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sionismo

Theodor Herzl fue el fundador del movimiento sionista moderno. En su panfleto de 1896 Der Judenstaat , previó la fundación de un futuro estado judío independiente durante el siglo XX.

El sionismo [a] es un movimiento nacionalista etnocultural [1] [fn 1] que surgió en Europa a fines del siglo XIX y tenía como objetivo el establecimiento de un estado judío a través de la colonización de una tierra fuera de Europa. [4] [5] [6] Con el rechazo de propuestas alternativas para un estado judío , finalmente se centró en el establecimiento de una patria judía en Palestina , [7] [8] una región correspondiente a la Tierra de Israel en el judaísmo , [9] [10] y de importancia central en la historia judía . Los sionistas querían crear un estado judío en Palestina con la mayor cantidad de tierra, tantos judíos y la menor cantidad posible de árabes palestinos . [11] Tras el establecimiento del Estado de Israel en 1948, el sionismo se convirtió en la ideología nacional o estatal de Israel . [12] [7] [13]

El sionismo surgió inicialmente en Europa central y oriental como un movimiento nacionalista a fines del siglo XIX, en reacción a nuevas olas de antisemitismo y en respuesta a la Haskalah o Ilustración judía. [1] [14] Durante este período, Palestina fue parte del Imperio otomano . [15] La llegada de colonos sionistas a Palestina durante este período es ampliamente vista como el inicio del conflicto israelí-palestino . A lo largo de la primera década del movimiento sionista, algunas figuras sionistas, incluido el fundador del movimiento Theodor Herzl , consideraron alternativas a Palestina, como bajo el " Esquema de Uganda " (entonces parte del África Oriental Británica , y hoy en Kenia ), o en Argentina , Chipre , Mesopotamia , Mozambique o la península del Sinaí , [16] pero esto fue rechazado por la mayoría del movimiento. El proceso de traslado o "retorno" de los judíos a la tierra (alrededor de la actual Palestina e Israel) de la que habían sido exiliados, fue visto por el emergente movimiento sionista como una " reunión de exiliados " ( kibbutz galuyot ), un esfuerzo por poner fin a los éxodos y persecuciones que han marcado la historia judía al traer al pueblo judío de regreso a su patria histórica . [17]

De 1897 a 1948, el objetivo principal del movimiento sionista fue establecer las bases para una patria judía en Palestina y, posteriormente, consolidarla. El propio movimiento reconoció que la posición del sionismo de que una población extraterritorial tenía el reclamo más fuerte sobre Palestina iba en contra de la interpretación comúnmente aceptada del principio de autodeterminación . [18] En 1884, grupos protosionistas establecieron los Amantes de Sión , y en 1897 se organizó el primer congreso sionista . A fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX, un gran número de judíos emigraron primero al Imperio Otomano y luego al Mandato Británico de Palestina . Al mismo tiempo, se obtuvo cierto reconocimiento y apoyo internacional, en particular en la Declaración Balfour de 1917 del Reino Unido . Desde el establecimiento del Estado de Israel en 1948, el sionismo ha seguido principalmente abogando en nombre de Israel y abordando las amenazas a su existencia y seguridad continuas .

El término "sionismo" se ha aplicado a diversos enfoques para abordar los problemas que enfrentaban los judíos europeos a fines del siglo XIX. [19] El sionismo político moderno, diferente del sionismo religioso , es un movimiento formado por diversos grupos políticos cuyas estrategias y tácticas han cambiado con el tiempo. La ideología común entre las principales facciones sionistas es el apoyo a la concentración territorial y una mayoría demográfica judía en Palestina, a través de la colonización . [5] La corriente principal sionista ha incluido históricamente al sionismo liberal , laboral , revisionista y cultural , mientras que grupos como Brit Shalom e Ihud han sido facciones disidentes dentro del movimiento. [20] Las diferencias dentro de los principales grupos sionistas radican principalmente en su presentación y ethos, habiendo adoptado estrategias similares para lograr sus objetivos políticos, en particular en el uso de la violencia y el traslado obligatorio para lidiar con la presencia de la población palestina local, no judía. [21] [22] Los defensores del sionismo lo han visto como un movimiento de liberación nacional para la repatriación de un pueblo indígena (que fue objeto de persecución y comparte una identidad nacional a través de la conciencia nacional ), a la tierra natal de sus antepasados ​​como se señala en la historia antigua . [23] [24] [25] De manera similar, el antisionismo tiene muchos aspectos, que incluyen la crítica del sionismo como una ideología colonialista , [26] racista , [27] o excepcionalista o como un movimiento colonialista de asentamiento . [28] [29] Los defensores del sionismo no necesariamente rechazan la caracterización del sionismo como colonial de asentamiento o excepcionalista. [b] [30] [31] [32]

Terminología

El término "sionismo" se deriva de la palabra Sión ( hebreo : ציון , romanizadoTzi-yon ) o Monte Sión , una colina en Jerusalén , que simboliza ampliamente la Tierra de Israel. [33] Monte Sión también es un término utilizado en la Biblia hebrea . [34] [35] En toda Europa del Este a fines del siglo XIX, numerosos grupos de base promovieron el reasentamiento nacional de los judíos en su tierra natal, [36] así como la revitalización y el cultivo de la lengua hebrea . Estos grupos fueron llamados colectivamente los " Amantes de Sión " y fueron vistos como opositores a un creciente movimiento judío hacia la asimilación. El primer uso del término se atribuye al austriaco Nathan Birnbaum , fundador del movimiento nacionalista de estudiantes judíos Kadimah ; utilizó el término en 1890 en su revista Selbst-Emancipation ( Autoemancipación ), [37] [38] cuyo nombre es casi idéntico al del libro de Leon Pinsker de 1882 Autoemancipación .

Descripción general

El sionismo se originó como un movimiento nacionalista destinado a crear un estado judío independiente. [39] [40] El denominador común entre todos los sionistas modernos es una reivindicación de Palestina, una tierra conocida en la tradición judía como la Tierra de Israel (" Eretz Israel "), como patria nacional de los judíos y como foco de la autodeterminación nacional judía . [41] Históricamente, el consenso en la ideología sionista ha sido que un hogar nacional judío requiere una mayoría judía. [20] El sionismo se basa en lazos históricos y tradiciones religiosas que vinculan al pueblo judío con la Tierra de Israel. [42] El sionismo no tiene una ideología uniforme, pero el sionismo político moderno se asocia típicamente con el sionismo laborista y el sionismo revisionista, que no son fundamentalmente diferentes. [43] [44] [ página necesaria ] [20]

La bandera del Movimiento Sionista adoptada en 1891 se convirtió en la bandera del Estado de Israel , establecido en 1948.

Durante aproximadamente 1.700 años después de la última mayoría judía registrada en la región, la mayoría de los judíos vivían en varios países sin un estado nacional como parte del capítulo posromano de la diáspora judía . [45] El movimiento sionista fue fundado a fines del siglo XIX por judíos seculares , en gran parte como una respuesta de los judíos asquenazíes al creciente antisemitismo en Europa, ejemplificado por el caso Dreyfus en Francia y los pogromos antijudíos en el Imperio ruso . [46] El movimiento político fue establecido formalmente por el periodista austrohúngaro Theodor Herzl en 1897 después de la publicación de su libro Der Judenstaat ( El Estado judío ). [47] En ese momento, Herzl creía que la migración judía a la Palestina otomana , particularmente entre las comunidades judías pobres, no asimiladas y cuya presencia "flotante" causaba inquietud, sería beneficiosa para los judíos y cristianos europeos asimilados. [48] ​​El sionismo político fue en algunos aspectos una ruptura drástica con los dos mil años de tradición judía y rabínica. El sionismo, que se inspiró en otros movimientos nacionalistas europeos, se inspiró en particular en una versión alemana del pensamiento de la Ilustración europea, y los principios nacionalistas alemanes se convirtieron en características clave del nacionalismo sionista. El historiador judío del nacionalismo Hans Kohn sostuvo que el nacionalismo sionista "no tenía nada que ver con las tradiciones judías; en muchos sentidos se oponía a ellas". Desde el principio, el sionismo tuvo sus críticos: el sionista cultural Ahad Ha'am , a principios del siglo XX, escribió que no había creatividad en el movimiento sionista de Herzl y que su cultura era europea y específicamente alemana. Consideraba que el movimiento representaba a los judíos como simples transmisores de la cultura imperialista europea. [49]

Aunque inicialmente fue uno de los varios movimientos políticos judíos que ofrecían respuestas alternativas a la asimilación judía y al antisemitismo, el sionismo se expandió rápidamente. En sus primeras etapas, sus partidarios consideraron la creación de un Estado judío en el territorio histórico de Palestina. Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y la destrucción de la vida judía en Europa central y oriental, donde estos movimientos alternativos tenían sus raíces, se convirtió en un movimiento dominante en el pensamiento sobre un Estado nacional judío. Durante este período, el sionismo desarrollaría un discurso en el que los judíos religiosos, no sionistas, del Antiguo Yishuv que vivían en ciudades mixtas de árabes y judíos eran vistos como atrasados ​​en comparación con el Nuevo Yishuv sionista secular . [49]

Desde el comienzo del desarrollo del movimiento sionista, el apoyo de las potencias europeas fue visto como necesario por los líderes sionistas (Herzl, Chaim Weizmann y David Ben-Gurion ). Creando una alianza con Gran Bretaña y asegurando apoyo durante algunos años para la emigración judía a Palestina, los sionistas también reclutaron judíos europeos para inmigrar allí, especialmente judíos que vivían en áreas del Imperio ruso donde el antisemitismo estaba en auge. La alianza con Gran Bretaña se tensó cuando este último se dio cuenta de las implicaciones del movimiento judío para los árabes en Palestina, pero los sionistas persistieron. El movimiento finalmente logró establecer Israel el 14 de mayo de 1948 (5 de Iyar de 5708 en el calendario hebreo ) como la patria del pueblo judío . La proporción de judíos del mundo que viven en Israel ha crecido de manera constante desde que surgió el movimiento. Entonces se conoció un consenso sionista como un paraguas ideológico generalmente atribuido a dos factores principales: una historia trágica compartida (como el Holocausto ) y la amenaza común planteada por los enemigos vecinos de Israel. [50] [51] A principios del siglo XXI, más del 40% de los judíos del mundo vivían en Israel, más que en cualquier otro país. En algunos estudios académicos, el sionismo ha sido analizado tanto en el contexto más amplio de la política de la diáspora como un ejemplo de los movimientos de liberación nacional modernos y como un ejemplo de colonialismo de asentamiento . [52] [53] Algunas figuras prominentes en el movimiento sionista temprano se refirieron al movimiento como colonialista, como Ze'ev Jabotinsky . [c] [54] [55] [32]

El sionismo moderno surgió a finales del siglo XIX en Europa, a raíz de los intentos infructuosos de los judíos de integrarse en la sociedad occidental, así como del creciente antisemitismo en Europa. El sionismo veía el nacionalismo como un problema para los judíos, que los excluía por considerarlos una minoría "no deseada" o "extraña". El sionismo también veía el nacionalismo como una solución a la difícil situación de los judíos europeos, al establecer un estado en el que los judíos serían mayoría. [56] [ página requerida ] El sionismo no buscaba resolver el antisemitismo, sino que lo veía como una realidad inevitable. Leo Pinsker describió el antisemitismo como una enfermedad hereditaria e incurable, y concluyó en su Autoemancipación que "un pueblo sin territorio es como un hombre sin sombra: algo antinatural, espectral". [57] Los judíos llamados "asimilacionistas" deseaban una integración completa en la sociedad europea. Estaban dispuestos a restar importancia a su identidad judía y, en algunos casos, a abandonar las opiniones y puntos de vista tradicionales en un intento de modernización y asimilación al mundo moderno. Una forma menos extrema de asimilación se denominaba síntesis cultural. Quienes estaban a favor de la síntesis cultural deseaban la continuidad y sólo una evolución moderada, y les preocupaba que los judíos no perdieran su identidad como pueblo. Los "sintetistas culturales" enfatizaban tanto la necesidad de mantener los valores y la fe judíos tradicionales como la necesidad de adaptarse a una sociedad modernista, por ejemplo, cumpliendo con los días y las reglas de trabajo. [58] [ página necesaria ]

En 1975, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas aprobó la Resolución 3379 , que calificaba al sionismo de «una forma de racismo y discriminación racial». La Resolución 3379 fue derogada en 1991, cuando Israel condicionó su participación en las conversaciones de paz de Madrid a la aprobación de la Resolución 46/86 , que «revocaba la determinación contenida en» la 3379. [59]

Creencias

Reivindicación de una mayoría demográfica judía y de un Estado judío en Palestina

El sionismo considera fundamental la creencia de que los judíos constituyen una nación y tienen el derecho moral e histórico de autodeterminarse en Palestina . [d] Esta creencia surgió de las experiencias de los judíos europeos, que según los primeros sionistas demostraban el peligro inherente a su condición de minoría. En contraste con la noción sionista de nacionalidad, el sentido judío de ser una nación se basaba en creencias religiosas de elección única y providencia divina, más que en la etnicidad. Las oraciones diarias enfatizaban la distinción con respecto a otras naciones; la conexión con Eretz Israel y la expectativa de la restauración se basaban en creencias mesiánicas y prácticas religiosas, no en concepciones nacionalistas materiales. [61]

La reivindicación sionista sobre Palestina se basaba en la idea de que los judíos tenían un derecho histórico a la tierra que superaba los derechos de los árabes, que no tenían "ninguna importancia moral o histórica". [20] [60] Según la historiadora israelí Simha Flapan, la visión expresada en la proclamación de que " no existían los palestinos " era una piedra angular de la política sionista iniciada por Ben-Gurion, Weizmann y continuada por sus sucesores. Flapan escribe además que el no reconocimiento de los palestinos sigue siendo un principio básico de la política israelí. [62] Esta perspectiva también era compartida por aquellos en la extrema izquierda del movimiento sionista, incluyendo a Martin Buber y otros miembros de Brit Shalom. [e] [f] [g] Los funcionarios británicos que apoyaban el esfuerzo sionista también tenían creencias similares con respecto a los derechos judíos y árabes en Palestina. [h] [i] [65] [63] [66]

A diferencia de otras formas de nacionalismo, la reivindicación sionista sobre Palestina era aspiracional y requería un mecanismo por el cual la reivindicación pudiera realizarse. [67] La ​​concentración territorial de judíos en Palestina y el objetivo posterior de establecer una mayoría judía allí fue el principal mecanismo por el cual los grupos sionistas buscaron hacer realidad esta reivindicación. [68] En el momento de la Revuelta Árabe de 1936 , las diferencias políticas entre los diversos grupos sionistas se habían reducido aún más, y casi todos los grupos sionistas buscaban un estado judío en Palestina. [69] [70] Si bien no todos los grupos sionistas pidieron abiertamente el establecimiento de un estado judío en Palestina, todos los grupos de la corriente principal sionista estaban casados ​​con la idea de establecer una mayoría demográfica judía allí. [71]

Sionismo, antisemitismo y una “necesidad existencial” de autodeterminación

Desde la perspectiva de los primeros pensadores sionistas, los judíos que viven entre no judíos son anormales y sufren impedimentos que solo pueden abordarse rechazando la identidad judía que se desarrolló mientras vivían entre no judíos . En consecuencia, los primeros sionistas buscaron desarrollar una vida política judía nacionalista en un territorio donde los judíos constituyen una mayoría demográfica. [61] [72] [j] Los primeros pensadores sionistas vieron la integración de los judíos en la sociedad no judía como poco realista (o insuficiente para abordar las deficiencias asociadas con el estatus de minoría demográfica de los judíos en Europa) e indeseable, ya que la asimilación estaba acompañada por la dilución de la distinción cultural judía. [41] Moses Hess , un precursor líder del sionismo, comentó sobre la insuficiencia percibida de la asimilación: "El alemán odia a la raza judía más que a la religión; se opone menos a las creencias peculiares de los judíos que a sus narices peculiares". Líderes destacados del movimiento sionista expresaron una "comprensión" del antisemitismo , haciéndose eco de sus creencias:

El antisemitismo no es una psicosis... ni tampoco una mentira. El antisemitismo es el resultado necesario de una colisión entre dos tipos de identidad [o "esencia"]. El odio depende de la cantidad de "agentes de fermentación" que se introducen en el organismo general [es decir, el grupo no judío], ya sea que estén activos en él y lo irriten, o que sean neutralizados en él. [72]

En este sentido, el sionismo no intentó desafiar el antisemitismo, sino más bien aceptarlo como una realidad. La solución sionista a las deficiencias percibidas de la vida diaspórica (o la " cuestión judía ") dependía de la concentración territorial de los judíos en Palestina, con el objetivo a largo plazo de establecer una mayoría demográfica judía allí. [20] [73] [41]

Raza y genética

Los primeros sionistas fueron los principales partidarios judíos de la idea de que los judíos son una raza, ya que "ofrecía una 'prueba' científica del mito etnonacionalista de la descendencia común". [74] Según Raphael Falk , ya en la década de 1870 los pensadores sionistas y presionistas concebían a los judíos como pertenecientes a un grupo biológico distinto. [75] Esta reconceptualización del judaísmo presentó al " volk " de la comunidad judía como una raza-nación, en contraste con concepciones centenarias del pueblo judío como una agrupación sociocultural religiosa. [75] A los historiadores judíos Heinrich Graetz y Simon Dubnow se les atribuye en gran medida esta creación del sionismo como un proyecto nacionalista. Se basaron en fuentes judías religiosas y textos no judíos para reconstruir una identidad y conciencia nacionales. Esta nueva historiografía judía se divorció de la memoria colectiva judía tradicional y, a veces, entró en desacuerdo con ella. [49]

