La India , oficialmente la República de la India, tiene relaciones diplomáticas plenas con 201 estados, incluidos Palestina , la Santa Sede y Niue . [nota 1] [1] El Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores (MEA) es la agencia gubernamental responsable de la conducción de las relaciones exteriores de la India . Con el tercer gasto militar más grande del mundo , la segunda fuerza armada más grande , la quinta economía más grande por tasas nominales de PIB y la tercera economía más grande en términos de paridad de poder adquisitivo, la India es una potencia regional prominente y una superpotencia en ascenso. [2] [3]
Según el MEA, los principales objetivos de la diplomacia india incluyen la protección de los intereses nacionales de la India, la promoción de relaciones amistosas con otros estados y la prestación de servicios consulares a "extranjeros y ciudadanos indios en el extranjero". [4] En las últimas décadas, la India ha seguido una política exterior expansiva, incluida la política de vecindad primero encarnada por la SAARC , así como la política de Mirar hacia el Este para forjar relaciones económicas y estratégicas más amplias con los países del este y sudeste asiático. También ha mantenido una política de ambigüedad estratégica , que incluye su política nuclear de " no uso primero " y su postura neutral sobre la guerra ruso-ucraniana .
La India es miembro de varias organizaciones intergubernamentales, como las Naciones Unidas , el Banco Asiático de Desarrollo , los BRICS y el G-20 , que se considera ampliamente el principal centro económico de las naciones emergentes y desarrolladas. [5] La India ejerce una influencia destacada como miembro fundador del Movimiento de Países No Alineados . [6] La India también ha desempeñado un papel importante e influyente en otras organizaciones internacionales, como la Cumbre de Asia Oriental , [7] la Organización Mundial del Comercio , [8] el Fondo Monetario Internacional (FMI), [9] el G8+5 [10] y el Foro de Diálogo IBSA . [11] La India también es miembro del Banco Asiático de Inversión en Infraestructura y de la Organización de Cooperación de Shanghái . Como ex colonia británica , la India es miembro de la Mancomunidad de Naciones y continúa manteniendo relaciones con otros países de la Mancomunidad.
Las relaciones de la India con el mundo han evolucionado desde el Raj británico (1857-1947), cuando el Imperio Británico asumió la responsabilidad de manejar las relaciones externas y de defensa. Cuando la India obtuvo la independencia en 1947, pocos indios tenían experiencia en la formulación o conducción de la política exterior. Sin embargo, el partido político más antiguo del país, el Congreso Nacional Indio , había establecido un pequeño departamento de asuntos exteriores en 1925 para establecer contactos en el extranjero y dar publicidad a su lucha por la independencia. Desde finales de la década de 1920 en adelante, Jawaharlal Nehru , que tenía un interés de larga data en los asuntos mundiales entre los líderes de la independencia, formuló la postura del Congreso sobre cuestiones internacionales junto con VK Krishna Menon ; después de 1947, articularon la cosmovisión de la India como Primer Ministro y Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de facto .
La influencia internacional de la India varió a lo largo de los años posteriores a la independencia. El prestigio y la autoridad moral de la India eran altos en la década de 1950 y facilitaron la obtención de asistencia para el desarrollo tanto de Oriente como de Occidente. Aunque el prestigio se derivaba de la postura no alineada de la India y, en particular, de la posición que colocaba a los diplomáticos indios, como Menon, para mediar o conciliar en las disputas de otros, la nación no pudo evitar que la política de la Guerra Fría se entrelazara con las relaciones interestatales en el sur de Asia. En la cuestión de Cachemira con Pakistán, intensamente debatida, la India perdió credibilidad al rechazar los llamamientos de las Naciones Unidas a un plebiscito en la zona en disputa. [12]
En los años 1960 y 1970, la posición internacional de la India entre los países desarrollados y en desarrollo se debilitó durante las guerras con China y Pakistán, las disputas con otros países del sur de Asia y el intento de la India de igualar el apoyo que Pakistán recibía de los Estados Unidos y China mediante la firma del Tratado Indo-Soviético de Amistad y Cooperación en agosto de 1971. Aunque la India obtuvo una importante ayuda militar y económica soviética, que ayudó a fortalecer la nación, la influencia de la India se vio socavada a nivel regional e internacional por la percepción de que su amistad con la Unión Soviética impedía una condena más directa de la presencia soviética en Afganistán. A fines de los años 1980, la India mejoró sus relaciones con los Estados Unidos, otros países desarrollados y China, al tiempo que mantenía estrechos vínculos con la Unión Soviética. Las relaciones con sus vecinos del sur de Asia, especialmente Pakistán, Sri Lanka y Nepal, ocuparon gran parte de las energías del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. [13]
Incluso antes de la independencia, el gobierno colonial indio mantenía relaciones diplomáticas semiautónomas. Tenía colonias (como el asentamiento de Adén ), que enviaban y recibían misiones completas. [14] India fue miembro fundador tanto de la Liga de Naciones [15] como de las Naciones Unidas. [16] Después de que India obtuvo la independencia del Reino Unido en 1947, pronto se unió a la Mancomunidad de Naciones y apoyó firmemente los movimientos de independencia en otras colonias, como la Revolución Nacional de Indonesia . [17] La partición y varias disputas territoriales , en particular la de Cachemira , tensarían sus relaciones con Pakistán durante los años siguientes. Durante la Guerra Fría , India adoptó una política exterior de no alinearse con ningún bloque de potencia importante . Sin embargo, India desarrolló estrechos vínculos con la Unión Soviética y recibió un amplio apoyo militar de esta.
El fin de la Guerra Fría afectó significativamente la política exterior de la India, como lo hizo con gran parte del mundo. El país ahora busca fortalecer sus lazos diplomáticos y económicos con los Estados Unidos, [18] [19] el bloque comercial de la Unión Europea , [20] Japón, [21] Israel, [22] México, [23] y Brasil. [24] India también ha forjado estrechos vínculos con los estados miembros de la Asociación de Naciones del Sudeste Asiático , [25] la Unión Africana , [26] la Liga Árabe [27] e Irán. [28]
Aunque India sigue teniendo una relación militar con Rusia, [29] Israel ha surgido como el segundo socio militar más importante de India , [26] mientras que India ha construido una fuerte asociación estratégica con Estados Unidos. [18] [30] La política exterior de Narendra Modi indicó un cambio hacia un enfoque en la región asiática y, más ampliamente, en los acuerdos comerciales.
La política exterior de la India siempre ha considerado el concepto de vecindad como uno de círculos concéntricos cada vez más amplios, alrededor de un eje central de puntos en común históricos y culturales. [31]
Alrededor de 44 millones de personas de origen indio viven y trabajan en el extranjero y constituyen un vínculo importante con su país de origen. Un papel importante de la política exterior de la India ha sido garantizar su bienestar en el marco de las leyes del país en el que viven. [32]
Jawaharlal Nehru , el primer Primer Ministro de la India , promovió un fuerte papel personal para el Primer Ministro. Nehru se desempeñó simultáneamente como Primer Ministro y Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores; tomó todas las decisiones importantes de política exterior él mismo después de consultar con sus asesores y luego confió la conducción de los asuntos internacionales a miembros de alto rango del Servicio Exterior de la India. Fue el principal padre fundador del Panchsheel o los Cinco Principios de Coexistencia Pacífica .
Sus sucesores continuaron ejerciendo un control considerable sobre las relaciones internacionales de la India, aunque nombraron ministros de asuntos exteriores separados. [33] [34] [35]
El segundo primer ministro de la India, Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-1966), amplió la Oficina del Primer Ministro (a veces llamada la Secretaría del Primer Ministro) y aumentó sus poderes. En la década de 1970, la Oficina del Primer Ministro se había convertido en el coordinador de facto y supraministerio del gobierno indio. El papel ampliado de la oficina fortaleció el control del primer ministro sobre la formulación de políticas exteriores a expensas del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. Los asesores de la oficina proporcionaban canales de información y recomendaciones de políticas además de los ofrecidos por el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. Una parte subordinada de la oficina -el Departamento de Investigación y Análisis (RAW)- funcionó de maneras que ampliaron significativamente la información disponible para el primer ministro y sus asesores. El RAW reunió inteligencia, proporcionó análisis de inteligencia a la Oficina del Primer Ministro y llevó a cabo operaciones encubiertas en el extranjero.
El control del Primer Ministro y su dependencia de los asesores personales de la Oficina del Primer Ministro fueron particularmente fuertes durante los mandatos de Indira Gandhi (1966-77 y 1980-84) y su hijo, Rajiv (1984-89), quien la sucedió, y más débiles durante los períodos de gobiernos de coalición. A los observadores les resulta difícil determinar si la autoridad para tomar decisiones sobre cualquier tema recae en el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, el Consejo de Ministros, la Oficina del Primer Ministro o el propio Primer Ministro. [36]
Sin embargo, el Primer Ministro tiene libertad para designar asesores y comités especiales para examinar diversas opciones de política exterior y áreas de interés. [ cita requerida ] En un caso reciente, Manmohan Singh nombró a K. Subrahmanyam en 2005 para dirigir un grupo de trabajo especial del gobierno para estudiar los "Desarrollos Estratégicos Globales" durante la próxima década. [37] El Grupo de Trabajo presentó sus conclusiones al Primer Ministro en 2006. [38] [39] El informe aún no ha sido publicado en el dominio público .
La inclinación histórica de la India hacia una política exterior “no alineada” ha experimentado un cambio bajo el liderazgo del Primer Ministro Narendra Modi desde 2014, ya que Nueva Delhi ha mostrado un mayor nivel de “asertividad” en sus compromisos internacionales. [40]
El Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores es la agencia del gobierno de la India responsable de las relaciones exteriores de la India. El Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores tiene rango de ministro y es miembro del Consejo de Ministros .
Subrahmanyam Jaishankar es el actual Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores. El Ministerio tiene un Ministro de Estado , V. Muraleedharan . El Secretario de Asuntos Exteriores de la India es el jefe del Servicio Exterior de la India (IFS) y, por lo tanto, actúa como jefe de todos los embajadores y altos comisionados indios. [41] Vinay Mohan Kwatra es el actual Secretario de Asuntos Exteriores de la India. [42]
En la era posterior a la Guerra Fría , un aspecto significativo de la política exterior de la India es la política de mirar hacia el Este. Durante la Guerra Fría, las relaciones de la India con sus vecinos del Sudeste Asiático no eran sólidas. Después del fin de la Guerra Fría, el gobierno de la India se dio cuenta particularmente de la importancia de corregir este desequilibrio en la política exterior de la India. En consecuencia, a principios de la década de 1990, el gobierno de Narsimha Rao dio a conocer la política de mirar hacia el Este. Inicialmente, se centró en renovar los contactos políticos y económicos con los países del Este y el Sudeste Asiático.
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En la actualidad, [ ¿cuándo? ] en el marco de la política de mirada hacia el Este , el Gobierno de la India está haciendo especial hincapié en el desarrollo económico de la atrasada región nororiental del país, aprovechando el enorme mercado de la ASEAN y los recursos energéticos disponibles en algunos de los países miembros de la ASEAN, como Birmania. [43] La política de mirada hacia el Este se puso en marcha en 1991, justo después del final de la Guerra Fría, tras la disolución de la Unión Soviética. Tras el inicio de la liberalización, fue una decisión política muy estratégica adoptada por el Gobierno en materia de política exterior. Como dijo el Primer Ministro Manmohan Singh, "fue también un cambio estratégico en la visión de la India sobre el mundo y el lugar de la India en la economía global en evolución".
La política recibió un impulso inicial con la visita del entonces Primer Ministro Narasimha Rao a China, Japón, Corea del Sur, Vietnam y Singapur, y la India se convirtió en un importante socio de diálogo con la ASEAN en 1992. Desde principios de este siglo, la India ha dado un gran impulso a esta política al convertirse en un socio de nivel cumbre de la ASEAN (2002) y al involucrarse en algunas iniciativas regionales como la BIMSTEC y la Cooperación Ganga-Mekong y ahora convirtiéndose en miembro de la Cumbre de Asia Oriental (EAS) en diciembre de 2005. [44]
Desde la disolución de la Unión Soviética, la India ha forjado una asociación más estrecha con las potencias occidentales. En la década de 1990, los problemas económicos de la India y la desaparición del sistema político mundial bipolar obligaron al país a reevaluar su política exterior y ajustar sus relaciones exteriores. Las políticas anteriores resultaron inadecuadas para hacer frente a los graves problemas internos e internacionales que enfrentaba la India. El fin de la Guerra Fría destripó el significado central del no alineamiento y dejó a la política exterior india sin una dirección significativa. Las consideraciones duras y pragmáticas de principios de la década de 1990 todavía se consideraban dentro del marco del no alineamiento del pasado, pero la desintegración de la Unión Soviética eliminó gran parte de la influencia internacional de la India, que las relaciones con Rusia y los demás estados postsoviéticos no podían compensar. Después de la disolución de la Unión Soviética, la India mejoró sus relaciones con los Estados Unidos, Canadá, Francia, Japón y Alemania. En 1992, la India estableció relaciones diplomáticas formales con Israel y esta relación se fortaleció durante los mandatos de la Alianza Democrática Nacional (NDA) y los gobiernos posteriores de la Alianza Progresista Unida (UPA) . [45]
A mediados de los años 90, la India atrajo la atención mundial por el terrorismo apoyado por Pakistán en Cachemira . La guerra de Kargil resultó en una importante victoria diplomática para la India. Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea reconocieron el hecho de que el ejército paquistaní se había infiltrado ilegalmente en territorio indio y presionaron a Pakistán para que se retirara de Kargil. Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea calificaron de grupos terroristas a varios grupos militantes anti-India con base en Pakistán .
En 1998, la India realizó por segunda vez pruebas nucleares (véase Pokhran II ), lo que dio lugar a varias sanciones de Estados Unidos, Japón y Europa contra la India. El entonces ministro de Defensa de la India, George Fernandes , afirmó que el programa nuclear de la India era necesario porque disuadía a la posible amenaza nuclear china. La mayoría de las sanciones impuestas a la India se eliminaron en 2001. [46]
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Tras los ataques del 11 de septiembre de 2001, las agencias de inteligencia indias proporcionaron a los Estados Unidos información importante sobre las actividades de Al Qaeda y grupos relacionados en Pakistán y Afganistán. La amplia contribución de la India a la guerra contra el terrorismo , junto con un auge de su economía, ha ayudado a las relaciones diplomáticas de la India con varios países. En los últimos tres años, la India ha realizado numerosos ejercicios militares conjuntos con los Estados Unidos y países europeos que han dado como resultado un fortalecimiento de la relación bilateral entre los Estados Unidos y la India y la UE y la India . El comercio bilateral de la India con Europa y los Estados Unidos se ha más que duplicado en los cinco años transcurridos desde 2003. [47]
La India ha estado impulsando reformas en la ONU y la OMC con resultados mixtos. La candidatura de la India para un asiento permanente en el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU actualmente cuenta con el respaldo de varios países, entre ellos Francia, Rusia, [48] el Reino Unido, [49] Alemania, Japón, Brasil, [50] Australia [51] y los Emiratos Árabes Unidos. [52] En 2004, los Estados Unidos firmaron un acuerdo de cooperación nuclear con la India a pesar de que esta última no es parte del Tratado de No Proliferación Nuclear . Los Estados Unidos argumentaron que el sólido historial de no proliferación nuclear de la India lo convertía en una excepción; sin embargo, esto no ha persuadido a otros miembros del Grupo de Suministradores Nucleares a firmar acuerdos similares con la India. Durante una visita de Estado a la India en noviembre de 2010, el presidente estadounidense Barack Obama anunció el apoyo de Estados Unidos a la candidatura de la India para la membresía permanente del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU [53] , así como al ingreso de la India al Grupo de Suministradores Nucleares , el Arreglo de Wassenaar , el Grupo Australia y el Régimen de Control de Tecnología de Misiles . [54] [55] Desde enero de 2018, la India se ha convertido en miembro del Arreglo de Wassenaar , del Grupo Australia y del Régimen de Control de Tecnología de Misiles . [56]
La creciente economía de la India, su ubicación estratégica, una combinación de política exterior amistosa y diplomática y una diáspora numerosa y vibrante le han ganado más aliados que enemigos. [57] La India tiene relaciones amistosas con varios países del mundo en desarrollo . Aunque la India no forma parte de ninguna alianza militar importante, tiene una estrecha relación estratégica y militar con la mayoría de sus otras grandes potencias.
Los países considerados más cercanos a la India incluyen a los Emiratos Árabes Unidos , [58] la Federación Rusa , [59] Israel , [60] Afganistán, [61] Francia, [62] Bután, [63] Bangladesh, [64] y los Estados Unidos. Rusia es el mayor proveedor de equipo militar a la India, seguido de Israel y Francia. [65] Según algunos analistas, Israel está listo para superar a Rusia como el mayor socio militar y estratégico de la India. [66] Los dos países también colaboran ampliamente en la esfera de la lucha contra el terrorismo y la tecnología espacial. [67] La India también disfruta de fuertes relaciones militares con varios otros países, incluidos el Reino Unido, los Estados Unidos, [68] Japón, [69] Singapur, Brasil, Sudáfrica e Italia. [70] Además, la India opera una base aérea en Tayikistán, [71] firmó un acuerdo de defensa histórico con Qatar en 2008, [72] y ha arrendado la isla de Asunción a Seychelles para construir una base naval en 2015. [73]
La India también ha forjado relaciones con países en desarrollo, especialmente Sudáfrica, Brasil, [74] y México. [75] Estos países a menudo representan los intereses de los países en desarrollo a través de foros económicos como el G8+5 , IBSA y OMC . La India fue vista como uno de los abanderados del mundo en desarrollo y afirmó hablar en nombre de un conjunto de más de 30 otras naciones en desarrollo en la Ronda de Desarrollo de Doha . [76] [77] La política de India de Mirar hacia el Este la ha ayudado a desarrollar mayores asociaciones económicas y estratégicas con los países del Sudeste Asiático , Corea del Sur, Japón y Taiwán. La India también disfruta de relaciones amistosas con los países del Golfo Pérsico y la mayoría de los miembros de la Unión Africana .
