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Lectura

La lectura es el proceso de captar el sentido o significado de los símbolos , a menudo específicamente los de un lenguaje escrito , por medio de la vista o el tacto . [1] [2] [3] [4]

Para los educadores e investigadores , la lectura es un proceso multifacético que involucra áreas como el reconocimiento de palabras, la ortografía , el alfabeto , la fonética , la conciencia fonémica , el vocabulario, la comprensión, la fluidez y la motivación. [5] [6]

Otros tipos de lectura y escritura, como los pictogramas (por ejemplo, un símbolo de peligro y un emoji ), no se basan en sistemas de escritura basados ​​en el habla . [7] El vínculo común es la interpretación de los símbolos para extraer el significado de las notaciones visuales o señales táctiles (como en el caso del braille ). [8]

Una musa de lectura
Cada vez hay más pruebas que ilustran la importancia de la lectura por placer, tanto con fines educativos como de desarrollo personal. [9] Foto: Leyendo un periódico en Catania, Sicilia.

Descripción general

Voluntaria le lee a una niña en la Casa Hogar de las Niñas en la Ciudad de México .
Mujer leyendo durante un viaje en tren para pasar el tiempo, Oklahoma , EE. UU., junio de 1974

La lectura es generalmente una actividad individual, que se realiza en silencio, aunque en ocasiones una persona lee en voz alta para otros oyentes; o lee en voz alta para su propio uso, para una mejor comprensión. Antes de la reintroducción del texto separado (espacios entre palabras) a finales de la Edad Media , la capacidad de leer en silencio se consideraba bastante notable. [10] [11]

Los principales predictores de la capacidad de un individuo para leer escrituras tanto alfabéticas como no alfabéticas son las habilidades del lenguaje oral, [12] la conciencia fonológica , la denominación automática rápida y el coeficiente intelectual verbal . [13]

Como actividad de ocio , los niños y los adultos leen porque es divertido e interesante. En los EE. UU., aproximadamente la mitad de todos los adultos leen uno o más libros por placer cada año. [14] Alrededor del 5% lee más de 50 libros por año. [14] Los estadounidenses leen más si: tienen más educación, leen con fluidez y facilidad, son mujeres, viven en ciudades y tienen un nivel socioeconómico más alto . [14] Los niños se vuelven mejores lectores cuando saben más sobre el mundo en general y cuando perciben la lectura como una diversión en lugar de como una tarea que debe realizarse. [14]

Lectura vs. alfabetización

La lectura es una parte esencial de la alfabetización , aunque desde una perspectiva histórica la alfabetización consiste en tener la capacidad de leer y escribir. [15] [16] [17] [18]

Desde la década de 1990, algunas organizaciones han definido la alfabetización de diversas maneras que pueden ir más allá de la capacidad tradicional de leer y escribir. A continuación se ofrecen algunos ejemplos:

En el ámbito académico, algunos ven la alfabetización de una manera más filosófica y proponen el concepto de "multialfabetizaciones". Por ejemplo, dicen, "este enorme cambio de la alfabetización tradicional basada en la impresión a las multialfabetizaciones del siglo XXI refleja el impacto de las tecnologías de la comunicación y los multimedia en la naturaleza cambiante de los textos, así como las habilidades y disposiciones asociadas con el consumo, la producción, la evaluación y la distribución de esos textos (Borsheim, Meritt y Reed, 2008, p. 87)". [30] [31] Según el neurocientífico cognitivo Mark Seidenberg, estas "múltiples alfabetizaciones" han permitido a los educadores cambiar el tema de la lectura y la escritura a la "alfabetización". Continúa diciendo que algunos educadores, cuando se enfrentaron a críticas sobre cómo se enseña la lectura, "no modificaron sus prácticas, cambiaron el tema". [32]

Además, algunas organizaciones podrían incluir las habilidades numéricas y tecnológicas por separado, pero junto con las habilidades de alfabetización. [33]

Además, desde la década de 1940, el término alfabetización se utiliza a menudo para significar tener conocimiento o habilidad en un campo particular (por ejemplo, alfabetización informática , alfabetización ecológica , alfabetización en salud , alfabetización mediática , alfabetización cuantitativa ( aritmética ) [29] y alfabetización visual ). [34] [35] [36] [37]

Sistemas de escritura

Para comprender un texto, normalmente es necesario comprender el lenguaje hablado asociado a ese texto. De esta manera, los sistemas de escritura se distinguen de muchos otros sistemas de comunicación simbólica. [38] Una vez establecidos, los sistemas de escritura en general cambian más lentamente que sus contrapartes habladas y a menudo conservan características y expresiones que ya no son actuales en el lenguaje hablado. La gran ventaja de los sistemas de escritura es su capacidad de mantener un registro persistente de la información expresada en un idioma, que puede recuperarse independientemente del acto inicial de formulación. [38]

Beneficios cognitivos

Una persona mayor lee un periódico en Nepal

La lectura por placer se ha asociado con un mayor progreso cognitivo en vocabulario y matemáticas durante la adolescencia. [39] [40] La lectura sostenida en grandes cantidades durante toda la vida se ha asociado con altos niveles de rendimiento académico. [41]

Las investigaciones sugieren que la lectura puede mejorar el manejo del estrés, [42] la memoria, [42] la concentración, [43] las habilidades de escritura, [43] y la imaginación . [44]

Los beneficios cognitivos de la lectura continúan hasta la mediana edad y la tercera edad. [45] [46] [47]

Las investigaciones sugieren que leer libros y escribir se encuentran entre las actividades que estimulan el cerebro y que pueden retrasar el deterioro cognitivo en las personas mayores. [48]

Estado del rendimiento en lectura

La lectura ha sido objeto de considerables investigaciones y reportes durante décadas. Muchas organizaciones miden e informan sobre los logros de lectura de niños y adultos (por ejemplo, NAEP , PIRLS , PISA , PIAAC y EQAO ).

Los investigadores han llegado a la conclusión de que aproximadamente el 95% de los estudiantes pueden aprender a leer al final del primer o segundo año de escuela, aunque en muchos países el 20% o más no cumplen esa expectativa. [49] [50]

Un estudio de 2012 en Estados Unidos determinó que el 33% de los niños de tercer grado tenían puntuaciones bajas en lectura; sin embargo, representaban el 63% de los niños que no terminaban la escuela secundaria. La pobreza también tuvo un impacto negativo adicional en las tasas de graduación de la escuela secundaria. [51]

Según el Informe Nacional de Calificaciones de 2019 , el 34% de los estudiantes de cuarto grado en los Estados Unidos no lograron desempeñarse en o por encima del nivel básico de lectura . Hubo una diferencia significativa por raza y etnia (por ejemplo, estudiantes negros con un 52% y estudiantes blancos con un 23%). Después del impacto de la pandemia de COVID-19, la puntuación media de lectura básica cayó un 3% en 2022. [52] Vea más sobre el desglose por etnia en 2019 y 2022 aquí. En 2022, el 30% de los estudiantes de octavo grado no lograron desempeñarse en o por encima del nivel básico de NAEP, que fue 3 puntos más bajo en comparación con 2019. [53] Según un estudio de 2023 en California, solo el 46,6% de los estudiantes de tercer grado alcanzaron los estándares de lectura en inglés. [54] [55] Otro informe afirma que muchos adolescentes que han pasado tiempo en los centros de detención juvenil de California obtienen diplomas de escuela secundaria con habilidades de lectura de escuela primaria. “Hay niños que terminan la secundaria y ni siquiera saben leer ni escribir”. Durante un período de cinco años que comenzó en 2018, el 85% de estos estudiantes que se graduaron de la secundaria no aprobaron una evaluación de lectura de 12.º grado. [56]

Entre 2013 y 2024, 37 estados de EE. UU. aprobaron leyes o implementaron nuevas políticas relacionadas con la enseñanza de la lectura basada en evidencia. [57] En 2023, la ciudad de Nueva York se propuso exigir a las escuelas que enseñaran a leer con énfasis en la fonética . En esa ciudad, menos de la mitad de los estudiantes de tercer a octavo grado de la escuela obtuvieron una calificación de competentes en los exámenes estatales de lectura. Más del 63% de los examinados negros e hispanos no obtuvieron la calificación. [58]

A nivel mundial, la pandemia de COVID-19 generó un déficit general de aprendizaje sustancial en las habilidades de lectura y otras áreas académicas. Surgió al principio de la pandemia y persiste en el tiempo, y es particularmente grande entre los niños de entornos socioeconómicos bajos. [59] [60] En los EE. UU., varios estudios de investigación muestran que, en ausencia de apoyo adicional, hay casi un 90 por ciento de probabilidades de que un lector deficiente en primer grado siga siendo un lector deficiente. [61]

En Canadá, la provincia de Ontario informó que el 27% de los estudiantes de tercer grado no cumplieron con los estándares provinciales de lectura en 2023. [62] También en Ontario, el 53% de los estudiantes de tercer grado con necesidades de educación especial (estudiantes que tienen un Plan Educativo Individual), no estaban cumpliendo con los estándares provinciales en 2022. [63] La provincia de Nueva Escocia informó que el 32% de los estudiantes de tercer grado no cumplieron con los estándares provinciales de lectura en 2022. [64] La provincia de Nuevo Brunswick informó que el 43,4% y el 30,7% no cumplieron con los Niveles de Logro de Comprensión Lectora para los grados cuarto y sexto respectivamente en 2023. [65]

El estudio PIRLS (Progreso en la alfabetización lectora internacional ) publica los logros de lectura de los alumnos de cuarto grado en 50 países. [66] Los cinco países con el promedio general de lectura más alto son la Federación Rusa, Singapur, la RAE de Hong Kong, Irlanda y Finlandia. Otros son: Inglaterra en el puesto 10, Estados Unidos en el puesto 15, Australia en el puesto 21, Canadá en el puesto 23 y Nueva Zelanda en el puesto 33. [67] [68] [69]

El Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Alumnos ( PISA ) mide el rendimiento académico de los alumnos de 15 años en matemáticas, ciencias y lectura. [70] Sin embargo, los críticos dicen que PISA es fundamentalmente defectuoso en su visión subyacente de la educación, su implementación y su interpretación e impacto en la educación a nivel mundial. [71] [72] [73]

El Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de las Competencias de los Adultos (PIAAC) informa sobre los niveles de lectura de los adultos de 16 a 65 años en 39 países . [74] Entre 2011 y 2018, PIAAC informa sobre el porcentaje de adultos que leen en el nivel uno o por debajo de él (el más bajo de cinco niveles). Algunos ejemplos son Japón 4,9 %, Finlandia 10,6 %, Países Bajos 11,7 %, Australia 12,6 %, Suecia 13,3 %, Canadá 16,4 %, Inglaterra (Reino Unido) 16,4 % y Estados Unidos 16,9 %. [75]

Según el Banco Mundial , el 53% de todos los niños de los países de ingresos bajos y medios sufren de “pobreza de aprendizaje”. En 2019, utilizando datos del Instituto de Estadística de la UNESCO , publicaron un informe titulado Ending Learning Poverty: What will it take? [ 76] La pobreza de aprendizaje se define como la incapacidad de leer y comprender un texto simple a los 10 años.