Fue particularmente importante en la construcción temprana de la nación en Israel, porque los judíos en Israel son étnicamente diversos y los orígenes de los judíos asquenazíes no eran conocidos. [76] [77] Entre los defensores notables de esta idea racial se encontraban Max Nordau , cofundador de la Organización Sionista original junto con Herzl , Ze'ev Jabotinsky , el destacado arquitecto del sionismo estatista temprano y fundador de lo que se convirtió en el partido Likud de Israel , [78] y Arthur Ruppin , considerado el "padre de la sociología israelí". [79] Birnbaum, a quien se le atribuye ampliamente el primer uso del término "sionismo" en referencia a un movimiento político, veía la raza como la base de la nacionalidad, [80] Jabotinsky escribió que la integridad nacional judía se basa en la "pureza racial", [78] [k] y que "(e)l sentimiento de autoidentidad nacional está arraigado en la 'sangre' del hombre, en su tipo físico-racial, y sólo en él". [81]

Según Hassan S. Haddad, la aplicación de los conceptos bíblicos de los judíos como el pueblo elegido y la " Tierra Prometida " en el sionismo, particularmente a los judíos seculares, requiere la creencia de que los judíos modernos son los descendientes primarios de los judíos bíblicos y los israelitas. [82] Esto se considera importante para el Estado de Israel, porque su narrativa fundacional se centra en el concepto de una " Reunión de los exiliados " y el " Retorno a Sión ", bajo el supuesto de que todos los judíos modernos son los descendientes lineales directos de los judíos bíblicos. [83] La cuestión ha sido así centrada tanto por los partidarios del sionismo como por los antisionistas , [84] ya que en ausencia de esta primacía bíblica, "el proyecto sionista cae presa de la categorización peyorativa de 'colonialismo de asentamiento' perseguida bajo suposiciones falsas, haciendo el juego a los críticos de Israel y alimentando la indignación del pueblo palestino desplazado y apátrida", [83] mientras que los israelíes de derecha buscan "una manera de demostrar que la ocupación es legítima, de autentificar el ethnos como un hecho natural y de defender al sionismo como un retorno". [85] Una "autodefinición biológica" judía se ha convertido en una creencia estándar para muchos nacionalistas judíos, y la mayoría de los investigadores demográficos israelíes nunca han dudado de que algún día se encontrarán pruebas, aunque hasta ahora las pruebas de la afirmación han "permanecido siempre elusivas". [86]

Negación de la vida en la diáspora

El sionismo rechazó las definiciones judías tradicionales de lo que significa ser judío, pero luchó por ofrecer una nueva interpretación de la identidad judía independiente de la tradición rabínica. La religión judía es vista como un factor esencialmente negativo, incluso en la ideología religiosa sionista, y se la considera responsable de la disminución del estatus de los judíos que viven como minoría. [72] En respuesta a los desafíos de la modernidad, el sionismo buscó reemplazar las instituciones religiosas y comunitarias por una secular-nacionalista, definiendo al judaísmo en "términos cristianos". [87] De hecho, el sionismo mantuvo principalmente los símbolos externos de la tradición judía, redefiniéndolos en un contexto nacionalista. Adaptó los conceptos religiosos judíos tradicionales, como la devoción al Dios de Israel, la reverencia por la Tierra de Israel bíblica y la creencia en un futuro retorno judío durante la era mesiánica, a un marco nacionalista moderno. Sin duda, el anhelo por un retorno a la tierra de Israel "era enteramente quietista" y las oraciones diarias por un retorno a Sión estaban acompañadas por una apelación a Dios, en lugar de un llamado a los judíos a tomar la iniciativa de apropiarse de la tierra. [61] [88] El sionismo se veía a sí mismo como el encargado de traer a los judíos al mundo moderno al redefinir lo que significa ser judío en términos de identificación con un estado soberano, en lugar de la fe y la tradición judías. [87]

El sionismo y la identidad judía secular

El sionismo pretendía reconfigurar la identidad y la cultura judías en términos nacionalistas y seculares. Esta nueva identidad se basaría en el rechazo de la vida en el exilio. El sionismo retrataba al judío de la diáspora como mentalmente inestable, físicamente frágil y propenso a involucrarse en negocios transitorios como la venta ambulante o la intermediación. Se lo veía como alguien separado de la naturaleza, puramente materialista y centrado únicamente en sus ganancias personales. En cambio, la visión del nuevo judío era radicalmente diferente: un individuo de fuertes valores morales y estéticos, no encadenado a la religión, impulsado por ideales y dispuesto a desafiar las circunstancias degradantes; una persona liberada, digna y ansiosa por defender tanto el orgullo personal como el nacional. [72] [41]

El objetivo sionista de reformular la identidad judía en términos seculares-nacionalistas significó principalmente el declive del estatus de la religión en la comunidad judía. [72] Los pensadores sionistas prominentes enmarcan este desarrollo como el nacionalismo que cumple el mismo papel que la religión, reemplazándola funcionalmente. [87] El sionismo buscó hacer del nacionalismo étnico judío el rasgo distintivo de los judíos en lugar de su compromiso con el judaísmo. [41] El sionismo en cambio adoptó una comprensión racial de la identidad judía, que paradójicamente reflejaba puntos de vista antisemitas al sugerir que el judaísmo es un rasgo inherente e inmutable que se encuentra en la "sangre" de uno. [72] Enmarcada de esta manera, la identidad judía es solo secundariamente una cuestión de tradición o cultura. [89] El nacionalismo sionista abrazó ideologías pangermánicas, que enfatizaban el concepto de das völk : las personas de ascendencia compartida deben buscar la separación y establecer un estado unificado. Los pensadores sionistas ven el movimiento como una “rebelión contra una tradición de muchos siglos” de vivir como parásitos al margen de la sociedad occidental. De hecho, el sionismo se sentía incómodo con el término “judío”, asociándolo con la pasividad, la espiritualidad y la mancha del “galut”. En cambio, los pensadores sionistas preferían el término “hebreo” para describir su identidad, que asociaban con la sabra saludable y moderna. En el pensamiento sionista, el nuevo judío sería productivo y trabajaría la tierra, en contraste con el judío de la diáspora que, reflejando las representaciones antisemitas, era representado como holgazán y parásito de la sociedad. El sionismo vinculó el término “judío” con estas características negativas prevalecientes en los estereotipos antisemitas europeos, que los sionistas creían que podrían remediarse solo a través de la soberanía. [90]

La académica israelí-irlandesa Ronit Lentin ha sostenido que la construcción de la identidad sionista como un nacionalismo militarizado surgió en contraste con la identidad imputada del judío de la diáspora como un Otro "feminizado" . Ella describe esto como una relación de desprecio hacia la identidad previa de la diáspora judía vista como incapaz de resistir el antisemitismo y el Holocausto. Lentin sostiene que el rechazo del sionismo a esta identidad "feminizada" y su obsesión por construir una nación se refleja en la naturaleza del simbolismo del movimiento, que se extrae de fuentes modernas y se apropia como sionista, citando como ejemplo el hecho de que la melodía del himno Hatikvah se basó en la versión compuesta por el compositor checo Bedřich Smetana . [49]

El rechazo a la vida en la diáspora no se limitaba al sionismo secular; muchos sionistas religiosos compartían esta opinión, pero no todos los sionistas religiosos lo hacían. Abraham Isaac Kook , considerado uno de los pensadores sionistas religiosos más importantes, caracterizó la diáspora como una existencia imperfecta y alienada marcada por la decadencia, la estrechez, el desplazamiento, la soledad y la fragilidad. Creía que el modo de vida de la diáspora se opone diametralmente a un "renacimiento nacional", que se manifiesta no sólo en el retorno a Sión, sino también en el retorno a la naturaleza y la creatividad, el resurgimiento de los valores heroicos y estéticos y el resurgimiento del poder individual y social. [91]

Renacimiento de la lengua hebrea

Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1858-1922), fundador y líder del movimiento para revivir la lengua hebrea , es considerado el padre del hebreo moderno . [92]

El resurgimiento del hebreo como lengua literaria secular en Europa del Este marcó un cambio cultural significativo entre los judíos, quienes, según la tradición judía, utilizaban el hebreo sólo con fines religiosos. Esta secularización del hebreo, que incluyó su uso en novelas, poemas y periodismo, se encontró con la resistencia de los rabinos, que la consideraban una profanación de la lengua sagrada. Si bien algunas autoridades rabínicas apoyaron el desarrollo del hebreo como lengua vernácula común, lo hicieron sobre la base de ideas nacionalistas, en lugar de sobre la base de la tradición judía. [61] Eliezer Ben Yehuda, una figura clave en el resurgimiento, imaginó que el hebreo serviría a un "espíritu nacional" y al renacimiento cultural en la Tierra de Israel. [93] El principal motivador para establecer el hebreo moderno como lengua nacional fue el sentido de legitimidad que le dio al movimiento, al sugerir una conexión entre los judíos del antiguo Israel y los judíos del movimiento sionista. [94] Estos acontecimientos se consideran en la historiografía sionista como una rebelión contra la tradición, en la que el desarrollo del hebreo moderno proporciona la base sobre la que podría desarrollarse un renacimiento cultural judío. [61]

Los sionistas generalmente preferían hablar hebreo , una lengua semítica que floreció como lengua hablada en los antiguos reinos de Israel y Judá durante el período de aproximadamente 1200 a 586 a. C., [95] y continuó usándose en algunas partes de Judea durante el período del Segundo Templo y hasta el año 200 d. C. Es el idioma de la Biblia hebrea y la Mishná , textos centrales del judaísmo . El hebreo se conservó en gran medida a lo largo de la historia posterior como el principal idioma litúrgico del judaísmo.

Los sionistas trabajaron para modernizar el hebreo y adaptarlo para el uso cotidiano. A veces se negaban a hablar yiddish , un idioma que creían que se había desarrollado en el contexto de la persecución europea . Una vez que se mudaron a Israel, muchos sionistas se negaron a hablar sus lenguas maternas (diaspóricas) y adoptaron nuevos nombres hebreos . El hebreo fue preferido no solo por razones ideológicas, sino también porque permitía a todos los ciudadanos del nuevo estado tener un idioma común, lo que fomentaba los vínculos políticos y culturales entre los sionistas. [ cita requerida ]

El resurgimiento de la lengua hebrea y el establecimiento del hebreo moderno están estrechamente asociados con el lingüista Eliezer Ben-Yehuda y el Comité de la Lengua Hebrea (posteriormente reemplazado por la Academia de la Lengua Hebrea ). [96]

Historia

Antecedentes históricos y religiosos

La transformación de una conexión religiosa y principalmente pasiva entre los judíos y Palestina en un movimiento activo, secular y nacionalista surgió en el contexto de los desarrollos ideológicos dentro de las naciones europeas modernas en el siglo XIX. El concepto del "retorno" siguió siendo un símbolo poderoso dentro de la creencia religiosa judía que enfatizaba que su retorno debería ser determinado por la Providencia Divina en lugar de la acción humana. [87] El destacado historiador sionista Shlomo Avineri describe esta conexión: "Los judíos no se relacionaron con la visión del Retorno de una manera más activa de lo que la mayoría de los cristianos vieron la Segunda Venida". La noción religiosa judaica de ser una nación era distinta de la noción europea moderna de nacionalismo. [41] Los judíos ultraortodoxos se opusieron firmemente al asentamiento colectivo judío en Palestina, [l] viéndolo como una violación de los tres juramentos hechos a Dios: no forzar su entrada en la patria, no apresurar el fin de los tiempos y no rebelarse contra otras naciones . Creían que cualquier intento de lograr la redención a través de acciones humanas, en lugar de la intervención divina y la venida del Mesías , constituía una rebelión contra la voluntad divina y una herejía peligrosa. [m]

La memoria cultural de los judíos en la diáspora reverenciaba la Tierra de Israel. La tradición religiosa sostenía que una futura era mesiánica marcaría el comienzo de su retorno como pueblo. [97] , un "retorno a Sión" conmemorado particularmente en las oraciones de Pascua y de Yom Kippur . A fines de la época medieval, surgió entre los ashkenazíes un augurio - " El año que viene en Jerusalén " - que se incluía en la Amidá (oración de pie) tres veces al día. [98] La profecía bíblica de las Galuyot del Kibutz , la reunión de los exiliados en la Tierra de Israel según lo predicho por los profetas , se convirtió en una idea central en el sionismo. [99] [100] [101]

Precursores del sionismo

Los precursores del sionismo, en lugar de estar relacionados causalmente con el desarrollo posterior del sionismo, son pensadores y activistas que expresaron alguna noción de conciencia nacional judía o abogaron por la migración de judíos a Palestina. Estos intentos no fueron continuos como suelen serlo los movimientos nacionales. [102] [103] Los precursores más notables del sionismo fueron pensadores como Judah Alkalai y Zvi Hirsch Kalischer (ambos figuras rabínicas), así como Moses Hess , considerado el primer nacionalista judío moderno. [104]

Hess abogó por el establecimiento de un estado judío independiente en pos de la normalización económica y social del pueblo judío. [105] Hess creía que la emancipación por sí sola no era una solución suficiente a los problemas que enfrentaba el judaísmo europeo; percibía un cambio del sentimiento antijudío de una base religiosa a una base racial. Para Hess, la conversión religiosa no solucionaría esta hostilidad antijudía. [103] En contraste con Hess, Alkalai y Kalischer desarrollaron sus ideas como una reinterpretación del mesianismo según líneas tradicionalistas en las que la intervención humana prepararía (y específicamente solo prepararía) para la redención final. En consecuencia, la inmigración judía en esta línea tenía la intención de ser selectiva, involucrando solo a los judíos más devotos. [104] Su idea de los judíos como un colectivo estaba fuertemente ligada a nociones religiosas distintas del movimiento secular conocido como sionismo que se desarrolló a fines del siglo. [102]

Las ideas restauracionistas cristianas que promovían la migración de judíos a Palestina contribuyeron al contexto ideológico e histórico que dio un sentido de credibilidad a estas iniciativas presionistas. [103] Las ideas restauracionistas fueron un prerrequisito para el éxito del sionismo, ya que desde el principio el sionismo dependió del apoyo cristiano. [102]

En el siglo XVII, Sabbatai Zevi (1626-1676) se anunció como el Mesías y ganó a muchos judíos para su lado, formando una base en Salónica. Primero intentó establecer un asentamiento en Gaza, pero luego se mudó a Esmirna . Después de derrocar al viejo rabino Aaron Lapapa en la primavera de 1666, la comunidad judía de Aviñón, Francia , se preparó para emigrar al nuevo reino. [106] [107] [108]

Otras figuras protosionistas incluyen a los rabinos Yehuda Bibas (1789-1852), Tzvi Kalischer (1795-1874) y Judah Alkalai (1798-1878). [109]

Establecimiento del movimiento sionista

La idea de regresar a Palestina fue rechazada por las conferencias de rabinos celebradas en esa época. Esfuerzos individuales apoyaron la emigración de grupos de judíos a Palestina, antes de la aliyá sionista , incluso antes del Primer Congreso Sionista en 1897, año considerado como el inicio del sionismo práctico. [110]

Los judíos reformistas rechazaron esta idea de un retorno a Sión. La conferencia de rabinos celebrada en Frankfurt am Main del 15 al 28 de julio de 1845 suprimió del ritual todas las oraciones por el retorno a Sión y la restauración de un estado judío. La Conferencia de Filadelfia de 1869 siguió el ejemplo de los rabinos alemanes y decretó que la esperanza mesiánica de Israel es "la unión de todos los hijos de Dios en la confesión de la unidad de Dios". En 1885, la Conferencia de Pittsburgh reiteró esta interpretación de la idea mesiánica del judaísmo reformista, expresando en una resolución que "ya no nos consideramos una nación, sino una comunidad religiosa; y por lo tanto no esperamos ni un retorno a Palestina, ni un culto sacrificial bajo los hijos de Aarón, ni la restauración de ninguna de las leyes relativas a un estado judío". [111]

"Memorando a las potencias protestantes del norte de Europa y América", publicado en el Colonial Times (Hobart, Tasmania, Australia), en 1841

En 1819, WD Robinson propuso el establecimiento de asentamientos judíos en la región del Alto Misisipi. [112] [ cita completa necesaria ]

En Praga , Abraham Benisch y Moritz Steinschneider realizaron esfuerzos morales, pero no prácticos, para organizar una emigración judía en 1835. En los Estados Unidos, Mordecai Noah intentó establecer un refugio judío frente a Buffalo, Nueva York , en Grand Isle, en 1825. Estos primeros esfuerzos de construcción de una nación judía de Cresson, Benisch, Steinschneider y Noah fracasaron. [113] [ página necesaria ] [114]

Sir Moses Montefiore , famoso por su intervención en favor de los judíos de todo el mundo, incluido el intento de rescatar a Edgardo Mortara , estableció una colonia para judíos en Palestina. En 1854, su amigo Judah Touro legó dinero para financiar el asentamiento residencial judío en Palestina. Montefiore fue designado albacea de su testamento y utilizó los fondos para una variedad de proyectos, incluida la construcción en 1860 del primer asentamiento residencial judío y asilo de beneficencia fuera de la antigua ciudad amurallada de Jerusalén, hoy conocida como Mishkenot Sha'ananim . Laurence Oliphant fracasó en un intento similar de traer a Palestina al proletariado judío de Polonia, Lituania, Rumania y el Imperio turco (1879 y 1882).