La Fundación para la Investigación de la Seguridad Nacional en Nueva Delhi publicó India's Strategic Partners: A Comparative Assessment y clasificó a los principales socios estratégicos de la India con una puntuación de 90 puntos: Rusia ocupa el primer lugar con 62, seguida de Estados Unidos (58), Francia (51), Reino Unido (41), Alemania (37) y Japón (34). [78] Uno de los resultados de la cumbre del G20 de 2023 es un proyecto de transporte que facilitaría el comercio indio con Oriente Medio y Europa. [79]
La India ha firmado acuerdos de asociación estratégica con más de dos docenas de países y entidades supranacionales que se enumeran aquí en el orden cronológico de los pactos:
En la actualidad, la India está tomando medidas para establecer asociaciones estratégicas con Canadá [112] y Argentina . [113] Aunque la India no ha firmado ningún acuerdo formal de asociación estratégica con Bután y Qatar , su Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores a menudo describe las relaciones con estos países como "estratégicas". [114] [115]
Lista de países con los que la India mantiene relaciones diplomáticas:
Burkina Faso
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 24 de marzo de 1962 [275]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 18 de octubre de 1975 [228]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 26 de agosto de 1967. [280]
Yibuti
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 7 de diciembre de 1981 [281]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 1 de julio de 1948. [282]
La India y Etiopía mantienen estrechos vínculos bilaterales basados en la cooperación y el apoyo mutuos. La India ha sido socia de Etiopía en sus esfuerzos de desarrollo, capacitando a personal etíope bajo su programa ITEC , proporcionándole varias líneas de crédito y lanzando el proyecto Pan-African e-Network en ese país en 2007. La Segunda Cumbre del Foro India-África se celebró en Addis Abeba en 2011. La India es también la segunda fuente más importante de inversiones extranjeras directas de Etiopía .
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 18 de agosto de 1947. [283]
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Las relaciones modernas entre Egipto e India se remontan a los contactos entre Saad Zaghloul y Mohandas Gandhi sobre los objetivos comunes de sus respectivos movimientos de independencia. [284] En 1955, Egipto bajo Gamal Abdul Nasser e India bajo Jawaharlal Nehru se convirtieron en los fundadores del Movimiento de Países No Alineados . Durante la Guerra de 1956, Nehru apoyó a Egipto hasta el punto de amenazar con retirar a su país de la Mancomunidad de Naciones . En 1967, tras el conflicto árabe-israelí , India apoyó a Egipto y a los árabes. En 1977, Nueva Delhi describió la visita del presidente Anwar al-Sadat a Jerusalén como un movimiento "valiente" y consideró el tratado de paz entre Egipto e Israel un paso primordial en el camino hacia una solución justa del problema de Oriente Medio. Las principales exportaciones egipcias a la India incluyen algodón en bruto, fertilizantes en bruto y manufacturados, petróleo y productos derivados del petróleo, productos químicos orgánicos y no orgánicos y productos de cuero y hierro. Las principales importaciones de Egipto procedentes de la India son hilo de algodón, sésamo, café, hierbas, tabaco, lentejas, productos farmacéuticos y equipos de transporte. El Ministerio de Petróleo egipcio también está negociando actualmente con otra empresa india la creación de una planta de fertilizantes que funcione con gas natural. En 2004, la Autoridad del Gas de la India Limited compró el 15% de la empresa egipcia de distribución y comercialización de gas natural. En 2008, la inversión egipcia en la India ascendió a unos 750 millones de dólares, según el embajador egipcio. [285] Después de la Primavera Árabe de 2011, con el derrocamiento de Hosni Mubarak, Egipto pidió la ayuda de la India para la celebración de elecciones nacionales. [ cita requerida ]
Gabón tiene una embajada en Nueva Delhi. La Embajada de la India en Kinshasa (República Democrática del Congo) está acreditada conjuntamente ante Gabón. [286]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 6 de marzo de 1957. [287]
Las relaciones entre Ghana y la India son generalmente estrechas y cordiales, combinadas con conexiones económicas y culturales. El comercio entre la India y Ghana ascendió a 818 millones de dólares estadounidenses en 2010-11 y se espera que alcance los 1.000 millones de dólares estadounidenses en 2013. [288] Ghana importa automóviles y autobuses de la India y empresas como Tata Motors y Ashok Leyland tienen una presencia significativa en el país. [289] [290] Las exportaciones ghanesas a la India consisten en oro , cacao y madera, mientras que las exportaciones indias a Ghana comprenden productos farmacéuticos , maquinaria agrícola, equipos eléctricos, plásticos, acero y cemento. [291]
El Gobierno de la India ha otorgado a Ghana líneas de crédito por valor de 228 millones de dólares , que se han utilizado para proyectos en sectores como el procesamiento de productos agrícolas, el procesamiento de pescado, la gestión de residuos, la electrificación rural y la expansión de los ferrocarriles de Ghana. [292] La India también ha ofrecido establecer un Instituto de Tecnología de la Información India-África (IAIIT) y un Centro de Incubación de Empresas de Procesamiento de Alimentos en Ghana en el marco de la Cumbre del Foro India-África . [291]
La India es uno de los mayores inversores extranjeros en la economía de Ghana . A finales de 2011, las inversiones indias en Ghana ascendieron a 550 millones de dólares y abarcaron unos 548 proyectos. [292] Las inversiones indias se concentran principalmente en los sectores agrícola y manufacturero de Ghana, mientras que las empresas ghanesas fabrican medicamentos en colaboración con empresas indias. El sector de las tecnologías de la información en Ghana también tiene una importante presencia india. La India y Ghana también tienen un acuerdo bilateral de protección de las inversiones entre ellos. [293] La empresa india Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilisers está en proceso de establecer una planta de fertilizantes en Ghana, en Nyankrom, en el distrito de Shama, en la región occidental de Ghana . El proyecto supone una inversión de 1.300 millones de dólares y la planta tendría una capacidad de producción anual de 1,1 millones de toneladas, la mayor parte de las cuales se exportarían a la India. [294] [295] También hay planes para desarrollar una planta de procesamiento de azúcar, lo que supone una inversión de 36 millones de dólares. [296] Bank of Baroda , Bharti Airtel , Tata Motors y Tech Mahindra se encuentran entre las principales empresas indias en Ghana. [297]
En Ghana viven hoy entre siete y ocho mil indios y personas de origen indio, algunos de los cuales llevan más de setenta años en el país. [291] Ghana es el hogar de una creciente población hindú indígena que hoy cuenta con 3.000 familias. El hinduismo llegó a Ghana por primera vez a finales de los años cuarenta con los comerciantes sindhi que emigraron aquí tras la Partición de la India . Ha ido creciendo en Ghana y en el vecino Togo desde mediados de los años setenta, cuando se estableció un monasterio hindú africano en Accra. [298] [299]
Guinea
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 8 de julio de 1960. [176]
Las relaciones bilaterales entre la India y Costa de Marfil se han ampliado considerablemente en los últimos años, en un momento en que la India busca desarrollar una amplia asociación comercial y estratégica en la región de África occidental . La misión diplomática india en Abiyán se inauguró en 1979. Costa de Marfil abrió su misión permanente en Nueva Delhi en septiembre de 2004. [300] Actualmente, ambas naciones están impulsando iniciativas para aumentar el comercio, las inversiones y la cooperación económica. [301]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 14 de diciembre de 1963 [302]
Como estados litorales del Océano Índico, los vínculos comerciales y los lazos comerciales entre la India y Kenia se remontan a varios siglos. Kenia tiene una gran minoría de indios y personas de origen indio que viven allí que son descendientes de trabajadores que fueron traídos por los británicos para construir el ferrocarril de Uganda y comerciantes gujarati. [303] India y Kenia tienen crecientes lazos comerciales y comerciales. El comercio bilateral ascendió a $ 2.4 mil millones en 2010-2011, pero con las importaciones kenianas de la India que representan $ 2.3 mil millones, la balanza comercial fue fuertemente a favor de la India. India es el sexto socio comercial más grande de Kenia y el mayor exportador a Kenia. Las exportaciones indias a Kenia incluyen productos farmacéuticos , acero , maquinaria y automóviles , mientras que las exportaciones kenianas a la India son productos primarios como carbonato de sodio , verduras y té . Las empresas indias tienen una presencia significativa en Kenia con corporaciones indias como Tata Group , Essar Group , Reliance Industries y Bharti Airtel que operan allí.
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 8 de junio de 1971. [304]
La India tiene una Alta Comisión en Pretoria que presta servicios a Lesotho, y este último país tiene una misión residencial en la India. Lesotho y la India tienen fuertes vínculos. Lesotho ha respaldado la candidatura de la India para obtener un puesto permanente en la ONU y también ha reconocido a Jammu y Cachemira como parte de la India. La India exportó 11 millones de dólares a Lesotho en el año 2010-2011, mientras que sólo importó 1 millón de dólares en bienes de Lesotho. Desde 2001, un equipo de entrenamiento del ejército indio ha entrenado a varios soldados de la LDF .
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 7 de julio de 1960. [305]
Las relaciones bilaterales entre la República de la India y la República de Liberia se han ampliado gracias al creciente comercio bilateral y la cooperación estratégica. La India está representada en Liberia a través de su embajada en Abiyán ( Costa de Marfil ) y un consulado honorario activo en Monrovia desde 1984. Liberia estaba representada en la India a través de su misión residente en Nueva Delhi, que posteriormente cerró debido a limitaciones presupuestarias. [306]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 20 de julio de 1952. [307]
Malaui
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 19 de octubre de 1964. [197]
Malí
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 24 de enero de 1962. [308]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 22 de octubre de 1965. [309]
La India está representada en Mauritania por su embajada en Bamako , Mali . [310] [311] La India también tiene un consulado honorario en Nuakchot . [312]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 12 de marzo de 1968. [313]
Las relaciones entre la India y Mauricio existen desde 1730, las relaciones diplomáticas se establecieron en 1948 antes de que Mauricio se convirtiera en un estado independiente. [314] La relación es muy cordial debido a las afinidades culturales y los largos lazos históricos que existen entre las dos naciones. Más del 68% de la población de Mauricio es de origen indio , más conocido como indo-mauriciano . La corporación económica y comercial ha ido aumentando con los años. La India se ha convertido en la mayor fuente de importaciones de Mauricio desde 2007 y Mauricio importó bienes por valor de 816 millones de dólares en el ejercicio económico de abril de 2010 a marzo de 2011. Mauricio ha seguido siendo la mayor fuente de IED para la India durante más de una década, con entradas de capital de IED por un total de 55,2 mil millones de dólares en el período de abril de 2000 a abril de 2011. India y Mauricio cooperan en la lucha contra la piratería, que ha surgido como una gran amenaza en la región del Océano Índico , y apoyan la postura de la India contra el terrorismo. [315]
La relación entre Mauricio y la India se remonta a principios de la década de 1730, cuando se trajeron artesanos de Puducherry y Tamil Nadu . [314] Las relaciones diplomáticas entre la India y Mauricio se establecieron en 1948. Mauricio mantuvo contactos con la India a través de los sucesivos gobiernos holandés, francés y británico. A partir de la década de 1820, los trabajadores indios comenzaron a llegar a Mauricio para trabajar en las plantaciones de azúcar. A partir de 1833, cuando el Parlamento abolió la esclavitud , un gran número de trabajadores indios comenzaron a ser llevados a Mauricio como trabajadores contratados . El 2 de noviembre de 1834, el barco llamado 'Atlas' atracó en Mauricio con el primer grupo de trabajadores indios contratados.
Marruecos tiene una embajada en Nueva Delhi . También tiene un Cónsul Honorario con sede en Mumbai . India tiene una embajada en Rabat . Ambas naciones forman parte del Movimiento de Países No Alineados . [316]
En las Naciones Unidas, la India apoyó la descolonización de Marruecos y el movimiento de liberación marroquí. La India reconoció a Marruecos el 20 de junio de 1956 y estableció relaciones en 1957. [317] El Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores del Gobierno de la India afirma que "la India y Marruecos han disfrutado de relaciones cordiales y amistosas y que a lo largo de los años las relaciones bilaterales han experimentado una profundidad y un crecimiento significativos". [318]
El Consejo Indio de Relaciones Culturales promueve la cultura india en Marruecos. [319] Marruecos busca aumentar sus lazos comerciales con la India y está buscando inversiones indias en varios sectores. [320] Las relaciones bilaterales entre la India y Marruecos se fortalecieron después de que el embajador marroquí en la India pasara una semana en Srinagar , la capital de Jammu y Cachemira . Esto mostró la solidaridad marroquí con la India con respecto a Cachemira. [320]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 25 de junio de 1975. [321]
La India tiene un alto comisionado en Maputo [322] y Mozambique tiene un alto comisionado en Nueva Delhi .
Las relaciones entre la India y Namibia son cálidas y cordiales. [323]
La India fue uno de los primeros países que apoyó a la SWAPO durante el movimiento de liberación de Namibia . La primera embajada de la SWAPO se estableció en la India en 1986. La misión de observadores de la India se convirtió en un Alto Comisionado de pleno derecho el Día de la Independencia de Namibia, el 21 de marzo de 1990. [323] La India ha ayudado a entrenar a la Fuerza Aérea de Namibia desde su creación en 1995. Los dos países trabajan en estrecha colaboración en organizaciones multilaterales mutuas como las Naciones Unidas , el Movimiento de Países No Alineados y la Mancomunidad de Naciones . Namibia apoya la expansión del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas para incluir un asiento permanente para la India. [323]
En 2008-09, el comercio entre los dos países se situó en aproximadamente 80 millones de dólares. Las principales importaciones de Namibia desde la India fueron medicamentos y productos farmacéuticos, productos químicos, maquinaria agrícola, automóviles y piezas de automóviles, vidrio y cristalería, y productos de plástico y linóleo. La India importó principalmente metales no ferrosos, minerales y chatarra de metal. Los productos indios también se exportan a la vecina Sudáfrica y se reimportan a Namibia como importaciones sudafricanas. Los diamantes de Namibia a menudo se exportan a los mercados de diamantes europeos antes de ser importados nuevamente a la India. En 2009, tuvo lugar la primera venta directa de diamantes de Namibia a la India. [323] En 2008, dos empresas indias ganaron un contrato de 105 millones de dólares de NamPower para tender una línea bipolar de corriente continua de alto voltaje desde Katima Mulilo a Otjiwarongo . [323] Namibia es beneficiaria del programa de Cooperación Técnica y Económica de la India (ITEC) para profesionales de las telecomunicaciones de países en desarrollo.
La India tiene un alto comisionado en Windhoek [324] y Namibia tiene un alto comisionado en Nueva Delhi . El alto comisionado de Namibia también está acreditado para Bangladesh, las Maldivas y Sri Lanka. [325]
Ambos países establecieron relaciones diplomáticas el 18 de julio de 1977. [234]
La India mantiene estrechas relaciones con este país de África occidental rico en petróleo. El veinte por ciento de las necesidades de petróleo crudo de la India son satisfechas por Nigeria. 40.000 barriles por día (6.400 m3 / d) de petróleo es la cantidad de petróleo que la India recibe de Nigeria. El comercio entre estos dos países se sitúa en 875 millones de dólares en 2005-2006. Las empresas indias también han invertido en manufacturas, productos farmacéuticos , mineral de hierro, acero, tecnología de la información y comunicaciones, entre otras cosas. Tanto la India como Nigeria son miembros de la Mancomunidad de Naciones , el G-77 y el Movimiento de Países No Alineados . El ex presidente nigeriano, Olusegun Obasanjo, fue el invitado de honor en el desfile del Día de la República en 1999, y el primer ministro indio Manmohan Singh visitó Nigeria en 2007 y se dirigió al Parlamento nigeriano.
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Las relaciones entre la India y Ruanda son las relaciones exteriores entre la República de la India y la República de Ruanda . La India está representada en Ruanda a través de su consulado honorario en Kigali . Ruanda tiene una embajada en Nueva Delhi desde 1998 y nombró a su primer embajador residente en 2001. [326]
Las relaciones entre India y Seychelles son relaciones bilaterales entre la República de la India y la República de Seychelles . La India tiene una Alta Comisión en Victoria, mientras que Seychelles mantiene una Alta Comisión en Nueva Delhi . [327]
India y Sudáfrica siempre han tenido relaciones sólidas, a pesar de que India revocó las relaciones diplomáticas en protesta por el régimen del apartheid a mediados del siglo XX. La historia del gobierno británico conecta a ambas tierras. Existe un gran grupo de sudafricanos indios . Mahatma Gandhi pasó muchos años en Sudáfrica, durante los cuales luchó por los derechos de los indios étnicos. Nelson Mandela se inspiró en Gandhi. Después de la independencia de la India, India condenó enérgicamente el apartheid y se negó a mantener relaciones diplomáticas mientras el apartheid se llevó a cabo como política de estado en Sudáfrica.