Aunque dicen que todas las habilidades fundamentales son importantes, como la lectura, la aritmética, la capacidad de razonamiento básico, las habilidades socioemocionales y otras, se centran específicamente en la lectura. Su razonamiento es que la competencia lectora es una métrica de aprendizaje fácil de entender, la lectura es la puerta de entrada de un estudiante al aprendizaje en todas las demás áreas y la competencia lectora puede servir como indicador del aprendizaje fundamental en otras materias.

Sugieren cinco pilares para reducir la pobreza de aprendizaje:

  1. Los estudiantes están preparados y motivados para aprender.
  2. Los profesores de todos los niveles son eficaces y valorados
  3. Las aulas están equipadas para el aprendizaje.
  4. Las escuelas son espacios seguros e inclusivos, y
  5. Los sistemas educativos están bien gestionados.

Aprendiendo a leer

Los investigadores han llegado a la conclusión de que aproximadamente el 95% de los estudiantes pueden aprender a leer al final del primer o segundo año de escuela, aunque en muchos países el 20% o más no cumplen esa expectativa. [49] [50]

Aprender a leer o adquirir habilidades de lectura es la adquisición y práctica de las habilidades necesarias para comprender el significado detrás de las palabras impresas. Para un lector experto, el acto de leer se siente simple, sin esfuerzo y automático. [77] Sin embargo, el proceso de aprender a leer es complejo y se basa en habilidades cognitivas, lingüísticas y sociales desarrolladas desde una edad muy temprana. Como una de las cuatro habilidades lingüísticas básicas (escuchar, hablar, leer y escribir), [78] [79] la lectura es vital para dominar el lenguaje escrito.

En Estados Unidos y en otros lugares, se cree ampliamente que los estudiantes que carecen de competencia en lectura al final del tercer grado pueden enfrentar obstáculos durante el resto de su carrera académica. [80] [81] [82] Por ejemplo, se estima que no podrían leer la mitad del material que encontrarán en cuarto grado. [83]

En 2019, entre los estudiantes estadounidenses de cuarto grado en las escuelas públicas, solo el 58% de los estudiantes asiáticos, el 45% de los caucásicos, el 23% de los hispanos y el 18% de los negros obtuvieron un rendimiento igual o superior al nivel competente del Informe Nacional de Calificaciones. [84] Además, en 2012, en el Reino Unido se informó que los estudiantes de 15 años leen al nivel esperado de los estudiantes de 12 años. [85]

Como resultado, muchos gobiernos han puesto en marcha prácticas para garantizar que los estudiantes lean a nivel de grado al finalizar el tercer grado. Un ejemplo de esto es la Garantía de Lectura de Tercer Grado creada por el Estado de Ohio en 2017. Se trata de un programa para identificar a los estudiantes desde el jardín de infantes hasta el tercer grado que están atrasados ​​en lectura y brindar apoyo para asegurarse de que estén encaminados hacia el éxito en lectura al finalizar el tercer grado. [86] [87] Esto también se conoce como educación correctiva . Otro ejemplo es la política en Inglaterra por la cual cualquier alumno que tenga dificultades para decodificar palabras correctamente al llegar al tercer año debe recibir "urgentemente" ayuda a través de un "programa de fonética riguroso y sistemático". [88]

En 2016, de 50 países, Estados Unidos alcanzó el 15.º puntaje más alto en capacidad de lectura de cuarto grado. [89] Los diez países con el promedio general de lectura más alto son la Federación de Rusia, Singapur, la RAE de Hong Kong, Irlanda, Finlandia, Polonia, Irlanda del Norte, Noruega, Taipei Chino e Inglaterra (Reino Unido). Algunos otros son: Australia (21.º), Canadá (23.º), Nueva Zelanda (33.º), Francia (34.º), Arabia Saudita (44.º) y Sudáfrica (50.º).

El lenguaje hablado: la base de la lectura

El lenguaje hablado es la base del aprendizaje de la lectura (mucho antes de que los niños vean las letras) y el conocimiento que tienen los niños de la estructura fonológica del lenguaje es un buen predictor de la capacidad de lectura temprana. El lenguaje hablado es dominante durante la mayor parte de la infancia; sin embargo, la lectura finalmente alcanza y supera al habla. [90] [91] [92] [93]

Al cumplir su primer año, la mayoría de los niños ya han aprendido todos los sonidos del lenguaje hablado. Sin embargo, les lleva más tiempo aprender la forma fonológica de las palabras y comenzar a desarrollar un vocabulario hablado. [12]

Los niños adquieren una lengua hablada en unos pocos años. Los estudiantes de inglés de cinco a seis años tienen un vocabulario de 2.500 a 5.000 palabras, y añaden 5.000 palabras por año durante los primeros años de escolaridad. Esta rápida tasa de aprendizaje no se puede explicar por la instrucción que reciben. En cambio, los niños aprenden que el significado de una palabra nueva se puede inferir porque aparece en el mismo contexto que palabras familiares (por ejemplo, león se ve a menudo con cobarde y rey ). [94] Como dice el lingüista británico John Rupert Firth , "Reconocerás una palabra por la compañía que tiene".

El entorno en el que viven los niños también puede afectar a su capacidad para adquirir habilidades de lectura. Se sabe que los niños que están expuestos regularmente a la contaminación acústica ambiental crónica, como el ruido del tráfico en las carreteras, muestran una menor capacidad para discriminar entre fonemas (sonidos del lenguaje oral), así como puntuaciones más bajas en las pruebas estandarizadas de lectura. [95]

Leer a los niños: necesario pero no suficiente

Leerles a los niños no es lo mismo que enseñarles a leer; sin embargo, es útil si la atención de los niños se dirige a las palabras de la página mientras se les lee. [96] [97]

Los niños aprenden a hablar de forma natural, escuchando a otras personas hablar. Sin embargo, la lectura no es un proceso natural y muchos niños necesitan aprender a leer mediante un proceso que implica "orientación y retroalimentación sistemáticas". [98] [99] [100] [101]

Por lo tanto, "leerles a los niños no es lo mismo que enseñarles a leer". [102] No obstante, leerles a los niños es importante porque los socializa en la actividad de leer, los involucra, amplía su conocimiento del lenguaje hablado y enriquece su capacidad lingüística al escuchar palabras y estructuras gramaticales nuevas e innovadoras.

Sin embargo, hay cierta evidencia de que la "lectura compartida" con niños ayuda a mejorar la lectura si la atención de los niños se dirige a las palabras de la página mientras se les lee. [96] [97]

Edad óptima para aprender a leer

Existe cierto debate sobre la edad óptima para enseñar a los niños a leer.

La Iniciativa de Estándares Estatales Básicos Comunes (CCSS, por sus siglas en inglés) en los Estados Unidos tiene estándares para las habilidades básicas de lectura en el jardín de infantes y primer grado que incluyen instrucción en conceptos de impresión, conciencia fonológica, fonética, reconocimiento de palabras y fluidez. [103] Sin embargo, algunos críticos de los CCSS dicen que "Lograr los estándares de lectura generalmente requiere largas horas de ejercicios y hojas de trabajo, y reduce otras áreas vitales de aprendizaje como matemáticas, ciencias, estudios sociales, arte, música y juego creativo". [104]

Los datos de la OCDE de PISA 2007 de 54 países demuestran que "no existe asociación entre la edad de ingreso a la escuela... y el rendimiento en lectura a los 15 años". [105] Además, un estudio alemán de 50 jardines de infancia comparó a niños que, a los 5 años, habían pasado un año "centrados en lo académico" o "centrados en las artes lúdicas" y descubrió que con el tiempo los dos grupos se volvieron inseparables en la habilidad de lectura. [106] Los autores concluyen que los efectos de la lectura temprana son como "regar un jardín antes de una tormenta; el riego temprano se vuelve indetectable por la tormenta, el riego desperdicia agua preciosa y el riego distrae al jardinero de otros trabajos preparatorios importantes". [105]

Algunos académicos están a favor de una práctica apropiada para el desarrollo (PAD) en la que la instrucción formal sobre la lectura comienza cuando los niños tienen alrededor de seis o siete años. Y para apoyar esa teoría, algunos señalan que los niños en Finlandia comienzan la escuela a los siete años (Finlandia ocupó el quinto lugar en el logro de lectura de cuarto grado internacional PIRLS 2016 ). [107] En un debate sobre los jardines de infancia académicos, el profesor de desarrollo infantil David Elkind ha argumentado que, dado que "no hay ninguna investigación sólida que demuestre que la formación académica temprana sea superior (o peor) que el modelo práctico más tradicional de educación temprana", los educadores deberían optar por enfoques de desarrollo que brinden a los niños pequeños suficiente tiempo y oportunidad para explorar el mundo natural en sus propios términos. [108] Elkind enfatizó el principio de que "la educación temprana debe comenzar con el niño, no con la materia que se va a enseñar". [108] En respuesta, Grover J. Whitehurst , Director del Centro Brown de Política Educativa (parte de Brookings Institution ) [109] dijo que David Elkind se basa demasiado en las filosofías de la educación en lugar de en la ciencia y la investigación. Sigue diciendo que las prácticas educativas están "condenadas a ciclos de modas y fantasías" hasta que se basen más en prácticas basadas en la evidencia . [110]

