Aymanam and elsewhere.

Miniature painting

Akbar riding the elephant Hawa'I pursuing another elephant

Although few Indian miniatures survive from before about 1000 CE, and some from the next few centuries, there was probably a considerable tradition. Those that survive are initially illustrations for Buddhist texts, later followed by Jain and Hindu equivalents, and the decline of Buddhist as well as the vulnerable support material of the palm-leaf manuscript probably explain the rarity of early examples.[72]

Mughal painting in miniatures on paper developed very quickly in the late 16th century from the combined influence of the existing miniature tradition and artists trained in the Persian miniature tradition imported by the Mughal Emperor's court. New ingredients in the style were much greater realism, especially in portraits, and an interest in animals, plants and other aspects of the physical world.[73] Deccan painting developed around the same time in the Deccan sultanates courts to the south, in some ways more vital, if less poised and elegant.[74]

Miniatures either illustrated books or were single works for muraqqas or albums of painting and Islamic calligraphy. The style gradually spread in the next two centuries to influence painting on paper in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts, developing into a number of regional styles often called "sub-Mughal", including Rajput painting, Pahari painting, and finally Company painting, a hybrid watercolour style influenced by European art and largely patronized by the people of the British raj. In "pahari" ("mountain") centres like that of Kangra painting the style remained vital and continued to develop into the early decades of the 19th century.[75] From the mid-19th century Western-style easel paintings became increasingly painted by Indian artists trained in Government art schools.

Jewellery

Pair of gold earrings, 1st century BCE, Andhra Pradesh.

The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery-making, with a history of over 5,000 years.[76] Using jewellery as a store of capital remains more common in India than in most modern societies, and gold appears always to have been strongly preferred for the metal. India and the surrounding areas were important sources of high-quality gemstones, and the jewellery of the ruling class is typified by using them lavishly. One of the first to start jewellery-making were the people of the Indus Valley civilization. Early remains are few, as they were not buried with their owners.

Other materials

Wood was undoubtedly extremely important, but rarely survives long in the Indian climate. Organic animal materials such as ivory or bone were discouraged by the Dharmic religions, although Buddhist examples exist, such as the Begram ivories, many of Indian manufacture, but found in Afghanistan, and some relatively modern carved tusks. In Muslim settings they are more common.

Temple art

Obscurity shrouds the period between the decline of the Harappans and the definite historic period starting with the Mauryas, and in the historical period, the earliest Indian religion to inspire major artistic monuments was Buddhism. Though there may have been earlier structures in wood that have been transformed into stone structures, there are no physical evidences for these except textual references. Soon after the Buddhists initiated rock-cut caves, Hindus and Jains started to imitate them at Badami, Aihole, Ellora, Salsette, Elephanta, Aurangabad and Mamallapuram and Mughals. It appears to be a constant in Indian art that the different religions shared a very similar artistic style at any particular period and place, though naturally adapting the iconography to match the religion commissioning them.[77] Probably the same groups of artists worked for the different religions regardless of their own affiliations.

Indian art also found its way into Italy, within the context of Indo-Roman trade: in 1938 the Pompeii Lakshmi was found in the ruins of Pompeii (destroyed in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE).

Buddhist art first developed during the Gandhara period and Amaravati periods around the 1st century BCE. It continued to flourish during the Gupta Periods and Pala periods that comprise the Golden Age of India, even as rulers became mostly Hindu.[78] Buddhist art largely disappeared by the end of the first millennium, after which Hindu dynasties like the Pallava, Chola, Hoysala and Vijayanagara Empires developed their own styles.

There is no time line that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-standing structures began in the 5th century, while rock-cut temples continued to be excavated until the 12th century. An example of a free-standing structural temple is the Shore Temple, a part of the Mahabalipuram World Heritage Site, with its slender tower, built on the shore of the Bay of Bengal with finely carved granite rocks cut like bricks and dating from the 8th century.[79][80]

Folk and tribal art

Warli painting from Maharastra

Folk and tribal art in India takes on different manifestations through varied media such as pottery, painting, metalwork,[81] paper-art, weaving and designing of objects such as jewellery and toys. These are not just aesthetic objects but in fact have an important significance in people's lives and are tied to their beliefs and rituals. The objects can range from sculpture, masks (used in rituals and ceremonies), paintings, textiles, baskets, kitchen objects, arms and weapons, and the human body itself (tattoos and piercings). There is a deep symbolic meaning that is attached to not only the objects themselves but also the materials and techniques used to produce them.

Often puranic gods and legends are transformed into contemporary forms and familiar images. Fairs, festivals, local heroes (mostly warriors) and local deities play a vital role in these arts (Example: Nakashi art from Telangana or Cherial Scroll Painting).