Los dos países mantienen hoy estrechas relaciones económicas, políticas y deportivas. El comercio entre ambos países creció de 3 millones de dólares en 1992-1993 a 4.000 millones de dólares en 2005-2006, y aspiran a alcanzar los 12.000 millones de dólares en 2010. Un tercio de las importaciones de la India procedentes de Sudáfrica son lingotes de oro . Los diamantes, que se extraen de Sudáfrica, se pulen en la India. Nelson Mandela recibió el Premio Gandhi de la Paz . Los dos países también son miembros del Foro de Diálogo IBSA , con Brasil. La India espera obtener grandes cantidades de uranio , procedente de Sudáfrica, rica en recursos, para el creciente sector de energía nuclear civil de la India.
India recognised South Sudan on 10 July 2011, a day after South Sudan became an independent state. Right now, relations are economic. Pramit Pal Chaudhuri wrote in the Hindustan Times that South Sudan "has other[clarification needed] attractions. As the Indian Foreign Ministry's literature notes, South Sudan is reported to have "some of the largest oil reserves in Africa outside Nigeria and Angola".[328] An article in The Telegraph reported that South Sudan is "one of the poorest [countries] in the world, [but] is oil rich. Foreign ministry officials said New Delhi has [a] keen interest in increasing its investments in the oil fields in South Sudan, which now owns over two-thirds of erstwhile united Sudan's oil fields."[329]
In return for the oil resources that can be provided by South Sudan, India said it was willing to assist in developing infrastructure, training officials in health, education, and rural development. "We have compiled a definite road map using [sic] which India can help South Sudan."[329]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 May 1956.[330]
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Indo-Sudanese relations have always been characterised as longstanding, close, and friendly, even since the early development stages of their countries. At the time of Indian independence, Sudan had contributed 70,000 pounds, which was used to build part of the National Defence Academy in Pune. The main building of NDA is called Sudan Block. The two nations established diplomatic relations shortly after India became known as one of the first Asian countries to recognise the newly independent African country. India and Sudan also share geographic and historical similarities, as well as economic interests. Both countries are former British colonies, and remotely border Saudi Arabia using a body of water. India and Sudan continue to have cordial relations, despite issues such as India's close relationship with Israel, India's solidarity with Egypt over border issues with Sudan, and Sudan's intimate bonds with Pakistan and Bangladesh. India had also contributed some troops as United Nations peacekeeping force in Darfur.
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 August 1962.[190]
Togo opened its embassy in New Delhi in October 2010. The High Commission of India in Accra, Ghana is concurrently accredited to Togo. Togolese President Gnassingbé Eyadéma made an official state visit to India in September 1994. During the visit, the two countries agreed to establish Joint Commission.[331]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 1962.[332]
India and Uganda established diplomatic relations in 1965 and each maintains a High Commissioner in the other's capital. The Indian High Commission in Kampala has concurrent accreditation to Burundi and Rwanda. Uganda hosts a large Indian community and India–Uganda relations cover a broad range of sectors including political, economic, commercial, cultural, and scientific cooperation.[333]
Relations between India and Uganda began with the arrival of over 30,000 Indians in Uganda in the 19th century who were brought there to construct the Mombasa–Kampala railway line. Ugandan independence activists were inspired in their struggle for Ugandan independence by the success of the Indian independence movement and were also supported in their struggle by the Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru.[334][335]Indo-Ugandan relations have been good since Uganda's independence except during the regime of Idi Amin. Amin in 1972 expelled over 55,000 people of Indian origin and 5,000 Indians who had formed the commercial and economic backbone of the country accusing them of exploiting native Ugandans.[335][336] Since the mid-1980s when President Yoweri Museveni came to power, relations have steadily improved. Today some 20,000 Indians and PIOs live or work in Uganda.[335] Ethnic tensions between Indians and Ugandans have been a recurring issue in bilateral relations given the role of Indians in the Ugandan economy.[337][338]
As of the year 2011, India's total trade with Africa is over US$46 billion and its total investment is over US$11 billion with a US$5.7 billion line of credit for executing various projects in Africa.[339]
India has had good relationships with most sub-Saharan African nations for most of its history. In the Prime Minister's visit to Mauritius in 1997, the two countries secured a deal to new Credit Agreement of INR 105 million (US$3 million) to finance the import by Mauritius of capital goods, consultancy services and consumer durable from India. The government of India secured a rice and medicine agreement with the people of Seychelles. India continued to build upon its historically close relations with Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. Visits from political ministers from Ethiopia provided opportunities for strengthening bilateral cooperation between the two countries in the fields of education and technical training, water resources management and development of small industries. This has allowed India to gain benefits from nations that are forgotten by other Western Nations. The South African President, Thabo Mbeki has called for a strategic relationship between India and South Africa to avoid imposition by Western Nations. India continued to build upon its close and friendly relations with Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The Minister of Foreign Affairs arranged for the sending of Special Envoys to each of these countries during 1996–97 as a reaffirmation of India's assurance to strengthening cooperation with these countries in a spirit of South-South partnership. These relations have created a position of strength with African nations that other nations may not possess.[340]
India's commonalities with developing nations in Latin America, especially Brazil and Mexico have continued to grow. India and Brazil continue to work together on the reform of the Security Council through the G4 nations while having also increased strategic and economic cooperation through the IBSA Dialogue Forum. The process of finalizing a Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) with MERCOSUR (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay) is on the itinerary and negotiations are being held with Chile.[341] Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva was the guest of honor at the 2004 Republic Day celebrations in New Delhi.[342]
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Both countries have established diplomatic relations and have an Extradition Arrangement.[343][344]
India and Barbados established diplomatic relations on 30 November 1966 (the date of Barbados' national independence).[345] On that date, the government of India gifted Barbados the throne in Barbados' national House of Assembly.[346] India is represented in Barbados through its embassy in Suriname[347][348][349] and an Indian consulate in Holetown, St. James.[350] In 2011–12 the Indian-based firm Era's Lucknow Medical College and Hospital, established the American University of Barbados (AUB), as the island's first Medical School for international students. In 2015 the governments of Barbados and India signed a joint Open Skies Agreement.[351] Today around 3,000 persons from India call Barbados home. Two-thirds are from India's Surat district of Gujarat known as Suratis. Most of the Suratis are involved in trading. The rest are of Sindhis ancestry.
India has an Honorary Consulate in Belize City and Belize has an Honorary Consulate in New Delhi. Bilateral trade stood at US$45.3 Million in 2014 and has steadily increased since. Belize and India have engaged in dialogue in Central American Integration System (SICA) discussing anti-terrorism, climate change and food security. India signed a Tax Information Exchange Agreement in 2013 with Belize. India also provides Belize with US$30 Million as part of its foreign aid commitment to SICA countries. Citizens of Belize are eligible for scholarships in Indian universities under Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme and the Indian Council for Cultural Relations.
The two nations share a close cultural link due to Belize's large East Indian Population, estimated at 4% of the total population.
Indo-Canadian relations are the longstanding bilateral relations between India and Canada, which are built upon a "mutual commitment to democracy", "pluralism", and "people-to-people links", according to the government of Canada. In 2004, bilateral trade between India and Canada was at about C$2.45 billion. However, the botched handling of the Air India investigation and the case, in general, suffered a setback to Indo-Canadian relations. India's Smiling Buddha nuclear test led to connections between the two countries being frozen, with allegations that India broke the terms of the Colombo Plan. Although Jean Chrétien and Roméo LeBlanc both visited India in the late 1990s, relations were again halted after the Pokhran-II tests.
Canada-India relations have been on an upward trajectory since 2005. Governments at all levels, private-sector organisations, academic institutes in two countries, and people-to-people contacts—especially diaspora networks—have contributed through individual and concerted efforts to significant improvements in the bilateral relationship.
The two governments have agreed on important policy frameworks to advance the bilateral relationship. In particular, the Nuclear Cooperation Agreement (signed in June 2010) and the current successful negotiations of the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) constitute a watershed in Canada-India relations.
The two governments have attempted to make up for lost time and are eager to complete CEPA negotiations by 2013 and ensure its ratification by 2014. After the conclusion of CEPA, Canada and India must define the areas for their partnership which will depend on their ability to convert common interests into common action and respond effectively for steady cooperation. For example, during "pull-aside" meetings between Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Stephen Harper at the G-20 summit in Mexico in June 2012, and an earlier meeting in Toronto between External Affairs Minister S. M. Krishna and John Baird, the leaders discussed developing a more comprehensive partnership going beyond food security and including the possibility of tie-ups in the energy sector, hydrocarbon.
Relations between India and Cuba are close and warm. Both nations are part of the Non-Aligned Movement. Cuba has repeatedly called for a more "democratic" representation of the United Nations Security Council and supports India's candidacy as a permanent member of a reformed Security Council.[352] Fidel Castro said that "The maturity of India..., its unconditional adherence to the principles which lay at the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement give us the assurances that under the wise leadership of Indira Gandhi (the former Prime Minister of India), the non-aligned countries will continue advancing in their inalienable role as a bastion for peace, national independence and development..."[353]
India has an embassy in Havana, the capital of Cuba which opened in January 1960. This had particular significance as it symbolised Indian solidarity with the Cuban revolution.[354] India had been one of the first countries in the world to have recognised the new Cuban government after the Cuban Revolution.[355]
Cuba has an embassy in New Delhi, the Indian capital.[356]
Relations between India and Jamaica are generally cordial and close. There are many cultural and political connections inherited from British colonial rule, such as membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, parliamentary democracy, the English language and cricket.[357][358]
Both nations are members of the Non-Aligned Movement, the United Nations and the Commonwealth, and Jamaica supports India's candidacy for permanent membership in a reformed UN Security Council.
During the British era, Indians voluntarily went to jobs in Jamaica and the West Indies. This has created a considerable population of people of Indian origin in Jamaica. India has a High Commission in Kingston,[357] whilst Jamaica has a consulate in New Delhi[359] and plans to upgrade it to a High Commission soon.
Mexico is a very important and major economic partner of India. Nobel Prize laureate and ambassador to India Octavio Paz wrote his book In Light of India which is an analysis of Indian history and culture.[360] Both nations are regional powers and members of the G-20 major economies.
Bilateral relations between India and Nicaragua have been limited to SICA dialogue and visits by Nicaraguan Ministers to India. India maintains an honorary consul general in Nicaragua,[363] concurrently accredited to the Indian embassy in Panama City and Nicaragua used to maintain an embassy in India but was reduced to an honorary consulate general in New Delhi.[364] the current Foreign minister Samuel Santos López visited India in 2008 for the SICA-India Foreign ministers' meeting and in 2013[365] for high-level talks with the then External Affairs Minister Salman Khurshid which also expanded bilateral trade with the two countries reaching a total of US$60.12 million during 2012–13.
Bilateral relations between Panama and India have been growing steadily, reflecting the crucial role the Panama Canal plays in global trade and commerce. Moreover, with over 15,000 Indians living in Panama, diplomatic ties have considerably increased over the past decade.
The opening of the expanded Canal in 2016 is expected to provide new prospects for maritime connectivity. In seeking to rapidly strengthen trade relations such as the flow of trade triples between the two countries, India is keen to leverage these transit trade facilities in Panama to access the wider market of Latin America. Along with pursuing a free trade agreement, India wants to promote investment in various sectors of Panama's economy, including the banking and maritime industry and the multimodal centre of the Colón Free Trade Zone.[366]
The bilateral relations between the Republic of India and Paraguay have been traditionally strong due to strong commercial, cultural and strategic cooperation. India is represented in Paraguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires in Argentina. India also has an Honorary Consul-General in Asuncion. Paraguay opened its embassy in India in 2005.[367]
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Bilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago have considerably expanded in recent years with both nations building strategic and commercial ties. Both nations formally established diplomatic relations in 1962.[368]
Both nations were part of the British Empire; India supported the independence of Trinidad and Tobago from British rule and established its diplomatic mission in 1962 – the year that Trinidad and Tobago officially gained independence. They possess diverse natural and economic resources and are the largest economies in their respective regions. Both are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Nations, G-77 and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
The Republic of India operates a High Commission in Port of Spain, whilst the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago operates a High Commission in New Delhi.
Before and during the Second World War, the United States under President Roosevelt gave strong support to the Indian independence movement despite being allies to Britain.[369][370] Relations between India and the United States were lukewarm following Indian independence, as India took a leading position in the Non-Aligned Movement, and received support from the Soviet Union. The US provided support to India in 1962 during its war with China. For most of the Cold War, the USA tended to have warmer relations with Pakistan, primarily as a way to contain Soviet-friendly India and to use Pakistan to back the Afghan Mujahideen against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. An Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, signed in 1971, also positioned India against the USA.
After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India made considerable changes to its foreign policy. It developed a close relationship with the Soviet Union and started receiving massive military equipment and financial assistance from the USSR. This harmed the Indo-US relationship. The United States saw Pakistan as a counterweight to pro-Soviet India and started giving the former military assistance. This created an atmosphere of suspicion between India and the US. The Indo-US relationship suffered a considerable setback when the Soviets took over Afghanistan and India overtly supported the Soviet Union.
Relations between India and the United States came to an all-time low during the early 1970s. Despite reports of atrocities in East Pakistan, and being told, most notably in the Blood telegram, of genocidal activities being perpetrated by Pakistani forces, the US. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and US President Richard Nixon did nothing to discourage then-Pakistani President Yahya Khan and the Pakistan Army. Kissinger was particularly concerned about Soviet expansion into South Asia as a result of a treaty of friendship that had recently been signed between India and the Soviet Union and sought to demonstrate to the People's Republic of China the value of a tacit alliance with the United States.[371] During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Indian Armed Forces, along with the Mukti Bahini, succeeded in liberating East Pakistan which soon declared independence. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tacit ally, China. To demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan, routing them through Jordan and Iran,[372] while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan.
When Pakistan's defeat in the eastern sector seemed certain, Nixon sent the USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. The Enterprise arrived at the station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets also sent nuclear submarines to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.[373]
Though American efforts had no effect in turning the tide of the war, the incident involving USS Enterprise is viewed as the trigger for India's subsequent interest in developing nuclear weapons.[374] American policy towards the end of the war was dictated primarily by a need to restrict the escalation of the war on the Western sector to prevent the 'dismemberment' of West Pakistan.[375] Years after the war, many American writers criticised the White House policies during the war as being badly flawed and ill-serving to the interests of the United States.[376] India carried out nuclear tests a few years later resulting in sanctions being imposed by the United States, further drifting the two countries apart. In recent years, Kissinger came under fire for comments made during the Indo-Pakistan War in which he described Indians as "bastards".[377] Kissinger has since expressed his regret over the comments.[378]
Since the end of the Cold War, India-USA relations have improved dramatically. This has been fostered by the fact that the United States and India are both democracies and have a large and growing trade relationship. During the Gulf War, the economy of India went through an extremely difficult phase. The Government of India adopted liberalised economic systems. After the break-up of the Soviet Union, India improved diplomatic relations with the members of NATO, particularly Canada, France, and Germany. In 1992, India established formal diplomatic relations with Israel.
In recent years, India-United States relations have still improved significantly during the Premiership of Narendra Modi since 2014.[379] Both sides are committed to a "Free and Open Indo-Pacific".[380]
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In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons which resulted in several US, Japanese and European sanctions on India. India's then defence minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear programme was necessary as it provided a deterrence to some potential nuclear threats. Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001. India has categorically stated that it will never use weapons first but will defend itself if attacked.
The economic sanctions imposed by the United States in response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998 appeared, at least initially, to seriously damage Indo-American relations. President Bill Clinton imposed wide-ranging sanctions according to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act. US sanctions on Indian entities involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to international financial institution loans for non-humanitarian assistance projects in India. The United States encouraged India to sign the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) immediately and without condition. The United States also called for restraint in missile and nuclear testing and deployment by both India and Pakistan. The non-proliferation dialogue initiated after the 1998 nuclear tests has bridged many of the gaps in understanding between the countries.
Formal relations between both countries were first established in 1949. India has an embassy in Buenos Aires and Argentina has an embassy in New Delhi. The current Indian Ambassador to Argentina (concurrently accredited to Uruguay and Paraguay) is R Viswanathan.
According to the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India, "Under the 1968 Visa agreement, (Argentine) fees for transit and tourist visas have been abolished. Under the new visa agreement signed during the Argentine Presidential visit in October 2009, it has been agreed that five-year multi-entry business visas would be given free of cost. The Embassy of India in Buenos Aires gives Cafe Con Visa (coffee with visa) to Argentine visitors. The applicants are invited for coffee and a visa is given immediately. This has been praised by the Argentine media, public and the Foreign Minister himself."[381]
Relations between Brazil and India have been extended to diverse areas such as science and technology, pharmaceuticals and space as both are member nations of BRICS. The two-way trade in 2007 nearly tripled to US$3.12 billion from US$1.2 billion in 2004. India attaches tremendous importance to its relationship with this Latin American giant and hopes to see the areas of cooperation expand in the coming years.