En cuanto a los resultados académicos de Finlandia, como señalan algunos investigadores, antes de empezar la escuela los niños finlandeses deben participar en un año de educación preescolar gratuita obligatoria y la mayoría ya leen antes de empezar la escuela. [111] [112] Y, con respecto a las prácticas apropiadas para el desarrollo (PAD), en 2019 la Asociación Nacional para la Educación de Niños Pequeños , Washington, DC, publicó un borrador de documento de posición sobre las PAD diciendo que "La noción de que los niños pequeños no están preparados para las materias académicas es un malentendido de las prácticas apropiadas para el desarrollo; particularmente en los grados 1 a 3, casi todas las materias se pueden enseñar de maneras que sean significativas y atractivas para cada niño". [113] Y, los investigadores de los Institutos para el Logro del Potencial Humano dicen que es un mito que los primeros lectores se aburran o se conviertan en alborotadores en la escuela. [114]

Otros investigadores y educadores están a favor de cantidades limitadas de instrucción en alfabetización a la edad de cuatro y cinco años, además de actividades no académicas e intelectualmente estimulantes. [115]

Las revisiones de la literatura académica realizadas por la Education Endowment Foundation en el Reino Unido han descubierto que "se ha demostrado sistemáticamente que iniciar la enseñanza de la alfabetización en el preescolar tiene un efecto positivo en los resultados del aprendizaje temprano" [116] y que "comenzar la educación de los primeros años a una edad más temprana parece tener un alto impacto positivo en los resultados del aprendizaje". [117] Esto respalda la práctica estándar actual en el Reino Unido, que incluye el desarrollo de la conciencia fonémica de los niños en el preescolar y la enseñanza de la lectura a partir de los cuatro años.

Un estudio realizado en Chicago informa que se estima que un programa de educación temprana para niños de familias de bajos ingresos genera entre 4 y 11 dólares de beneficios económicos a lo largo de la vida del niño por cada dólar gastado inicialmente en el programa, según un análisis de costo-beneficio financiado por los Institutos Nacionales de Salud . El programa cuenta con profesores certificados y ofrece "enseñanza de lectura y matemáticas, actividades grupales y excursiones educativas para niños de 3 a 9 años". [118] [119]

No parece haber ninguna investigación definitiva sobre la "ventana mágica" para comenzar a enseñar a leer. [112] Sin embargo, tampoco hay ninguna investigación definitiva que sugiera que comenzar temprano cause algún daño. El investigador y educador Timothy Shanahan sugiere: "Comience a enseñar a leer desde el momento en que tenga niños disponibles para enseñar y preste atención a cómo responden a esta instrucción, tanto en términos de qué tan bien están aprendiendo lo que está enseñando como de qué tan felices e involucrados parecen estar. Si aún no ha comenzado, no se sienta culpable, simplemente comience". [112]

Instrucciones de lectura sugeridas por nivel de grado

Algunos investigadores en educación sugieren la enseñanza de los diversos componentes de lectura por niveles de grado específicos. [120] El siguiente es un ejemplo de Carol Tolman, Ed.D. y Louisa Moats, Ed.D. que corresponde en muchos aspectos con la Iniciativa de Estándares Estatales Básicos Comunes de los Estados Unidos : [103]

Prácticas de enseñanza de habilidades de lectura fundamentales, desde jardín de infantes hasta 12.º grado

El porcentaje de estudiantes estadounidenses que no lograron un rendimiento igual o superior al nivel básico de lectura del Nations Report Card se encontraba en cuarto grado (37 % en 2022), octavo grado (30 % en 2022) y duodécimo grado (30 % en 2019). [121] Como resultado, muchos profesores de secundaria dedican parte del tiempo de clase a actividades relacionadas con las habilidades básicas de lectura. [122]

El siguiente gráfico muestra el porcentaje de profesores de lengua y literatura inglesa de nivel K-12 que participaron en actividades de lectura fundamentales con los estudiantes (es decir, involucraron a cada estudiante de una clase en actividades relacionadas con las habilidades fundamentales de lectura durante más de unos pocos minutos en las últimas cinco lecciones de clase). [123]

Los profesores de ELA de secundaria en estados con legislación sobre lectura tenían significativamente más probabilidades de informar que involucraban frecuentemente a sus estudiantes en estas actividades que los profesores de ELA de secundaria en estados sin dicha legislación, a pesar de que solo una cuarta parte de los estados con estas leyes incluyen requisitos en torno a la instrucción de ELA de secundaria. [124]

Etapas de la lectura experta

El camino hacia la lectura experta implica aprender el principio alfabético , la conciencia fonémica , la fonética , la fluidez, el vocabulario y la comprensión. [125]

La psicóloga británica Uta Frith introdujo un modelo de tres etapas para adquirir destreza lectora. La primera etapa es la logográfica o pictórica, en la que los estudiantes intentan captar las palabras como objetos, una forma artificial de lectura. La segunda etapa es la fonológica, en la que los estudiantes aprenden la relación entre los grafemas (letras) y los fonemas (sonidos). La tercera etapa es la ortográfica, en la que los estudiantes leen palabras conocidas más rápidamente que palabras desconocidas y la longitud de las palabras deja de tener importancia gradualmente. [126]

Otra reconocida experta en este ámbito es la profesora de Harvard Jeanne Sternlicht Chall , que en 1983 publicó un libro titulado Etapas del desarrollo de la lectura que proponía seis etapas. [127] [128]

Posteriormente, en 2008 Maryanne Wolf , de la Escuela de Educación y Estudios de la Información de la UCLA , publicó un libro titulado Proust y el calamar en el que describe su visión de las siguientes cinco etapas del desarrollo de la lectura. [129] [130] Normalmente, los niños pasarán por estas etapas a ritmos diferentes; sin embargo, a continuación se muestran las edades típicas de los niños en los Estados Unidos.

Pre-lector emergente: de 6 meses a 6 años

Tiempo de lectura en una escuela primaria en la zona rural de la República Democrática Popular Lao , en el sudeste asiático. En 2017, aproximadamente el 70% de los niños de cinco años no estaban matriculados en programas de educación infantil, y los más excluidos eran los que vivían en zonas de difícil acceso y los que provenían de familias pobres. [131] El período de lectura diario que se muestra aquí utiliza libros proporcionados por Big Brother Mouse , una organización sin fines de lucro que promueve la lectura en las escuelas y aldeas de Laos. [132]

La etapa de prelectura emergente, también conocida como preparación para la lectura , suele durar los primeros cinco años de vida de un niño. [133] Los niños suelen decir sus primeras palabras antes de su primer cumpleaños. [134] Los educadores y los padres ayudan a los alumnos a desarrollar sus habilidades de escucha, habla, lectura y escritura. [135]

Leer a los niños les ayuda a desarrollar su vocabulario, el amor por la lectura y la conciencia fonémica , es decir, la capacidad de escuchar y manipular los sonidos individuales ( fonemas ) del lenguaje oral. Los niños a menudo "leen" historias que han memorizado. Sin embargo, a finales de la década de 1990, investigadores de Estados Unidos descubrieron que la forma tradicional de leer a los niños no suponía una gran diferencia en su capacidad posterior para leer porque los niños pasan relativamente poco tiempo mirando el texto. Sin embargo, en un programa de lectura compartida con niños de cuatro años, los profesores descubrieron que dirigir la atención de los niños a las letras y las palabras (por ejemplo, verbalmente o señalando las palabras) suponía una diferencia significativa en la lectura temprana, la ortografía y la comprensión. [136] [97] [137] [138]

Lector novato: 6 a 7 años

Los lectores novatos continúan desarrollando su conciencia fonémica y se dan cuenta de que las letras ( grafemas ) se conectan con los sonidos ( fonemas ) del lenguaje; conocido como decodificación, fonética y principio alfabético . [139] También pueden memorizar los patrones de letras más comunes y algunas de las palabras de alta frecuencia que no necesariamente siguen reglas fonológicas básicas (por ejemplo, have y who ). Sin embargo, es un error asumir que un lector entiende el significado de un texto simplemente porque puede decodificarlo. La comprensión del vocabulario y el lenguaje oral también son partes importantes de la comprensión del texto como se describe en la visión simple de la lectura, la cuerda de lectura de Scarborough y el modelo de la visión activa de la lectura. La lectura y el habla son codependientes: la lectura promueve el desarrollo del vocabulario y un vocabulario más rico facilita la lectura hábil. [140]

Lector de decodificación: 7 a 9 años

La transición de la etapa de lector novato a la etapa de decodificación está marcada por una reducción de pronunciaciones dolorosas y en su lugar los sonidos de un lector más fluido y seguro. [141] En esta fase, el lector añade al menos 3.000 palabras a lo que puede decodificar. Por ejemplo, en el idioma inglés, los lectores ahora aprenden las variaciones de las rimas basadas en vocales (por ejemplo, s at , m at , c at ) [142] y los pares de vocales (también dígrafos ) (por ejemplo, r ai n, p ay , b oa t) [143].

A medida que los lectores avanzan, aprenden la composición de los morfemas (es decir, raíces, prefijos y sufijos ). Aprenden los morfemas comunes, como "s" y "ed", y los ven como "fragmentos visuales". "Cuanto más rápido pueda ver un niño que decapitado es be + head + ed" , más rápido se convertirá en un lector más fluido.

Al principio de esta etapa, el niño suele dedicar tanta capacidad mental al proceso de decodificación que no comprende las palabras que lee. No obstante, es una etapa importante que le permite alcanzar su objetivo final de adquirir fluidez y automatismo.

Es en la fase de decodificación que el niño comprenderá realmente de qué trata la historia y aprenderá a releer un pasaje cuando sea necesario para comprenderlo realmente.