Folk art also includes the visual expressions of the wandering nomads. This is the art of people who are exposed to changing landscapes as they travel over the valleys and highlands of India. They carry with them the experiences and memories of different spaces and their art consists of the transient and dynamic pattern of life. The rural, tribal and arts of the nomads constitute the matrix of folk expression. Examples of folk arts are:

  1. Warli Painting - The Warli region of Maharashtra had the tribal art form known as "Warli painting" first appear. The art genre uses straightforward geometric patterns and shapes to produce images of everyday life, the natural world, and religious themes. The paintings are often created in white on a background of red or ochre.[82]
  2. Madhubani Painting: Folk art, known as "Madhubani painting", has its roots in the Mithila area of Bihar. The paintings incorporate sophisticated geometric patterns frequently and depict images of deities, nature, and everyday life in vivid colors.[83]
  3. Gond Painting: The Gond region of Madhya Pradesh had the tribal art form known as "Gond painting" first appear. The elaborate patterns and designs of the art form are frequently influenced by nature and the spiritual practices of the Gond people. The paintings are typically done in bright colors and feature bold, graphic lines.[84]

While most tribes and traditional folk artist communities are assimilated into the familiar kind of civilized life, they still continue to practice their art. Unfortunately though, market and economic forces have ensured that the numbers of these artists are dwindling.[85][86] A lot of effort is being made by various NGOs and the Government of India to preserve and protect these arts and to promote them. Several scholars in India and across the world have studied these arts and some valuable scholarship is available on them. The folk spirit has a tremendous role to play in the development of art and in the overall consciousness of indigenous cultures.

Contextual Modernism

The year 1997 bore witness to two parallel gestures of canon formation. On the one hand, the influential Baroda Group, a coalition whose original members included Vivan Sundaram, Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh, Bhupen Khakhar, and Nalini Malani—and which had left its mark on history in the form of the 1981 exhibition “Place for People”—was definitively historicized in 1997 with the publication of Contemporary Art in Baroda, an anthology of essays edited by Sheikh. On the other hand, the art historian R. Siva Kumar's benchmark exhibition and related publication, A Contextual Modernism, restored the Santiniketan artists—Rabindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Benode Behari Mukherjee, and Ramkinkar Baij—to their proper place as the originators of an indigenously achieved yet transcultural modernism in the 1930s, well before the Progressives composed their manifesto in the late 1940s. Of the Santiniketan artists, Siva Kumar observed that they “reviewed traditional antecedents in relation to the new avenues opened up by cross-cultural contacts. They also saw it as a historical imperative. Cultural insularity, they realized, had to give way to eclecticism and cultural impurity.”[87]

The Kala Bhavana (Institute of Fine Arts), Santiniketan. It boasts an extremely well-known faculty and student body. It is most famous for the spread of Bengal School of Art.

The idea of Contextual Modernism emerged in 1997 from R. Siva Kumar's Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism as a postcolonial critical tool in the understanding of an alternative modernism in the visual arts of the erstwhile colonies like India, specifically that of the Santiniketan artists.

Several terms including Paul Gilroy's counter culture of modernity and Tani Barlow's Colonial modernity have been used to describe the kind of alternative modernity that emerged in non-European contexts. Professor Gall argues that 'Contextual Modernism' is a more suited term because “the colonial in colonial modernity does not accommodate the refusal of many in colonized situations to internalize inferiority. Santiniketan's artist teachers' refusal of subordination incorporated a counter vision of modernity, which sought to correct the racial and cultural essentialism that drove and characterized imperial Western modernity and modernism. Those European modernities, projected through a triumphant British colonial power, provoked nationalist responses, equally problematic when they incorporated similar essentialisms.”[88]

According to R. Siva Kumar "The Santiniketan artists were one of the first who consciously challenged this idea of modernism by opting out of both internationalist modernism and historicist indigenousness and tried to create a context sensitive modernism."[89] He had been studying the work of the Santiniketan masters and thinking about their approach to art since the early 80s. The practice of subsuming Nandalal Bose, Rabindranath Tagore, Ram Kinker Baij and Benode Behari Mukherjee under the Bengal School of Art was, according to Siva Kumar, misleading. This happened because early writers were guided by genealogies of apprenticeship rather than their styles, worldviews, and perspectives on art practice.[89]

Contextual Modernism in the recent past has found its usage in other related fields of studies, specially in Architecture.[90]

Art museums of India

Major cities

National Museum, New Delhi
National Museum, New Delhi
Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai
Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai
Indian Museum, Kolkata
Indian Museum, Kolkata
Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad
Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad
Government Museum, Chennai
Government Museum, Chennai