Both countries want the participation of developing countries in the UNSC permanent membership since the underlying philosophy for both of them are: UNSC should be more democratic, legitimate and representative – the G4 is a novel grouping for this realization.
Brazil and India are deeply committed to IBSA (South-South cooperation) initiatives and attach utmost importance to this trilateral cooperation between the three large, multi-ethnic, multi-racial and multi-religious developing countries, which are bound by the common principle of pluralism and democracy.
Both countries established diplomatic ties on 19 January 1959. Since then, the relationship between the two countries has been gradually increasing with more frequent diplomatic visits to promote political, commercial cultural and academic exchanges. Colombia is currently the commercial point of entry into Latin America for Indian companies.[382]
Diplomatic relations between India and Venezuela were established on 1 October 1959.[383] India maintains an embassy in Caracas, while Venezuela maintains an embassy in New Delhi.
There have been several visits by heads of state and government, and other high-level officials between the countries. President Hugo Chávez visited New Delhi on 4–7 March 2005.[383] Chávez met with Indian President APJ Abdul Kalam and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. The two countries signed six agreements including one to establish a Joint Commission to promote bilateral relations and another on cooperation in the hydrocarbon sector. Foreign Minister Nicolás Maduro visited India to attend the First Meeting of the India-CELAC Troika Foreign Ministers meeting in New Delhi on 7 August 2012.[384]
The Election Commission of India (ECI) and the National Electoral Council (CNE) of Venezuela signed an MoU during a visit by Indian Election Commissioner V S Sampath to Caracas in 2012. The Minister of State for Corporate Affairs visited Venezuela to attend the state funeral of President Chavez in March 2013.[384] The President and Prime Minister of India expressed condolences on the death of Chávez. The Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Parliament, observed a minute's silence to mark his death. Ambassador Smita Purushottam represented India at the swearing-in ceremony of Chávez's successor Nicolás Maduro on 19 April 2013.[385]
Citizens of Venezuela are eligible for scholarships under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme and the Indian Council for Cultural Relations.[384][386]
India is working towards developing strong relations with this resource-rich Central Asian country. The Indian oil company, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation has got oil exploration and petroleum development grants in Kazakhstan. The two countries are collaborating in petrochemicals, information technology, and space technology. Kazakhstan has offered India five blocks for oil and gas exploration. India and Kazakhstan, are to set up joint projects in construction, minerals and metallurgy. India also signed four other pacts, including an extradition treaty, in the presence of President Prathibha Patil and her Kazakh counterpart Nursultan Nazarbayev. Kazakhstan will provide Uranium and related products under the MoU between Nuclear Power Corp. of India and Kazatomprom. These MoU also open possibilities of joint exploration of uranium in Kazakhstan, which has the world's second-largest reserves, and India building atomic power plants in the Central Asian country.
Diplomatic relations were established between India and Tajikistan following Tajikistan's independence from the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, which had been friendly with India. Tajikistan occupies a strategically important position in Central Asia, bordering Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China and separated by a small strip of Afghan territory from Pakistan. India's role in fighting the Taliban and Al-Qaeda and its strategic rivalry with both China and Pakistan have made its ties with Tajikistan important to its strategic and security policies. Despite their common efforts, bilateral trade has been comparatively low, valued at US$12.09 million in 2005; India's exports to Tajikistan were valued at US$6.2 million and its imports at US$5.89 million. India's military presence and activities have been significant, beginning with India's extensive support of the anti-Taliban Afghan Northern Alliance (ANA). India began renovating the Farkhor Air Base and stationed aircraft of the Indian Air Force there. The Farkhor Air Base became fully operational in 2006, and 12 MiG-29 bombers and trainer aircraft are planned to be stationed there.
India has an embassy in Tashkent. Uzbekistan has an embassy in New Delhi. Uzbekistan has had a great impact on Indian culture mostly due to the Mughal Empire which was founded by Babur of Ferghana (in present-day Uzbekistan) who created his empire southward first in Afghanistan and then in India.
Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 Sino-Indian War, the 1967 Nathu La and Cho La incidents, and continuing boundary disputes over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalise relations.[388] A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December 1996, PRC President Jiang Zemin visited India during a tour of South Asia. While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders. Sino-Indian relations suffered a brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from the PRC. However, in June 1999, during the Kargil crisis, then-External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat. By 2001, relations between India and the PRC were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from Tibet to India of the 17th Karmapa in January 2000 with delicacy and tact. In 2003, India formally recognised Tibet as a part of China, and China recognised Sikkim as a formal part of India in 2004.
Since 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two. Sino-Indian trade reached US$65.47 billion in 2013–14, making China the single largest trading partner of India.[389] The increasing economic reliance between India and China has also bought the two nations closer politically, with both India and China eager to resolve their boundary dispute.[390] They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from WTO's Doha round in 2008[391] to regional free trade agreement.[392] Similar to Indo-US nuclear deal, India and China have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian nuclear energy.[393] However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India.[394] Both countries are the largest Asian investors in Africa[395] and have competed for control over their large natural resources.[396]There was a tense situation due to the soldiers' stand-off in Doklam, Bhutan; but that was resolved early.[397]
Relations were lost due to Galwan Valley skirmishes[399][400] and its progress. India ceased imports of Chinese products.[401] Various measures were taken, such as several contracts with the Chinese companies involved in railways, networks and several items productions, which were cancelled in response.[402]
The outbreak of the Coronavirus pandemic from Wuhan also hampered the relations.[403] Following the straining of the bonds, both sides blamed each other for the conflict on LAC.[404] On 29–30 August, it was reported that China had allegedly attempted to cross LAC to attain important hilltops, which was filed by Indian troops, as they were an advantage of acquiring important tops near LAC.[405] India banned more than 250 Chinese apps,[406] and on 16 October, it banned the import of ACs, Refrigerators and Coolers from China.[407] Several core commanders' negotiations and talks were held,[408] which resulted in nothing other than vague promises then. Cross-media blaming was common.
There was even a conference held in Moscow, Russia, on 5 September between the Defence Minister of India, Rajnath Singh and Chinese Army General, Wei Fenghe, but that also ended up with no success.[409] The recent meeting of the Quad-alliance was also questioned by China,[410] but was then downed by India.[411]
In mid-January 2021, it was reported that both countries had finally agreed upon the de-escalation from their positions. Footage of Chinese troops removing tents/barracks was released. Both countries also agreed that India would move back to Finger-3, while China retained its position back to Finger-8, and also declared the area from Finger-3 to Finger-8 to be "No man's land".[412]
India-Japan relations have always been strong. India has culturally influenced Japan through Buddhism. During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army helped Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose's Indian National Army. Relations have remained warm since India's independence, despite Japan imposing sanctions on India after the 1998 Pokhran-II nuclear tests (the sanctions were removed in 2001).[413] Japanese companies, like Sony, Toyota, and Honda, have manufacturing facilities in India, and with the growth of the Indian economy, India is a big market for Japanese firms. The most prominent Japanese company to have a big investment in India is automobiles giant Suzuki which is in partnership with Indian automobile company Maruti Suzuki, the largest car manufacturer in India. Honda was also a partner in "Hero Honda", one of the largest motorcycle sellers in the world (the companies split in 2011[414]).
According to Former Prime Minister Shinzō Abe's arc of freedom theory, it is in Japan's interests to develop closer ties with India, the world's most populous democracy, while its relations with China remain chilly. To this end, Japan has funded many infrastructure projects in India, most notably in New Delhi's metro subway system.[415] In December 2006, then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to Japan culminated in the signing of the "Joint Statement Towards Japan-India Strategic and Global Partnership". Indian applicants were welcomed in 2006 to the JET Programme, starting with just one slot available in 2006 and 41 in 2007. Also, in 2007, the Japan Self-Defense Forces took part in a naval exercise in the Indian Ocean, known as Malabar 2007, which also involved the naval forces of India, Australia, Singapore and the United States.
In October 2008, Japan signed an agreement with India under which it would grant the latter a low-interest loan worth US$4.5 billion to construct a high-speed rail line between Delhi and Mumbai. This is the single largest overseas project being financed by Japan and reflects a growing economic partnership between the two.[416] India and Japan signed a security cooperation agreement[417] in which both will hold military exercises, police the Indian Ocean and conduct military-to-military exchanges on fighting terrorism, making India one of only three countries, the other two being the United States and Australia, with which Japan has such a security pact.[418] There are 25,000 Indians in Japan as of 2008.
The relations between India and Mongolia are still at a nascent stage and Indo-Mongolian cooperation is limited to diplomatic visits, the provision of soft loans and financial aid and collaborations in the IT sector.
India established diplomatic relations in December 1955. India was the first country outside the Soviet bloc to establish diplomatic relations with Mongolia. Since then, there have been treaties of mutual friendship and cooperation between the two countries in 1973, 1994, 2001 and 2004.
India and North Korea have growing trade and diplomatic relations. India had a fully functioning embassy in Pyongyang which was closed down due to COVID-19 pandemic in the host country while North Korea still operates an embassy in New Delhi. India has said that it wants the "reunification" of Korea.[419]
The cordial relationship between the two countries extends back to 48AD, when Queen Suro, or Princess Heo, travelled from the kingdom of Ayodhya to Korea.[420] According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess had a dream about a heavenly king who was awaiting heaven's anointed ride. After Princess Heo had the dream, she asked her parents, the king and queen, for permission to set out and seek the man, which the king and queen urged with the belief that god orchestrated the whole fate.[421] Upon approval, she set out on a boat, carrying gold, silver, a tea plant, and a stone which calmed the waters.[420] Archeologists discovered a stone with two fish kissing each other, a symbol of the Gaya kingdom that is unique to the Mishra royal family in Ayodhya, India. This royal link provides further evidence that there was an active commercial engagement between India and Korea since the queen's arrival in Korea.[420] Current descendants live in the city of Gimhae as well as abroad in the America states of New Jersey and Kentucky. Many of them became prominent and well known around the world like President Kim Dae Jung and Prime Minister Kim Jong-pil. The relations between the countries have been relatively limited, although much progress arose during the three decades.
Since the formal establishment of diplomatic ties between the two countries in 1973, several trade agreements have been reached. Trade between the two nations has increased exponentially, exemplified by the $530 million during the fiscal year of 1992–1993, and the $10 billion during 2006–2007.[422] During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, South Korean businesses sought to increase access to the global markets and began trade investments with India.[422] The last two presidential visits from South Korea to India were in 1996 and 2006,[423] and the embassy works between the two countries are seen as needing improvements.[424] Recently, there have been acknowledgements in the Korean public and political spheres that expanding relations with India should be a major economic and political priority for South Korea. Much of the economic investments of South Korea have been drained into China;[425] however, South Korea is currently the fifth largest source of investment in India.[426] To The Times of India, President Roh Moo-hyun voiced his opinion that cooperation between India's software and Korea's IT industries would bring very efficient and successful outcomes.[423] The two countries agreed to shift their focus to the revision of the visa policies between the two countries, expansion of trade, and establishment of free trade agreement to encourage further investment between the two countries. Korean companies such as LG, Hyundai and Samsung have established manufacturing and service facilities in India, and several Korean construction companies won grants for a portion of the many infrastructural building plans in India, such as the "National Highway Development Project".[426] Tata Motor's purchase of Daewoo Commercial Vehicles at the cost of $102 million highlights India's investments in Korea, which consist mostly of subcontracting.[426]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 December 1947.[132]
Bilateral relations between India and Afghanistan have been traditionally strong and friendly. While India was the only South Asian country to recognise the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in the 1980s, its relations were diminished during the Afghan civil wars and the rule of the Islamist Taliban in the 1990s.[427] India aided the overthrow of the Taliban and became the largest regional provider of humanitarian and reconstruction aid.[61][428] The new democratically elected Afghan government strengthened its ties with India in the wake of persisting tensions and problems with Pakistan, which is continuing to shelter and support the Taliban.[61][428] India pursues a policy of close cooperation to bolster its standing as a regional power and contains its rival Pakistan, which it maintains is supporting Islamic militants in Kashmir and other parts of India.[61] India is the largest regional investor in Afghanistan, having committed more than US$3 billion for reconstruction purposes.[429] After the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan collapsed, India participated in the evacuation of non-Muslim minorities and provided food aid to Taliban-ruled Afghanistan.[430]
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India was the second country to recognise Bangladesh as a separate and independent state, doing so on 6 December 1971. India fought alongside the Bangladeshis to liberate Bangladesh from West Pakistan in 1971.
Bangladesh's relationship with India has been difficult in terms of border killing, irrigation and land border disputes post-1976. However, India has enjoyed a favourable relationship with Bangladesh during governments formed by the Awami League in 1972 and 1996. The recent solutions to land and maritime disputes have taken out irritants in ties.
At the outset, India's relations with Bangladesh could not have been stronger because of India's unalloyed support for independence and opposition against Pakistan in 1971. During the independence war, many refugees fled to India. When the struggle of resistance matured in November 1971, India also intervened militarily and may have helped bring international attention to the issue through Indira Gandhi's visit to Washington, D.C. Afterwards India furnished relief and reconstruction aid. India extended recognition to Bangladesh before the end of the war in 1971 (the second country to do so after Bhutan[431]) and subsequently lobbied others to follow suit. India also withdrew its military from the land of Bangladesh when Sheikh Mujibur Rahman requested Indira Gandhi to do so during the latter's visit to Dhaka in 1972.[citation needed]
Indo-Bangladesh relations have been somewhat less friendly since the fall of the Mujib government in August 1975.[432] over the years over issues such as South Talpatti Island, the Tin Bigha Corridor and access to Nepal, the Farakka Barrage and water sharing, border conflicts near Tripura and the construction of a fence along most of the border which India explains as security provision against migrants, insurgents and terrorists. Many Bangladeshis feel India likes to play "big brother" to smaller neighbours, including Bangladesh. Bilateral relations warmed in 1996, due to a softer Indian foreign policy and the new Awami League Government. A 30-year water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River was signed in December 1996, after an earlier bilateral water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River lapsed in 1988. Both nations also have cooperated on the issue of flood warnings and preparedness. The Bangladesh Government and tribal insurgents signed a peace accord in December 1997, which allowed for the return of tribal refugees who had fled to India, beginning in 1986, to escape violence caused by an insurgency in their homeland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The Bangladesh Army maintains a very strong presence in the area to this day. The army is increasingly concerned about the growing problem of the cultivation of illegal drugs.
There are also small pieces of land along the border region that Bangladesh is diplomatically trying to reclaim. Padua, part of Sylhet Division before 1971, has been under Indian control since the war in 1971. This small strip of land was re-occupied by the BDR in 2001 but later given back to India after the Bangladesh government decided to solve the problem through diplomatic negotiations. The Indian New Moore island no longer exists, but Bangladesh repeatedly claims it[433] to be part of the Satkhira district of Bangladesh.
In recent years India has increasingly complained that Bangladesh does not secure its border properly. It fears an increasing flow of poor Bangladeshis and it accuses Bangladesh of harbouring Indian separatist groups like ULFA and alleged terrorist groups. The Bangladesh government has refused to accept these allegations.[434][435] India estimates that over 20 million Bangladeshis are living illegally in India.[436] One Bangladeshi official responded that "there is not a single Bangladeshi migrant in India".[437] Since 2002, India has been constructing an India – Bangladesh Fence along much of the 2500-mile border.[438] The failure to resolve migration disputes bears a human cost for illegal migrants, such as imprisonment and health risks (namely HIV/AIDS).[439]
India's prime minister Narendra Modi and his Bangladeshi counterpart Sheikh Hasina have completed a landmark deal redrawing their messy shared border and thereby solving disputes between India and Bangladesh. Bangladesh has also given India a transit route to travel through Bangladesh to its North East states. India and Bangladesh also have free trade agreement on 7 June 2015.[440]
Both countries solved their border dispute on 6 June 2015.[441]
The Agartala-Akhaura rail link between Indian Railway and Bangladesh Railway will reduce the current 1700 km road distance between Kolkata to Agartala via Siliguri to just 350 kilometer by railway.
To connect Kolkata with Tripura via Bangladesh through railway, the Union Government on 10 February 2016 sanctioned about 580 crore rupees. The project which is expected to be completed by 2017 will pass through Bangladesh.
The project ranks high on Prime Minister's 'Act East Policy', and is expected to increase connectivity and boost trade between India and Bangladesh.
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Historically, there have been close ties with India. Both countries signed a friendship treaty in 1949, where India would assist Bhutan in foreign relations. On 8 February 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty was substantially revised under the Bhutanese King, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. Whereas in the Treaty of 1949 Article 2 read as "The Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan. On its part, the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India regarding its external relations."
In the revised treaty it now reads as, "In keeping with the abiding ties of close friendship and cooperation between Bhutan and India, the Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests. Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other". The revised treaty also includes in it the preamble "Reaffirming their respect for each other's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity", an element that was absent in the earlier version. The Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of 2007 strengthens Bhutan's status as an independent and sovereign nation.