Lector fluido y comprensivo: de 9 a 15 años

El objetivo de esta etapa es "ir más allá de la superficie del texto" y, en el proceso, el lector desarrollará sustancialmente su conocimiento de la ortografía. [144]

Los maestros y los padres pueden caer en el error de pensar que el niño entiende todo lo que lee cuando lee con fluidez. A medida que el contenido de lo que pueden leer se vuelve más exigente, los buenos lectores desarrollarán conocimientos de lenguaje figurativo e ironía que los ayudarán a descubrir nuevos significados en el texto.

Los niños mejoran su comprensión cuando utilizan una variedad de herramientas, como conectar conocimientos previos, predecir resultados, extraer inferencias y monitorear lagunas en su comprensión. Uno de los momentos más impactantes es cuando los lectores con una comprensión fluida aprenden a entrar en la vida de héroes y heroínas imaginarios.

Al enseñar comprensión, el psicólogo educativo G. Michael Pressley afirma que se pueden defender sólidamente las enseñanzas de decodificación, vocabulario, conocimiento de palabras, estrategias de comprensión activa y autocontrol. [145]

Al final de esta etapa, muchos procesos comienzan a volverse automáticos, lo que permite al lector centrarse en el significado. Con el proceso de decodificación casi automático en este punto, el cerebro aprende a integrar más conocimiento metafórico , inferencial, analógico , de fondo y experiencial . Esta etapa en el aprendizaje de la lectura suele durar hasta la edad adulta temprana. [146]

Lector experto: 16 años o más

En la etapa experta, por lo general a un lector sólo le llevará medio segundo leer casi cualquier palabra. [147] El grado en que la lectura experta cambiará a lo largo de la vida de un adulto depende de lo que lea y de cuánto lea.

La ciencia de la lectura

La escritura tiene tan solo unos 5.500 años de antigüedad, a diferencia del habla humana , que se cree que tiene entre 50.000 y 2 millones de años. [148] Por lo tanto, a diferencia del habla, el cerebro no evolucionó para leer de forma natural. Como resultado, el cerebro se adapta al desafío de la lectura. El proceso de lectura involucra la mayor parte del cerebro, especialmente una interconexión entre las áreas visuales y las áreas del lenguaje; pero también sistemas neuronales relacionados con la acción, la emoción, la toma de decisiones y la memoria. [149] [150]

No existe una única definición de la ciencia de la lectura (SOR). [151] Las habilidades fundamentales como la fonética , la decodificación y la conciencia fonémica se consideran partes importantes de la ciencia de la lectura, pero no son los únicos ingredientes. SOR incluye cualquier investigación y evidencia sobre cómo los humanos aprenden a leer y cómo se debe enseñar a leer. Esto incluye áreas como la fluidez de lectura oral, el vocabulario, la morfología , la comprensión lectora, el texto, la ortografía y la pronunciación, las estrategias de pensamiento, la competencia lingüística oral, el entrenamiento de la memoria de trabajo y el desempeño del lenguaje escrito (por ejemplo, la cohesión, la combinación/reducción de oraciones). [152]

Además, algunos educadores creen que el SOR debería incluir alfabetización digital; conocimientos previos; instrucción rica en contenido; pilares de infraestructura (currículo, preparación docente reimaginada y liderazgo); enseñanza adaptativa (reconociendo las fortalezas individuales, culturales y lingüísticas del estudiante); desarrollo de la alfabetización bilingüe; equidad, justicia social y apoyo a las poblaciones desatendidas (por ejemplo, estudiantes de entornos de bajos ingresos). [151]

Algunos investigadores sugieren que es necesario realizar más estudios sobre la relación entre la teoría y la práctica. Dicen que “sabemos más sobre la ciencia de la lectura que sobre la ciencia de la enseñanza basada en la ciencia de la lectura”, y que “existen muchos niveles entre los hallazgos científicos básicos y la implementación por parte de los docentes que deben superarse”. [151]

En la ciencia cognitiva, es probable que no haya ningún área que haya tenido más éxito que el estudio de la lectura. Sin embargo, en muchos países los niveles de lectura se consideran bajos. En los Estados Unidos, el Informe Nacional de Calificaciones de 2019 informó que el 34% de los estudiantes de cuarto grado de las escuelas públicas se desempeñaron en o por encima del nivel competente de NAEP (rendimiento académico sólido) y el 65% se desempeñó en o por encima del nivel básico (dominio parcial de las habilidades del nivel competente). [153] Como se informó en el estudio PIRLS , Estados Unidos ocupó el puesto 15 de 50 países, en niveles de comprensión lectora de estudiantes de cuarto grado. [67] [68] Además, según el estudio PIAAC 2011-2018 , de 39 países, Estados Unidos ocupó el puesto 19 en niveles de alfabetización de adultos de 16 a 65 años; y el 16,9% de los adultos en los Estados Unidos leyeron en o por debajo del nivel uno (de cinco niveles). [154] [75]

A muchos investigadores les preocupa que los bajos niveles de lectura se deban a la forma en que se enseña a leer. Señalan tres áreas:

  1. La lectura científica contemporánea ha tenido muy poco impacto en la práctica educativa, principalmente debido a un "problema de dos culturas que separa la ciencia y la educación".
  2. La práctica docente actual se basa en supuestos obsoletos que hacen que aprender a leer sea más difícil de lo necesario.
  3. Conectar la práctica basada en evidencia con la práctica educativa sería beneficioso, pero es extremadamente difícil de lograr debido a la falta de capacitación adecuada en la ciencia de la lectura entre muchos docentes. [155] [156] [157] [50]

Vista simple de la lectura

La visión simple de la lectura propone cuatro amplias categorías de lectores en desarrollo: lectores típicos, lectores pobres, disléxicos y hiperléxicos.
La visión simple de la lectura propone cuatro amplias categorías de lectores en desarrollo: lectores típicos, lectores pobres, disléxicos y hiperléxicos.

La visión simple de la lectura es una teoría científica sobre la comprensión lectora. [158] Según la teoría, para comprender lo que están leyendo, los estudiantes necesitan tanto habilidades de decodificación como capacidad de comprensión del lenguaje oral (escuchar) . Ninguna de las dos es suficiente por sí sola. En otras palabras, necesitan la capacidad de reconocer y procesar (por ejemplo, pronunciar) el texto, y la capacidad de comprender el idioma en el que está escrito el texto (es decir, vocabulario, gramática y conocimientos previos). Los estudiantes no están leyendo si pueden decodificar palabras pero no entienden su significado. De manera similar, los estudiantes no están leyendo si no pueden decodificar palabras que normalmente reconocerían y entenderían si las escucharan dichas en voz alta. [159] [160] [161]

Se expresa en esta ecuación: Decodificación × Comprensión del lenguaje oral = Comprensión lectora. [162]

Como se muestra en el gráfico, la Visión Simple de la Lectura propone cuatro categorías amplias de lectores en desarrollo: lectores típicos; lectores deficientes (discapacidad general de lectura); disléxicos ; [163] e hiperléxicos . [164] [165]

La cuerda de lectura de Scarborough

Hollis Scarborough , el creador de Reading Rope y científico principal de Haskins Laboratories , es un investigador líder en el desarrollo temprano del lenguaje y su conexión con la alfabetización posterior. [166]

Scarborough publicó en 2001 la infografía Reading Rope, en la que se utilizaban hebras de cuerda para ilustrar los numerosos ingredientes que intervienen en la adquisición de la habilidad lectora. Las hebras superiores representan la comprensión del lenguaje y se refuerzan entre sí. Las inferiores representan el reconocimiento de palabras y trabajan juntas a medida que el lector se vuelve preciso, fluido y automático a través de la práctica. Las hebras superiores e inferiores se entrelazan para producir un lector experto. [167]

Investigaciones más recientes de Laurie E. Cutting y Hollis S. Scarborough han destacado la importancia de los procesos de función ejecutiva (por ejemplo, memoria de trabajo, planificación, organización, autocontrol y habilidades similares) para la comprensión lectora. [168] [169] Los textos fáciles no requieren muchas funciones ejecutivas; sin embargo, los textos más difíciles requieren más "concentración en las ideas". Las estrategias de comprensión lectora , como resumir, pueden ayudar.

Vista activa del modelo de lectura

El modelo de visión activa de la lectura (AVR) (7 de mayo de 2021), de Nell K. Duke y Kelly B. Cartwright, [170] ofrece una alternativa a la visión simple de la lectura (SVR) y una actualización propuesta de la cuerda de lectura de Scarborough (SRR). Refleja conocimientos clave de la investigación científica sobre la lectura que no se reflejan en la SVR y la SRR. Aunque el modelo AVR no se ha probado en su totalidad en la investigación, "cada elemento dentro del modelo se ha probado en la investigación instructiva que demuestra influencias causales positivas en la comprensión lectora". [171] Este modelo es más completo que la visión simple de la lectura y hace un mejor trabajo al acomodar parte del conocimiento sobre la lectura desarrollado en las últimas décadas. Sin embargo, no explica cómo estas variables encajan entre sí, cómo su importancia relativa cambia con el desarrollo ni muchas otras cuestiones relevantes para la enseñanza de la lectura. [172]

El modelo enumera los factores que contribuyen a la lectura (y las posibles causas de la dificultad de lectura) dentro, a lo largo y más allá del reconocimiento de palabras y la comprensión del lenguaje, incluidos los elementos de autorregulación. Esta característica del modelo refleja la investigación que documenta que no todos los perfiles de dificultad de lectura se explican por un bajo reconocimiento de palabras y/o una baja comprensión del lenguaje. Una segunda característica del modelo es que muestra cómo se superponen el reconocimiento de palabras y la comprensión del lenguaje, e identifica los procesos que "conectan" estos constructos.

El siguiente gráfico muestra los ingredientes de la infografía de los autores. Además, los autores señalan que la lectura también se ve afectada por el texto, la tarea y el contexto sociocultural .

Automaticidad

En el campo de la psicología, la automaticidad es la capacidad de hacer cosas sin ocupar la mente con los detalles de bajo nivel necesarios, lo que permite que se convierta en un patrón de respuesta automática o un hábito . Cuando la lectura es automática, se pueden dedicar valiosos recursos de la memoria de trabajo a considerar el significado de un texto, etc.