Nacionalismo judío y emancipación

Las ideas de unidad cultural judía adquirieron una expresión específicamente política en la década de 1860, cuando los intelectuales judíos comenzaron a promover la idea del nacionalismo judío. El sionismo sería sólo uno de los varios movimientos nacionales judíos que se desarrollarían; otros incluían grupos nacionalistas de la diáspora como el Bund . [115]

El sionismo surgió hacia el final del "mejor siglo" [87] para los judíos, a quienes por primera vez se les permitió entrar en igualdad de condiciones en la sociedad europea. Durante este tiempo, los judíos tendrían igualdad ante la ley y obtendrían acceso a escuelas, universidades y profesiones que antes les estaban vedadas. [87] En la década de 1870, los judíos habían logrado una emancipación cívica casi completa en todos los estados de Europa occidental y central. [41] En 1914, un siglo después del comienzo de la emancipación , los judíos habían pasado de los márgenes a la vanguardia de la sociedad europea. En los centros urbanos de Europa y América, los judíos desempeñaron un papel influyente en la vida profesional e intelectual, considerada en proporción a su número. [87] Durante este período, cuando la asimilación judía todavía progresaba de manera muy prometedora, algunos intelectuales judíos y tradicionalistas religiosos enmarcaron la asimilación como una negación humillante de la distinción cultural judía. El desarrollo del sionismo y otros movimientos nacionalistas judíos surgió de estos sentimientos, que comenzaron a surgir incluso antes de la aparición del antisemitismo moderno como un factor importante. [41] En este sentido, el sionismo puede leerse como una respuesta a la Haskalá y a los desafíos de la modernidad y el liberalismo, más que puramente una respuesta al antisemitismo. [87]

La emancipación en Europa del Este progresó más lentamente, [116] hasta el punto que Deickoff escribe que "las condiciones sociales eran tales que hacían inútil la idea de la asimilación individual". El antisemitismo, los pogromos y las políticas oficiales en la Rusia zarista llevaron a la emigración de tres millones de judíos entre 1882 y 1914, de los cuales sólo el 1% fue a Palestina. Los que fueron a Palestina lo hicieron principalmente impulsados ​​por ideas de autodeterminación e identidad judía, más que como respuesta a los pogromos o la inseguridad económica. [87] El surgimiento del sionismo a finales del siglo XIX se produjo entre los judíos asimilados de Europa central que, a pesar de su emancipación formal, todavía se sentían excluidos de la alta sociedad. Muchos de estos judíos se habían alejado de las observancias religiosas tradicionales y eran en gran medida seculares, lo que refleja una tendencia más amplia de secularización en Europa. A pesar de sus esfuerzos por integrarse, los judíos de Europa central y oriental se vieron frustrados por la continua falta de aceptación por parte de los movimientos nacionales locales que tendían hacia la intolerancia y la exclusividad. [61] Para los primeros sionistas, si bien el nacionalismo planteaba un desafío al judaísmo europeo, también proponía una solución. [44]

Theodor Herzl y el nacimiento del sionismo político moderno

El inicio oficial de la construcción del Nuevo Yishuv en Palestina suele datarse con la llegada del grupo Bilu en 1882, que inició la Primera Aliá . En los años siguientes, la inmigración judía a Palestina comenzó en serio. La mayoría de los inmigrantes provenían del Imperio ruso, escapando de los frecuentes pogromos y la persecución dirigida por el estado en lo que ahora son Ucrania y Polonia. [ cita requerida ] Fundaron una serie de asentamientos agrícolas con el apoyo financiero de filántropos judíos en Europa occidental. Aliá adicionales siguieron a la Revolución rusa y su estallido de violentos pogromos. A fines del siglo XIX, los judíos eran una pequeña minoría en Palestina. [ 117 ]

La Gran Sinagoga de Rishon LeZion fue fundada en 1885.

En la década de 1890, Theodor Herzl (el padre del sionismo político) infundió al sionismo una nueva ideología y urgencia práctica, lo que llevó al Primer Congreso Sionista en Basilea en 1897, que creó la Organización Sionista (ZO), rebautizada en 1960 como Organización Sionista Mundial (WZO). [118] En Der Judenstaat , Herzl fue explícito al mencionar que el "estado de los judíos" solo podría establecerse con el apoyo de una potencia europea. Describió al estado judío como un "puesto de avanzada de la civilización contra la barbarie". En un escrito separado, Herzl se comparó con Cecil Rhodes , quien era un firme partidario de las ideologías colonialistas e imperialistas británicas. [49] : 327 

En 1896, Theodor Herzl expresó en Der Judenstaat sus puntos de vista sobre "la restauración del estado judío". [119] Herzl consideraba que el antisemitismo era una característica eterna de todas las sociedades en las que los judíos vivían como minorías, y que sólo una soberanía podría permitir a los judíos escapar de la persecución eterna: "¡Que nos den soberanía sobre un pedazo de la superficie de la Tierra, justo lo suficiente para las necesidades de nuestro pueblo, luego haremos el resto!" proclamó exponiendo su plan. [120] En 1902, Herzl publicó Altneuland , que retrata un estado judío donde judíos y árabes viven juntos en armonía. Laqueur describe Altneuland como un reflejo de la creencia de Herzl en la importancia de la coexistencia y el respeto mutuo entre diferentes comunidades. [121] [ página necesaria ]

Éxitos y tropiezos en Rusia

Antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial, aunque liderado por judíos austriacos y alemanes, el sionismo estaba compuesto principalmente por judíos rusos. [122] Inicialmente, los sionistas eran una minoría, tanto en Rusia como en todo el mundo. [123] [124] [125] [126] El sionismo ruso rápidamente se convirtió en una fuerza importante dentro del movimiento, constituyendo aproximadamente la mitad de los delegados en los congresos sionistas. [127]

A pesar de su éxito en atraer seguidores, el sionismo ruso se enfrentó a una feroz oposición por parte de la intelectualidad rusa de todo el espectro político y las clases socioeconómicas. Fue condenado por diferentes grupos como reaccionario, mesiánico y poco realista, argumentando que aislaría a los judíos y exacerbaría sus circunstancias en lugar de integrarlos a las sociedades europeas. [127] Los judíos religiosos como el rabino Joel Teitelbaum vieron en el sionismo una profanación de sus creencias sagradas y un complot satánico, mientras que otros no pensaban que mereciera una atención seria. [128] Para ellos, el sionismo era visto como un intento de desafiar el orden divino de esperar la llegada del Mesías. [129] Sin embargo, muchos de estos judíos religiosos todavía creían en la pronta venida del Mesías. Por ejemplo, el rabino Israel Meir Kahan "estaba tan convencido de la inminente llegada del Mesías que instó a sus estudiantes a estudiar las leyes del sacerdocio para que los sacerdotes estuvieran preparados para llevar a cabo sus deberes cuando se reconstruyera el Templo de Jerusalén". [128]

Las críticas no se limitaban a los judíos religiosos. Los socialistas bundistas y los liberales del periódico Voskhod atacaron al sionismo por distraer de la lucha de clases y bloquear el camino hacia la emancipación judía en Rusia, respectivamente. [127] Figuras como el historiador Simon Dubnow vieron un valor potencial en el sionismo al promover la identidad judía, pero rechazaron fundamentalmente un estado judío por mesiánico e inviable. [130] Propusieron soluciones emancipadoras alternativas, como la asimilación, la emigración y el nacionalismo de la diáspora. [131] La oposición al sionismo, arraigada en la visión racionalista del mundo de la intelectualidad, debilitó su atractivo entre posibles adeptos como la clase trabajadora y la intelectualidad judías. [127] En última instancia, la intelectualidad rusa estaba unida en la opinión de que el sionismo era una ideología aberrante que iba en contra de sus creencias en la asimilación judía.

Portada de The Jewish Chronicle , 17 de enero de 1896, que muestra un artículo de Theodor Herzl, un mes antes de la publicación de su panfleto Der Judenstaat
Los delegados al Primer Congreso Sionista, celebrado en Basilea , Suiza (1897)

Instituciones preestatales

Fondos

La empresa sionista se financió principalmente por grandes benefactores que hicieron grandes contribuciones, simpatizantes de comunidades judías de todo el mundo (véase, por ejemplo, las cajas de donaciones del Fondo Nacional Judío ) y los propios colonos. El movimiento estableció un banco para administrar sus finanzas, el Jewish Colonial Trust (fundado en 1888, constituido en Londres en 1899). En 1902 se formó una filial local en Palestina, el Anglo-Palestine Bank .

Una lista de grandes contribuyentes pre-estatales a empresas pre-sionistas y sionistas incluiría, en orden alfabético,

Organizaciones paramilitares preestatales

Una lista de organizaciones paramilitares y de defensa judías preestatales en Palestina incluiría:

Precursores directos de las FDI

No sancionado por la administración sionista central

No relacionado

Territorios considerados

A lo largo de la primera década del movimiento sionista, hubo varios casos en los que algunas figuras sionistas, incluido Herzl, consideraron un estado judío en lugares fuera de Palestina, como "Uganda" (en realidad partes del África Oriental Británica hoy en Kenia ), Argentina , Chipre , Mesopotamia , Mozambique y la península del Sinaí . [16] Herzl, el fundador del sionismo político, inicialmente se contentó con cualquier estado judío autogobernado. [135] El asentamiento judío de Argentina fue el proyecto de Maurice de Hirsch . [136] No está claro si Herzl consideró seriamente este plan alternativo, [137] sin embargo, más tarde reafirmó que Palestina tendría un mayor atractivo debido a los lazos históricos de los judíos con esa área. [138]

Una de las principales preocupaciones y la razón principal para considerar otros territorios fueron los pogromos rusos, en particular la masacre de Kishinev , y la necesidad resultante de un reasentamiento rápido en un lugar más seguro. [139] Sin embargo, otros sionistas enfatizaron la memoria, la emoción y la tradición que vinculan a los judíos con la Tierra de Israel. [140] Sión se convirtió en el nombre del movimiento, en honor al lugar donde el rey David estableció su reino, luego de su conquista de la fortaleza jebusea allí (2 Samuel 5:7, 1 Reyes 8:1). El nombre Sión era sinónimo de Jerusalén. Palestina solo se convirtió en el foco principal de Herzl después de que se publicara su manifiesto sionista ' Der Judenstaat ' en 1896, pero incluso entonces dudó en concentrar sus esfuerzos únicamente en el reasentamiento en Palestina cuando la velocidad era esencial. [141]

En 1903, el secretario colonial británico Joseph Chamberlain ofreció a Herzl 5.000 millas cuadradas (13.000 km² ) en el Protectorado de Uganda para el asentamiento judío en las colonias de Gran Bretaña en África Oriental. [142] Herzl aceptó evaluar la propuesta de Joseph Chamberlain, [143] : 55–56  y se presentó el mismo año al Congreso de la Organización Sionista Mundial en su sexta reunión, donde se produjo un feroz debate. Algunos grupos sintieron que aceptar el plan haría más difícil establecer un estado judío en Palestina , la tierra africana fue descrita como una " antesala de la Tierra Santa". Se decidió enviar una comisión para investigar la tierra propuesta por 295 a 177 votos, con 132 abstenciones. Al año siguiente, el Congreso envió una delegación para inspeccionar la meseta. Se pensó que un clima templado debido a su gran altitud era adecuado para el asentamiento europeo. Sin embargo, la zona estaba poblada por un gran número de masai , a quienes no parecía agradar la llegada de europeos. Además, la delegación descubrió que estaba llena de leones y otros animales.

Después de la muerte de Herzl en 1904, el Congreso decidió el cuarto día de su séptima sesión en julio de 1905 rechazar la oferta británica y, según Adam Rovner, "dirigir todos los esfuerzos futuros de asentamiento únicamente a Palestina". [142] [144] La Organización Territorialista Judía de Israel Zangwill tenía como objetivo un estado judío en cualquier lugar, habiendo sido establecida en 1903 en respuesta al Plan de Uganda. Fue apoyada por varios delegados del Congreso. Después de la votación, que había sido propuesta por Max Nordau , Zangwill acusó a Nordau de que "será acusado ante el tribunal de la historia", y sus partidarios culparon al bloque de votantes rusos de Menachem Ussishkin por el resultado de la votación. [144]

La posterior salida del JTO de la Organización Sionista tuvo poco impacto. [142] [145] [146] El Partido Socialista Obrero Sionista también fue una organización que favoreció la idea de una autonomía territorial judía fuera de Palestina . [147]

Como alternativa al sionismo, las autoridades soviéticas (URSS) establecieron una Óblast Autónoma Judía en 1934, que sigue existiendo como la única Óblast Autónoma de Rusia. [148]

Según Elaine Hagopian, en las primeras décadas se previó que la patria de los judíos se extendería no sólo por la región de Palestina, sino también por el Líbano, Siria, Jordania y Egipto, con sus fronteras coincidiendo más o menos con las principales zonas fluviales y ricas en agua del Levante. [149]

La Declaración Balfour y el Mandato para Palestina

Palestina tal como la reivindicó la Organización Sionista Mundial en 1919 en la Conferencia de Paz de París

El cabildeo del inmigrante judío ruso Chaim Weizmann, junto con el temor de que los judíos estadounidenses alentaran a Estados Unidos a apoyar a Alemania en la guerra contra Rusia, culminó en la Declaración Balfour del gobierno británico de 1917.

Aprobó la creación de una patria judía en Palestina, de la siguiente manera:

El Gobierno de Su Majestad ve con buenos ojos el establecimiento en Palestina de un hogar nacional para el pueblo judío y hará todo lo posible para facilitar el logro de este objetivo, quedando claramente entendido que no se hará nada que pueda perjudicar los derechos civiles y religiosos de las comunidades no judías existentes en Palestina, o los derechos y el estatus político de que gozan los judíos en cualquier otro país. [150]

Durante la Conferencia de Paz de París de 1919 , se envió una Comisión Interaliada a Palestina para evaluar las opiniones de la población local; el informe resumió los argumentos recibidos de los peticionarios a favor y en contra del sionismo.

En 1922, la Sociedad de Naciones adoptó la declaración y concedió a Gran Bretaña el Mandato de Palestina:

El Mandato garantizará el establecimiento del hogar nacional judío... y el desarrollo de instituciones autónomas, y también salvaguardará los derechos civiles y religiosos de todos los habitantes de Palestina, independientemente de su raza y religión. [151]

El papel de Weizmann en la obtención de la Declaración Balfour condujo a su elección como líder del movimiento sionista. Permaneció en ese cargo hasta 1948, y luego fue elegido como el primer presidente de Israel después de que la nación obtuviera la independencia.

En el Primer Congreso Mundial de Mujeres Judías , que se celebró en Viena (Austria) en mayo de 1923, participaron representantes de alto nivel de la comunidad internacional de mujeres judías. Una de las principales resoluciones fue: "Parece... que es deber de todos los judíos cooperar en la reconstrucción socioeconómica de Palestina y ayudar al asentamiento de los judíos en ese país". [152]

En 1927, el judío ucraniano Yitzhak Lamdan escribió un poema épico titulado Masada para reflejar la difícil situación de los judíos y pedir una "última resistencia". [153]

El nazismo y el holocausto

En 1933, Adolf Hitler llegó al poder en Alemania y en 1935 se promulgaron las Leyes de Núremberg . Muchos aliados nazis en Europa aplicaron reglas similares . El posterior crecimiento de la migración judía fomentó la revuelta árabe de 1936-1939 en Palestina . Gran Bretaña estableció la Comisión Peel para investigar la situación. La comisión pidió una solución de dos estados y el traslado obligatorio de poblaciones . Los árabes se opusieron al plan de partición y Gran Bretaña rechazó más tarde esta solución y en su lugar implementó el Libro Blanco de 1939. Este planificaba poner fin a la inmigración judía en 1944 y no permitir más de 75.000 inmigrantes judíos adicionales. Al final del período de cinco años en 1944, solo se habían utilizado 51.000 de los 75.000 certificados de inmigración previstos, y los británicos ofrecieron permitir que la inmigración continuara más allá de la fecha límite de 1944, a un ritmo de 1500 por mes, hasta que se completara el cupo restante. [154] [155] Según Arieh Kochavi, al final de la guerra, el Gobierno Mandatario tenía 10.938 certificados restantes y da más detalles sobre la política gubernamental en ese momento. [154] Los británicos mantuvieron las políticas del Libro Blanco de 1939 hasta el final del Mandato. [156]

El crecimiento de la comunidad judía en Palestina y la devastación de la vida judía europea marginaron a la Organización Sionista Mundial (OSM). La Agencia Judía para Palestina, bajo el liderazgo de David Ben-Gurion, dictaba cada vez más políticas con el apoyo de los sionistas estadounidenses que proporcionaban financiación e influencia en Washington, DC, incluso a través del Comité Palestino Americano . [ cita requerida ] En 1938, Ben-Gurion sostuvo que una fuente importante de temor para los sionistas era la fuerza política defensiva de la posición palestina, afirmando: [158]

Un pueblo que lucha contra la usurpación de su tierra no se cansará tan fácilmente... Cuando decimos que los árabes son los agresores y nosotros nos defendemos, eso es sólo la mitad de la verdad... Políticamente, nosotros somos los agresores y ellos se defienden. El país es suyo porque lo habitan, mientras que nosotros queremos venir aquí y establecernos, y en su opinión queremos quitarles su país.