India continues to be the largest trade and development partner of Bhutan. Planned development efforts in Bhutan began in the early 1960s. The First Five Year Plan (FYP) of Bhutan was launched in 1961. Since then, India has been extending financial assistance to Bhutan's FYPs. The 10th FYP ended in June 2013. India's overall assistance to the 10th FYP was a little over Rs. 5000 crores, excluding grants for hydropower projects. India has committed Rs. 4500 crores for Bhutan's 11th FYP along with Rs. 500 crores as an Economic Stimulus Package.[442]
The hydropower sector is one of the main pillars of bilateral cooperation, exemplifying mutually beneficial synergy by providing clean energy to India and exporting revenue to Bhutan (power contributes 14% to the Bhutanese GDP, comprising about 35% of Bhutan's total exports). Three hydroelectric projects (HEPs) totaling 1416 MW, (336 MW Chukha HEP, the 60 MW Kurichu HEP, and the 1020 MW Tala HEP), are already exporting electricity to India. In 2008 the two governments identified ten more projects for development with a total generation capacity of 10,000 MW. Of these, three projects totaling 2940 MW (1200 MW Punatsangchu-I, 1020 MW Punatsangchu-II and 720 MW Mangdechu HEPs) are under construction and are scheduled to be commissioned in the last quarter of 2017–2018. Out of the remaining 7 HEPs, 4 projects totaling 2120 MW (600 MW Kholongchhu, 180 MW Bunakha, 570 MW Wangchu and 770 MW Chamkarchu) will be constructed under a Joint Venture model, for which a Framework Inter-Governmental Agreement was signed between both governments in 2014. Of these 4 JV-model projects, pre-construction activities for Kholongchhu HEP have commenced.[442] Tata Power is also building a hydroelectric dam in Bhutan.
India had assisted Bhutan by deploying its troops in Doklam in 2017- a territory claimed and controlled by the Bhutanese government- to resist a Chinese army's control and construction of military structures.[397]
India enjoys a considerable influence over Maldives' foreign policy and provides extensive security cooperation, especially after Operation Cactus in 1988 during which India repelled Tamil mercenaries who invaded the country.
As a founder member in 1985 of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, SAARC, which brings together Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, the country plays a very active role in SAARC. The Maldives has taken the lead in calling for a South Asian Free Trade Agreement, the formulation of a Social Charter, the initiation of informal political consultations in SAARC forums, the lobbying for greater action on environmental issues, the proposal of numerous human rights measures such as the regional convention on child rights and for setting up a SAARC Human Rights Resource Centre. The Maldives is also an advocate of greater international profile for SAARC such as through formulating common positions at the UN.
India is starting the process to bring the island country into India's security grid. The move comes after the moderate Islamic nation approached New Delhi earlier this year over fears that one of its island resorts could be taken over by terrorists given its lack of military assets and surveillance capabilities.[443]India also signed an agreement with the Maldives in 2011 which is centred around the following:
Relations faced a strain in January 2024 due to derogatory remarks by Maldivian officials and concerns over racism, targeted towards Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi as well as India, triggering the 2024 India-Maldives diplomatic row.[444]
This was seen very negatively in India, with citizens calling for a boycott of vacations in Maldives, with many renowned Bollywood actors and personalities criticising the Maldivian government. This also led to the death of a young Maldivian teenager,[445] who had to be taken to India via an air ambulance, after the request at the last minute was denied by Maldivian authorities due to the ongoing tensions against the country.[446]
Relations between India and Nepal are close yet fraught with difficulties stemming from border disputes, geography, economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common ethnic and linguistic identities that overlap the two countries borders. In 1950 New Delhi and Kathmandu initiated their intertwined relationship with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship and accompanying secret letters that defined security relations between the two countries, and an agreement governing both bilateral trade and trade transiting Indian soil. The 1950 treaty and letters stated that "neither government shall tolerate any threat to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor" and obligated both sides "to inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighboring state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two governments", and also granted the Indian and Nepali citizens right to get involved in any economic activity such as work and business-related activity in each other's territory. These accords cemented a "special relationship" between India and Nepal that granted Nepalese in India the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens.
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Relations between India and Nepal reached their lowest in 1989 when India imposed a 13-month-long economic blockade on Nepal. Indian PM Narendra Modi visited Nepal in 2014, the first by an Indian PM in nearly 17 years.
In 2015, a blockade of the India-Nepal border affected relations. The blockade is led by ethnic communities angered by Nepal's recently promulgated new constitution.[447] However, the Nepalese government accuses India of deliberately worsening the embargo, but India denies it.[447]
India aided Nepal during the 2015 Kathmandu earthquake with the financial aid of $1 billion and launched Operation Maitri.[448]
The relations were strained during mid-2020, when it was reported that a firing took place by the Nepalese police across the Indo-Nepalese border of Bihar on 12 July.[449] Nepalese Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli commented about the pandemic of Coronavirus that the "Indian virus was deadlier" than the one which spread from Wuhan.[450] As time progressed, certain claims were also made on the Indian territories, for example, Kalapani, Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh of Uttarakhand.[451] Similarly, the claims were also made culturally, when it was said that Hindu God Ram was Nepalese, that he was born in Thori, west of Birgunj, and that Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh was fake.[452] Rules were made strict for Indians in Nepal[453] along with banning some Indian media.[454]
Indian media stated that the actions of the Oli government were souring the relations, "and these were being done on the direction of China and propelled by Chinese ambassador Hou Yanqi". Speculations were made that since China could not handle India directly, in the aftermath of the LAC skirmish, it was lurking and trapping its neighboring countries and provoking them against India. In August, there were reports about the Chinese "illegal occupations" in Nepal's border states' areas.[455]
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 August 1947.[456]
Despite historical, cultural and ethnic links between them, relations between India and Pakistan have been "plagued" by years of mistrust and suspicion ever since the partition of India in 1947. The principal source of contention between India and its western neighbour has been the Kashmir conflict. After an invasion by Pashtun tribesmen and Pakistani paramilitary forces, the Hindu Maharaja of the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, and its Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah, signed an Instrument of Accession with New Delhi. The First Kashmir War started after the Indian Army entered Srinagar, the capital of the state, to secure the area from the invading forces. The war ended in December 1948 with the Line of Control dividing the erstwhile princely state into territories administered by Pakistan (northern and western areas) and India (southern, central and northeastern areas). Pakistan contested the legality of the Instrument of Accession since the Dogra Kingdom has signed a standstill agreement with it. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 started following the failure of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration. India and Pakistan went to war again in 1971, this time the conflict being over East Pakistan. The large-scale atrocities committed there by the Pakistan army led to millions of Bengali refugees pouring over into India. India, along with the Mukti Bahini, defeated Pakistan and the Pakistani forces surrendered on the eastern front. The war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh. In 1998, India carried out the Pokhran-II nuclear tests which was followed by Pakistan's Chagai-I tests. Following the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, relations briefly improved. A few months later, however, Pakistani paramilitary forces and Pakistan Army, infiltrated in large numbers into the Kargil district of Indian Kashmir. This initiated the Kargil War after India moved in thousands of troops to successfully flush out the infiltrators. Although the conflict did not result in a full-scale war between India and Pakistan, relations between the two reached an all-time low which worsened even further following the involvement of Pakistan-based terrorists in the hijacking of the Indian Airlines Flight 814 in December 1999. Attempts to normalise relations, such as the Agra summit held in July 2001, failed. An attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, which was blamed on Pakistan, which had condemned the attack[457] caused a military standoff between the two countries which lasted for nearly a year raising fears of nuclear warfare. However, a peace process, initiated in 2003, led to improved relations in the following years.
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Since the initiation of the peace process, several confidence-building measures (CBMs) between India and Pakistan have taken shape. The Samjhauta Express and Delhi–Lahore Bus service are two of these successful measures which have played a crucial role in expanding people-to-people contact between the two countries.[458] The initiation of the Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus service in 2005 and the opening of a historic trade route across the Line of Control in 2008 further reflects increasing eagerness between the two sides to improve relations. Although bilateral trade between India and Pakistan was a modest US$1.7 billion in March 2007, it is expected to cross US$10 billion by 2010. After the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, India sent aid to affected areas in Pakistani Kashmir and Punjab as well as Indian Kashmir.[459]
The 2008 Mumbai attacks seriously undermined the relations between the two countries. India alleged Pakistan harbouring militants on their soil, while Pakistan vehemently denied such claims.
A new chapter started in India-Pakistan relations when a new NDA government took charge in Delhi after victory in the 2014 election and invited SAARC members' leaders to an oath-taking ceremony. Subsequently, the visit of the Indian prime minister on 25 December informally wished Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif on his Birthday and participate in his daughter's wedding. It was hoped that the relationship between the neighbour will improve but an attack on an Indian army camp by Pakistani infiltrators on 18 September 2016[460] and a subsequent surgical strike by India[461] aggravated the already strained relationship between the nations.
A SAARC summit scheduled in Islamabad was called off because of a boycott by India and other SAARC members subsequently.[462]
The relationship took a further nosedive after another attack on CRPF in February 2019 by a terrorist associated with the Pakistan-based terror organisation, Jaish-e-Mohammed, when the terrorist rammed his vehicle packed with explosives against a bus carrying CRPF soldiers in Pulwama, Kashmir, killing 40.[463] India blamed Pakistan which was denied by the Pakistani establishment. India retaliated with an airstrike on Balakot, a region claimed and controlled by Pakistan.[464]
A new chapter in peace was ignited when it was suddenly declared that a back-door peace settlement over ceasing the cross-border firing across LOC was signed between the armies of both sides, and a steady growth in the countries coming together was observed.[465]
Bilateral relations between Sri Lanka and India have enjoyed historically a good relationship. The two countries share near-identical racial and cultural ties. According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles (Dipavamsa), Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 4th century BCE by Venerable Mahinda, the son of Indian Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Sri Lanka's King Devanampiya Tissa. During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries and Buddhist monuments were established.
Nevertheless, relations post-independence were affected by the Sri Lankan Civil War and by the failure of Indian intervention during the civil war as well as India's support for Tamil Tiger militants. India is Sri Lanka's only neighbour, separated by the Palk Strait; both nations occupy a strategic position in South Asia and have sought to build a common security umbrella in the Indian Ocean.[466]
India-Sri Lanka relations have undergone a qualitative and quantitative transformation in the recent past. Political relations are close, trade and investments have increased dramatically, infrastructural linkages are constantly being augmented, defence collaboration has increased and there is a general, broad-based improvement across all sectors of bilateral cooperation. India was the first country to respond to Sri Lanka's request for assistance after the tsunami in December 2004. In July 2006, India evacuated 430 Sri Lankan nationals from Lebanon, first to Cyprus by Indian Navy ships and then to Delhi and Colombo by special Air India flights.
There exists a broad consensus within the Sri Lankan polity on the primacy of India in Sri Lanka's external relations matrix. Both the major political parties in Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the United Nationalist Party have contributed to the rapid development of bilateral relations in the last ten years. Sri Lanka has supported India's candidature to the permanent membership of the UN Security Council.[467]
Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its members other than India are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics control and anti-terrorism.
SAARC has intentionally stressed these "core issues" and avoided more divisive political issues, although the political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In 1993, India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement to gradually lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC has come to a standstill because of the tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC Summit originally scheduled for, but not held in, November 1999 has not been rescheduled. The Fourteenth SAARC Summit was held during 3–4 April 2007 in New Delhi. The 19th SAARC summit that was scheduled to be held in Islamabad was cancelled due to terrorist acts, particularly the Uri attack.
Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation is now an "organization of member states" that are littorals of the Bay of Bengal or adjacent to it. The BIMSTEC member states – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand – are among the major South and Southeast Asia countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal.[468] India and some other countries, frustrated by the obstacles in SAARC's efforts to promote regional cooperation, have been working to make BIMSTEC the premier vehicle in this regard.[469]
Brunei has a high commission in New Delhi, and India has a high commission in Bandar Seri Begawan. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Both nations have been in friendly relations.
The ties between Indonesia and India date back to the times of the Ramayana,[470] "Yawadvipa" (Java) is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.[471] Indonesians had absorbed many aspects of Indian culture since almost two millennia ago. The most obvious trace is the large adoption of Sanskrit into the Indonesian language. Several Indonesian toponymy has Indian parallel or origin, such as Madura with Mathura, Serayu and Sarayu rivers, Kalingga from Kalinga Kingdom, and Ngayogyakarta from Ayodhya. Indianised Hindu–Buddhist kingdoms, such as Kalingga, Srivijaya, Mataram, Sunda, Kadiri, Singhasari and Majapahit were the predominant governments in Indonesia, and lasted from 200[472] to the 1500s, with the last remaining being in Bali. An example of profound Hindu-Buddhist influences in Indonesian history is the 9th-century Prambanan and Borobudur temples.
In 1950, the first President of Indonesia – Sukarno called upon the peoples of Indonesia and India to "intensify the cordial relations" that had existed between the two countries "for more than 1000 years" before they had been "disrupted" by colonial powers.[473] In the spring of 1966, the foreign ministers of both countries began speaking again of an era of friendly relations. India had supported Indonesian independence and Nehru had raised the Indonesian question in the United Nations Security Council.
India has an embassy in Jakarta[474] and Indonesia operates an embassy in Delhi.[475] India regards Indonesia as a key member of ASEAN. Today, both countries maintain cooperative and friendly relations. India and Indonesia are one of the few (and also one of the largest) democracies in the Asian region which can be projected as a real democracy.[476][better source needed] Both nations had agreed to establish a strategic partnership.[477] As fellow Asian democracies that share common values, it is natural for both countries to nurture and foster strategic alliances. Indonesia and India are member states of the G-20, the E7, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the United Nations.
In recent years, India has endeavoured to build relations, with this small Southeast Asian nation. They have strong military relations, and India shall be building an Airforce Academy in Laos.[478]
India has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a high commission in New Delhi. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Asian Union. India and Malaysia are also connected by various cultural and historical ties that date back to antiquity. The two countries are on friendly terms with each other and Malaysia harbours a small population of Indian immigrants. Mahathir bin Mohamad the fourth and longest-serving Prime Minister of Malaysia is of Indian origin. His father Mohamad Iskandar, is a Malayalee Muslim who migrated from Kerala and his mother Wan Tampawan, is a Malay.[479]
Relations escalated when the Malaysian PM Mahathir Mohamad questioned the action of revocating the special status of Jammu and Kashmir and on CAA-NRC protests. The relations continue to be diminished, also during the palm oil export from Malaysia to India.
Even with the new government in power, currently, there seems no recovery, as former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad still favored Pakistan.[480]
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India established diplomatic relations after Burma's independence from Great Britain in 1948. For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were strong due to cultural links, flourishing commerce, common interests in regional affairs and the presence of a significant Indian community in Burma.[481] India provided considerable support when Myanmar struggled with regional insurgencies. However, the overthrow of the democratic government by the Military of Burma led to strains in ties. Along with much of the world, India condemned the suppression of democracy and Myanmar ordered the expulsion of the Burmese Indian community, increasing its isolation from the world.[481][482] Only China maintained close links with Myanmar while India supported the pro-democracy movement.[481][483][484]
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However, due to geopolitical concerns, India revived its relations and recognised the military junta ruling Myanmar in 1993, overcoming strains over drug trafficking, the suppression of democracy and the rule of the military junta in Myanmar. Myanmar is situated to the south of the states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India. and the proximity of the People's Republic of China gives strategic importance to Indo-Burmese relations. The Indo-Burmese border stretches over 1,600 kilometers[485] and some insurgents in North-east India seek refuge in Myanmar. Consequently, India has been keen on increasing military cooperation with Myanmar in its counter-insurgency activities. In 2001, the Indian Army completed the construction of a major road along its border with Myanmar. India has also been building major roads, highways, ports and pipelines within Myanmar in an attempt to increase its strategic influence in the region and also to counter China's growing strides in the Indochina peninsula. Indian companies have also sought active participation in oil and natural gas exploration in Myanmar. In February 2007, India announced a plan to develop the Sittwe port, which would enable ocean access from Indian Northeastern states like Mizoram, via the Kaladan River.
India is a major customer of Burmese oil and gas. In 2007, Indian exports to Myanmar totaled US$185 million, while its imports from Myanmar were valued at around US$810 million, consisting mostly of oil and gas.[486] India has granted US$100 million credit to fund highway infrastructure projects in Myanmar, while US$57 million has been offered to upgrade Burmese railways. A further US$27 million in grants has been pledged for road and rail projects.[487] India is one of the few countries that has provided military assistance to the Burmese junta.[488] However, there has been increasing pressure on India to cut some of its military supplies to Burma.[489] Relations between the two remain close which was evident in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, when India was one of the few countries whose relief and rescue aid proposals were accepted by Myanmar's junta.[490]
India maintains embassies in Rangoon and consulate generals in Mandalay.
Through the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires, Hindu influence has been visible in Philippine history from the 10th to 14th centuries. During the 18th century, there was robust trade between Manila with the Coromandel Coast and Bengal, involving Philippine exports of tobacco, silk, cotton, indigo, sugar cane and coffee.
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Formal diplomatic relations between the Philippines and India were established on 16 November 1949. The first Philippine envoy to India was the late Foreign Secretary Narciso Ramos. Seven years after India's independence in 1947, the Philippines and India signed a Treaty of Friendship on 11 July 1952 in Manila to strengthen the friendly relations existing between the two countries. Soon after, the Philippine Legation in New Delhi was established and then elevated to an embassy. However, due to foreign policy differences as a result of the bipolar alliance structure of the Cold War, the development of bilateral relations was stunted. It was only in 1976 that relations started to normalise when Aditya Birla, one of India's successful industrialists, met with then-President Ferdinand E. Marcos to explore possibilities of setting up joint ventures in the Philippines. Today, like India, the Philippines is the leading voice-operated business process outsourcing (BPO) source in terms of revenue (US$5.7) and number of people (500,000) employed in the sector. In partnership with the Philippines, India has 20 IT/BPO companies in the Philippines. Philippines-India bilateral trade stood at US$986.60 million in 2009. In 2004 it was US$600 million. Both countries aim to reach US$1 billion by 2010. 60,000 Indians are living in the Philippines. The Philippines and India signed in October 2007 the Framework for Bilateral Cooperation which created the PH-India JCBC. It has working groups in trade, agriculture, tourism, health, and renewable energy, a regular policy consultation mechanism and security dialogue.