El hallazgo inesperado de la ciencia cognitiva es que la práctica no lleva a la perfección. Para que una nueva habilidad se vuelva automática, es necesaria una práctica sostenida más allá del punto de dominio. [174] [175]

Cómo lee el cerebro

Varios investigadores y neurocientíficos han intentado explicar cómo lee el cerebro. Han escrito artículos y libros, y han creado sitios web y vídeos en YouTube para ayudar al consumidor medio. [176] [177] [178] [179]

El neurocientífico Stanislas Dehaene dice que algunos principios simples deberían ser aceptados por todos, a saber: a) todos los niños tienen cerebros similares, están bien adaptados a las correspondencias sistemáticas grafema-fonema, "y tienen todo que ganar con la fonética, el único método que les dará la libertad de leer cualquier texto", b) el tamaño del aula es en gran medida irrelevante si se utilizan los métodos de enseñanza adecuados, c) es esencial tener pruebas de detección estandarizadas para la dislexia , seguidas de una formación especializada adecuada, y d) si bien la decodificación es esencial, el enriquecimiento del vocabulario es igualmente importante. [180]

Un estudio realizado en la Universidad Médica de Carolina del Sur (MUSC) en 2022 indica que "una mayor asimetría del hemisferio izquierdo del cerebro puede predecir un rendimiento mejor y medio en un nivel básico de capacidad de lectura, dependiendo de si el análisis se realiza en todo el cerebro o en regiones específicas". [181] [182] Se han encontrado correlaciones entre regiones cerebrales específicas en el hemisferio izquierdo de la corteza cerebral durante diferentes actividades de lectura. [183]

Aunque no se incluye en la mayoría de los estudios metaanalíticos, la corteza sensoriomotora del cerebro es la región más activa del cerebro durante la lectura. Esto a menudo se pasa por alto porque se asocia únicamente con el movimiento; [184] Sin embargo, un estudio de fMRI de 2014 que involucró a adultos y niños participantes, donde se restringió el movimiento corporal, demostró evidencia sólida que revela que esta región puede estar correlacionada con el procesamiento y la decodificación automáticos de textos. [185] Los resultados de este estudio encontraron que esta parte del cerebro era altamente activa en personas que estaban aprendiendo a leer o tenían dificultades para hacerlo (niños, personas diagnosticadas con dislexia y personas nuevas en el idioma inglés) y menos activa en lectores adultos fluidos. [185]

Los lóbulos occipital y parietal , o más específicamente el giro fusiforme , incluyen el área visual de la forma de las palabras (VWFA) del cerebro. [186] Se cree que la VWFA es responsable de la capacidad del cerebro para leer visualmente. [186] Esta área del cerebro tiende a activarse cuando las palabras se presentan ortográficamente, como se encontró en un estudio de 2002 en el que se presentaron a los participantes estímulos de palabras y no palabras. [187] Durante la presentación de estímulos de palabras, esta parte del cerebro fue extremadamente activa; sin embargo, durante la presentación de estímulos que no involucraban grafemas, el cerebro fue menos activo. Los participantes con dislexia siguieron siendo valores atípicos, con esta área del cerebro siendo consistentemente poco activa en ambos escenarios. [187]

Las dos regiones principales del cerebro asociadas con las habilidades fonológicas son la región temporoparietal y la región perisilviana. [188] En un estudio de fMRI realizado en 2001, se presentaron a los participantes palabras escritas, palabras de frecuencia verbal y pseudopalabras verbales. [189] La porción dorsal (superior) de la región temporoparietal fue la más activa durante las pseudopalabras y la porción ventral (inferior) fue más activa durante las palabras de frecuencia, excepto los sujetos diagnosticados con dislexia, que no mostraron deterioro en su región ventral pero sí una activación insuficiente en la porción dorsal. [189]

La región perisilviana, que es la parte del cerebro que se cree que conecta el área de Broca y el área de Wernicke, [190] es otra región que es muy activa durante las actividades fonológicas en las que se pide a los participantes que verbalicen palabras conocidas y desconocidas. [191] El daño a esta parte del cerebro afecta directamente la capacidad de una persona para hablar de manera coherente y con sentido; además, esta parte de la actividad cerebral permanece constante tanto para los lectores disléxicos como para los no disléxicos. [192] [193]

La región frontal inferior es una región mucho más compleja del cerebro, y su asociación con la lectura no es necesariamente lineal, ya que está activa en varias actividades relacionadas con la lectura. [194] Varios estudios han registrado su actividad en asociación con las habilidades de comprensión y procesamiento, así como con la ortografía y la memoria de trabajo. [195] Aunque el papel exacto de esta parte del cerebro todavía es discutible, varios estudios indican que esta área del cerebro tiende a ser más activa en los lectores a los que se les ha diagnosticado dislexia y menos activa cuando el tratamiento se ha realizado con éxito. [196]

Además de las regiones de la corteza, que se considera materia gris en las fMRI, hay varios fascículos de materia blanca que también están activos durante diferentes actividades de lectura. [197] Estas tres regiones son las que conectan las tres regiones de la corteza respetadas mientras el cerebro lee, por lo tanto, son responsables de la integración entre modelos del cerebro involucrados en la lectura. [198] Tres fascículos conectivos que son prominentemente activos durante la lectura son los siguientes: el fascículo arqueado izquierdo , el fascículo longitudinal inferior izquierdo y el fascículo longitudinal superior . [199] Se ha descubierto que las tres áreas son más débiles en los lectores diagnosticados con dislexia. [197] [198] [199]

También se cree que el cerebelo , que no forma parte de la corteza cerebral, desempeña un papel importante en la lectura. [200] Cuando el cerebelo está afectado, las víctimas tienen dificultades con muchas funciones ejecutivas y habilidades organizativas tanto dentro como fuera de su capacidad de lectura. [200] En un estudio de fMRI sintético, las actividades específicas que mostraron una participación significativa del cerebelo incluyeron la automatización, la precisión de las palabras y la velocidad de lectura. [201]

Movimiento ocular y ritmo de lectura silenciosa

La lectura es un proceso intensivo en el que el ojo se mueve rápidamente para asimilar el texto, viendo con la precisión suficiente para interpretar grupos de símbolos. [202] Es necesario comprender la percepción visual y el movimiento ocular en la lectura para comprender el proceso de lectura.

Al leer, el ojo se mueve continuamente a lo largo de una línea de texto, pero hace movimientos rápidos y cortos (sacadas) intercalados con paradas breves (fijaciones). Existe una variabilidad considerable en las fijaciones (el punto en el que se produce una sacudida) y en las sacadas entre lectores, e incluso en el caso de una misma persona que lee un único pasaje de texto. Al leer, el ojo tiene una amplitud perceptiva de unas 20 ranuras. En el mejor de los casos, y leyendo en inglés, cuando el ojo está fijado en una letra, se pueden identificar claramente cuatro o cinco letras a la derecha y tres o cuatro letras a la izquierda. Más allá de eso, solo se puede identificar la forma general de algunas letras. [203]

Los movimientos oculares de los lectores sordos difieren de los de los lectores que pueden oír, y se ha demostrado que los lectores sordos expertos tienen fijaciones más cortas y menos refijaciones al leer. [204]

Una investigación publicada en 2019 concluyó que la tasa de lectura silenciosa de los adultos en inglés para no ficción está en el rango de 175 a 300 palabras por minuto (ppm), y para ficción el rango es de 200 a 320 palabras por minuto. [205] [206]

Punto de fijación del ojo [207]

Hipótesis de doble vía para la lectura en voz alta

A principios de los años 1970, se propuso la hipótesis de la doble ruta para la lectura en voz alta , según la cual hay dos mecanismos mentales separados involucrados en la lectura en voz alta, y la salida de ambos contribuye a la pronunciación de las palabras escritas. [208] [209] [210] Un mecanismo es la ruta léxica mediante la cual los lectores expertos pueden reconocer una palabra como parte de su vocabulario visual . La otra es la ruta no léxica o subléxica , en la que el lector "decodifica" las palabras escritas. [210] [211]

El efecto de producción (leer en voz alta)

Hay pruebas sólidas de que decir una palabra en voz alta la hace más memorable que simplemente leerla en silencio o escuchar a otra persona decirla. Esto se debe a que la autorreferencia y el autocontrol sobre el habla producen un mayor compromiso con las palabras. El beneficio para la memoria de "escucharse a uno mismo" se conoce como el efecto de producción . [212] Esto tiene implicaciones para estudiantes como aquellos que están aprendiendo a leer. Los resultados de los estudios implican que la producción oral es beneficiosa porque implica dos componentes distintivos: hablar (un acto motor) y escucharse a uno mismo (la entrada auditiva autorreferencial). También se piensa que "el beneficio óptimo probablemente provendría de leer en voz alta las notas que el estudiante tomó en el momento de la exposición inicial a la nueva información". [213] [214]

Instrucción de lectura basada en evidencia

La instrucción de lectura basada en evidencia se refiere a prácticas que tienen evidencia de investigación que muestra su éxito en la mejora del logro de lectura. [215] [216] [217] [218] [219] Está relacionada con la educación basada en evidencia .