David Ben-Gurion proclama la independencia de Israel bajo un gran retrato de Theodor Herzl

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, cuando se conocieron los horrores del Holocausto , el liderazgo sionista formuló el Plan del Millón , una reducción del objetivo anterior de Ben-Gurion de dos millones de inmigrantes. Tras el final de la guerra, muchos refugiados apátridas , principalmente sobrevivientes del Holocausto , comenzaron a migrar a Palestina en pequeñas embarcaciones desafiando las reglas británicas. El Holocausto unió a gran parte del resto del judaísmo mundial detrás del proyecto sionista. [159] Los británicos encarcelaron a estos judíos en Chipre o los enviaron a las Zonas de Ocupación Aliadas controladas por los británicos en Alemania . Los británicos, después de haber enfrentado revueltas árabes, ahora enfrentaban la oposición de los grupos sionistas en Palestina por las restricciones posteriores a la inmigración judía. En enero de 1946, el Comité Angloamericano de Investigación, un comité conjunto británico y estadounidense , recibió la tarea de examinar las condiciones políticas, económicas y sociales en la Palestina del Mandato y el bienestar de los pueblos que ahora vivían allí; consultar a representantes de árabes y judíos, y hacer otras recomendaciones 'según sea necesario' para un manejo provisional de estos problemas, así como para su solución final. [160] Tras el fracaso de la Conferencia de Londres sobre Palestina de 1946-47 , en la que Estados Unidos se negó a apoyar a los británicos, lo que llevó a que tanto el Plan Morrison-Grady como el Plan Bevin fueran rechazados por todas las partes, los británicos decidieron remitir la cuestión a la ONU el 14 de febrero de 1947. [161] [fn 2]

Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial

Ofensiva árabe al comienzo de la guerra árabe-israelí de 1948

Con la invasión alemana de la URSS en 1941, Stalin revirtió su oposición de larga data al sionismo y trató de movilizar el apoyo judío mundial para el esfuerzo bélico soviético. Se creó un Comité Judío Antifascista en Moscú. Muchos miles de refugiados judíos huyeron de los nazis y entraron en la Unión Soviética durante la guerra, donde revitalizaron las actividades religiosas judías y abrieron nuevas sinagogas. [162] En mayo de 1947, el viceministro soviético de Asuntos Exteriores, Andrei Gromyko, dijo a las Naciones Unidas que la URSS apoyaba la partición de Palestina en un estado judío y otro árabe. La URSS votó formalmente de esa manera en la ONU en noviembre de 1947. [163] Sin embargo, una vez que se estableció Israel, Stalin revirtió sus posiciones, favoreció a los árabes, arrestó a los líderes del Comité Judío Antifascista y lanzó ataques contra los judíos en la URSS. [164]

En 1947, el Comité Especial de la ONU sobre Palestina recomendó que Palestina occidental se dividiera en un estado judío, un estado árabe y un territorio controlado por la ONU, Corpus separatum , alrededor de Jerusalén . [165] Este plan de partición fue adoptado el 29 de noviembre de 1947, con la Resolución 181 de la Asamblea General de la ONU, con 33 votos a favor, 13 en contra y 10 abstenciones. La votación provocó celebraciones en las comunidades judías y protestas en las comunidades árabes de toda Palestina. [166] La violencia en todo el país, anteriormente una insurgencia árabe y judía contra los británicos, la violencia comunitaria entre judíos y árabes , desembocó en la guerra de Palestina de 1947-1949 . Según varias evaluaciones de la ONU , el conflicto provocó un éxodo de 711.000 a 957.000 árabes palestinos , [167] fuera de los territorios de Israel. Más de una cuarta parte ya había huido durante la guerra civil de 1947-1948 en el Mandato Británico de Palestina , antes de la Declaración de Independencia de Israel y el estallido de la Guerra Árabe-Israelí de 1948. Después de los Acuerdos de Armisticio de 1949 , una serie de leyes aprobadas por el primer gobierno israelí impidieron a los palestinos desplazados reclamar propiedades privadas o regresar a los territorios del estado. Ellos y muchos de sus descendientes siguen siendo refugiados apoyados por la UNRWA . [168] [169]

Judíos yemeníes en camino a Israel durante la Operación Alfombra Mágica

Desde la creación del Estado de Israel, la Organización Sionista Mundial ha funcionado principalmente como una organización dedicada a ayudar y alentar a los judíos a migrar a Israel. Ha brindado apoyo político a Israel en otros países, pero desempeña un papel pequeño en la política interna israelí. El mayor éxito del movimiento desde 1948 fue brindar apoyo logístico a los inmigrantes y refugiados judíos y, lo más importante, ayudar a los judíos soviéticos en su lucha con las autoridades por el derecho a abandonar la URSS y practicar su religión en libertad, y el éxodo de 850.000 judíos del mundo árabe, en su mayoría a Israel. En 1944-45, Ben-Gurion describió el Plan del Millón a funcionarios extranjeros como el "objetivo principal y la máxima prioridad del movimiento sionista". [170] Las restricciones a la inmigración del Libro Blanco británico de 1939 significaron que un plan de este tipo no podía implementarse a gran escala hasta la Declaración de Independencia de Israel en mayo de 1948. La política de inmigración del nuevo país encontró cierta oposición dentro del nuevo gobierno israelí, como aquellos que argumentaban que no había "justificación para organizar una emigración a gran escala entre judíos cuyas vidas no estaban en peligro, particularmente cuando el deseo y la motivación no eran los propios" [171] así como aquellos que argumentaban que el proceso de absorción causaba "dificultades excesivas". [172] Sin embargo, la fuerza de la influencia y la insistencia de Ben-Gurion aseguraron que su política de inmigración se llevara a cabo. [173] [174]

El sionismo religioso y la guerra de junio

La Guerra de Junio ​​de 1967 fue seguida por el surgimiento del " sionismo religioso ". La conquista israelí de Cisjordania , a la que los sionistas se refieren como Judea y Samaria , indicó a los sionistas religiosos que estaban viviendo en una era mesiánica . Para ellos, la guerra fue una demostración de la obra de la Mano Divina y el "inicio de la redención". Los rabinos que siguieron esta línea de pensamiento inmediatamente comenzaron a venerar la tierra como sagrada, haciendo de su santidad un principio central del sionismo religioso. En consecuencia, cualquiera que estuviera dispuesto a ceder partes de esta tierra era visto como un traidor al pueblo judío. Esta creencia contribuyó al asesinato por motivos religiosos de Yitzhak Rabin , que se llevó a cabo con la aprobación de algunos rabinos ortodoxos. [44] El rabino Kook , un importante líder y pensador religioso sionista, declararía en 1967 después de la guerra de junio en presencia de los dirigentes israelíes, incluido el presidente, ministros, miembros del Knesset , jueces, rabinos principales y altos funcionarios públicos:

Os lo digo explícitamente... que la Torá prohíbe ceder ni siquiera una pulgada de nuestra tierra liberada. Aquí no hay conquistas ni ocupamos tierras extranjeras; volvemos a nuestra casa, a la herencia de nuestros antepasados. Aquí no hay tierra árabe, sólo la herencia de nuestro Dios. Cuanto más se acostumbre el mundo a esta idea, mejor será para él y para todos nosotros. [175]

Para los sionistas religiosos, el sionismo secular y las políticas estatales seculares eran sagradas: “El espíritu de Israel... está tan estrechamente vinculado al espíritu de Dios que un nacionalista judío, no importa cuán secularista pueda ser su intención, está, a pesar de sí mismo, imbuido del espíritu divino incluso contra su propia voluntad”. [116] Los sionistas religiosos ven el asentamiento de Cisjordania como un mandamiento de Dios, necesario para la redención del pueblo judío. [64]

Papel en el conflicto israelí-palestino

La llegada de colonos sionistas a Palestina a finales del siglo XIX se considera ampliamente como el inicio del conflicto palestino-israelí . [49] : 70  [176] [177] Los sionistas querían crear un estado judío en Palestina con tanta tierra, tantos judíos y tan pocos árabes palestinos como fuera posible. [11] En respuesta a la cita de Ben-Gurion de 1938 de que "políticamente somos los agresores y ellos [los palestinos] se defienden", el historiador israelí Benny Morris dice: "Ben-Gurion, por supuesto, tenía razón. El sionismo era una ideología y un movimiento colonizadores y expansionistas", y que "la ideología y la práctica sionistas eran necesariamente y elementalmente expansionistas". Morris describe el objetivo sionista de establecer un estado judío en Palestina como necesariamente desplazar y desposeer a la población árabe. [117] La ​​cuestión práctica de establecer un Estado judío en una región mayoritariamente no judía y árabe era una cuestión fundamental para el movimiento sionista. [117] Los sionistas utilizaban el término "transferencia" como un eufemismo para la eliminación, o limpieza étnica , de la población árabe palestina. [fn 3] [178] Según Benny Morris, "la idea de transferir a los árabes fuera... era vista como el principal medio de asegurar la estabilidad del 'judaísmo' del propuesto Estado judío". [117]

De hecho, el concepto de expulsar por la fuerza a la población no judía de Palestina fue una noción que cosechó apoyo en todo el espectro de grupos sionistas, incluidas sus facciones más izquierdistas [fn 4] , desde el comienzo del desarrollo del movimiento. [64] [179] [180] [117] [181] [73] El concepto de traslado no sólo era visto como deseable sino también como una solución ideal por los líderes sionistas. [73] [60] [ página necesaria ] [20] La noción de traslado forzoso era tan atractiva para estos líderes que se consideró la disposición más atractiva de la Comisión Peel. De hecho, este sentimiento estaba profundamente arraigado hasta el punto de que la aceptación de la partición por parte de Ben Gurion estaba supeditada a la expulsión de la población palestina. Llegaría a decir que el traslado era una solución tan ideal que "debe suceder algún día". Fue el ala derecha del movimiento sionista la que presentó los principales argumentos contra la transferencia; sus objeciones se basaban principalmente en motivos prácticos más que morales. [64] [62] [ página necesaria ]

Según Morris, la idea de limpiar étnicamente la tierra de Palestina iba a desempeñar un papel importante en la ideología sionista desde el inicio del movimiento. Explica que la "transferencia" era "inevitable y estaba incorporada al sionismo" y que una tierra que era principalmente árabe no podía transformarse en un estado judío sin desplazar a la población árabe. [fn 5] Además, no se podía garantizar la estabilidad del estado judío dado el temor de la población árabe al desplazamiento. Explica que esta sería la principal fuente de conflicto entre el movimiento sionista y la población árabe. [178]

Tipos

El movimiento sionista, multinacional y mundial, está estructurado sobre principios democráticos representativos . Los congresos se celebran cada cuatro años (antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial se celebraban cada dos años) y los delegados al congreso son elegidos por los miembros. Los miembros deben pagar una cuota conocida como shekel . En el congreso, los delegados eligen un consejo ejecutivo de 30 miembros, que a su vez elige al líder del movimiento. [ cita requerida ] El movimiento fue democrático desde su inicio y las mujeres tenían derecho a voto. [ 183 ]

Hasta 1917, la Organización Sionista Mundial siguió una estrategia de construcción de un hogar nacional judío mediante una inmigración persistente en pequeña escala y la fundación de organismos como el Fondo Nacional Judío (1901, una organización benéfica que compraba tierras para el asentamiento judío) y el Banco Anglo-Palestino (1903, que otorgaba préstamos a empresas y agricultores judíos). En 1942, en la Conferencia de Biltmore , el movimiento incluyó por primera vez un objetivo expreso de establecimiento de un estado judío en la Tierra de Israel. [184]

El 28º Congreso Sionista , reunido en Jerusalén en 1968, adoptó los cinco puntos del "Programa de Jerusalén" como objetivos del sionismo actual. Son los siguientes: [185]

Desde la creación del Israel moderno, el papel del movimiento ha disminuido. Ahora es un factor periférico en la política israelí , aunque diferentes percepciones del sionismo siguen desempeñando un papel en el debate político israelí y judío. [186] Después de la creación del Estado, el sionismo ha llegado a ser descrito como la ideología nacional o estatal de Israel. [187]

Sionismo obrero

El autor israelí Amos Oz , a quien hoy se describe como el "aristócrata" del sionismo laborista [188]

El sionismo obrero se originó en Europa del Este . Los sionistas socialistas creían que siglos de opresión en sociedades antisemitas habían reducido a los judíos a una existencia sumisa, vulnerable y desesperanzada que invitaba a un mayor antisemitismo, una visión estipulada originalmente por Theodor Herzl. [189] [190] Argumentaban que una revolución del alma y la sociedad judía era necesaria y alcanzable en parte si los judíos se mudaban a Israel y se convertían en agricultores, trabajadores y soldados en un país propio. La mayoría de los sionistas socialistas rechazaban la observancia del judaísmo religioso tradicional por perpetuar una "mentalidad de diáspora" entre el pueblo judío, y establecieron comunas rurales en Israel llamadas " kibutzim ". [191] El kibutz comenzó como una variación de un plan de "granja nacional", una forma de agricultura cooperativa donde el Fondo Nacional Judío contrataba a trabajadores judíos bajo supervisión capacitada. Los kibutz eran un símbolo de la Segunda Aliá , ya que ponían gran énfasis en el comunalismo y el igualitarismo, representando en cierta medida el socialismo utópico . Además, hacían hincapié en la autosuficiencia, que se convirtió en un aspecto esencial del sionismo laborista. [192] [193] Aunque el sionismo socialista se inspira y se basa filosóficamente en los valores fundamentales y la espiritualidad del judaísmo, su expresión progresista de ese judaísmo a menudo ha fomentado una relación antagónica con el judaísmo ortodoxo . [193] [194]

La historiadora israelí tradicionalista Anita Shapira describe el uso de la violencia del sionismo obrero contra los palestinos con fines políticos como esencialmente el mismo que el de los grupos sionistas conservadores radicales. Por ejemplo, Shapira señala que durante la revuelta palestina de 1936 , el Irgun Zvai Leumi se dedicó al "uso desinhibido del terror", "asesinatos masivos indiscriminados de ancianos, mujeres y niños", "ataques contra británicos sin ninguna consideración de posibles lesiones a transeúntes inocentes y el asesinato de británicos a sangre fría". Shapira sostiene que sólo había diferencias marginales en el comportamiento militar entre el Irgun y el sionismo obrero Palmah . Siguiendo las políticas establecidas por Ben-Gurion, el método predominante entre los escuadrones de campo era que si una banda árabe había utilizado un pueblo como escondite, se consideraba aceptable responsabilizar colectivamente a todo el pueblo. Las líneas que delineaban lo que era aceptable e inaceptable al tratar con estos aldeanos eran "vagas e intencionadamente borrosas". Como sugiere Shapira, estos límites ambiguos prácticamente no diferían de los del grupo abiertamente terrorista Irgun. [43]

El sionismo obrero se convirtió en la fuerza dominante en la vida política y económica del Yishuv durante el Mandato Británico de Palestina y fue la ideología dominante del establishment político en Israel hasta las elecciones de 1977 , cuando el Partido Laborista israelí fue derrotado. El Partido Laborista israelí continúa la tradición, aunque el partido más popular en los kibutzim es Meretz . [195] La principal institución del sionismo obrero es la Histadrut (organización general de sindicatos), que comenzó proporcionando rompehuelgas contra una huelga de trabajadores palestinos en 1920 y hasta la década de 1970 fue el mayor empleador en Israel después del gobierno israelí. [196]

Sionismo liberal

Kibbutznikiyot (miembros femeninos del kibutz) en Mishmar HaEmek , durante la guerra árabe-israelí de 1948. El kibutz es el corazón histórico del sionismo laborista.

General Zionism (or Liberal Zionism) was initially the dominant trend within the Zionist movement from the First Zionist Congress in 1897 until after the First World War. General Zionists identified with the liberal European middle class to which many Zionist leaders such as Herzl and Chaim Weizmann aspired. Liberal Zionism, although not associated with any single party in modern Israel, remains a strong trend in Israeli politics advocating free market principles, democracy and adherence to human rights. Their political arm was one of the ancestors of the modern-day Likud. Kadima, the main centrist party during the 2000s that split from Likud and is now defunct, however, did identify with many of the fundamental policies of Liberal Zionist ideology, advocating among other things the need for Palestinian statehood in order to form a more democratic society in Israel, affirming the free market, and calling for equal rights for Arab citizens of Israel. In 2013, Ari Shavit suggested that the success of the then-new Yesh Atid party (representing secular, middle-class interests) embodied the success of "the new General Zionists."[197][better source needed]

Dror Zeigerman writes that the traditional positions of the General Zionists—"liberal positions based on social justice, on law and order, on pluralism in matters of State and Religion, and on moderation and flexibility in the domain of foreign policy and security"—are still favored by important circles and currents within certain active political parties.[198]

Philosopher Carlo Strenger describes a modern-day version of Liberal Zionism (supporting his vision of "Knowledge-Nation Israel"), rooted in the original ideology of Herzl and Ahad Ha'am, that stands in contrast to both the romantic nationalism of the right and the Netzah Yisrael of the ultra-Orthodox. It is marked by a concern for democratic values and human rights, freedom to criticize government policies without accusations of disloyalty, and rejection of excessive religious influence in public life. "Liberal Zionism celebrates the most authentic traits of the Jewish tradition: the willingness for incisive debate; the contrarian spirit of davka; the refusal to bow to authoritarianism."[199][200] Liberal Zionists see that "Jewish history shows that Jews need and are entitled to a nation-state of their own. But they also think that this state must be a liberal democracy, which means that there must be strict equality before the law independent of religion, ethnicity or gender."[201]

Revisionist Zionism

Ze'ev Jabotinsky, founder of Revisionist Zionism

Revisionist Zionists, led by Ze'ev Jabotinsky, believed that a Jewish state must expand to both sides of the Jordan River, i.e. taking Transjordan in addition to all of Palestine.[202][203] The movement developed what became known as Nationalist Zionism, whose guiding principles were outlined in the 1923 essay Iron Wall, a term denoting the force needed to prevent Palestinian resistance against colonization.[204] Jabotinsky wrote that

Zionism is a colonising adventure and it therefore stands or falls by the question of armed force. It is important to build, it is important to speak Hebrew, but, unfortunately, it is even more important to be able to shoot—or else I am through with playing at colonization.

— Zeev Jabotinsky[205][206]

Historian Avi Shlaim describes Jabotinsky's perspective[207]

Although the Jews originated in the East, they belonged to the West culturally, morally, and spiritually. Zionism was conceived by Jabotinsky not as the return of the Jews to their spiritual homeland but as an offshoot or implant of Western civilization in the East. This worldview translated into a geostrategic conception in which Zionism was to be permanently allied with European colonialism against all the Arabs in the eastern Mediterranean.

In 1935 the Revisionists left the WZO because it refused to state that the creation of a Jewish state was an objective of Zionism.[citation needed] The Revisionists advocated the formation of a Jewish Army in Palestine to force the Arab population to accept mass Jewish migration.