Archaeological museums

Modern art museums

Other museums

See also

Other Indian Art and Architecture forms

Notes

  1. ^ Jagadish Gupta (1996). Pre-historic Indian Painting. North Central Zone Cultural Centre. Archived from the original on 2020-02-17. Retrieved 2016-02-13.
  2. ^ Shiv Kumar Tiwari (1 January 2000s). Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings. Sarup & Sons. pp. 8–. ISBN 978-81-7625-086-3. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
  3. ^ Cockburn, John (1899). "Art. V.—Cave Drawings in the Kaimūr Range, North-West Provinces". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. New Series. 31 (1): 89–97. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00026113. S2CID 162764849. Archived from the original on 2021-06-13. Retrieved 2019-09-06.
  4. ^ Mathpal, Yashodhar (1984). Prehistoric Painting Of Bhimbetka. Abhinav Publications. p. 220. ISBN 9788170171935. Archived from the original on 2020-04-03. Retrieved 2019-08-25.
  5. ^ Tiwari, Shiv Kumar (2000). Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings. Sarup & Sons. p. 189. ISBN 9788176250863. Archived from the original on 2020-02-17. Retrieved 2019-08-25.
  6. ^ Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (PDF). UNESCO. 2003. p. 16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-12-04. Retrieved 2019-08-25.
  7. ^ Mithen, Steven (2011). After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000 – 5000 BC. Orion. p. 524. ISBN 978-1-78022-259-2. Archived from the original on 2020-02-17. Retrieved 2019-08-25.
  8. ^ Javid, Ali; Jāvīd, ʻAlī; Javeed, Tabassum (2008). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Algora Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-87586-484-6. Archived from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2019-08-25.
  9. ^ Pathak, Dr. Meenakshi Dubey. "Indian Rock Art – Prehistoric Paintings of the Pachmarhi Hills". Bradshaw Foundation. Archived from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
  10. ^ Marshall, Sir John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation, 3 vols, London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931
  11. ^ Keay, John, India, a History. New York: Grove Press, 2000.
  12. ^ Harle, 15-19
  13. ^ Harle, 19-20
  14. ^ a b Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". East and West. 39 (1/4): 111–143, especially 112–114, 115, 125. JSTOR 29756891.
  15. ^ Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". East and West. 39 (1/4): 111–143. ISSN 0012-8376. JSTOR 29756891.
  16. ^ Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K. (1996). The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. ix-x. ISBN 978-81-215-0565-9. Archived from the original on 2020-02-26. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
  17. ^ a b c d Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (2008). A Dictionary of Archaeology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-470-75196-1. Archived from the original on 2019-12-23. Retrieved 2020-09-06.
  18. ^ Harle, 22-28
  19. ^ Harle, 22-26
  20. ^ State Emblem Archived May 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Know India india.gov.in
  21. ^ Harle, 39-42
  22. ^ Dated 100 BCE in Fig.88 in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL. p. 368, Fig. 88. ISBN 9789004155374. Archived from the original on 2020-06-09. Retrieved 2019-11-29.
  23. ^ a b c d e f Dalal, Roshen (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books India. pp. 397–398. ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6. Archived from the original on 2020-06-09. Retrieved 2019-11-29.
  24. ^ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. New Delhi: Pearson Education. p. 430. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  25. ^ "yaksha". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 3 September 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2007.
  26. ^ Sharma, Ramesh Chandra (1994). The Splendour of Mathurā Art and Museum. D.K. Printworld. p. 76. ISBN 978-81-246-0015-3. Archived from the original on 2020-06-09. Retrieved 2019-11-29.
  27. ^ a b c d e Boardman, John (1993). The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 112. ISBN 0-691-03680-2.
  28. ^ Fig. 85 in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL. p. Fig.85, p.365. ISBN 9789004155374. Archived from the original on 2020-06-09. Retrieved 2019-11-29.
  29. ^ "The folk art typifies an older plastic tradition in clay and wood which was now put in stone, as seen in the massive Yaksha statuary which are also of exceptional value as models of subsequent divine images and human figures." in Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana (1965). Indian Art: A history of Indian art from the earliest times up to the third century A. D. Prithivi Prakashan. p. 84. Archived from the original on 2020-06-09. Retrieved 2019-11-29.
  30. ^ "With respect to large-scale iconic statuary carved in the round (...) the region of Mathura not only rivaled other areas but surpassed them in overall quality and quantity throughout the second and early first century BCE." in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL. p. 24. ISBN 9789004155374. Archived from the original on 2020-06-13. Retrieved 2019-11-29.
  31. ^ Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL. pp. 23–25. ISBN 9789004155374. Archived from the original on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2019-11-04.
  32. ^ Harle, 105-117, 26-47
  33. ^ Harle, 59-70
  34. ^ Harle, 105-117, 71-84 on Gandhara
  35. ^ Harle, 68-70 (but see p. 253 for another exception)
  36. ^ a b c Stokstad, Marilyn (2018). Art History. United States: Pearson Education. pp. 306–310. ISBN 978-0-13-447588-2.
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References

Further reading