Varias organizaciones informan sobre investigaciones sobre la enseñanza de la lectura, por ejemplo:

Leer en papel vs. en pantallas

Se realizó una revisión sistemática y un metanálisis sobre las ventajas de leer en papel frente a las pantallas. No se encontraron diferencias en los tiempos de lectura; sin embargo, leer en papel tiene una pequeña ventaja en el rendimiento lector y la metacognición . [246] Otros estudios concluyen que muchos niños comprenden más leyendo libros que leyendo pantallas. [247] [248]

Formación docente y legislación

Según algunos investigadores, contar con un maestro altamente calificado en cada aula es una necesidad educativa, y un estudio de 2023 de 512 maestros de aula en 112 escuelas mostró que el conocimiento de los maestros sobre el lenguaje y la alfabetización predijo de manera confiable las puntuaciones de las habilidades fundamentales de lectura de los estudiantes, pero no las puntuaciones de comprensión lectora. [249] Sin embargo, algunos maestros, incluso después de obtener una maestría en educación, piensan que carecen de los conocimientos y las habilidades necesarias para enseñar a todos los estudiantes a leer. [250] Una encuesta de 2019 a maestros de K-2 y educación especial encontró que solo el 11 por ciento dijo que se sentía "completamente preparado" para enseñar lectura temprana después de terminar sus programas de pregrado. Y, un estudio de 2021 encontró que la mayoría de los estados de EE. UU. No miden el conocimiento de los maestros sobre la "ciencia de la lectura". [251] Además, según un estudio, tan solo el 2% de los distritos escolares utilizan programas de lectura que siguen la ciencia de la lectura. [252] [253] Mark Seidenberg , un neurocientífico, afirma que, con pocas excepciones, a los profesores no se les enseña a enseñar a leer y "no saben lo que no saben". [254]

Una encuesta en los Estados Unidos informó que el 70% de los maestros creen en un enfoque de alfabetización equilibrada para enseñar a leer; sin embargo, la alfabetización equilibrada "no es instrucción sistemática y explícita". [250] La maestra, investigadora y autora, Louisa Moats, [255] en un video sobre maestros y ciencia de la lectura, dice que a veces cuando los maestros hablan sobre su "filosofía" de enseñar a leer, ella responde diciendo: "Pero tu 'filosofía' no funciona". [256] Ella dice que esto se evidencia por el hecho de que tantos niños tienen dificultades con la lectura. [257] En otra ocasión, cuando se le preguntó sobre las preguntas más comunes que los maestros le hacen, ella respondió: "Una y otra vez" preguntan "¿por qué nadie me enseñó esto antes?". [258] En una encuesta del Education Week Research Center a más de 530 profesores de instrucción de lectura, solo el 22 por ciento dijo que su filosofía de enseñanza de lectura temprana se centraba en la fonética explícita y sistemática con la comprensión como un enfoque separado. [250]

A partir del 24 de enero de 2024, después de que Mississippi se convirtiera en el único estado en mejorar los resultados de lectura entre 2017 y 2019, [259] 37 estados de EE. UU. y el Distrito de Columbia han aprobado leyes o implementado nuevas políticas relacionadas con la instrucción de lectura basada en evidencia. [57] Estos requisitos se relacionan con seis áreas: preparación de maestros; certificación o renovación de licencia de maestros; desarrollo o entrenamiento profesional; evaluación; material; e instrucción o intervención. Como resultado, muchas escuelas se están alejando de los programas de alfabetización equilibrados que alientan a los estudiantes a adivinar una palabra y están introduciendo la fonética donde aprenden a "decodificar" (pronunciar) palabras. [260] Sin embargo, la adopción de estos nuevos requisitos no es de ninguna manera uniforme. Por ejemplo, solo diez estados tienen requisitos en las seis áreas y cinco tienen requisitos solo en una o dos áreas. Solo diecinueve estados tienen requisitos relacionados con la certificación o renovación de licencia de maestros en servicio. Treinta y seis estados tienen requisitos para el desarrollo o entrenamiento profesional, y treinta y uno requieren que los maestros utilicen métodos de instrucción específicos o intervenciones para lectores con dificultades. Además, ocho estados no permiten ni exigen la repetición del tercer grado a los estudiantes que están atrasados ​​en lectura. Los expertos dicen que no es seguro que estas nuevas iniciativas conduzcan a mejoras reales en los resultados de lectura de los niños, porque las viejas prácticas resultan difíciles de eliminar. [261] [262]

A medida que más legislaturas estatales buscan aprobar leyes sobre la ciencia de la lectura , algunos sindicatos de docentes están aumentando su oposición, citando preocupaciones sobre mandatos que limitarían la autonomía profesional de los docentes en el aula, una implementación desigual, plazos irrazonables y la cantidad de tiempo y compensación que reciben los docentes por capacitación adicional. [263] Algunos sindicatos de docentes, en particular, han protestado contra los intentos de prohibir el sistema de tres señales que alienta a los estudiantes a adivinar la pronunciación de las palabras, usando imágenes, etc. (en lugar de decodificarlas). En abril de 2024, el Sindicato de Docentes de California logró detener un proyecto de ley que habría requerido que los docentes usaran la ciencia de la lectura. [264]

Arkansas exigió que todos los maestros de educación primaria y especial fueran competentes en la investigación científica sobre la lectura para el año 2021, lo que provocó que Amy Murdoch, profesora asociada y directora del programa de ciencias de la lectura en la Universidad Mount St. Joseph en Cincinnati, dijera: "Todavía tenemos un largo camino por recorrer, pero veo alguna esperanza". [250] [265] [266]

En 2021, el Departamento de Educación y Desarrollo de la Primera Infancia de Nuevo Brunswick parece ser el primero en Canadá en revisar su plan de estudios de lectura K-2 basándose en "prácticas instructivas basadas en la investigación". Por ejemplo, reemplazó los diversos sistemas de señales con "dominio en la fase de lectura alfabética consolidada a lector experto". [267] [268] Aunque un documento en el sitio, fechado en 1998, contiene referencias a tales prácticas como el uso de "sistemas de señales", lo que está en desacuerdo con el cambio actual del departamento hacia el uso de prácticas basadas en evidencia. [269] El Ministro de Educación de Ontario , Canadá, continuó declarando planes para revisar el plan de estudios de lengua elemental y el curso de inglés de noveno grado con "enfoques científicos basados ​​en la evidencia que enfatizan la instrucción directa, explícita y sistemática y eliminando las referencias al descubrimiento no científico y al aprendizaje basado en la investigación, incluido el sistema de tres señales, para 2023". [270]

Algunas organizaciones sin fines de lucro, como el Centro para el Desarrollo y el Aprendizaje ( Luisiana ) y la Liga de Lectura ( Estado de Nueva York ), ofrecen programas de capacitación para que los maestros aprendan sobre la ciencia de la lectura. [271] [272 ] [273] [274] ResearchED , una organización sin fines de lucro con sede en el Reino Unido desde 2013, ha organizado conferencias sobre educación en todo el mundo con la participación de investigadores y educadores para promover la colaboración entre los usuarios de la investigación y los creadores de la investigación. [244]

El investigador y educador Timothy Shanahan reconoce que no siempre existe una investigación exhaustiva sobre aspectos específicos de la enseñanza de la lectura. Sin embargo, "la falta de evidencia no significa que algo no funcione, sino que no lo sabemos". Sugiere que los profesores utilicen la investigación disponible en lugares como Journal of Educational Psychology , Reading Research Quarterly , Reading & Writing Quarterly , Review of Educational Research y Scientific Studies of Reading . Si una práctica carece de evidencia que la respalde, se puede utilizar con el entendimiento de que se basa en una afirmación, no en la ciencia. [275]

Enseñando a leer

Leer a los niños tiene muchos beneficios; sin embargo, para la mayoría de ellos no basta con enseñarles a leer. Por ello, "toda enseñanza debería estar inicialmente orientada a un único objetivo, la comprensión del principio alfabético según el cual cada letra o grafema representa un fonema". [276]

Lenguas alfabéticas

Los educadores han debatido durante años sobre cuál es el mejor método para enseñar a leer en inglés. Hay tres métodos principales: fonética , lenguaje integral y alfabetización equilibrada . También hay una variedad de otras áreas y prácticas, como la conciencia fonémica , la fluidez, la comprensión lectora, las palabras y el vocabulario visual, el sistema de tres señales (el modelo de reflectores en Inglaterra), la lectura guiada , la lectura compartida y la lectura nivelada. Cada práctica se emplea de diferentes maneras según el país y la división escolar específica.

En 2001, algunos investigadores llegaron a dos conclusiones: 1) "el dominio del principio alfabético es esencial" y 2) "las técnicas de enseñanza (en concreto, la fonética) que enseñan este principio directamente son más eficaces que las que no lo hacen". Sin embargo, aunque dejan claro que tienen algunos desacuerdos fundamentales con algunas de las afirmaciones realizadas por los defensores del lenguaje integral, algunos principios del lenguaje integral tienen valor, como la necesidad de garantizar que los estudiantes se entusiasmen con los libros y estén ansiosos por aprender a leer. [77]

Un curso de estudio sobre fonética, San Francisco, EE. UU., 1912 [277]

La fonética enfatiza el principio alfabético : la idea de que las letras ( grafemas ) representan los sonidos del habla ( fonemas ). [278] Se enseña de diversas maneras; algunas son sistemáticas y otras no sistemáticas. La fonética no sistemática enseña fonética sobre una base "cuando es necesario" y sin una secuencia particular. La fonética sistemática utiliza una introducción planificada y secuencial de un conjunto de elementos fonéticos junto con la enseñanza y práctica explícitas de esos elementos. El Panel Nacional de Lectura (NRP) concluyó que la instrucción fonética sistemática es más efectiva que la fonética no sistemática o la instrucción no fonética.

Los enfoques fonéticos incluyen la fonética analógica, la fonética analítica, la fonética integrada con minilecciones, la fonética a través de la ortografía y la fonética sintética. [279] [280] [281] [77] [282]

Según una revisión de 2018 de investigaciones relacionadas con lectores deficientes de habla inglesa , el entrenamiento fonético es eficaz para mejorar las habilidades relacionadas con la alfabetización, en particular la lectura fluida de palabras y no palabras, y la lectura precisa de palabras irregulares. [283]

Además, la fonética produce un mayor rendimiento para todos los lectores principiantes, y la mayor mejora la experimentan los estudiantes que corren el riesgo de no aprender a leer. Si bien algunos niños pueden inferir estas reglas por sí solos, otros necesitan instrucción explícita sobre las reglas fonéticas. Algunas enseñanzas fonéticas tienen beneficios notables, como la expansión del vocabulario del estudiante. En general, los niños a los que se les enseña fonética directamente son mejores en lectura, ortografía y comprensión. [284]

Un desafío en la enseñanza de la fonética es que en algunos idiomas, como el inglés, las correspondencias complejas entre letras y sonidos pueden confundir a los lectores principiantes. Por esta razón, se recomienda que los profesores de lectura en inglés comiencen por presentar los "sonidos más frecuentes" y las "grafías comunes", y dejen los sonidos menos frecuentes y las grafías complejas para más adelante (por ejemplo, los sonidos /s/ y /t/ antes de /v/ y /w/; y las grafías c a ke antes de eight t y c at antes de du ck ). [77] [285] [286]

La fonética está ganando aceptación mundial .