Supporters of Revisionist Zionism developed the Likud Party in Israel, which has dominated most governments since 1977. It advocates Israel's maintaining control of the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and takes a hard-line approach in the Arab–Israeli conflict. In 2005, the Likud split over the issue of creation of a Palestinian state in the occupied territories. Party members advocating peace talks helped form the Kadima Party.[208]

Religious Zionism

Religious Zionism is an ideology that combines Zionism and observant Judaism. Before the establishment of the state of Israel, Religious Zionists were mainly observant Jews who supported Zionist efforts to build a Jewish state in the Land of Israel. One of the core ideas in Religious Zionism is the belief that the ingathering of exiles in the Land of Israel and the establishment of Israel is Atchalta De'Geulah ("the beginning of the redemption"), the initial stage of the geula.[209]

After the Six-Day War and the capture of the West Bank, a territory referred to in Jewish terms as Judea and Samaria, right-wing components of the Religious Zionist movement integrated nationalist revindication and evolved into what is sometimes known as Neo-Zionism. Their ideology revolves around three pillars: the Land of Israel, the People of Israel and the Torah of Israel.[210]

Non-Jewish support

The French government, through Minister M. Cambon, formally committed itself to "... the renaissance of the Jewish nationality in that Land from which the people of Israel were exiled so many centuries ago."[211]

In China, top figures of the Nationalist government, including Sun Yat-sen, expressed their sympathy with the aspirations of the Jewish people for a National Home.[212]

Christian support for Zionism

Martin Luther King Jr. was a notable Christian supporter of Israel and Zionism.[213]

Some Christians actively supported the return of Jews to Palestine even prior to the rise of Zionism, as well as subsequently. Anita Shapira, a history professor emerita at Tel Aviv University, suggests that evangelical Christian restorationists of the 1840s "passed this notion on to Jewish circles".[214] Evangelical Christian anticipation of and political lobbying within the UK for Restorationism was widespread in the 1820s and common beforehand.[215] It was common among the Puritans to anticipate and frequently to pray for a Jewish return to their homeland.[216][217][218]

One of the principal Protestant teachers who promoted the biblical doctrine that the Jews would return to their national homeland was John Nelson Darby. His doctrine of dispensationalism is credited with promoting Zionism, following his 11 lectures on the hopes of the church, the Jew and the gentile given in Geneva in 1840.[219] However, others like C H Spurgeon,[220] both Horatius[221] and Andrew Bonar, Robert Murray M'Chyene,[222] and J C Ryle[223] were among a number of prominent proponents of both the importance and significance of a Jewish return, who were not dispensationalist. Pro-Zionist views were embraced by many evangelicals and also affected international foreign policy.

The Russian Orthodox ideologue Hippolytus Lutostansky, also known as the author of multiple antisemitic tracts, insisted in 1911 that Russian Jews should be "helped" to move to Palestine "as their rightful place is in their former kingdom of Palestine".[224]

Notable early supporters of Zionism include British Prime Ministers David Lloyd George and Arthur Balfour, American President Woodrow Wilson and British Major-General Orde Wingate, whose activities in support of Zionism led the British Army to ban him from ever serving in Palestine. According to Charles Merkley of Carleton University, Christian Zionism strengthened significantly after the Six-Day War of 1967, and many dispensationalist and non-dispensationalist evangelical Christians, especially Christians in the United States, now strongly support Zionism.[citation needed]

Martin Luther King Jr. was a strong supporter of Israel and Zionism,[213] although the Letter to an Anti-Zionist Friend is a work falsely attributed to him.

In the last years of his life, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, Joseph Smith, declared, "the time for Jews to return to the land of Israel is now." In 1842, Smith sent Orson Hyde, an Apostle of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, to Jerusalem to dedicate the land for the return of the Jews.[225]

Some Arab Christians publicly supporting Israel include US author Nonie Darwish, and former Muslim Magdi Allam, author of Viva Israele,[226] both born in Egypt. Brigitte Gabriel, a Lebanese-born Christian US journalist and founder of the American Congress for Truth, urges Americans to "fearlessly speak out in defense of America, Israel and Western civilization".[227]

The largest Zionist organisation is Christians United for Israel, which has 10 million members and is led by John Hagee.[228][229][230]

Muslim support for Zionism

Israeli Druze Scouts march to Jethro's tomb. Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to 'Druze Zionist' movements.[231]

Muslims who have publicly defended Zionism include Tawfik Hamid, Islamic thinker and reformer[232] and former member of al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, an Islamist militant group that is designated as a terrorist organization by the European Union[233] and United Kingdom,[234] Sheikh Prof. Abdul Hadi Palazzi, Director of the Cultural Institute of the Italian Islamic Community[235] and Tashbih Sayyed, a Pakistani-American scholar, journalist, and author.[236]

On occasion, some non-Arab Muslims such as some Kurds and Berbers have also voiced support for Zionism.[237][238][239]

While most Israeli Druze identify as ethnically Arab,[240] today, tens of thousands of Israeli Druze belong to "Druze Zionist" movements.[231]

During the Palestine Mandate era, As'ad Shukeiri, a Muslim scholar ('alim) of the Acre area, and the father of PLO founder Ahmad Shukeiri, rejected the values of the Palestinian Arab national movement and was opposed to the anti-Zionist movement.[241] He met routinely with Zionist officials and had a part in every pro-Zionist Arab organization from the beginning of the British Mandate, publicly rejecting Mohammad Amin al-Husayni's use of Islam to attack Zionism.[242]

Some Indian Muslims have also expressed opposition to Islamic anti-Zionism. In August 2007, a delegation of the All India Organization of Imams and mosques led by its president Maulana Jamil Ilyas visited Israel. The meeting led to a joint statement expressing "peace and goodwill from Indian Muslims", developing dialogue between Indian Muslims and Israeli Jews, and rejecting the perception that the Israeli–Palestinian conflict is of a religious nature.[243] The visit was organized by the American Jewish Committee. The purpose of the visit was to promote meaningful debate about the status of Israel in the eyes of Muslims worldwide and to strengthen the relationship between India and Israel. It is suggested that the visit could "open Muslim minds across the world to understand the democratic nature of the state of Israel, especially in the Middle East".[244]

Hindu support for Zionism

After Israel's creation in 1948, the Indian National Congress government opposed Zionism. Some writers have claimed that this was done in order to get more Muslim votes in India (where Muslims numbered over 30 million at the time).[245] Zionism, seen as a national liberation movement for the repatriation of the Jewish people to their homeland then under British colonial rule, appealed to many Hindu nationalists, who viewed their struggle for independence from British rule and the Partition of India as national liberation for long-oppressed Hindus.[citation needed]

An international opinion survey has shown that India is the most pro-Israel country in the world.[246] In more current times, conservative Indian parties and organizations tend to support Zionism.[247] This has invited attacks on the Hindutva movement by parts of the Indian left opposed to Zionism, and allegations that Hindus are conspiring with the "Jewish Lobby."[248]

Anti-Zionism

The Palestinian Arab Christian-owned Falastin newspaper featuring a caricature on its June 18, 1936, edition showing Zionism as a crocodile under the protection of a British officer telling Palestinian Arabs: "Don't be afraid!!! I will swallow you peacefully...".[249]

Zionism has been opposed by a wide variety of organizations and individuals. In 1919, the US-based King–Crane Commission found that the subjection of Palestinians to Zionist rule was a violation of the principle of self-determination. The report stated that "The initial claim, often submitted by Zionist representatives, that they have a 'right' to Palestine based on occupation of two thousand years ago, can barely be seriously considered."[250][251]

Among those opposing Zionism before their dissolution were the former Soviet Union[252] and Nazi Germany.[253][254] Today, opponents include Palestinian nationalists, several states of the Arab League and in the Muslim world, some secular, Satmar and Neturei Karta Jews.[252][255][256][257] Reasons for opposing Zionism have been varied, and they include: fundamental disagreement that foreign born Jews have rights of resettlement, the perception that land confiscations are unfair; expulsions of Palestinians; violence against Palestinians; and alleged racism.[258][259][260] Arab states in particular have historically strongly opposed Zionism.[261] The preamble of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, which has been ratified by 53 African countries as of 2014, includes an undertaking to eliminate Zionism together with other practices including colonialism, neo-colonialism, apartheid, "aggressive foreign military bases" and all forms of discrimination.[262][263]

In 1945 US President Franklin D. Roosevelt met with King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia. Ibn Saud pointed out that it was Germany who had committed crimes against the Jews and so Germany should be punished. Palestinian Arabs had done no harm to European Jews and did not deserve to be punished by losing their land. Roosevelt on return to the US concluded that Israel "could only be established and maintained by force."[264]

Catholic Church and Zionism

Shortly after the First Zionist Congress, the semi-official Vatican periodical (edited by the Jesuits) Civiltà Cattolica gave its biblical-theological judgement on political Zionism: "1827 years have passed since the prediction of Jesus of Nazareth was fulfilled ... that [after the destruction of Jerusalem] the Jews would be led away to be slaves among all the nations and that they would remain in the dispersion [diaspora, galut] until the end of the world."[265] The Jews should not be permitted to return to Palestine with sovereignty: "According to the Sacred Scriptures, the Jewish people must always live dispersed and vagabondo [vagrant, wandering] among the other nations, so that they may render witness to Christ not only by the Scriptures ... but by their very existence".[265]

Nonetheless, Theodor Herzl travelled to Rome in late January 1904, after the sixth Zionist Congress (August 1903) and six months before his death, looking for support. On January 22, Herzl first met the Papal Secretary of State, Cardinal Rafael Merry del Val. According to Herzl's private diary notes, the Cardinal's interpretation of the history of Israel was the same as that of the Catholic Church, but he also asked for the conversion of the Jews to Catholicism. Three days later, Herzl met Pope Pius X, who replied to his request of support for a Jewish return to Israel in the same terms, saying that "we are unable to favor this movement. We cannot prevent the Jews from going to Jerusalem, but we could never sanction it ... The Jews have not recognized our Lord, therefore we cannot recognize the Jewish people." In 1922, the same periodical published a piece by its Viennese correspondent, "anti-Semitism is nothing but the absolutely necessary and natural reaction to the Jews' arrogance... Catholic anti-Semitism—while never going beyond the moral law—adopts all necessary means to emancipate the Christian people from the abuse they suffer from their sworn enemy".[266] This initial attitude changed over the next 50 years, until 1997, when at the Vatican symposium of that year, Pope John Paul II rejected the Christian roots of antisemitism, stating that "... the wrong and unjust interpretations of the New Testament relating to the Jewish people and their supposed guilt [in Christ's death] circulated for too long, engendering sentiments of hostility toward this people."[267]

Characterization as colonialist and racist

Pro-Palestinian protest with placards demanding the US to stop funding of "Israeli apartheid" in Washington, DC, 2017

Zionism is often considered to be an example of a colonial[26] or racist[27] movement. According to historian Avi Shlaim, throughout its history up to present day, Zionism "is replete with manifestations of deep hostility and contempt towards the indigenous population." Shlaim balances this by pointing out that there have always been individuals within the Zionist movement that have criticized such attitudes. He cites the example of Ahad Ha'am, who after visiting Palestine in 1891, published a series of articles criticizing the aggressive behaviour and political ethnocentrism of Zionist settlers. Ha'am reportedly wrote that the Yishuv "behave towards the Arabs with hostility and cruelty, trespass unjustly upon their boundaries, beat them shamefully without reason and even brag about it, and nobody stands to check this contemptible and dangerous tendency" and that they believed that "the only language that the Arabs understand is that of force."[268] Some criticisms of Zionism claim that Judaism's notion of the "chosen people" is the source of racism in Zionism,[269] despite, according to Gustavo Perednik, that being a religious concept unrelated to Zionism.[270] This characterization of Zionism as a colonialism has been made by, among others, Gershon Shafir, Michael Prior, Ilan Pappe, and Baruch Kimmerling.[26] Noam Chomsky, John P. Quigly, Nur Masalha, and Cheryl Rubenberg have criticized Zionism, saying that it unfairly confiscates land and expels Palestinians.[271] Isaac Deutscher has called Israelis the 'Prussians of the Middle East', who have achieved a 'totsieg', a 'victorious rush into the grave' as a result of dispossessing 1.5 million Palestinians. Israel had become the 'last remaining colonial power' of the twentieth century.[272] Saleh Abdel Jawad, Nur Masalha, Michael Prior, Ian Lustick, and John Rose have criticized Zionism for having been responsible for violence against Palestinians, such as the Deir Yassin massacre, Sabra and Shatila massacre, and Cave of the Patriarchs massacre.[273]

Edward Said and Michael Prior claim that the notion of expelling the Palestinians was an early component of Zionism, citing Herzl's diary from 1895 which states "we shall endeavour to expel the poor population across the border unnoticed—the process of expropriation and the removal of the poor must be carried out discreetly and circumspectly."[274] Derek Penslar says that Herzl may have been considering either South America or Palestine when he wrote the diary entry about expropriation.[275] According to Walter Laqueur, although many Zionists proposed transfer, it was never official Zionist policy and in 1918 Ben-Gurion "emphatically rejected" it.[276]

The exodus of the Arab Palestinians during the 1947–1949 war has been controversially described as having involved ethnic cleansing.[277][278] According to a growing consensus between 'new historians' in Israel and Palestinian historians, expulsion and destruction of villages played a major role in creating the Palestinian refugee problem.[279][280] While some traditionalist scholars such as Efraim Karsh state that most of the Arabs who fled left of their own accord or were pressured to leave by their fellow Arabs (and that Israel attempted to convince them to stay),[281][282] the scholarly consensus now dismisses this claim,[283] and as such, Benny Morris concurs that Arab instigation was not the major cause of the refugees' flight,[284] and state that the major cause of Palestinian flight was instead military actions by the Israeli Defence Force and fear of them and that Arab instigation can only explain a small part of the exodus and not a large part of it.[285]Ilan Pappe said that Zionism resulted in ethnic cleansing.[286] This view diverges from other New Historians, such as Benny Morris, who place the Palestinian exodus in the context of war, not ethnic cleansing.[287] When Benny Morris was asked about the Expulsion of Palestinians from Lydda and Ramle, he responded "There are circumstances in history that justify ethnic cleansing. I know that this term is completely negative in the discourse of the 21st century, but when the choice is between ethnic cleansing and genocide—the annihilation of your people—I prefer ethnic cleansing."[288]

In 1938, Mahatma Gandhi said in the letter "The Jews", that the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine must be performed by non-violence against the Arabs, comparing it to the Partition of India into Hindu and Muslim countries. He proposed to the Jews to "offer themselves to be shot or thrown into the Dead Sea without raising a little finger against them".[289] He expressed his "sympathy" for the Jewish aspirations, but said: "The cry for the national home for the Jews does not make much appeal to me. The sanction for it is sought in the Bible and the tenacity with which the Jews have hankered after return to Palestine. Why should they not, like other peoples of the earth, make that country their home where they are born and where they earn their livelihood?"[290][better source needed] and warned them against violence: "It is wrong and inhuman to impose the Jews on the Arabs ... Surely it would be a crime against humanity to reduce the proud Arabs so that Palestine can be restored to the Jews partly or wholly as their national home ... They can settle in Palestine only by the goodwill of the Arabs. They should seek to convert the Arab heart".[291] Gandhi later told American journalist Louis Fischer in 1946 that "Jews have a good case in Palestine. If the Arabs have a claim to Palestine, the Jews have a prior claim".[292] He expressed himself again in 1946, nuancing his views: "Hitherto I have refrained practically from saying anything in public regarding the Jew-Arab controversy. I have done so for good reasons. That does not mean any want of interest in the question, but it does mean that I do not consider myself sufficiently equipped with knowledge for the purpose". He concluded: "If they were to adopt the matchless weapon of non-violence ... their case would be the world's and I have no doubt that among the many things that the Jews have given to the world, this would be the best and the brightest".[293][better source needed]

In December 1973, the UN passed a series of resolutions condemning South Africa and included a reference to an "unholy alliance between Portuguese colonialism, Apartheid and Zionism."[294] At the time there was little cooperation between Israel and South Africa,[295] although the two countries would develop a close relationship during the 1970s.[296] Parallels have also been drawn between aspects of South Africa's apartheid regime and certain Israeli policies toward the Palestinians, which are seen as manifestations of racism in Zionist thinking.[297]

In 1975 the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 3379, which said "Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination". According to the resolution, "any doctrine of racial differentiation of superiority is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust, and dangerous." The resolution named the occupied territory of Palestine, Zimbabwe, and South Africa as examples of racist regimes. Resolution 3379 was pioneered by the Soviet Union and passed with numerical support from Arab and African states amidst accusations that Israel was supportive of the apartheid regime in South Africa.[298] In 1991 the resolution was repealed with UN General Assembly Resolution 46/86,[299][better source needed] after Israel declared that it would only participate in the Madrid Conference of 1991 if the resolution were revoked.[300]

Arab countries sought to associate Zionism with racism in connection with a 2001 UN conference on racism, which took place in Durban, South Africa,[301] which caused the United States and Israel to walk away from the conference as a response. The final text of the conference did not connect Zionism with racism. A human rights forum arranged in connection with the conference, on the other hand, did equate Zionism with racism and censured Israel for what it called "racist crimes, including acts of genocide and ethnic cleansing".[302]

Haredi Judaism and Zionism

Haredi Jews number some 2,100,000 world-wide, constituting 14% of the total Jewish population in the world.[303] Most accept the secular Israeli state.[304] A small number of Orthodox organizations among these Haredi reject Zionism as they view it as a secular movement and reject nationalism as a doctrine. in Jerusalem, certain Hasidic groups, most famously the Satmar Hasidim, as well as the larger movement they are part of, the Edah HaChareidis, are opposed to its ideology for religious reasons. Despite having his life saved by a leader of the Zionist movement in 1944, one of the best known Hasidic opponents of political Zionism was Hungarian rebbe and Talmudic scholar Joel Teitelbaum.[305] Although this group of ultra-observant Jews do not support or identify with Zionism as a movement or ideology, in a poll taken in February 2024, 83% said they have a "very strong emotional connection" to Israel, only a small percentage less than the 87% of Modern Orthodox Jews who reported having those same feelings.[306]

Members of Neturei Karta holding Palestinian flags and placards saying that "Judaism condemns the state of Israel and its atrocities" in London, 2022

The Neturei Karta, a tiny Orthodox Haredi sect, is considered the 'the most radical of the Extreme Orthodox groups,' which overall have a membership in Israel of 10,000 to 12,000 individuals.[307] Some of its members have said that Israel is a "racist regime",[308] compared Zionists to Nazis,[309] claimed that Zionism is contrary to the teachings of the Torah,[310] or accused it of promoting antisemitism.[311] According to the Jewish Chronicle, their approximately 5,000 members worldwide make up about 0.03 percent of the world's Jewish population.[312]

Anti-Zionism or antisemitism

Critics of anti-Zionism have argued that opposition to Zionism can be hard to distinguish from antisemitism,[313][314] and that criticism of Israel may be used as an excuse to express viewpoints that might otherwise be considered antisemitic.[315][316] In discussion of the relationship between antisemitism and anti-Zionism, "one theory holds that anti-Zionism is no more than veiled anti-Semitism". This is contrasted with the theory "that criticism of Israeli politics has been discredited as anti-Zionism, and thus linked with anti-Semitism, in order to prevent such criticism".[317]

According to Thomas Mitchell, the terms Jewish and Zionist are at times used interchangeably by some Arab leadership, a perspective that has been influenced by the introduction of European antisemitism into the Arab world in the 1930s and 1940s by the Axis powers. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) has always positioned itself as being anti-Zionist rather than antisemitic, although its leadership have in a few instances used the terms interchangeably.[318]

Anti-Zionist writers such as Noam Chomsky, Norman Finkelstein, Michael Marder, and Tariq Ali have argued that the characterization of anti-Zionism as antisemitic obscures legitimate criticism of Israel's policies and actions, and that it is used as a political ploy in order to stifle legitimate criticism of Israel.