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India and Singapore share long-standing cultural, commercial and strategic relations, with Singapore being a part of the "Greater India" cultural and commercial region. More than 300,000 people of Indian Tamil "தமிழ்" origin live in Singapore. Following its independence in 1965, Singapore was concerned with China-backed communist threats as well as domination from Malaysia and Indonesia and sought a close strategic relationship with India, which it saw as a counterbalance to Chinese influence and a partner in achieving regional security.[491] Singapore had always been an important strategic trading post, giving India trade access to Maritime Southeast Asia and the Far East. Although the rival positions of both nations over the Vietnam War and the Cold War caused consternation between India and Singapore, their relationship expanded significantly in the 1990s;[491] Singapore was one of the first to respond to the Indian Look East policy of expanding its economic, cultural and strategic ties in Southeast Asia to strengthen its standing as a regional power.[491] Singapore, and especially, the Singaporean Foreign Minister, George Yeo, have taken an interest, in re-establishing the ancient Indian university, Nalanda University.
Singapore is the 8th largest source of investment in India and the largest among ASEAN member nations.[491][492] It is also India's 9th biggest trading partner as of 2005–06.[491] Its cumulative investment in India totals US$3 billion as of 2006 and is expected to rise to US$5 billion by 2010 and US$10 billion by 2015.[491][493][494] India's economic liberalisation and its "Look East" policy have led to a major expansion in bilateral trade, which grew from US$2.2 billion in 2001 to US$9–10 billion in 2006 – a 400% growth in five years – and to US$50 billion by 2010.[491][493][494] Singapore accounts for 38% of India's trade with ASEAN member nations and 3.4% of its total foreign trade.[491] India's main exports to Singapore in 2005 included petroleum, gemstones, jewellery, and machinery and its imports from Singapore included electronic goods, organic chemicals and metals. More than half of Singapore's exports to India are basically "re-exports" – items that had been imported from India.[491][492]
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India's Indian Look East policy, saw India grow relations with ASEAN countries including Thailand, and Thailand's Look West policy, also saw it grow its relations with India. Both countries are members of BIMSTEC. Indian Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi, P.V. Narasimha Rao, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and Manmohan Singh, have visited Thailand, which was reciprocated by contemporary Thai Prime Ministers Chatichai Choonhavan, Thaksin Sinawatra, and Surayud Chulanont. In 2003, a Free Trade Agreement was signed between the two countries. India is the 13th largest investor in Thailand. The spheres of trade are in chemicals, pharmaceuticals, textiles, nylon, tyre cord, real estate, rayon fibres, paper-grade pulps, steel wires, and rods. However, IT services, and manufacturing, are the main spheres. Through Buddhism, India has culturally influenced Thailand. The Indian epics, Mahabharata, and Ramayana, are popular and are widely taught in schools as part of the curriculum in Thailand. The example can also be seen in temples around Thailand, where the story of Ramayana and renowned Indian folk stories are depicted on the temple wall. Thailand has become a big tourist destination for Indians.
Moreover, India and Thailand have been culturally linked for centuries and India has had a deep influence on Thai culture. There are a substantial number of words in Thai that are borrowed from Sanskrit, India's classical language. Pali, which was the language of Magadha and is a medium of Theravada, is another important root of Thai vocabulary. Buddhism, the major religion of Thailand, itself originates from India. The Hindu story of Ramayana is also well known throughout Thailand in the name Ramakien.
Both nations have friendly and collateral relations.
India supported Vietnam's independence from France, opposed US involvement in the Vietnam War and supported the unification of Vietnam. India established official diplomatic relations in 1972 and maintained friendly relations, especially in the wake of Vietnam's hostile relations with the People's Republic of China, which had become India's strategic rival.[495]
India granted the "Most favoured nation" status to Vietnam in 1975[495] and both nations signed a bilateral trade agreement in 1978 and the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (BIPPA) on 8 March 1997.[496] In 2007, a fresh joint declaration was issued during the state visit of the Prime Minister of Vietnam Nguyen Tan Dung.[497] Bilateral trade has increased rapidly since the liberalisation of the economies of both Vietnam and India.[495] India is the 13th-largest exporter to Vietnam, with exports having grown steadily from US$11.5 million in 1985–86 to US$395.68 million by 2003.[496] Vietnam's exports to India rose to US$180 million, including agricultural products, handicrafts, textiles, electronics and other goods.[498] Between 2001 and 2006, the volume of bilateral trade expanded at 20–30% per annum to reach $1 billion by 2006.[499][500] Continuing the rapid pace of growth, bilateral trade is expected to rise to $2 billion by 2008, two years ahead of the official target.[500][501] India and Vietnam have also expanded cooperation in information technology, education and collaboration of the respective national space programmes.[497] Direct air links and lax visa regulations have been established to bolster tourism.[502]
India and Vietnam are members of the Mekong–Ganga Cooperation, created to develop to enhance close ties between India and nations of Southeast Asia. Vietnam has supported India's bid to become a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and join the Indo-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).[503] In the 2003 joint declaration, India and Vietnam envisaged creating an "Arc of Advantage and Prosperity" in Southeast Asia;[497] to this end, Vietnam has backed a more important relationship and role between India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its negotiation of an Indo–ASEAN free trade agreement.[495][497] India and Vietnam have also built strategic partnerships, including extensive cooperation in developing nuclear power, enhancing regional security and fighting terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking.[504][497][498]
India's interaction with ASEAN during the Cold War was very limited. India declined to get associated with ASEAN in the 1960s when full membership was offered even before the grouping was formed.[44]
It is only with the formulation of the Look East policy in the last decade (1992), India started giving this region due importance in the foreign policy. India became a sectoral dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992, a full dialogue partner in 1995, a member of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in 1996, and a summit-level partner (on par with China, Japan and Korea) in 2002.
The first India–ASEAN Business Summit was held in New Delhi in October 2002. The then Prime Minister A. B. Vajpayee addressed this meeting and since then this business summit has become an annual feature before the India–ASEAN Summits, as a forum for networking and exchange of business experiences between policymakers and business leaders from ASEAN and India.
Four India-ASEAN Summits, first in 2002 at Phnom Penh (Cambodia), second in 2003 at Bali, Indonesia, third in 2004 at Vientiane, Laos, and the fourth in 2005 at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, have taken place.
The following agreements have been entered into with ASEAN:
The following proposals were announced by the Prime Minister at the 4th ASEAN-India Summit:
The ASEAN region has an abundance of natural resources and significant technological skills. These provide a natural base for the integration between ASEAN and India in both trade and investment. The present level of bilateral trade with ASEAN of nearly US$18 billion is reportedly increasing by about 25% per year. India hopes to reach the level of US$30 billion by 2007. India is also improving its relations with the help of other policy decisions like offers of lines of credit, better connectivity through the air (open skies policy), and rail and road links.[44]
India established diplomatic relations with Armenia in December 1992. It wasn't recognised by some countries including Pakistan, which most of the nations did. As of the earliest days of the silk route, there have been strong cultural, moral and ancient other traditional relations among the nations. It fully supports India's bid for a permanent seat in UNSC and even completely supports India on Kashmir conflicts. There exists a small community of Armenians in India while there is also a small community of Indians.
India has an embassy in Baku and Azerbaijan has an embassy in New Delhi. Both have been connected through ancient cultural links and trade routes (especially the Silk Route).
India is a close ally of Bahrain, the Kingdom along with its GCC partners are (according to Indian officials) among the most prominent backers of India's bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council,[505] and Bahraini officials have urged India to play a greater role in international affairs. For instance, over concerns about Iran's nuclear programme Bahrain's Crown Prince appealed to India to play an active role in resolving the crisis.[506]
Ties between India and Bahrain go back generations, with many of Bahrain's most prominent figures having close connections: poet and constitutionalist Ebrahim Al-Arrayedh grew up in Bombay, while 17th-century Bahraini theologians Sheikh Salih Al-Karzakani and Sheikh Ja'far bin Kamal al-Din were influential figures in the Kingdom of Golkonda[507] and the development of Shia thought in the sub-continent.
Bahraini politicians have sought to enhance these long-standing ties, with Parliamentary Speaker Khalifa Al Dhahrani in 2007 leading a delegation of parliamentarians and business leaders to meet the then Indian President Pratibha Patil, the then opposition leader L K Advani, and take part in training and media interviews.[508] Politically, it is easier for Bahrain's politicians to seek training and advice from India than it is from the United States or other Western alternatives.
Adding further strength to the ties, Sheikh Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa visited India during which MOUs and bilateral deals worth $450 million were approved.[509] India expressed its support for Bahrain's bid for a non-permanent seat in the UNSC in 2026–27.[510]
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India supported Cyprus during its struggle for independence from British colonial rule. India supported the Greeks in Cyprus during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and lobbied for the international recognition of the Government of Nicosia as the sole legal representative of the entire nation. India has consistently supported and voted for a peaceful resolution of the Cyprus dispute at the United Nations.
Independent India and Iran established diplomatic links on 15 March 1950.[515] After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iran withdrew from CENTO and dissociated itself from US-friendly countries, including Pakistan, which automatically meant an improved relationship with the Republic of India.
Currently, the two countries have friendly relations in many areas. There are significant trade ties, particularly in crude oil imports into India and diesel exports to Iran. Iran frequently objected to Pakistan's attempts to draft anti-India resolutions at international organisations such as the OIC. India welcomed Iran's inclusion as an observer state in the SAARC regional organisation. Lucknow continues to be a major centre of Shiite culture and Persian study in the subcontinent.
In the 1990s, India and Iran both supported the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan against the Taliban regime. They continue to collaborate in supporting the broad-based anti-Taliban government led by Hamid Karzai and backed by the United States.
However, one complex issue in Indo-Iran relations is the issue of Iran's nuclear programme. In this intricate issue, India tries to make a delicate balance. According to Rejaul Laskar, an Indian expert on international relations, "India's position on Iran's nuclear programme has been consistent, principled and balanced, and makes an endeavour to reconcile Iran's quest for energy security with the international community's concerns on proliferation. So, while India acknowledges and supports Iran's ambitions to achieve energy security and in particular, its quest for peaceful use of nuclear energy, it is also India's principled position that Iran must meet all its obligations under international law, particularly its obligations under the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and other such treaties to which it is a signatory"[516]
Following an attack on an Israeli diplomat in India in February 2012, the Delhi Police contended that the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps had some involvement in the attack. This was subsequently confirmed in July 2012, after a report by the Delhi Police found evidence that members of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps had been involved in the 13 February bomb attack in the capital.[517]
Iraq was one of the few countries in the Middle East with which India established diplomatic relations at the embassy level immediately after its independence in 1947.[518] Both nations signed the "Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship" in 1952 and an agreement of cooperation on cultural affairs in 1954.[518] India was amongst the first to recognise the Ba'ath Party-led government, and Iraq remained neutral during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. However, Iraq sided alongside other Persian Gulf states in supporting Pakistan against India during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which saw the creation of Bangladesh.[518] The eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War caused a steep decline in trade and commerce between the two nations.[518]
During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, India remained neutral but permitted refuelling for US aircraft.[518] It opposed UN sanctions on Iraq, but the period of war and Iraq's isolation further diminished India's commercial and diplomatic ties.[518] From 1999 onwards, Iraq and India began to work towards a stronger relationship. Iraq had supported India's right to conduct nuclear tests following its tests of five nuclear weapons on 11 and 13 May 1998.[518] In 2000, the then-Vice-President of Iraq Taha Yassin Ramadan visited India, and on 6 August 2002 President Saddam Hussein conveyed Iraq's "unwavering support" to India over the Kashmir conflict with Pakistan.[518][519] India and Iraq established joint ministerial committees and trade delegations to promote extensive bilateral cooperation.[520][521] Although initially disrupted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, diplomatic and commercial ties between India and the new democratic government of Iraq have since been normalised.[521]
The establishment of Israel at the end of World War II was a complex issue. Based on its own experience during partition, when 14 million people were displaced[522][523] and an estimated 200,000 to 500,000 people were killed in Punjab Province,[524] India had recommended a single state, as did Iran and Yugoslavia (later to undergo its genocidal partition). The state could allocate Arab- and Jewish-majority provinces to prevent the partition of historic Palestine and prevent widespread conflict.[525][better source needed] But, the final UN resolution recommended the partition of Mandatory Palestine into Arab and Jewish states based on religious and ethnic majorities. India opposed this in the final vote as it did not agree with the concept of partition based on religion.[526][better source needed]
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Due to the security threat from a US-backed Pakistan and its nuclear programme in the 1980s, Israel and India started a clandestine relationship that involved cooperation between their respective intelligence agencies.[527] Israel shared India's concerns about the growing danger posed by Pakistan and nuclear proliferation to Iran and other Arab states.[528]
Since the establishment of full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992, India has improved its relationship with the Jewish state. India is regarded as Israel's strongest ally in Asia, and Israel is India's second-largest arms supplier. Since India achieved its independence in 1947, it has supported Palestinian self-determination. India recognised Palestine's statehood following Palestine's declaration on 18 November 1988[529] and Indo-Palestinian relations was first established in 1974.[530] This has not adversely affected India's improved relations with Israel.
India entertained the Israeli Prime Minister in a visit in 2003,[531] and Israel has entertained Indian dignitaries such as Finance Minister Jaswant Singh in diplomatic visits. India and Israel collaborate in scientific and technological endeavours. Israel's Minister for Science and Technology has expressed interest in collaborating with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) towards using satellites to better manage land and other resources. Israel has also expressed interest in participating in ISRO's Chandrayaan Mission involving an uncrewed mission to the moon.[532] On 21 January 2008, India successfully launched an Israeli spy satellite into orbit from the Sriharikota space station in southern India.[533]
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Israel and India share intelligence on terrorist groups. They have developed close defence and security ties since establishing diplomatic relations in 1992. India has bought more than $5 billion worth of Israeli equipment since 2002. In addition, Israel is training Indian military units and in 2008 was discussing an arrangement to give Indian commandos instruction in counter-terrorist tactics and urban warfare.[534] In December 2008, Israel and India signed a memorandum to set up an Indo-Israel Legal Colloquium to facilitate discussions and exchange programmes between judges and jurists of the two countries.[535]
Following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 2006, India stated that the Israeli use of force was "disproportionate and excessive".[536]
The India-Israel relationship has been very close and warm under the premiership of Narendra Modi since 2014. In 2017, he was the first ever Prime Minister of India to visit Israel.[537]
India and Lebanon enjoy cordial and friendly relations based on many complementarities such as a political system based on parliamentary democracy, non-alignment, human rights, commitment to a just world order, regional and global peace, a liberal market economy and a vibrant entrepreneurial spirit. India has a peacekeeping force as part of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). One infantry battalion is deployed in Lebanon and about 900 personnel are stationed in the Eastern part of Southern Lebanon.[538] The force also provided non-patrol aid to citizens.[539]India and Lebanon have had very good relations since the 1950s.
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India–Oman relations are foreign relations between India and the Sultanate of Oman. India has an embassy in Muscat, Oman. The Indian consulate was opened in Muscat in February 1955 and five years later it was upgraded to a consulate general and later developed into a full-fledged embassy in 1971. The first Ambassador of India arrived in Muscat in 1973. Oman established its embassy in New Delhi in 1972 and a consulate general in Mumbai in 1976.
$5.6 bn Oman-India energy pipeline plans progressing: Fox Petroleum Group envisions a roughly five-year timeframe for the execution of the pipeline project.[540]
Ajay Kumar, the chairman and managing director of Fox Petroleum, based in New Delhi, which is an associate company of Fox Petroleum FZC in the UAE, said that Mr. Modi had "fired the best weapon of economic development and growth". "He has given a red carpet for global players to invest in India," Mr. Kumar added. "It will boost all sectors of the industry – especially for small-scale manufacturing units and heavy industries too."
[540][541][542][543][544][545]
Bilateral relations between India and Saudi Arabia have strengthened considerably owing to cooperation in regional affairs and trade. Saudi Arabia is the one of largest suppliers of oil to India, which is one of the top seven trading partners and the 5th biggest investor in Saudi Arabia.[546]
India was one of the first nations to establish ties with the Third Saudi State. During the 1930s, India heavily funded Nejd through financial subsidies.[547]
India's strategic relations with Saudi Arabia have been affected by the latter's close ties with Pakistan.[548] Saudi Arabia supported Pakistan's stance on the Kashmir conflict during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 at the expense of its relations with India.[549] The Soviet Union's close relations with India also served as a source of consternation.[548][549] During the Persian Gulf War (1990–91), India officially maintained neutrality. Saudi Arabia's close military and strategic ties with Pakistan have also been a source of continuing strain.[548][549]
Since the 1990s, both nations have taken steps to improve ties. Saudi Arabia has supported granting observer status to India in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and has expanded its cooperation with India to fight terrorism.[550] In January 2006, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia made a special visit to India, becoming the first Saudi monarch in 51 years to do so.[548] The Saudi king and former Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh signed an agreement forging a strategic energy partnership that was termed the "Delhi Declaration".[551] The pact provides for a "reliable, stable and increased volume of crude oil supplies to India through long-term contracts."[552] Both nations also agreed on joint ventures and the development of oil and natural gas in public and private sectors.[552] An Indo-Saudi joint declaration in the Indian capital New Delhi described the king's visit as "heralding a new era in India-Saudi Arabia relations".[550]
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Bilateral relations between India and Syria are historic and the two have ancient civilizational ties. Both countries were on the Silk Road through which civilizational exchanges took place for centuries. Syriac Christianity, originating in ancient Syria, spread further to the East and created the first Christian communities in ancient India. The ancient Syriac language among the Syrian Christians of Kerala was also brought to Kerala by St Thomas in the 1st century CE. Even today the language continues to be taught in colleges and universities in Kerala.