Combinando la fonética con otras enseñanzas de alfabetización

La fonética se enseña de muchas maneras diferentes y, a menudo, se enseña junto con algunas de las siguientes: habilidades del lenguaje oral, [287] [288] conceptos sobre la impresión, [289] conciencia fonológica , conciencia fonémica , fonología , fluidez en la lectura oral , vocabulario, sílabas , comprensión lectora , ortografía , estudio de palabras, [290] [291] [292] aprendizaje cooperativo , aprendizaje multisensorial y lectura guiada . Y, la fonética a menudo aparece en debates sobre la ciencia de la lectura, [293] [294] y prácticas basadas en evidencia .

The National Reading Panel (U.S. 2000) is clear that "systematic phonics instruction should be integrated with other reading instruction to create a balanced reading program".[295] It suggests that phonics be taught together with phonemic awareness, oral fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. Researcher and educator Timothy Shanahan, a member of that panel, recommends that primary students receive 60–90 minutes per day of explicit, systematic, literacy instruction time; and that it be divided equally between a) words and word parts (e.g. letters, sounds, decoding and phonemic awareness), b) oral reading fluency, c) reading comprehension, and d) writing.[296] Furthermore, he states that "the phonemic awareness skills found to give the greatest reading advantage to kindergarten and first-grade children are segmenting and blending".[297]

The Ontario Association of Deans of Education (Canada) published research Monograph # 37 entitled Supporting early language and literacy with suggestions for parents and teachers in helping children prior to grade one. It covers the areas of letter names and letter-sound correspondence (phonics), as well as conversation, play-based learning, print, phonological awareness, shared reading, and vocabulary.[298]

Effectiveness of programs

Some researchers report that teaching reading without teaching phonics is harmful to large numbers of students, yet not all phonics teaching programs produce effective results. The reason is that the effectiveness of a program depends on using the right curriculum together with the appropriate approach to instruction techniques, classroom management, grouping, and other factors.[299] Louisa Moats, a teacher, psychologist and researcher, has long advocated for reading instruction that is direct, explicit and systematic, covering phoneme awareness, decoding, comprehension, literature appreciation, and daily exposure to a variety of texts.[300] She maintains that "reading failure can be prevented in all but a small percentage of children with serious learning disorders. It is possible to teach most students how to read if we start early and follow the significant body of research showing which practices are most effective".[301]

Interest in evidence-based education appears to be growing.[244] In 2021, Best evidence encyclopedia (BEE) released a review of research on 51 different programs for struggling readers in elementary schools.[221] Many of the programs used phonics-based teaching and/or one or more of the following: cooperative learning, technology-supported adaptive instruction (see Educational technology), metacognitive skills, phonemic awareness, word reading, fluency, vocabulary, multisensory learning, spelling, guided reading, reading comprehension, word analysis, structured curriculum, and balanced literacy (non-phonetic approach).

The BEE review concludes that a) outcomes were positive for one-to-one tutoring, b) outcomes were positive, but not as large, for one-to-small group tutoring, c) there were no differences in outcomes between teachers and teaching assistants as tutors, d) technology-supported adaptive instruction did not have positive outcomes, e) whole-class approaches (mostly cooperative learning) and whole-school approaches incorporating tutoring obtained outcomes for struggling readers as large as those found for one-to-one tutoring, and benefitted many more students, and f) approaches mixing classroom and school improvements, with tutoring for the most at-risk students, have the greatest potential for the largest numbers of struggling readers.[221]

Robert Slavin, of BEE, goes so far as to suggest that states should "hire thousands of tutors" to support students scoring far below grade level – particularly in elementary school reading. Research, he says, shows "only tutoring, both one-to-one and one-to-small group, in reading and mathematics, had an effect size larger than +0.10 ... averages are around +0.30", and "well-trained teaching assistants using structured tutoring materials or software can obtain outcomes as good as those obtained by certified teachers as tutors".[302][303]

What works clearinghouse allows you to see the effectiveness of specific programs. For example, as of 2020 they have data on 231 literacy programs. If you filter them by grade 1 only, all class types, all school types, all delivery methods, all program types, and all outcomes you receive 22 programs. You can then view the program details and, if you wish, compare one with another.[304]

Evidence for ESSA[222] (Center for Research and Reform in Education)[223] offers free up-to-date information on current PK–12 programs in reading, writing, math, science, and others that meet the standards of the Every Student Succeeds Act (U.S.).[305]

ProvenTutoring.org[226] a non-profit organization, is a resource for educators interested in research-proven tutoring programs. The programs it lists are proven effective in rigorous research as defined in the 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act. The Center for Research and Reform in Education at Johns Hopkins University provides the technical support to inform program selection.[223]

Systematic phonics
The National Reading Panel concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction.[306]

Systematic phonics is not one specific method of teaching phonics; it is a term used to describe phonics approaches that are taught explicitly and in a structured, systematic manner. They are systematic because the letters and the sounds they relate to are taught in a specific sequence, as opposed to incidentally or on a "when needed" basis.[307]

The National Reading Panel (NRP) concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction. The NRP also found that systematic phonics instruction is effective (with varying degrees) when delivered through one-to-one tutoring, small groups, and teaching classes of students; and is effective from kindergarten onward, the earlier the better. It helps significantly with word-reading skills and reading comprehension for kindergartners and 1st graders as well as for older struggling readers and reading-disabled students. Benefits to spelling were positive for kindergartners and 1st graders but not for older students.[308]

Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterised as "skill and drill" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text.[309]

Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as analogy phonics, analytic phonics, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics. However, their effectiveness varies considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions.[310]

Systematic phonics has gained increased acceptance in different parts of the world since the completion of three major studies into teaching reading; one in the US in 2000,[311][312] another in Australia in 2005,[313] and the other in the UK in 2006.[314]

In 2009, the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics. In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics.[315]

Beginning as early as 2014, several states in the United States have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school.[316][317][318][319]

In 2018, the State Government of Victoria, Australia, published a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including Effective Reading Instruction, Phonics, and Sample Phonics Lessons.[320]

Analytic phonics and analogy phonics

Analytic phonics does not involve pronouncing individual sounds (phonemes) in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified. For example, students analyze letter-sound correspondences such as the ou spelling of /aʊ/ in shrouds. Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as ball, bat and bite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends (separate, adjacent consonants) as units, such as break or shrouds.[321][322]

Analogy phonics is a particular type of analytic phonics in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds (phonograms) in the word. For example, a type of phonogram (known in linguistics as a rime) is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it (e.g. in the words cat, mat and sat, the rime is "at".) Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as -at or -am, or use word families (e.g. can, ran, man, or may, play, say).[323][321]

There have been studies on the effectiveness of instruction using analytic phonics vs. synthetic phonics. Johnston et al. (2012) conducted experimental research studies that tested the effectiveness of phonics learning instruction among 10-year-old boys and girls.[324] They used comparative data from the Clackmannanshire Report and chose 393 participants to compare synthetic phonics instruction and analytic phonics instruction.[325][324] The boys taught by the synthetic phonics method had better word reading than the girls in their classes, and their spelling and reading comprehension was as good. On the other hand, with analytic phonics teaching, although the boys performed as well as the girls in word reading, they had inferior spelling and reading comprehension. Overall, the group taught by synthetic phonics had better word reading, spelling, and reading comprehension. And, synthetic phonics did not lead to any impairment in the reading of irregular words.[324]

Embedded phonics with mini-lessons

Embedded phonics, also known as incidental phonics, is the type of phonics instruction used in whole language programs. It is not systematic phonics.[326] Although phonics skills are de-emphasised in whole language programs, some teachers include phonics "mini-lessons" when students struggle with words while reading from a book. Short lessons are included based on phonics elements the students are having trouble with, or on a new or difficult phonics pattern that appears in a class reading assignment. The focus on meaning is generally maintained, but the mini-lesson provides some time for focus on individual sounds and the letters that represent them. Embedded phonics is different from other methods because instruction is always in the context of literature rather than in separate lessons about distinct sounds and letters; and skills are taught when an opportunity arises, not systematically.[327][328]

Phonics through spelling

For some teachers, this is a method of teaching spelling by using the sounds (phonemes).[329] However, it can also be a method of teaching reading by focusing on the sounds and their spelling (i.e. phonemes and syllables). It is taught systematically with guided lessons conducted in a direct and explicit manner including appropriate feedback. Sometimes mnemonic cards containing individual sounds are used to allow the student to practice saying the sounds that are related to a letter or letters (e.g. a, e, i, o, u). Accuracy comes first, followed by speed. The sounds may be grouped by categories such as vowels that sound short (e.g. c-a-t and s-i-t). When the student is comfortable recognizing and saying the sounds, the following steps might be followed: a) the tutor says a target word and the student repeats it out loud, b) the student writes down each individual sound (letter) until the word is completely spelled, saying each sound as it is written, and c) the student says the entire word out loud. An alternate method would be to have the student use mnemonic cards to sound-out (spell) the target word.

Typically, the instruction starts with sounds that have only one letter and simple CVC words such as sat and pin. Then it progresses to longer words, and sounds with more than one letter (e.g. hear and day), and perhaps even syllables (e.g. wa-ter). Sometimes the student practices by saying (or sounding-out) cards that contain entire words.[330]

Synthetic phonics

Synthetic phonics, also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by sounding out the letters and then blend the sounds to form the word. This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. For example, shrouds would be read by pronouncing the sounds for each spelling, sh, r, ou, d, s (IPA /ʃ, r, , d, z/), then blending those sounds orally to produce a spoken word, sh – r – ou – d – s = shrouds (IPA /ʃrdz/). The goal of a synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically. Since 2005, synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading (by phonics instruction) in England, Scotland and Australia.[331][332][333][334]

The 2005 Rose Report from the UK concluded that systematic synthetic phonics was the most effective method for teaching reading. It also suggests the "best teaching" includes a brisk pace, engaging children's interest with multi-sensory activities and stimulating resources, praise for effort and achievement; and above all, the full backing of the headteacher.[335]

It also has considerable support in some States in the U.S.[312] and some support from expert panels in Canada.[336]

In the US, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K–3 reading compared with comparison schools.[337] In addition, several States such as California, Ohio, New York and Arkansas, are promoting the principles of synthetic phonics (see synthetic phonics in the United States).