Zionism and Colonialism

According to Joseph Massad, Zionism was connected with European colonial thought from early on in its development. Massad describes anti-semitism and a shared interest in the colonial project as the basis of the collaboration between Jewish and non-Jewish Zionists during the beginning of the movement's development. He argues that the collaboration between the Zionist movement and European imperialism was essential to the movement's development.[n][321] In this vein, Gershon Shafir describes the use of violence by a colonial metropole as essential to settler colonization. Shafir defines settler-colonialism as the creation of a permanent home in which settlers benefit from privileges withheld from the indigenous population. He describes colonization, the establishment of settlements against the wishes of the indigenous people, as the distinctive characteristic of settler colonialism.[323]

Shafir distinguishes between the pre-1948 era and the post-1967 era in the sense that after 1967, the Israeli state became the sponsor of the Zionist movement's colonial efforts, a role which had previously been played by the British.[323] For Shafir, Jerome Slater and Shlomo Ben-Ami, after the Israeli conquest of the West Bank and Gaza Strip in 1967, the Zionist movement more closely resembled other colonial movements.[323][324][64] Similarly, Avi Shlaim describes 1967 as a milestone in the development of the "Zionist colonial project" rather than as a qualitative shift in its nature.[325] Ze'ev Sternhell agrees that Zionism was a movement of "conquest" from the outset, but disagrees that Jews arriving in Palestine had a colonial mindset.[o] The conquest of 1967 was, for Sternhell, the first time the Zionist movement created a "colonial situation."[326] Israeli historian Yitzhak Sternberg cites Sivan, Halamish and Efrat as similarly describing 1967 as a turning point in which Zionism became involved in colonial efforts.[327]

Shafir and Morris both further distinguish between Zionist colonialism during the First Aliyah and following the arrival of the Second Aliyah. Shafir describes the First Aliyah as following the ethnic plantation colony model, exploiting low wage Palestinian workers.[323] Morris describes this relationship:

These Jews were not colonists in the usual sense of sons or agents of an imperial mother country, projecting its power beyond the seas and exploiting Third World natural resources. But the settlements of the First Aliyah were still colonial, with white Europeans living amid and employing a mass of relatively impoverished natives.[328]

The "pure settlement colonies" of the Second Aliyah and its exclusion of Palestinian labor, Shafir says "did not originate from opposition to colonialism," but instead out of a desire to secure employment for Jewish settlers.[323] Similarly, Morris and traditionalist historian Anita Shapira describe the labor Zionist rejection of the ethnic plantation model as motivated by practical as well as moral justifications, stemming from their socialist outlook.[329][330][p] For Shapira, studying Zionism as a colonial movement is "both legitimate and desirable," comparable to colonialism in North America and Australia. She argues that the settler-colonial framing may help "clarify the relations between the settling nation and the native one."[329]

Sternberg argues that it is important to clearly distinguish between colonization and colonialism as concepts.[327] For Shafir, "colonization, namely territorial dispossession and the settlement of immigrant populations," cannot happen without colonialism and "the means of violence of a colonial metropole." In contrast, Sternberg considers classical definitions of colonization as broad enough to include cases which did not require the dispossession of the native population.[323]

Tuvia Friling depicts the Zionist movement as operating differently from colonial movements in terms of land acquisition. Specifically, the Zionist movement acquired land in the early years by purchasing it.[331] Sternberg in contrast explains that it was not unique for colonial movements to purchase land as part of land acquisition, pointing to similarities in North American colonialism.[327] Friling argues that in contrast to European colonial projects, the early Zionist leadership was dominated by the labor movement with a socialist ethos.[331] Shafir points to ideological drives in American and Rhodesian settler colonies which developed in service of the colonial project. Similarly, Shafir says, the Zionist labor movement used socialist ideals largely in service of the national movement.[323]

Sternhell rejects the depiction of the Zionist settlers arriving in Palestine as colonialists. In response to the argument that Zionism could not be a colonial project, but should instead be described as a project of immigration, Shafir quotes Veracini "behind the persecuted, the migrant, even the refugee... behind his labor and hardship." Shafir goes on to characterize Zionism as not unique, in the sense that "[t]he ruthless ethnic cleanser is commonly hidden behind the peaceful settler who arrived in an 'empty land' to start a new life."[323]

Alan Dowty describes the debate over the relationship between Zionism and colonialism as essentially a discussion of "semantics." He defines colonialism as the imposition of control by a "mother country" on another people, for economic gain or for the spreading of culture or religion. Dowty argues that Zionism does not fit this definition on the basis that "there was... no mother country" and that Zionism did not consider the local population in its plans.[332][333] Efraim Karsh adopts a similar definition and similarly concludes that Zionism is not colonialism.[334] Dowty elaborates that Zionism did not control the local population since it ultimately failed to remove the native people from Palestine.[332] In his assessment of whether Zionism is colonialism, Penslar works with a broader definition of colonialism than Dowty, which allows for the country sponsoring the colonial enterprise to be different from the country of origin of the settlers.[88]

Zionism has also been framed as national liberation movement. Masalha cites the Zionist relationship with the British in arguing that Zionism could not be understood in terms of national liberation. Specifically, he says that despite the tensions between the Zionists and the British, "the State of Israel owes its very existence to the British colonial power in Palestine."[175] Shapira and Ben-Ami emphasize the importance of the Zionist ethos, describing Zionism as a national liberation movement that was "destined" or "forced" to use colonial methods.[329][64]

In his work on Zionism, Edward Said described the movement as following the European colonial model. According to Said, Zionism's alliances with the Great Powers and its patronizing attitude toward the native Palestinian population, whom it regarded as backward were consistent with other colonial projects. For Said, Zionists dismissed native resistance as either driven by primitive emotions or manipulated by elite figures, inherently refusing to recognize Palestinians as a people with their own desires and rights.[q] In a similar vein, Penslar, who considers Zionism within the settler-colonial frame, writes that the clearest connection between Zionism and colonialism is in the perception of the Palestinians and the Zionist movement's practices towards them.[88] He also describes the Zionists as perceiving Palestinians as backward and primitive, seeing themselves as forming a "rampart of Europe against Asia, an outpost of civilization as opposed to barbarism."[r]

Zionism as settler colonialism

Beyond characterizing it as a colonial movement, Zionism has been more recently described as a form of settler colonialism, with proponents of this paradigm including Edward Said, Rashid Khalidi, Noam Chomsky, Ilan Pappe, Fayez Sayegh, Maxime Rodinson, George Jabbour, Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Baha Abu-Laban, Jamil Hilal, and Rosemary Sayigh.[335][336]

The current form of this conceptual framework emerged in the 1990s among Palestinian scholars in Israel who "reframed the history of the Nakba as enduring" in response to their marginalization by the two-state Israeli–Palestinian peace process.[337][fn 6] It built on the work of Patrick Wolfe, an influential theorist of settler colonial studies who has defined settler colonialism as an ongoing "structure, not an event" aimed at replacing a native population rather than exploiting it.[53][338][339]

Rachel Busbridge says the framework's subsequent popularity is inseparable from frustration at the stagnation of that process and resulting Western left-wing sympathy for Palestinian nationalism. Busbridge writes that while a settler colonial analysis "offers a far more accurate portrayal of the conflict than...has conventionally been painted", Wolfe's zero-sum approach is limited in practical application because almost all Israeli Jews naturally reject it, as a form of antisemitism that denies their long-standing history in the land of Israel and aspirations for self-determination.[340][341]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Zionism has been described either as a form of ethnic nationalism[2] or as a form of ethno-cultural nationalism with civic nationalist components.[3]
  2. ^ The reasons for this decision were explained by His Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in a speech to the House of Commons on February 18, 1947, in which he said:
    "His Majesty's Government have been faced with an irreconcilable conflict of principles. There are in Palestine about 1,200,000 Arabs and 600,000 Jews. For the Jews the essential point of principle is the creation of a sovereign Jewish State. For the Arabs, the essential point of principle is to resist to the last establishment of Jewish sovereignty in any part of Palestine. The discussions of the last month have quite clearly shown that there is no prospect of resolving this conflict by any settlement negotiated between the parties. But if the conflict has to be resolved by an arbitrary decision, that is not a decision which His Majesty's Government are empowered, as Mandatory, to take. His Majesty's Government have of themselves no power, under the terms of the Mandate, to award the country either to the Arabs or to the Jews, or even to partition it between them."
  3. ^ Nur Masalha The Palestine Nakba 2012 p. 28: "In the 1930s and 1940s the Zionist leadership found it expedient to euphemise, using the term 'transfer' or ha'avarah — the Hebrew euphemism for ethnic cleansing — one of the most enduring themes of Zionist colonisation of Palestine."
  4. ^ On this topic, Ben-Ami writes: "This is how a Brit-Shalom Ihud, non-Zionist member of the Jewish Agency, Werner Senator, put it: 'If I weigh the catastrophe of five million Jews against the transfer of one million Arabs, then with a clean and easy conscience I can state that even more drastic acts are permissible.'"[64]
  5. ^ Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited (2004) "Transfer was inevitable and inbuilt into Zionism – because it sought to transform a land which was 'Arab' into a 'Jewish' state and a Jewish state could not have arisen without a major displacement of Arab popu- lation; and because this aim automatically produced resistance among the Arabs which, in turn, persuaded the Yishuv's leaders that a hostile Arab majority or large minority could not remain in place if a Jewish state was to arise or safely endure."
  6. ^ The settler colonial paradigm, linked to Israeli critical sociology, post-Zionism, and postcolonialism, reemerged following changes in the political landscape from the mid-1990s that reframed the history of the Nakba as enduring, challenged the Jewish definition of the state, and legitimated Palestinians as agents of history. Palestinian scholars in Israel lead the paradigm's reformulation.[335]
  1. ^ /ˈz.ənɪzəm/ ZY-ə-niz-əm; Hebrew: צִיּוֹנוּת, romanizedṢīyyonūt, IPA: [tsijoˈnut]
  2. ^ Nur Masalha, The Palestine Nakba: Decolonising History, Narrating the Subaltern, Reclaiming Memory (2012) "For decades Zionists themselves used terms such as 'colonisation' (hityashvut) to describe their project in Palestine."
  3. ^ Nur Masalha, The Palestine Nakba: Decolonising History, Narrating the Subaltern, Reclaiming Memory (2012) "For decades Zionists themselves used terms such as 'colonisation' (hityashvut) to describe their project in Palestine."
  4. ^ "The basic assumption regarding the right of Jews to Palestine—a right that required no proof—was a fundamental component of all Zionist programs. In contrast with other prospective areas for Jewish settlement, such as Argentina or East Africa, it was generally believed that no one could deny the right of the Jews to their ancestral land. Even Ahad Ha-Am, the eternal skeptic, commented that this was 'a land to which our historical right is beyond doubt and has no need for farfetched proofs.' Others, such as Lilienblum, did not even think it necessary to dwell on this matter."[60]
  5. ^ "In fact Buber also shared the common European Orientalist perspective, by which the local Arabs did not really have a national concern and may be appeased by the cultural and economic benefits that will accrue from Jewish immigration to Palestine."[63]
  6. ^ "When faced with the apocalyptic dimensions of the Jewish catastrophe, the Holocaust, even Brit-Shalom Ihud moved to endorse first the necessity of demographic parity between Jews and Arabs in Palestine, and then, as ‘a necessary evil’, the idea of a Jewish independent state, that is the partition of Palestine. It was no longer thetime for moral scruples or guilt feelings towards the dispossessed Arab population. This is how a Brit-Shalom Ihud, non-Zionist member of theJewish Agency, Werner Senator, put it: ‘If I weigh the catastrophe of five million Jews against the transfer of one million Arabs, then with a clean and easy conscience I can state that even more drastic acts are permissible.’"[64]
  7. ^ Arthur Ruppin, co-founder of Brit-Shalom: "the British told us that there are some hundred thousand negroes [in Palestine] and for those there is no value"[65]
  8. ^ Lord Balfour would write, "Zionism, be it right or wrong, good or bad, is rooted in age-long traditions, in present needs, in future hopes, of far greater import than the desires and prejudices of the 700,000 Arabs who now inhabit that ancient land."[66]
  9. ^ While Secretary of State for the Colonies, Winston Churchill spoke to the Peel Commission: "I do not admit that the dog in the manger has the final right to the manger, even though he may have lain there for a very long time. I do not admit that right. I do not admit, for instance, that a great wrong has been done to the Red Indians of America, or the black people of Australia. I do not admit that a wrong has been done to those people by the fact that a stronger race, a higher grade race, or, at any rate, a more worldly-wise race, to put it that way, has come in and taken their place."[65]
  10. ^ "Unsatisfactory and simplistic as Pinsker’s quasi-medical diagnosis may be, it does try to address itself to the exceptional conditions of Jewish existence. If Jews are a nation and they continue to exist as a nation despite the lack of the effective attributes of national life, this is an obvious anomaly, and an explanation has to be found. Krochmal and Graetz tried to explain this deviation from the norms of universal historical development by rearranging the conventional norms of universal history itself. Pinsker lacks this philosophical dimension of history, and he therefore limits himself to stating what he conceives as an anomaly and attempting to suggest a clinical diagnosis for it. Pinsker’s diagnosis may appear irrelevant, but his cure is radical. If the nations of the world see the Jew as a soul without a body, a shadowless Ahasver, an eternal Wandering Jew, lacking real, corporeal existence, the cure surely has to be radical. If the Jews are hated because they have no homeland, normalization will become possible only if they acquire one. Were this to happen, then the nations of the world would view the Jews as normal human beings and would consequently lose their inordinate fear of them. No concrete, real attribute of the Jews causes Judeophobia; it is the abnormality of the Jews being somewhere between a national existence and a lack of a real foundation for that existence. For the Jews to appear like any other people they need a homeland, Pinsker argues: then everybody will relate to them as normal people and Judeophobia will wither away."Avineri 2017
  11. ^ '"A Jew brought up among Germans may assume German customs, German words. He may be wholly imbued with that German fluid but the nucleus of his spiritual structure will always remain Jewish, because his blood, his body, his physical-facial type are Jewish."[citation needed]
  12. ^ "The Talmud does take up the right of individuals to settle in Israel, but there is a con­sensus against collective settlement.", "Several rabbinical sources through the centuries have interpreted these oaths to assert that even if all the nations were to encourage the Jews to settle in the Land of Israel, it would still be necessary to abstain from doing so, for fear of committing yet other sins and of being punished by an exile even cruder still." " Traditional Jewish culture discourages political and military activism of any variety, particularly in the Land of Israel... In the traditional view, settlement in the Land of Israel will be brought, about by the universal effect of good deeds rather than by m ilitary force or diplomacy... The Talmud (BT Ketubot, 111a) relates the three oaths sworn on the eve of the dispersal of what remained of the people of Israel to the fourcorners of the earth: not to return en masse and in an organized fashion to the Land of Israel; not to rebel against the nations; and that the nations do not subjugate Israel exceedingly... The idea of return to the Land of Israel achieved by political means is alien to the idea of salvation in Jewish tradition."Rabkin 2006
  13. ^ "To ultra-Orthodox Jews, on the other hand, the idea of Jews returning to their homeland flew in the face of the fate decreed for them. To them such an act ran counter to the three oaths the Jewish people swore to the Almighty: not to storm the wall, not to rush the End, and not to rebel against the nations of the world, while the Almighty adjured the nations of the world not to destroy the Jewish people.4 They saw an attempt to bring about redemption by natural, man-made means as rebelling against divine decrees, as Jews taking their fate into their own hands and not waiting for the coming of the Messiah. Consequently ultra-Orthodox Jews vehemently opposed this perilous heresy" Shapira 2014
  14. ^ Massad depicts the transition in the choice of terminology within the Zionist movement in the mid-20th century, as "colonialism" began to more broadly develop a negative association.[321] Khalidi writes: "In fact, Zionism—for two decades the coddled step-child of British colonialism—rebranded itself as an anticolonial movement"[322]
  15. ^ "Berl Katznelson, the labour-movement ideologist, never thought there could be any doubt about it: 'The Zionist enterprise is an enterprise of conquest', he said in 1929. And in the same breath: 'It is not by chance that I use military terms when speaking of settlement.' In 1922 Ben-Gurion had already said the same: 'We are conquerors of the land facing an iron wall, and we have to break through it.'... [B]ut to claim that the arrivals were white settlers driven by a colonialist mind-set does not correspond to historical reality."[326]
  16. ^ Morris: "Though it inflamed Arab antagonism to Zionism, the socialists saw the fight over jobs as a struggle for survival, the social struggle meshing with the national one. But, in reality, rather than “meshing,” the nationalist ethos had simply overpowered and driven out the socialist ethos." (Morris 1999)
  17. ^ Cited in Penslar 2023
  18. ^ Herzl, quoted in Penslar 2023