A common nationalism and secular orientation, membership of NAM and similar perceptions on many issues further strengthened the bond between the two states. India supported "Syria's legitimate right to regain the occupied Golan Heights". In turn, this was reciprocated with Syrian recognition that Kashmir is a bilateral issue as well as general support of India's concerns and even candidature at various international forums.
Due to controversial issues such as Turkey's close relationship with Pakistan, relations between the two countries have often been blistered at certain times, but better at others. India and Turkey's relationship alters from unsureness to collaboration when the two nations work together to combat terrorism in Central and South Asia, and the Middle East. India and Turkey are also connected by history, seeing as they have known each other since the days of the Ottoman Empire, and seeing as India was one of the countries to send aid to Turkey following its war of independence. The Indian real estate firm GMR has invested in and is working towards the modernisation of Istanbul's Sabiha Gökçen International Airport.
The relations took a nose-dive after Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan spoke against India on the Kashmir issue and supported Pakistan, during his address at United Nations General Assembly after Pakistan PM Imran Khan, in September 2019. In February 2020, he visited Islamabad and held talks with Imran Khan, on "improving and bolding the relations with Islamabad". At the end of the month, during the riots in Delhi and CAA-NRC protests in India, he criticized the government for its policies. He also criticized the move of the Indian Government on the Galwan Valley skirmishes with China on LAC.
India–United Arab Emirates relations refer to the bilateral relations that exist between the Republic of India and the United Arab Emirates. After the creation of the Federation in 1971, India-UAE relations flourished. Today UAE and India share political, economic and cultural links. There are over a million Indians in the United Arab Emirates, being by far the largest migrant group in the country.[1] A large Indian expatriate community resides and engages in the UAE in economically productive activities and has played a significant role in the evolution of the UAE. In 2008–09, India emerged as the largest trade partner of the UAE with bilateral trade between the two countries exceeding US$44.5 billion. [9] UAE and India are each other's main trading partners. The trade totals over $75 billion (AED275.25 billion).
India and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf enjoy strong cultural and economic ties. This is reflected in the fact that more than 50% of the oil consumed by India comes from the Persian Gulf countries[553] and Indian nationals form the largest expatriate community in the Arabian peninsula.[554][better source needed] The annual remittance by Indian expatriates in the region amounted to US$20 billion in 2007.[555] India is one of the largest trading partners of the CCASG with non-oil trade between India and Dubai alone amounting to US$19 billion in 2007.[556] The Persian Gulf countries have also played an important role in addressing India's energy security concerns, with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait regularly increasing their oil supply to India to meet the country's rising energy demand. In 2005, Kuwait increased its oil exports to India by 10% increasing the net oil trade between the two to US$4.5 billion.[557] In 2008, Qatar decided to invest US$5 billion in India's energy sector.[558]
India has maritime security arrangements in place with Oman and Qatar.[559] In 2008, a landmark defence pact was signed, under which India committed its military assets to protect "Qatar from external threats".[560] There has been progress in a proposed deep-sea gas pipeline from Qatar, via Oman, to India.[561]
Austria–India relations refers to the bilateral ties between Austria and India. Indo-Austrian relations were established in May 1949 by the first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru and the Chancellor of Austria Leopold Figl.[562] Historically, Indo-Austrian ties have been particularly strong and India intervened in June 1953 in Austria's favour whilst negotiations were going on with the Soviet Union about the Austrian State Treaty.[563] There is a fully functioning Indian embassy in Vienna, Austria's capital, which is concurrently accredited to the United Nations offices in the city.[564] Austria is represented in India by its embassy and Trade Commission in New Delhi, India's capital, as well as honorary consulates in Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Goa.[565]
Belarus has an embassy in New Delhi.[566] Since 14 May 1992, India has an embassy in Minsk.[567]
Belgium has an embassy in New Delhi, consulates in Chennai and Mumbai, and an honorary consulate in Kolkata.[568] India has an embassy in Brussels.[569]
Bulgaria has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata.[570] India has an embassy in Sofia.[571]
Since February 1995, Croatia has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Mumbai.[572] Since 28 April 1996, India has an embassy in Zagreb.[573]
Czech-Indian relations were established in 1921 by a consulate in Bombay.[574] The Czech Republic has an embassy in New Delhi.[575] Consulates of the Czech Republic in India are in Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata. India has an embassy in Prague.[576]
Denmark has an embassy in New Delhi, and India has an embassy in Copenhagen.[577][578]
Tranquebar, a town in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, was a Danish colony in India from 1620 to 1845. It is spelled Trankebar or Tranquebar in Danish, which comes from the native Tamil, Tarangambadi, meaning "place of the singing waves". It was sold, along with the other Danish settlements in mainland India, most notably Serampore (now in West Bengal), to Great Britain in 1845. The Nicobar Islands were also colonised by Denmark until sold to the British in 1868, who made them part of the British Indian Empire.
After Independence in 1947, Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru's visit to Denmark in 1957 laid the foundation for a friendly relationship between India and Denmark that has endured ever since. The bilateral relations between India and Denmark are cordial and friendly, based on synergies in political, economic, academic and research fields. There have been periodic high-level visits between the two countries.[579]
Anders Fogh Rasmussen, former Prime Minister of Denmark, accompanied by a large business delegation, paid a state visit to India from 4 to 8 February 2008. He visited Infosys, Biocon and IIM Bangalore in Bangalore and Agra. He launched an 'India Action Plan', which called for strengthening of the political dialogue, strengthening of cooperation in trade and investments, research in science and technology, energy, climate and environment, culture, education, student exchanges and attracting skilled manpower and IT experts to Denmark for short periods. The two countries signed an Agreement for the establishment of a Bilateral Joint Commission for Cooperation.
In July 2012, the Government of India decided to scale down its diplomatic ties with Denmark after that country's refusal to appeal in their Supreme Court against a decision of its lower court rejecting the extradition of Purulia arms drop case prime accused Kim Davy a.k.a. Niels Holck. Agitated over Denmark's refusal to act on India's repeated requests to appeal in their apex court to facilitate Davy's extradition to India, the government issued a circular directing all senior officials not to meet or entertain any Danish diplomat posted in India.[580]
India's first recognition of Estonia came on 22 September 1921 when the former had just acquired membership in the League of Nations. India re-recognised Estonia on 9 September 1991 and diplomatic relations were established on 2 December of the same year in Helsinki. Neither country has a resident ambassador. Estonia is represented in India by an Embassy in New Delhi one honorary consulate in Mumbai. India is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki (Finland) and an honorary consulate in Tallinn.
France and India established diplomatic relations before India's independence from the British Empire on 17 February 1947.[581] France's Indian possessions were returned to India after a treaty of cession was signed by the two countries in May 1956. On 16 August 1962, India and France exchanged the instruments of ratification under which France ceded to India full sovereignty over the territories it held. Pondicherry and the other enclaves of Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam came to be administered as the Union Territory of Puducherry on 1 July 1963.
France, Russia and Israel were the only countries that did not condemn India's decision to go nuclear in 1998.[582] In 2003, France became the largest supplier of nuclear fuel and technology to India and remains a large military and economic trade partner. India's candidacy for permanent membership in the UN Security Council has found very strong support from former French President Nicolas Sarkozy. The Indian Government's decisions to purchase French Scorpène-class submarines worth US$3 billion and 43 Airbus aircraft for Air India worth US$2.5 billion have further cemented the strategic, military and economic cooperation between India and France.
France's decision to ban schoolchildren from wearing headdresses and veils had the unintended consequence of affecting Sikh children who have been refused entry into public schools. The Indian Government, citing the historic traditions of the Sikh community, has requested French authorities to review the situation to not exclude Sikh children from education.
President Nicolas Sarkozy and François Hollande visited India in January 2008 and 2016 respectively as the Chief Guest of the annual Republic Day parade in New Delhi. France was the first country to sign a nuclear energy cooperation agreement with India; this was done during Prime Minister Singh's visit, following the waiver by the Nuclear Suppliers Group. During the Bastille Day celebrations on 14 July 2009, a detachment of 400 Indian troops marched alongside the French troops and the then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh was the guest of honour.[583]
India has an embassy in Helsinki.[584] Finland has an embassy in New Delhi and three honorary consulates in Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai.[585]
During the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with both West Germany and East Germany. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved.
Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe. Between 2004 and 2013, Indo-German trade grew in volume but dropped in importance.[586] According to Indian Ministry of Commerce MX data: Total trade between India and Germany was $5.5 billion (3.8% share of Indian trade and ranked 6) in 2004 and $21.6 billion (2.6% share of Indian trade and ranked 9) in 2013. Indian exports to Germany were $2.54 billion (3.99% ranked 6) in 2004 and $7.3billion (2.41% ranked 10) in 2013. Indian imports from Germany were $2.92 billion (3.73% ranked 6) in 2004 and $14.33 billion (2.92% ranked 10) in 2013.
Indo-German ties are transactional. The strategic relationship between Germany and India suffers from sustained anti-Asian sentiment,[587] [citation needed] institutionalized discrimination against minority groups,[588][589][590][591] and xenophobic incidents against Indians in Germany. The 2007 Mügeln mob attack on Indians and the 2015 Leipzig University internship controversy have clouded the predominantly commercial-oriented relationship between the two countries. Stiff competition between foreign manufactured goods within the Indian market has seen machine tools, automotive parts and medical supplies from German Mittelstand ceding ground to high-technology imports manufactured by companies located in ASEAN & BRICS countries.[592][593][594][595] The Volkswagen emissions scandal drew the spotlight on corrupt behaviour in German boardrooms[596][597][598] and brought back memories of the HDW bribery scandal surrounding the procurement of Shishumar-class submarines by the Indian Navy. The India-Germany strategic relationship is limited by the insignificance of German geopolitical influence in Asian affairs. Germany has no strategic footprint in Asia. Germany like India is working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council.
For the Ancient Greeks "India" (Greek: Ινδία) meant only the upper Indus until the time of Alexander the Great. Afterwards, "India" meant to the Greeks most of the northern half of the Indian subcontinent. The Greeks referred to the Indians as "Indói" (Greek: Ἰνδοί), literally meaning "the people of the Indus River". Indians called the Greeks Yonas or "Yavanas" from Ionians.
Indo-Greek kingdoms were founded by the successor of Alexander the Great. (Greek conquests in India) The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea was a manual written in Greek for navigators who carried trade between Roman Empire and other regions, including ancient India. It gives detailed information about the ports, routes and commodities. The Greek ethnographer and explorer of the Hellenistic period, Megasthenes was the ambassador of Seleucus I in India. In his work, Indika (Greek: Ινδικά), he wrote the history of Indians and their culture. Megasthenes also mentioned the prehistoric arrival of the God Dionysus and Herakles (Megasthenes' Herakles) in India.
There is now tangible evidence indicating that the settlement of Greek merchants in Bengal must have begun as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century.[599] Dimitrios Galanos (Greek: Δημήτριος Γαλανός, 1760–1833) was the earliest recorded Greek Indologist. His translations of Sanskrit texts into Greek made knowledge of the philosophical and religious ideas of India available to many Europeans. A "Dimitrios Galanos" Chair for Hellenic Studies was established at Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi, India in September 2000.
In modern times, diplomatic relations between Greece and India were established in May 1950. The new Greek Embassy building in New Delhi was inaugurated on 6 February 2001.[600] As of 2020, the relationship between the two countries is closer than ever and is considered historical and strategic by both parties.[601][602][better source needed]
The Indian embassy is located in Budapest.
Iceland and India established diplomatic relations in 1972. The Embassy of Iceland in London was accredited to India and the Embassy of India in Oslo, Norway, was accredited to Iceland. However, it was only after 2003 that the two countries began close diplomatic and economic relationships.[603] In 2003, President of Iceland Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson visited India on a diplomatic mission. This was the first visit by an Icelandic President to India. During the visit, Iceland pledged support to New Delhi's candidature for a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council thus becoming the first Nordic country to do so. This was followed by an official visit of President of India A. P. J. Abdul Kalam to Iceland in May 2005.[604] Following this, a new embassy of Iceland was opened in New Delhi on 26 February 2006.[603] Soon, an Indian Navy team visited Iceland on a friendly mission.[605] Gunnar Pálsson is the ambassador of Iceland to India. The Embassy's area of accreditation, apart from India includes Bangladesh, Indonesia, the Seychelles, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius and Nepal.[606] India appointed S. Swaminathan as the first resident ambassador to Iceland in March 2008.[607]
Indo-Irish relations picked up steam during their respective campaigns for independence from the British Empire. Political relations between the two states have largely been based on socio-cultural ties, although political and economic ties have also helped build relations. Indo-Irish relations were greatly strengthened by Pandit Nehru, Éamon de Valera, Rabindranath Tagore, W. B. Yeats, James Joyce, and, above all, Annie Besant. Politically, relations have not been cold or warm. Mutual benefit has led to economic ties that are fruitful for both states.[citation needed] Visits by government leaders have kept relations cordial at regular intervals.
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 March 1948[135]
India maintains an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan. Italy has an embassy in New Delhi, and consulate-generals in Mumbai and Calcutta.
Indo-Italian relations have historically been cordial. In recent times, their state has mirrored the political fortunes of Sonia Maino-Gandhi, the Italian-born leader of the Indian National Congress and de facto leader of the UPA government of Manmohan Singh.
Since 2012 the relationship has been affected by the ongoing Enrica Lexie case: two Indian fishermen were killed on the Indian fishing vessel St. Antony as a result of gunshot wounds following a confrontation with the Italian oil tanker Enrica Lexie in international waters, off the Kerala coast.
After a period of tension, in 2017 Italian Prime Minister Paolo Gentiloni visited India and met his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi; they held extensive talks to strengthen the political cooperation and to boost the bilateral trade.[612]
There are around 150,000 people of Indian Origins living in Italy. Around 1,000 Italian citizens reside in India, mostly working on behalf of Italian industrial groups.
Relations were established in 1947, following India's independence. Luxembourg operates an Embassy in New Delhi whilst India operates a Consulate General in Luxembourg City. Bilateral Trade stood at US$37 Million in 2014 and trade continues to grow every year. Diplomats from both countries have visited the other several times. In 2019, Luxembourg plans to host the annual Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and open an economic mission in India.
Malta opened a High Commission of Malta, New Delhi in New Delhi in 2007. Malta also has an honorary consulate in Mumbai. India is represented in Malta by its high commission in Valletta.
The Indian embassy to Moldova is accredited by Bucharest, Romania. Moldova maintains an honorary consulate in New Delhi and a consulate in Mumbai. Both countries have taken steps to deepen their ties, which are still maintained at a modest level. Both countries have been found supporting each other on many international platforms like the United Nations through reciprocal support mechanisms. India-Moldova bilateral trade has been rather modest.
India–Netherlands relations refer to foreign relations between India and the Netherlands. India maintains an embassy in The Hague, Netherlands and the Netherlands maintains an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate general in Mumbai. Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 April 1947.[122]
In 2012, Trond Giske met with Minister of Finance Pranab Mukherjee, to save[613] Telenor's investments to put forth Norway's "strong wish" that there must not be a waiting period between the confiscation of telecom licenses and the re-sale of those.[614] The leader of Telenor attended the meeting.
Mother Teresa, honoured in the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta became an Indian citizen in 1951, and was born in Skopje (in present-day North Macedonia) in 1910. India has an embassy in Sofia, Bulgaria jointly accredited to the Republic of Macedonia. Both Macedonia has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Bangalore.
Historically, relations have generally been close and friendly, characterised by understanding and cooperation on the international front.[615]
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India and Portugal have a long history of relations ever since the Portuguese colonisation in British Raj.
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 April 1947[122]
India's ties with the Russian Federation are time-tested and based on continuity, trust and mutual understanding. There is a national consensus in both countries on the need to preserve and strengthen India-Russia relations and further consolidate the strategic partnership between the two countries. A Declaration on Strategic Partnership was signed between present Russian President Vladimir Putin and former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in October 2000 the partnership is also referred to asa "special and privileged strategic partnership".