References

  1. ^ a b Conforti 2024.
  2. ^ Medding, P. Y. (1995). Studies in Contemporary Jewry: XI: Values, Interests, and Identity: Jews and Politics in a Changing World. Oxford University Press/Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-19-510331-1. Retrieved March 11, 2019.
  3. ^ Gans, Chaim (2008). A Just Zionism: On the Morality of the Jewish State. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195340686.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-986717-2. Archived from the original on December 27, 2019. Retrieved March 16, 2019.
  4. ^
    • Collins, John (2011). "A Dream Deterred: Palestine from Total War to Total Peace". In Bateman, Fiona; Pilkington, Lionel (eds.). Studies in Settler Colonialism: Politics, Identity and Culture. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 169–185. doi:10.1057/9780230306288_12. ISBN 978-0-230-30628-8. Retrieved September 17, 2024. and as subsequent work (Finkelstein 1995; Massad 2005; Pappe 2006; Said 1992; Shafir 1989) has definitively established, the architects of Zionism were conscious and often unapologetic about their status as colonizers
    • Bloom, Etan (2011). Arthur Ruppin and the Production of Pre-Israeli Culture. Brill. pp. 2, 13, 49, 132. ISBN 978-90-04-20379-2. Dr. Arthur Ruppin was sent to Palestine for the first time in 1907 by the heads of the German [World] Zionist Organization in order to make a pilot study of the possibilities for colonization. . . Oppenheimer was a German sociologist and political economist. As a worldwide expert on colonization he became Herzl's advisor and formulated the first program for Zionist colonization, which he presented at the 6th Zionist Congress (Basel 1903) ….. Daniel Boyarin wrote that the group of Zionists who imagined themselves colonialists inclined to that persona "because sucha representation was pivotal to the entire project of becoming 'white men'." Colonization was seen as a sign of belonging to western and modern culture;
    • Robinson, Shira (2013). Citizen Strangers: Palestinians and the Birth of Israel's Liberal Settler State. Stanford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-804-78802-1. "Never before", wrote Berl Katznelson, founding editor of the Histadrut daily, Davar, "has the white man undertaken colonization with that sense of justice and social progress which fills the Jew who comes to Palestine." Berl Katznelson
  5. ^ a b Alroey, Gur (Fall 2011). ""Zionism without Zion"? Territorialist Ideology and the Zionist Movement, 1882–1956". Jewish Social Studies. 18 (1): 1–32 [5, 20]. doi:10.2979/jewisocistud.18.1.1. JSTOR 10.2979/jewisocistud.18.1.1. Herzl further sharpened the issue when he tried to make diplomacy precede settlement, precluding any possibility of preemptive and unplanned settlement in the Land of Israel: "Should the powers show themselves willing to grant us sovereignty over a neutral land, then the Society will enter into negotiations for the possession of this land. Here two regions come to mind: Palestine and Argentina. Significant experiments in colonization have been made in both countries, though on the mistaken principle of gradual infiltration of Jews. Infiltration is bound to end badly."
  6. ^ 'Colonisation can have only one aim, and Palestine Arabs cannot accept this aim. It lies in the very nature of things, and in this particular regard nature cannot be changed.. .Zionist colonisation must either stop, or else proceed regardless of the native population'. Ze'ev Jabotinsky (The Iron Wall 1923) cited Alan Balfour, The Walls of Jerusalem: Preserving the Past, Controlling the Future, Wiley 2019 ISBN 978-1-119-18229-0 p.59.
  7. ^ a b "Zionism | nationalistic movement". Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved June 30, 2016.
  8. ^
    • "Zionism". Oxford Reference. Archived from the original on June 1, 2024. Retrieved June 25, 2024.
    • Abramson 2004, p. 120
    • Motyl 2001, p. 604
  9. ^ Safrai, Zeʾev (May 2, 2018). "The Land in Rabbinic Literature". Seeking out the Land: Land of Israel Traditions in Ancient Jewish, Christian and Samaritan Literature (200 BCE – 400 CE). Brill. pp. 76–203. ISBN 978-90-04-33482-3. Archived from the original on June 27, 2023. Retrieved July 6, 2023. "The preoccupation of rabbinic literature in all its forms with the Land of Israel is without question intensive and constant. It is no wonder that this literature offers historians of the Land of Israel a wealth of information for the clarification of a wide variety of topics."
  10. ^
    • Biger, Gideon (2004). The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947. Routledge. pp. 58–63. ISBN 978-1-135-76652-8. Unlike the earlier literature that dealt with Palestine's delimitation, the boundaries were not presented according to their historical traditional meaning, but according to the boundaries of the Jewish Eretz Israel that was about to be established there. This approach characterizes all the Zionist publications at the time ... when they came to indicate borders, they preferred the realistic condition and strategic economic needs over an unrealistic dream based on the historic past.' This meant that planners envisaged a future Palestine that controlled all the Jordan's sources, the southern part of the Litanni river in Lebanon, the large cultivatable area east of the Jordan, including the Houran and Gil'ad wheat zone, Mt Hermon, the Yarmuk and Yabok rivers, the Hijaz Railway ...
    • Motyl 2001, p. 604
    • Herzl, Theodor (1988) [1896]. "Biography, by Alex Bein". Der Judenstaat [The Jewish state]. Translated by Sylvie d'Avigdor (republication ed.). New York: Courier Dover. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-486-25849-2. Archived from the original on January 1, 2014. Retrieved September 28, 2010.
  11. ^ a b
    • Manna 2022, pp. 2 ("the principal objective of the Zionist leadership to keep as few Arabs as possible in the Jewish state"), 4 ("in the 1948 war, when it became clear that the objective that enjoyed the unanimous support of Zionists of all inclinations was to establish a Jewish state with the smallest possible number of Palestinians"), and 33 ("The Zionists had two cherished objectives: fewer Arabs in the country and more land in the hands of the settlers.");
    • Khalidi 2020, p. 76: "The Nakba represented a watershed in the history of Palestine and the Middle East. It transformed most of Palestine from what it had been for well over a millennium—a majority Arab country—into a new state that had a substantial Jewish majority. This transformation was the result of two processes: the systematic ethnic cleansing of the Arab-inhabited areas of the country seized during the war; and the theft of Palestinian land and property left behind by the refugees as well as much of that owned by those Arabs who remained in Israel. There would have been no other way to achieve a Jewish majority, the explicit aim of political Zionism from its inception. Nor would it have been possible to dominate the country without the seizures of land.";
    • Cohen 2017, p. 78, "As was suggested by Masalha (1992), Morris (1987), and other scholars, many preferred a state without Arabs or with as small a minority as possible, and plans for population transfers were considered by Zionist leaders and activists for years.";
    • Lustick & Berkman 2017, pp. 47–48, "As Ben-Gurion told one Palestinian leader in the early 1930s, 'Our final goal is the independence of the Jewish people in Palestine, on both sides of the Jordan River, not as a minority, but as a community numbering millions" (Teveth 1985:130). Ipso facto, this meant Zionism's success would produce an Arab minority in Palestine, no matter what its geographical dimensions.";
    • Rouhana & Sabbagh-Khoury 2014, p. 6, "It was obvious to most approaches within the Zionist movement – certainly to the mainstream as represented by Labor Zionism and its leadership headed by Ben Gurion, that a Jewish state would entail getting rid of as many of the Palestinian inhabitants of the land as possible ... Following Wolfe, we argue that the logic of demographic elimination is an inherent component of the Zionist project as a settler-colonial project, although it has taken different manifestations since the founding of the Zionist movement.";
    • Masalha 2012, p. 38, "From the late nineteenth century and throughout the Mandatory period the demographic and land policies of the Zionist Yishuv in Palestine continued to evolve. But its demographic and land battles with the indigenous inhabitants of Palestine were always a battle for 'maximum land and minimum Arabs' (Masalha 1992, 1997, 2000).";
    • Lentin 2010, p. 7, "'the Zionist leadership was always determined to increase the Jewish space ... Both land purchases in and around the villages, and military preparations, were all designed to dispossess the Palestinians from the area of the future Jewish state' (Pappe 2008: 94).";
    • Shlaim 2009, p. 56, "That most Zionist leaders wanted the largest possible Jewish state in Palestine with as few Arabs inside it as possible is hardly open to question.";
    • Pappé 2006, p. 250, "In other words, hitkansut is the core of Zionism in a slightly different garb: to take over as much of Palestine as possible with as few Palestinians as possible.";
    • Morris 2004, p. 588, "But the displacement of Arabs from Palestine or from the areas of Palestine that would become the Jewish State was inherent in Zionist ideology and, in microcosm, in Zionist praxis from the start of the enterprise. The piecemeal eviction of tenant farmers, albeit in relatively small numbers, during the first five decades of Zionist land purchase and settlement naturally stemmed from, and in a sense hinted at, the underlying thrust of the ideology, which was to turn an Arab-populated land into a State with an overwhelming Jewish majority."
  12. ^
    • Gorni 1987
    • Ben-Ami 2007: "The ethos of Zionism was twofold; it was about demography – ingathering the exiles in a viable Jewish state with as small an Arab minority as possible – and land."
    • Conforti 2024
    • Beauchamp 2018
  13. ^ "Zionism". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Oxford. Archived from the original on November 24, 2022. Retrieved December 11, 2023.
  14. ^
    • Shillony, Ben-Ami (2012). Jews & the Japanese: The Successful Outsiders. Tuttle Publishing. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-4629-0396-2. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved November 21, 2017. (Zionism) arose in response to and in imitation of the current national movements of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe
    • LeVine, Mark; Mossberg, Mathias (2014). One Land, Two States: Israel and Palestine as Parallel States. University of California Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-520-95840-1. Archived from the original on November 17, 2016. Retrieved March 16, 2016. The parents of Zionism were not Judaism and tradition, but anti-Semitism and nationalism. The ideals of the French Revolution spread slowly across Europe, finally reaching the Pale of Settlement in the Russian Empire and helping to set off the Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment. This engendered a permanent split in the Jewish world, between those who held to a halachic or religious-centric vision of their identity and those who adopted in part the racial rhetoric of the time and made the Jewish people into a nation. This was helped along by the wave of pogroms in Eastern Europe that set two million Jews to flight; most wound up in America, but some chose Palestine. A driving force behind this was the Hovevei Zion movement, which worked from 1882 to develop a Hebrew identity that was distinct from Judaism as a religion.
    • Gelvin, James L. (2014). The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War. Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-107-47077-4. Archived from the original on November 17, 2016. Retrieved March 16, 2016. The fact that Palestinian nationalism developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some "other". Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose. As we have seen, Zionism itself arose in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe. It would be perverse to judge Zionism as somehow less valid than European anti-Semitism or those nationalisms. Furthermore, Zionism itself was also defined by its opposition to the indigenous Palestinian inhabitants of the region. Both the "conquest of land" and the "conquest of labor" slogans that became central to the dominant strain of Zionism in the Yishuv originated as a result of the Zionist confrontation with the Palestinian "other".
  15. ^
    • Cohen, Robin (1995). The Cambridge Survey of World Migration. Cambridge University Press. p. 504. ISBN 978-0-521-44405-7. Zionism Colonize palestine.
    • Gelvin, James (2007). The Israel–Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-521-88835-6. Archived from the original on February 20, 2017. Retrieved February 19, 2016.
    • Pappé 2006, pp. 10–11
  16. ^ a b Rovner, Adam (2014). In the Shadow of Zion: Promised Lands Before Israel. New York University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-4798-1748-1. Archived from the original on November 17, 2016. Retrieved March 16, 2016. European Jews swayed and prayed for Zion for nearly two millennia, and by the end of the nineteenth century their descendants had transformed liturgical longing into a political movement to create a Jewish national entity somewhere in the world. Zionism's prophet, Theodor Herzl, considered Argentina, Cyprus, Mesopotamia, Mozambique, and the Sinai Peninsula as potential Jewish homelands. It took nearly a decade for Zionism to exclusively concentrate its spiritual yearning on the spatial coordinates of Ottoman Palestine.
  17. ^ Gamlen, Alan (2019). Human Geopolitics: States, Emigrants, and the Rise of Diaspora Institutions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-883349-9. Archived from the original on January 11, 2024. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
  18. ^ Butenschøn, Nils A. (2006). "Accommodating Conflicting Claims to National Self-determination. The Intractable Case of Israel/Palestine". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 13 (2/3): 285–306. doi:10.1163/157181106777909858. ISSN 1385-4879. JSTOR 24675372. [T]he Zionist claim to Palestine on behalf of world Jewry as an extra-territorial population was unique, and not supported (as admitted at the time) by established interpretations of the principle of national self-determination, expressed in the Covenant of the League of later versions), and as applied to the other territories with the same status as Palestine ('A' mandate).
  19. ^ Penslar 2023, p. 36.
  20. ^ a b c d e f Gorni 1987.
  21. ^
  22. ^ Noam Chomsky (1999). Fateful Triangle. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-1530-0. Archived from the original on June 24, 2024. Retrieved June 23, 2024.
  23. ^ Israel Affairs. Volume 13, Issue 4, 2007 – Special Issue: Postcolonial Theory and the Arab-Israel Conflict – De-Judaizing the Homeland: Academic Politics in Rewriting the History of Palestine. S. Ilan Troen
  24. ^ Aaronson, Ran (1996). "Settlement in Eretz Israel – A Colonialist Enterprise? "Critical" Scholarship and Historical Geography". Israel Studies. 1 (2). Indiana University Press: 214–229. Archived from the original on December 21, 2013. Retrieved July 30, 2013.
  25. ^ "Zionism and British imperialism II: Imperial financing in Palestine", Journal of Israeli History: Politics, Society, Culture. Volume 30, Issue 2, 2011. pp. 115–139. Michael J. Cohen
  26. ^ a b c
    • Shafir, Gershon, Being Israeli: The Dynamics of Multiple Citizenship, Cambridge University Press, 2002, pp. 37–38
    • Bareli, Avi, "Forgetting Europe: Perspectives on the Debate about Zionism and Colonialism", in Israeli Historical Revisionism: From Left to Right, Psychology Press, 2003, pp. 99–116
    • Pappé Ilan, A History of Modern Palestine: One Land, Two Peoples, Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp. 72–121
    • Prior, Michael, The Bible and colonialism: a moral critique, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1997, pp. 106–215
    • Shafir, Gershon, "Zionism and Colonialism", in The Israel / Palestinian Question, by Ilan Pappe, Psychology Press, 1999, pp. 72–85
    • Lustick, Ian, For the Land and the Lord ...
    • Zuriek, Elia, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism, Routledge & K. Paul, 1979
    • Penslar, Derek J., "Zionism, Colonialism and Postcolonialism", in Israeli Historical Revisionism: From Left to Right, Psychology Press, 2003, pp. 85–98
    • Pappé 2006
    • Masalha 2007, p. 16
    • Thomas, Baylis (2011), The Dark Side of Zionism: Israel's Quest for Security Through Dominance, Lexington Books, p. 4
    • Prior, Michael (1999), Zionism and the State of Israel: A Moral Inquiry, Psychology Press, p. 240
  27. ^ a b
    • Zionism, imperialism, and race, Abdul Wahhab Kayyali, ʻAbd al-Wahhāb Kayyālī (Eds), Croom Helm, 1979
    • Gerson, Allan, "The United Nations and Racism: the Case of Zionism and Racism", in Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987, Yoram Dinstein, Mala Tabory (Eds), Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988, p. 68
    • Hadawi, Sami, Bitter harvest: a modern history of Palestine, Interlink Books, 1991, p. 183
    • Beker, Avi, Chosen: the history of an idea, the anatomy of an obsession, Macmillan, 2008, pp. 131, 139, 151
    • Dinstein, Yoram, Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987, pp. 31, 136
    • Harkabi, Yehoshafat, Arab attitudes to Israel, pp. 247–248
  28. ^ See for example: M. Shahid Alam (2010), Israeli Exceptionalism: The Destabilizing Logic of Zionism Paperback, or "Through the Looking Glass: The Myth of Israeli Exceptionalism" Archived September 21, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, Huffington Post
  29. ^
    • Masalha 2007, p. 314
    • Curthoys, Ned; Ganguly, Debjani (2007). Edward Said: The Legacy of a Public Intellectual. Academic Monographs. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-522-85357-5. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017. Retrieved May 12, 2013.
    • Kīfūrkiyān, Nādira Shalhūb (2009). Militarization and Violence Against Women in Conflict Zones in the Middle East: A Palestinian Case-Study. Cambridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-88222-4. Archived from the original on May 2, 2014. Retrieved May 12, 2013.
    • Scham, Paul; Salem, Walid; Pogrund, Benjamin (2005). Shared Histories: A Palestinian-Israeli Dialogue. Left Coast Press. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-1-59874-013-4. Archived from the original on January 7, 2014. Retrieved May 12, 2013.
  30. ^ "After two thousand years of struggle for survival, the reality of Israel is a colonial state.' Avraham Burg cited Tony Judt, Israel:The Alternative New York Review of Books 23 October 2003
  31. ^
    • Morris 2008, p. 3: "But once there, the settlers could not avoid noticing the majority native population. It was from them, as two of the first settlers put it, that 'we shall... take away the country... through stratagems, without drawing upon us their hostility before we become the strong and populous ones.'"
    • Jabotinsky 1923, pp. 6–7: "It does not matter at all which phraseology we employ in explaining our colonising aims, Herzl's or Sir Herbert Samuel's. Colonisation carries its own explanation, the only possible explanation, unalterable and as clear as daylight to every ordinary Jew and every ordinary Arab... Zionist colonisation must either stop, or else proceed regardless of the native population."