Russia and India have decided not to renew the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. Russian President Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. Ties have grown stronger with President Vladimir Putin's 2004 visit. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as discussed in major defence purchases. Russia is working on the development of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant, which will be capable of producing 1000 MW of electricity. Gazprom is working for the development of oil and natural gas, in the Bay of Bengal. India and Russia, have collaborated extensively, on space technology. Other areas of collaboration include software, Ayurveda, etc. India and Russia, have set a determination in increasing trade to $10 billion. Cooperation between clothing manufacturers of the two countries continues to strengthen. India and Russia signed an agreement on joint efforts to increase investment and trade volumes in the textile industry in both countries. In signing the document included representatives of the Russian Union of Entrepreneurs of Textile and Light Industry Council and apparel exports of India (AEPC). A cooperation agreement provides, inter alia, the exchange of technology and know-how in textile production. For this purpose, a special Commission on Affairs Textile (Textile Communication Committee). Counter-terrorism techniques are also in place between Russia and India. In 2007 President Vladimir Putin was the guest of honour at the Republic Day celebration on 26 January 2007. 2008, has been declared by both countries as the Russia-India Friendship Year. Bollywood films are quite popular in Russia. The Indian public sector oil company ONGC bought Imperial Energy Corporation in 2008. In December 2008, during President Medvedev's visit, to New Delhi, India and Russia, signed a nuclear energy cooperation agreement. In March 2010, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signed an additional 19 pacts with India which included civilian nuclear energy, space and military cooperation and the final sale of Admiral Gorshkov (Aircraft Carrier) along with MiG-29K fighter jets.
During the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, India refused to support American sanctions against Russia and one of India's national security advisers Shivshankar Menon was reported to have said "There are legitimate Russian and other interests involved and we hope they are discussed and resolved."[618]
On 7 August 2014, India and Russia held a joint counter-terrorism exercise near the Moscow boundary with China and Mongolia. It involved the use of tanks and armoured vehicles.[619]
India and Russia have so far conducted three rounds of INDRA exercises. The first exercise was carried out in 2005 in Rajasthan, followed by Prshkov in Russia. The third exercise was conducted at Chaubattia in Kumaon Hills in October 2010.[619][620]
India has an embassy in Bucharest[621] and an honorary consulate in Timișoara. Romania has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata.[622]
India has an embassy in Bratislava and Slovakia has an embassy in New Delhi.
Diplomatic ties with Spain started in 1956.[628] The first Spanish embassy was established in Delhi in 1958. India and Spain have had a cordial relationship with each other, especially after the establishment of democracy in Spain in 1978. Spain has been a main tourist spot for Indians over the years. Many presidents including Prathibha Patil visited Spain. The royal family of Spain has always liked the humble nature of the Indian government and they have thus paid several visits to India. There was no direct flight from India to Spain but it all changed in 1986 when Iberian travels started to fly directly from Mumbai to Madrid. However, it was stopped in 22 months. In 2006 this issue of the direct flight was reconsidered to improve the ties between India and Spain. "Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara" was shot completely in Spain in 2011. The tourism ministry of Spain is using this movie to promote tourism to Spain in India.
India is one of Switzerland's most important partners in Asia. Bilateral and political contacts are constantly developing, and trade and scientific cooperation between the two countries are flourishing.[633] Switzerland was the first country in the World to sign a Friendship treaty with India in 1947.[634]
Diplomatic relations between India and Ukraine were established in January 1992. The Indian Embassy in Kyiv was opened in May 1992 and Ukraine opened its mission in New Delhi in February 1993. The Consulate General of India in Odesa functioned from 1962 until its closure in March 1999.
UK& India has a high commission in London and two consulates-general in Birmingham and Edinburgh.[638] The United Kingdom has a high commission in New Delhi and five deputy high commissions in Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Kolkata.[639] Since 1947, India's relations with the United Kingdom have been bilateral, as well as through the Commonwealth of Nations framework. Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The large South Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The British Raj allowed for both cultures to imbibe tremendously from the other. The English language and cricket are perhaps the two most evident British exports, whilst in the UK food from the Indian subcontinent is very popular.[640] The United Kingdom's favourite food is often reported to be Indian cuisine, although no official study reports this.[640]
Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. India is the second largest investor in Britain after the US.[641][642] Britain is also one of the largest investors in India.[643]
Formal bilateral relations between India and Vatican City have existed since 12 June 1948. An Apostolic Delegation existed in India from 1881. The Holy See has a nunciature in New Delhi whilst India has accredited its embassy in Bern, Switzerland to the Holy See as well. India's Ambassador in Bern has traditionally been accredited to the Holy See.
The connections between the Catholic Church and India can be traced back to the apostle St. Thomas, who, according to tradition, came to India in 52 CE in the 9th century, the patriarch of the Nestorians in Persia sent bishops to India. There is a record of an Indian bishop visiting Rome in the early part of the 12th century.
The diplomatic mission was established as the Apostolic Delegation to the East Indies in 1881, and included Ceylon, and was extended to Malaca in 1889, then to Burma in 1920, and eventually included Goa in 1923. It was raised to an Internunciature by Pope Pius XII on 12 June 1948 and to a full Apostolic Nunciature by Pope Paul VI on 22 August 1967.
There have been three Papal visits to India. The first Pope to visit India was Pope Paul VI, who visited Mumbai in 1964 to attend the Eucharistic Congress. Pope John Paul II visited India in February 1986 and November 1999. Several Indian dignitaries have, from time to time, called on the Pope in the Vatican. These include Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1981 and Prime Minister I. K. Gujral in September 1987. Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Prime Minister, called on the Pope in June 2000 during his official visit to Italy. Vice-President Bhairon Singh Shekhawat represented the country at the funeral of Pope John Paul II.
India was one of the first countries to develop relations with the European Union. The Joint Political Statement of 1993 and the 1994 Cooperation Agreement were the foundational agreements for the bilateral partnership. In 2004, India and European Union became "Strategic Partners". A Joint Action Plan was agreed upon in 2005 and updated in 2008. India-EU Joint Statements were published in 2009 and 2012 following the India-European Union Summits.[644]
India and the European Commission initiated negotiations on a Broad-based Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA) in 2007. Seven rounds of negotiations have been completed without reaching a Free Trade Agreement.[645]
According to the Government of India, trade between India and the EU was $57.25 billion between April and October 2014 and stood at $101.5 billion for the fiscal period of 2014–2015.[646]
The European Union is India's second largest trade bloc, accounting for around 20% of Indian trade (Gulf Cooperation Council is the largest trade bloc with almost $160 billion in total trade[647]). India was the European Union's 8th largest trading partner in 2010. EU-India trade grew from €28.6 billion in 2003 to €72.7 billion in 2013.[648]
France, Germany and UK collectively represent the major part of EU-India trade.[649] Annual trade in commercial services tripled from €5.2billion in 2002 to €17.9 billion in 2010.[650] Denmark, Sweden, Finland and the Netherlands are the other more prominent European Union countries that trade with India.[651][652]
India & Australia are both Commonwealth members. Sporting and cultural ties are significant. Australian cricketers often undertake large commercial ventures in India, enhanced with the IPL, and, to a lesser degree, the ICL. Bollywood productions enjoy a large market in Australia. In 2007, PM John Howard visited Mumbai and its entertainment industry, in efforts to increase Tourism in India to Australia.[653]
There are ongoing strategic attempts to form an "Asian NATO" with India, Japan, the US and Australia through the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue.[654][655] During the first decade of the 21st century, the deepening of strategic relations between the two nations was prevented by a range of policy disagreements, such as India's refusal to sign the NPT and Australia's consequent refusal to provide India with uranium. Australia's parliament later allowed for the sale of uranium to India, following changes in government.[656] Closer strategic cooperation between India, Japan, the United States and Australia also began during the second half of the 2010s, which some analysts attributed to a desire to balance Chinese initiatives in the Indo-Pacific region.[657]
Fiji's relationship with the Republic of India is often seen by observers against the backdrop of the sometimes tense relations between its indigenous people and the 44 percent of the population who are of Indian descent. India has used its influence in international forums such as the Commonwealth of Nations and United Nations on behalf of ethnic Indians in Fiji, lobbying for sanctions against Fiji in the wake of the 1987 coups and the 2000 coup, both of which removed governments, one dominated and one led, by Indo-Fijians.
India and Nauru relations have been established since the island nation's independence in 1968. Leaders of both countries have been meeting on the sidelines of some of the international forums of which both nations are part such as the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement. India is one of the largest donors to the island by improving the education ministry and creating transportation and computer connections for the MPs and the Speaker of the Parliament of Nauru. There were numerous visits by the President of Nauru to the republic to further strengthen ties and cooperation.[658]
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Bilateral relations were established between India and New Zealand in 1952.[659] India has a High Commission in Wellington with an Honorary Consulate in Auckland, while New Zealand has a High Commission in New Delhi along with a Consulate in Mumbai, trade offices in New Delhi and Mumbai and an Honorary Consulate in Chennai.
India–New Zealand relations were cordial but not extensive after Indian independence. More recently, New Zealand has shown interest in extending ties with India due to India's impressive GDP growth.
India and Papua New Guinea established relations in 1975, following PNG's independence from Australia. Since 1975, relations have grown between the two nations. India maintains a High Commission in Port Moresby while Papua New Guinea maintains a High Commission in New Delhi In the 2010 Fiscal Year, Trade between the two nations grew to US$239 Million. PNG has sent numerous military officers and students to be trained and educated in India's academies and universities respectively. In recent years, India and PNG have signed an Economic Partnership Agreement, allowing India to further invest in PNG's infrastructure, telecommunications and educational institutions.
Both countries established diplomatic relations in June 1970.[660]
India has its High Commission in Wellington, New Zealand, accredited to Vanuatu.
Since its declaration of independence from Serbia, Kosovo sought recognition from the major of the world's most influential countries, among them, India. Indian views regarding the developments followed initial constringent to comment but dismissed to give recognition of statehood. There are almost negligible interactions.
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After India achieved its independence in 1947, the country moved to support Palestinian self-determination following the partition of India. In light of a religious partition between India and Pakistan, the impetus to boost ties with Muslim states around the world was a further tie to India's support for the Palestinian cause. Though it started to waver in the late 1980s and 1990s, as the recognition of Israel led to diplomatic exchanges, the ultimate support for the Palestinian cause, was still an underlying concern. Beyond the recognition of Palestinian self-determination ties have been largely dependent upon socio-cultural bonds, while economic relations were neither cold nor warm.
India recognised Palestine's statehood following its declaration on 18 November 1988;[529] although relations were first established in 1974.[530]
PNA President Abbas paid a State visit to India in September 2012, during which India pledged $10 million as aid. Indian officials said it was the third such donation, adding that New Delhi was committed to helping other development projects. India also pledged support to Palestine's bid for full and equal membership of the UN.
India recognized the Republic of China (R.O.C) from 1947 to 1950. On 1 April 1950, India officially recognised the People's Republic of China (P.R.C) as "China" and continued to recognise the PRC's "One China" policy in which the island of Taiwan is a part of the Chinese territory. However, the bilateral relations between India and Taiwan have improved since the 1990s despite both nations not maintaining official diplomatic relations. Taiwan and India maintain non-governmental interaction via India-Taipei Association and Taipei Economic and Cultural Centre respectively. In July 2020, the Indian government appointed a top career diplomat, Joint Secretary Gourangalal Das, the former head of the U.S. division in India's Ministry of External Affairs, as its new envoy to Taiwan.
India participates in the following international organisations:[661]
India became independent within the British Commonwealth in August 1947 as the Dominion of India after the partition of India into India and the Dominion of Pakistan. King George VI, the last Emperor of India became the King of India with the Governor-General of India as his viceregal representative.
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India became the very first Commonwealth republic on 26 January 1950, as a result of the London Declaration.
India played an important role in the multilateral movements of colonies and newly independent countries that developed into the Non-Aligned Movement.Nonalignment had its origins in India's colonial experience and the nonviolent Indian independence movement led by the Congress, which left India determined to be the master of its fate in an international system dominated politically by Cold War alliances and economically by Western capitalism and Soviet communism. The principles of nonalignment, as articulated by Nehru and his successors, were the preservation of India's freedom of action internationally through refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, particularly those led by the United States or the Soviet Union; nonviolence and international cooperation as a means of settling international disputes. Nonalignment was a consistent feature of Indian foreign policy by the late 1940s and enjoyed strong, almost unquestioning support among the Indian elite.
The term "Non-Alignment" was coined by V K Menon in his speech at the UN in 1953 which was later used by Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In this speech, Nehru described the five pillars to be used as a guide for China–India relations, which were first put forth by PRC Premier Zhou Enlai. Called Panchsheel (five restraints), these principles would later serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement. The five principles were:
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Jawaharlal Nehru's concept of nonalignment brought India considerable international prestige among newly independent states that shared India's concerns about the military confrontation between the superpowers and the influence of the former colonial powers. New Delhi used nonalignment to establish a significant role for itself as a leader of the newly independent world in such multilateral organisations as the United Nations (UN) and the Nonaligned Movement. The signing of the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation between India and the Soviet Union in 1971 and India's involvement in the internal affairs of its smaller neighbours in the 1970s and 1980s tarnished New Delhi's image as a nonaligned nation and led some observers to note that in practice, nonalignment applied only to India's relations with countries outside South Asia.
The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QSD, also known as the Quad) is an informal strategic dialogue between the United States, India, Japan and Australia that is maintained by talks between member countries. The dialogue was initiated in 2007 by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, with the support of American Vice President Dick Cheney, Australian Prime Minister John Howard and Former Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. The dialogue was paralleled by joint military exercises of an unprecedented scale, titled Exercise Malabar. The diplomatic and military arrangement was widely viewed as a response to increased Chinese economic and military power. On 12 March 2021, the first summit meeting was held virtually between U.S President Joe Biden, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Japanese Prime Minister Yoshihide Suga and Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison.
India was among the original members of the United Nations that signed the Declaration by United Nations at Washington on 1 January 1942 and also participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco from 25 April to 26 June 1945. As a founding member of the United Nations, India strongly supports the purposes and principles of the UN and has made significant contributions to implementing the goals of the Charter and the evolution of the UN's specialised programmes and agencies.[663] India is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in all of its specialised agencies and organisations. India has contributed troops to United Nations peacekeeping efforts in Korea,[664][665] Egypt and the Congo in its earlier years and in Somalia, Angola, Haiti, Liberia, Lebanon and Rwanda in recent years, and more recently in the South Sudan conflict.[666] India has been a member of the UN Security Council for eight terms (a total of 16 years).[667] India is a member of the G4 group of nations who back each other in seeking a permanent seat on the security council and advocate in favour of the reformation of the UNSC. India is also part of the Group of 77.
Described by the WTO's former chief, Pascal Lamy, as one of the organisation's "big brothers",[668] India was instrumental in bringing down the Doha Development Round of talks in 2008.[76] It has played an important role in representing as many as 100 developing nations during WTO summits.[669]
The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts.
The relationship with USSR was tested (and proven) during the 1971 war with Pakistan, which led to the subsequent liberation of Bangladesh. Soon after the victory of the Indian Armed Forces, one of the foreign delegates to visit India was Admiral S.G. Gorshkov, Chief of the Soviet Navy. During his visit to Mumbai (Bombay), he came on board INS Vikrant. During a conversation with Vice Admiral Swaraj Prakash, Gorshkov asked the Vice Admiral, "Were you worried about a battle against the American carrier?" He answered himself: "Well, you had no reason to be worried, as I had a Soviet nuclear submarine trailing the American task force all the way into the Indian Ocean."[670]
India had formal relations with the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia until 1992 with the Breakup of Yugoslavia.
India's territorial disputes with neighbouring Pakistan and the People's Republic of China have played a crucial role in its foreign policy. India is also involved in minor territorial disputes with neighbouring Bangladesh, Nepal and Maldives. India currently maintains two manned stations in Antarctica but has made some unofficial territorial claims, which are yet to be clarified.
India is involved in the following border disputes:
Kalapani village of India is claimed by Nepal and Susta village in Nawalparasi district of Nepal is claimed by India.[671] The dispute between India and Nepal involves about 75 km2 (30 sq mi) of area in Kalapani, where China, India, and Nepal meet. Indian forces occupied the area in 1962 after China and India fought their border war. Three villages are located in the disputed zone: Kuti [Kuthi, 30°19'N, 80°46'E], Gunji, and Knabe. India and Nepal disagree about how to interpret the 1816 Sugauli treaty between the British East India Company and Nepal, which delimited the boundary along the Maha Kali River (Sarda River in India). The dispute intensified in 1997 as the Nepali parliament considered a treaty on the hydroelectric development of the river. India and Nepal differ as to which stream constitutes the source of the river. Nepal regards the Limpiyadhura as the source; India claims the Lipu Lekh. Nepal has reportedly tabled an 1856 map from the British India Office to support its position. The countries have held several meetings about the dispute and discussed jointly surveying to resolve the issue.[672] Although the Indo-Nepali dispute appears to be minor, it was aggravated in 1962 by tensions between China and India. Because the disputed area lies near the Sino-Indian frontier, it gains strategic value.[673]
Two regions are claimed by both India and China. Aksai Chin is in the disputed territory of Ladakh, at the junction of India, Tibet and Xinjiang, India claims the 38,000-square-kilometre territory, currently administered by China after Sino-Indian War. India also considers the cessation of Shaksam Valley to China by Pakistan as illegal and a part of its territory.Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India in the country's northeast, bordering on Bhutan, Burma and China's Tibet, though it is under Indian administration since 1914, China claims the 90,000-square-kilometre area as South Tibet. Also, the boundary between the North Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand with China's Tibet is not properly demarcated with some portions under the de facto administration of India.[674]
List of countries commemorating anniversaries of diplomatic relations with India through philately
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Inde: Ambassadeur M. K.R.P. Singh.
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