  32. ^ a b Finkelstein 2003, p. 109: "The 'defensive ethos' was never the operative ideology of mainstream Zionism. From beginning to end, Zionism was a conquest movement. The subtitle of Shapira's study is 'The Zionist Resort to Force'. Yet, Zionism did not 'resort' to force. Force was – to use Shapira's apt phrase in her conclusion – 'inherent in the situation' (p. 357). Gripped by messianism after the issuance of the Balfour Declaration, the Zionist movement sought to conquer Palestine with a Jewish Legion under the slogan 'In blood and fire shall Judea rise again' (pp. 83–98). When these apocalyptic hopes were dispelled and displaced by the mundane reality of the British Mandate, mainstream Zionism made a virtue of necessity and exalted labor as it proceeded to conquer Palestine 'dunum by dunum, goat by goat'. Force had not been abandoned, however. Shapira falsely counterposes settlement ('by virtue of labor') to force ('by dint of conquest'). Yet, settlement was force by other means. Its purpose, in Shapira's words, was to build a 'Jewish infrastructure in Palestine' so that 'the balance of power between Jews and Arabs had shifted in favor of the former' (pp. 121, 133; cf. p. 211). To the call of a Zionist leader on the morrow of Tel Hai that 'we must be a force in the land', Shapira adds the caveat: 'He was not referring to military might but, rather, to power in the sense of demography and colonization' (p. 113). Yet, Shapira willfully misses the basic point that 'demography and colonization' were equally force. Moreover, without the 'foreign bayonets' of the British Mandate, the Zionist movement could not have established even a toehold, let alone struck deep roots, in Palestine. Toward the end of the 1930s and especially after World War II, a concatenation of events – Britain's waning commitment to the Balfour Declaration, the escalation of Arab resistance, the strengthening of the Yishuv, etc. – caused a consensus to crystallize within the Zionist movement that the time was ripe to return to the original strategy of conquering Palestine 'by blood and fire'."
  33. ^ This is Jerusalem, Menashe Harel, Canaan Publishing, Jerusalem, 1977, pp. 194–195
  34. ^ Pixner, Bargil (2010). Paths of the Messiah. Ignatius Pres. pp. 320–322.
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  36. ^ Barnett, Michael (2020), Phillips, Andrew; Reus-Smit, Christian (eds.), "The Jewish Problem in International Society", Culture and Order in World Politics, Cambridge University Press, pp. 232–249, doi:10.1017/9781108754613.011, ISBN 978-1-108-48497-8, S2CID 214484283, archived from the original on April 15, 2021, retrieved April 15, 2021
  37. ^ Kühntopf-Gentz, Michael (1990). Nathan Birnbaum: Biographie (in German). Eberhard-Karls-Universität zu Tübingen. p. 39. Archived from the original on July 7, 2023. Retrieved July 7, 2023. Nathan Birnbaum wird immer wieder als derjenige erwähnt, der die Begriffe "Zionismus" und "zionistisch" eingeführt habe, auch sieht er es selbst so, obwohl er es später bereut und Bedauern darüber äußert, wie die von ihm geprägten Begriffe verwendet werden. Das Wort "zionistisch" erscheint bei Birnbaum zuerst in einem Artikel der "Selbst-Emancipation" vom 1 April 1890: "Es ist zu hoffen, dass die Erkenntnis der Richtigkeit und Durchführbarkeit der zionistischen Idee stets weitere Kreise ziehen und in der Assimilationsepoche anerzogene Vorurteile beseitigen wird"
  38. ^ Selbst-Emancipation: Zeitschrift für die nationalen, socialen und politischen Interessen des jüdischen Stammes; Organ der Zionisten: (1.4.1890). 1890 Heft 1 (1.4.1890). Wien (in German). August 13, 1890. Archived from the original on July 8, 2023. Retrieved July 7, 2023 – via Digitale Sammlungen.
  39. ^ Hudson, David (2012). The Handy History Answer Book. The Handy Answer Book Series. Visible Ink Press. p. 322. Zionism was founded as a nationalist movement to establish an independent Jewish state; it began in the 1890s, and roughly fifty years later, in 1948, the movement's activism resulted in the proclamation of the state of Israel. Since that time, Zionism has focused its efforts on building bridges between Israel and Jewish people around the world.
  40. ^ Stanislawski, Michael (2016). Zionism: A Very Short Introduction (Very Short Introductions). Oxford University Press. p. 1. Zionism - the nationalist movement calling for the establishment and support of an independent state for the Jewish people in its ancient homeland - is today one of the most controversial ideologies in the world.
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  42. ^ Roshwald, Aviel. "Jewish Identity and the Paradox of Nationalism". In Berkowitz, Michael (ed.). Nationalism, Zionism and Ethnic Mobilization of the Jews in 1900 and Beyond. p. 15.
  43. ^ a b Shapira 1992, pp. 247, 249, 251–252, 350, 365: "It is doubtful whether [the] external differences in framework and patterns of behavior were sufficient to create a different attitude toward fighting or to develop "civilian" barriers to military callousness and insensitivity...if a village had served as a hiding place for an Arab gang, it was permissible to place collective responsibility on the village."
  44. ^ a b c Shlaim 2001.
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  46. ^ Wylen, Stephen M. Settings of Silver: An Introduction to Judaism, 2nd. ed., Paulist Press, 2000, p. 392.
  47. ^ Laqueur 2003, p. 40.
  48. ^ Herzl, Theodor (2012). The Jewish State. Courier Corporation. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-486-11961-8. Archived from the original on January 11, 2024. Retrieved June 9, 2021. if all or any of the French Jews protest against this scheme on account of their own "assimilation," my answer is simple: The whole thing does not concern them at all. They are Jewish Frenchmen, well and good! This is a private affair for the Jews alone. The movement towards the organization of the State I am proposing would, of course, harm Jewish Frenchmen no more than it would harm the "assimilated" of other countries. It would, on the contrary, be distinctly to their advantage. For they would no longer be disturbed in their "chromatic function," as Darwin puts it, but would be able to assimilate in peace, because the present Anti-Semitism would have been stopped for ever. They would certainly be credited with being assimilated to the very depths of their souls, if they stayed where they were after the new Jewish State, with its superior institutions, had become a reality. The "assimilated" would profit even more than Christian citizens by the departure of faithful Jews; for they would be rid of the disquieting, incalculable, and unavoidable rivalry of a Jewish proletariat, driven by poverty and political pressure from place to place, from land to land. This floating proletariat would become stationary.
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  54. ^ Morris 2008, p. 3: "But once there, the settlers could not avoid noticing the majority native population. It was from them, as two of the first settlers put it, that 'we shall... take away the country... through stratagems, without drawing upon us their hostility before we become the strong and populous ones.'"
  55. ^ Jabotinsky 1923, pp. 6–7: "It does not matter at all which phraseology we employ in explaining our colonising aims, Herzl's or Sir Herbert Samuel's. Colonisation carries its own explanation, the only possible explanation, unalterable and as clear as daylight to every ordinary Jew and every ordinary Arab... Zionist colonisation must either stop, or else proceed regardless of the native population."
  56. ^ Shlaim 2001: "Modern Zionism was a phenomenon of the late nineteenth-century Europe. It had its roots in the failure of Jewish efforts to become assimilated in Western society, in the intensification of antisemitism in Europe, and in the parallel and not unrelated upsurge of nationalism. If nationalism posed a problem to the Jews by identifying them as an alien and unwanted minority, it also suggested a solution: self-determination for the Jews in a state of their own in which they would constitute a majority."
  57. ^ Goldberg, David (2009). To the Promised Land. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-25423-1.
  58. ^ Tesler, Mark (1994). Jewish History and the Emergence of Modern Political Zionism. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Printing Press.
  59. ^ Lewis, Paul (December 17, 1991). "U.N. Repeals Its '75 Resolution Equating Zionism With Racism". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 11, 2013. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
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  61. ^ a b c d e f Rabkin 2006.
  62. ^ a b Flapan 1979.
  63. ^ a b Jacobs 2017.
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  65. ^ a b c White 2012.
  66. ^ a b Khalidi 2006.
  67. ^ Penslar 2023:[page needed] "It is a belief that Jews have a moral right and historic need for self- determination within his-toric Palestine... Zionism, in turn, is the belief that Jews constitute a nation that has a right and need to pursue collective self-determination within historic Palestine... Unlike other nationalisms, however, pre-1948 Zionism's claim on territory was aspirational, based in ancient memories and future hopes. Until well into the twentieth century, a negligible number of Jews lived in the Land of Israel."
  68. ^ Morris 1999: "Zionism had always looked to the day when a Jewish majority would enable the movement to gain control over the country: The Zionist leadership had never posited Jewish statehood with a minority of Jews ruling over a majority of Arabs, apartheid style."
  69. ^ Gorni 1987, pp. Introduction, Chapter 8.
  70. ^ Ben-Ami 2007: "Zionism is both a struggle for land and a demographic race; in essence, the aspiration for a territory with a Jewish majority...Zionist democratic diversity did not mean that there was no commonground between the major segments of the movement. Initially, Ben-Gurion preferred an 'iron wall of workers', namely settlements and Jewish infrastructure, on Jabotinsky's call for an iron wall of military might and deterrence... he even lashed out against what he defined as Jabotinsky's 'perverted national fanaticism', and against the Revisionists 'worthless prattle of sham heroes, whose lips becloud the moral purity of our national movement. . .' Eventually, however, under the growing chal-lenge of Arab nationalism and especially with the growth in the Yishuv of a collective mood of sacred Jewish nationalism following the Holocaust, the Labour Zionists, chief among them David Ben-Gurion, accepted forall practical purposes Jabotinsky's iron-wall strategy. The Jewish State could only emerge, and force the Arabs to accept it, if it erected around it an impregnable wall of Jewish might and deterrence."
  71. ^ Finkelstein 2003: "Within the Zionist ideological consensus there coexisted three relatively distinct tendencies – political Zionism, labor Zionism and cultural Zionism. Each was wedded to the demand for a Jewish majority, but not for entirely the same reasons."
  72. ^ a b c d e f Yadgar 2017.
  73. ^ a b c Finkelstein 2016.
  74. ^ Hirsch 2009, pp. 592–609 "The work of Jewish race scientists has been the subject of several recent studies (Efron 1994; R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000; Kiefer 1991; Lipphardt 2007; Y. Weiss 2002; see also Doron 1980). As these studies suggest, among Jewish physicians, anthropologists, and other 'men of science' in Central Europe, proponents of the idea that the Jews were a race were found mainly in the ranks of Zionists, as the idea implied a common biological nature of the otherwise geographically, linguistically, and culturally divided Jewish people, and offered scientific 'proof' of the ethno-nationalist myth of common descent (Doron 1980: 404; Y. Weiss 2002: 155). At the same time, many of these proponents agreed that the Jews were suffering a process of 'degeneration, and so their writings advanced the national project as a means of 'regeneration' and 'racial improvement' (R. Falk 2006; Hart 2000: 17)... In the Zionist case, the nation-building project was fused with a cultural project of Westernization. 'Race' was an integral concept in certain versions of nationalist thinking, and in Western identity (Bonnett 2003), albeit in different ways. In the discourse of Zionist men of science, 'race' served different purposes, according to the context in question. In some contexts 'race' was mainly used to establish Jewish unity, while in others it was used to establish diversity and hierarchy among Jews. The latter use was more common in texts which appeared in Palestine. It resulted from the encounter of European Zionists with Eastern Jews, and from the tension between the projects of nation-building and of Westernization in the context of Zionist settlement in the East."
  75. ^ a b Falk, R. (2014). "Genetic markers cannot determine Jewish descent". Frontiers in Genetics. 5 (462): 462. doi:10.3389/fgene.2014.00462. PMC 4301023. PMID 25653666.
  76. ^ McGonigle 2021, p. 35 (c.f. p.52-53 of PhD): "Here, the ethnic composition of Israel is crucial. Despite the ambiguity in respect of the legal, biological, and social 'nature' of 'Jewish genes' and their intermittent role in the reproduction of Jewish identity, Israel is an ethnically diverse country. Many Jewish immigrants have arrived from Eastern Europe, North Africa, France, India, Latin America, Yemen, Iraq, Ethiopia, the US, Zimbabwe, South Africa, and the ex-Soviet Union, not to mention Israel's indigenous Arab minority of close to 2 million people. And while Jewishness has often been imagined as a biological race – most notably, and to horrific ends, by the Nazis, but also later by Zionists and early Israelis for state-building purposes – the initial origins of the Ashkenazi Jews who began the Zionist movement in turn-of-the-century Europe remain highly debated and enigmatic."
  77. ^ Abu El-Haj 2012, p. 98: "There is a "problem" regarding the origins of the Ashkenazim, which needs resolution: Ashkenazi Jews, who seem European—phenotypically, that is—are the normative center of world Jewry. No less, they are the political and cultural elite of the newly founded Jewish state. Given their central symbolic and political capital in the Jewish state and given simultaneously the scientific and social persistence of racial logics as ways of categorizing and understanding human groups, it was essential to find other evidence that Israel's European Jews were not in truth Europeans. The normative Jew had to have his/her origins in ancient Palestine or else the fundamental tenet of Zionism, the entire edifice of Jewish history and nationalist ideology, would come tumbling down. In short, the Ashkenazi Jew is the Jew—the Jew in relation to whose values and cultural practices the oriental Jew in Israel must assimilate. Simultaneously, however, the Ashkenazi Jew is the most dubious Jew, the Jew whose historical and genealogical roots in ancient Palestine are most difficult to see and perhaps thus to believe—in practice, although clearly not by definition."
  78. ^ a b Baker 2017, p. 100-102.
  79. ^ Morris-Reich, Amos (2006). "Arthur Ruppin's Concept of Race". Israel Studies. 11 (3). Indiana University Press: 1–30. doi:10.2979/ISR.2006.11.3.1. ISSN 1084-9513. JSTOR 30245648. S2CID 144898510. Archived from the original on July 11, 2023. Retrieved July 11, 2023.
  80. ^ Olson 2007, pp. 252, 255.
  81. ^ Falk 2017, p. 62.
  82. ^ Haddad, Hassan S. [in Arabic] (1974). "The Biblical Bases of Zionist Colonialism". Journal of Palestine Studies. 3 (4). University of California Press, Institute for Palestine Studies: 98–99. doi:10.2307/2535451. ISSN 0377-919X. JSTOR 2535451. The Zionist moveinent remains firmly anchored on the basic principle of the exclusive right of the Jews to Palestine that is found in the Torah and in other Jewish religious literature. Zionists who are not religious, in the sense of following the ritual practices of Judaism, are still biblical in their basic convictions in, and practical application of the ancient particularism of the Torah and the other books of the Old Testament. They are biblical in putting their national goals on a level that goes beyond historical, humanistic or moral considerations… We can summarize these beliefs, based on the Bible, as follows. 1. The Jews are a separate and exclusive people chosen by God to fulfil a destiny. The Jews of the twentieth century have inherited the covenant of divine election and historical destiny from the Hebrew tribes that existed more than 3000 years ago. 2. The covenant included a definite ownership of the Land of Canaan (Palestine) as patrimony of the Israelites and their descendants forever. By no name, and under no other conditions, can any other people lay a rightful claim to that land. 3. The occupation and settlement of this land is a duty placed collectively on the Jews to establish a state for the Jews. The purity of the Jewishness of the land is derived from a divine command and is thus a sacred mission. Accordingly, settling in Palestine, in addition to its economic and political motivations, acquires a romantic and mythical character. That the Bible is at the root of Zionism is recognized by religious, secular, non-observant, and agnostic Zionists… The Bible, which has been generally considered as a holy book whose basic tenets and whose historical contents are not commonly challenged by Christians and Jews, is usually referred to as the Jewish national record. As a "sacrosanct title-deed to Palestine," it has caused a fossilization of history in Zionist thinking… Modern Jews, accordingly, are the direct descendants of the ancient Israelites, hence the only possible citizens of the Land of Palestine.
  83. ^ a b McGonigle 2021, p. 36 (c.f. p.54 of PhD): "The stakes in the debate over Jewish origins are high, however, since the founding narrative of the Israeli state is based on exilic 'return.' If European Jews have descended from converts, the Zionist project falls prey to the pejorative categorization as 'settler colonialism' pursued under false assumptions, playing into the hands of Israel's critics and fueling the indignation of the displaced and stateless Palestinian people. The politics of 'Jewish genetics' is consequently fierce. But irrespective of philosophical questions of the indexical power or validity of genetic tests for Jewishness, and indeed the historical basis of a Jewish population 'returning' to the Levant, the Realpolitik of Jewishness as a measurable biological category could also impinge on access to basic rights and citizenship within Israel."
  84. ^ Rich, Dave (January 2, 2017). "Anti-Judaism, Antisemitism, and Delegitimizing Israel". Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs. 11 (1): 101–104. doi:10.1080/23739770.2017.1315682. ISSN 2373-9770. S2CID 152132582. Archived from the original on July 8, 2023. Retrieved July 11, 2023.
  85. ^ McGonigle 2021, p. (c.f. p.218-219 of PhD): "The [Israeli national] biobank stands for unmarked global modernity and secular technoscientific progress. It is within the other pole of the Israeli cultural spectrum that one finds right-wingers appropriating genetics as a way of imagining the tribal particularity of Jews, as a way of proving the occupation is legitimate, of authenticating the ethnos as a natural fact, and of defending Zionism as a return. It is across this political spectrum that the natural facts of genetics research discursively migrate and transform into the mythologized ethnonationalism of the bio-nation. However, Israel has also moved towards a market-based society, and as the majority of the biomedical research is moving to private biotech companies, the Israeli biobank is becoming underused and outmoded. The epistemics of Jewish genetics fall short of its mythic circulatory semiotics. This is the ultimate lesson from my ethnographic work in Israel."
  86. ^ Abu El-Haj 2012, p. 18: "What is evident in the work in Israeli population genetics is a desire to identify biological evidence for the presumption of a common Jewish peoplehood whose truth was hard to "see," especially in the face of the arrival of oriental Jews whose presumably visible civilizational and phenotypic differences from the Ashkenazi elite strained the nationalist ideology upon which the state was founded. Testament to the legacy of racial thought in giving form to a Zionist vision of Jewish peoplehood by the mid-twentieth century, Israeli population researchers never doubted that biological facts of a shared origin did indeed exist, even as finding those facts remained forever elusive… Looking at the history of Zionism through the lens of work in the biological sciences brings into focus a story long sidelined in histories of the Jewish state: Jewish thinkers and Zionist activists invested in race science as they forged an understanding of the Jewish people and fought to found the Jewish state. By the mid-twentieth century, a biological self-definition—even if not seamlessly a racial one, at least not as race was imagined at the turn of the twentieth century—had become common-sensical for many Jewish nationalists, and, in significant ways, it framed membership and shaped the contours of national belonging in the Jewish state."
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Works cited

Further reading

Primary sources
Secondary sources

External links