Resources for teaching phonics are available here.

Laotian girls sit outside their school, reading books they received at a rural school book party.
Phonemic awareness

Phonemic awareness is the process by which the phonemes (sounds of oral language) are heard, interpreted, understood and manipulated – unrelated to their grapheme (written language). It is a sub-set of Phonological awareness that includes the manipulation of rhymes, syllables, and onsets and rimes, and is most prevalent in alphabetic systems.[338] The specific part of speech depends on the writing system employed. The National Reading Panel (NPR) concluded that phonemic awareness improves a learner's ability to learn to read. When teaching phonemic awareness, the NRP found that better results were obtained with focused and explicit instruction of one or two elements, over five or more hours, in small groups, and using the corresponding graphemes (letters).[339] See also Speech perception. As mentioned earlier, some researchers feel that the most effective way of teaching phonemic awareness is through segmenting and blending, a key part of synthetic phonics.[297]

Vocabulary

A critical aspect of reading comprehension is vocabulary development.[340] When a reader encounters an unfamiliar word in print and decodes it to derive its spoken pronunciation, the reader understands the word if it is in the reader's spoken vocabulary. Otherwise, the reader must derive the meaning of the word using another strategy, such as context. If the development of the child's vocabulary is impeded by things such as ear infections that inhibit the child from hearing new words consistently then the development of reading will also be impaired.[341]

Sight vocabulary vs. sight words

Sight words (i.e. high-frequency or common words), sometimes called the look-say or whole-word method, are not a part of the phonics method.[342] They are usually associated with whole language and balanced literacy where students are expected to memorize common words such as those on the Dolch word list and the Fry word list (e.g. a, be, call, do, eat, fall, gave, etc.).[343][344] The supposition (in whole language and balanced literacy) is that students will learn to read more easily if they memorize the most common words they will encounter, especially words that are not easily decoded (i.e. exceptions).

On the other hand, using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the alphabetic principle and treating English as though it was a logographic language (e.g. Chinese or Japanese).[345]

In addition, according to research, whole-word memorization is "labor-intensive", requiring on average about 35 trials per word.[346] Also, phonics advocates say that most words are decodable, so comparatively few words have to be memorized. And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, "the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development".[77] Furthermore, researchers suggest that teachers who withhold phonics instruction to make it easier on children "are having the opposite effect" by making it harder for children to gain basic word-recognition skills. They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words (e.g. have, had, has, having, haven't, etc.), making it easier to decode them all.[347][348][349]

Sight vocabulary is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically. Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization (i.e. a mental dictionary), making reading and comprehension easier. "Once you know the sound-based way to decode, your mind learns what words look like, even if you're not especially trying to do so".[350] The process, called orthographic mapping, involves decoding, crosschecking, mental marking and rereading. It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word. Irregular words pose more of a challenge, yet research in 2018 concluded that "fully-alphabetic students" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called hierarchical decoding. In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, break (b – r – ea – k), height (h – eigh – t), touch (t – ou – ch), and make (m – a – ke). Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on "teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words". Others recommend teaching the high-frequency words (i.e. Fry word list) by "focusing on the sound-symbol relations" (i.e. phonics).[346][351][352]

Fluency

Fluency is the ability to read orally with speed, accuracy, and vocal expression. The ability to read fluently is one of several critical factors necessary for reading comprehension. If a reader is not fluent, it may be difficult to remember what has been read and to relate the ideas expressed in the text to their background knowledge. This accuracy and automaticity of reading serves as a bridge between decoding and comprehension.[353]

One way to improve fluency is rereading (the student rereads a passage aloud several times with vocal expression). Another is assisted reading (the student visually reads a text while simultaneously hearing someone else fluently read the same text).[354]

Reading comprehension

The NRP describes reading comprehension as a complex cognitive process in which a reader intentionally and interactively engages with the text. The science of reading says that reading comprehension is heavily dependent on word recognition (i.e., phonological awareness, decoding, etc.) and oral language comprehension (i.e., background knowledge, vocabulary, etc.).[355] Phonological awareness and rapid naming predict reading comprehension in second grade but oral language skills account for an additional 13.8% of the variance.[356]

It has also been found that sustained content literacy intervention instruction that gradually builds thematic connections may help young children transfer their knowledge to related topics, leading to improved comprehension.[357]

The American educator, Eric "E. D." Donald Hirsch Jr., suggests that students need to learn about something in order to read well.[358] However, some researchers say reading comprehension instruction has become "content agnostic", focused on skill practice (such as "finding the main idea"), to the detriment of learning about science, history, and other disciplines. Instead, they say teachers should find ways to integrate content knowledge with reading and writing instruction. One approach is to merge the two – to embed literacy instruction into social studies and science. Another approach is to build content knowledge into reading classes, often called "high-quality or "content-rich" curricula.[359][360] However, according to Natalie Wexler, in her book The Knowledge Gap, "making the shift to knowledge is as much about changing teachers' beliefs and daily practice as about changing the materials they're supposed to use".[361]

Researcher and educator Timothy Shanahan believes the most effective way to improve reading comprehension skills is to teach students to summarize, develop an understanding of text structure, and paraphrase.[362]

Reading and spelling (writing)

Evidence supports the strong synergy between reading (decoding) and spelling (encoding), especially for children in kindergarten or grade one and elementary school students at risk for literacy difficulties. Students receiving encoding instruction and guided practice that included using (a) manipulatives such as letter tiles to learn phoneme-grapheme relationships and words and (b) writing phoneme-grapheme relationships and words made from these correspondences significantly outperformed contrast groups not receiving encoding instruction.[363][364]

Using embedded pictures, and mnemonic alphabet cards when teaching phonics

Research supports the use of embedded, picture mnemonic (memory support) alphabet cards when teaching letters and sounds, but not words.[365][366][367]

Whole language

Although widely used, whole-word methods are not supported by science.[368][77]

Whole language has the reputation of being a meaning-based method of teaching reading that emphasizes literature and text comprehension. It discourages any significant use of phonics, if at all.[369] Instead, it trains students to focus on words, sentences and paragraphs as a whole rather than letters and sounds. Students are taught to use context and pictures to "guess" words they do not recognize, or even just skip them and read on. It aims to make reading fun, yet many students struggle to figure out the specific rules of the language on their own, which causes the student's decoding and spelling to suffer.

The following are some features of the whole language philosophy:

As of 2020, whole language is widely used in the US and Canada (often as balanced literacy); however, in some US States and many other countries, such as Australia and the United Kingdom, it has lost favor or been abandoned because it is not supported by evidence.[374][375][376] Some notable researchers have clearly stated their disapproval of whole language and whole-word teaching. In his 2009 book, Reading in the brain, cognitive neuroscientist, Stanislas Dehaene, said "cognitive psychology directly refutes any notion of teaching via a 'global' or 'whole language' method". He goes on to talk about "the myth of whole-word reading", saying it has been refuted by recent experiments. "We do not recognize a printed word through a holistic grasping of its contours, because our brain breaks it down into letters and graphemes".[368] In addition, cognitive neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg, in his 2017 book Language at the speed of light, refers to whole language as a "theoretical zombie" because it persists despite a lack of supporting evidence.[377][378][374]

Balanced literacy

Balanced literacy is not well defined; however, it is intended as a method that combines elements of both phonics and whole language.[379] According to a survey in 2010, 68% of elementary school teachers in the United States profess to use balanced literacy.[380] However, only 52% of teachers in the United States include phonics in their definition of balanced literacy.

The National Reading Panel concluded that phonics must be integrated with instruction in phonemic awareness, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. And, some studies indicate that "the addition of language activities and tutoring to phonics produced larger effects than any of these components in isolation". They suggest that this may be a constructive way to view balanced reading instruction.[381]

However, balanced literacy has received criticism from researchers and others suggesting that, in many instances, it is merely whole language by another name.[382][383][384][385][386]

According to phonics advocate and cognitive neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg, balanced literacy allows educators to diffuse the reading wars while not making specific recommendations for change.[284] He goes on to say that, in his opinion, the high number of struggling readers in the United States is the result of how teachers are taught to teach reading.[387][107][388][389] He also says that struggling readers should not be encouraged to skip a challenging word, nor rely on pictures or semantic and syntactic cues to "guess at" a challenging word. Instead, they should use evidence-based decoding methods such as systematic phonics.[390][391][392]

Structured literacy

Structured literacy has many of the elements of systematic phonics and few of the elements of balanced literacy.[393] It is defined as explicit, systematic teaching that focuses on phonological awareness, word recognition, phonics and decoding, spelling, and syntax at the sentence and paragraph levels. It is considered to be beneficial for all early literacy learners, especially those with dyslexia.[394][395][396]

According to the International Dyslexia Association, structured literacy contains the elements of phonology and phonemic awareness, sound-symbol association (the alphabetic principle and phonics), syllables, morphology, syntax, and semantics. The elements are taught using methods that are systematic, cumulative, explicit, multisensory, and use diagnostic assessment.[397]

Three cueing system (Searchlights model)

The three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England) is a theory that has been circulating since the 1980s. Its roots are in the theories proposed in the 1960s by Ken Goodman and Marie Clay that eventually became whole language, reading recovery and guided reading (e.g., Fountas and Pinnell early reading programs).[398] As of 2010, 75% of teachers in the United States teach the three-cueing system.[380] It proposes that children who are stuck on a word should use various "cues" to figure it out and determine (guess) its meaning. The "meaning cues" are semantic ("does it make sense in the context?"), syntactic (is it a noun, verb, etc.?) and graphophonic (what are the letter-sound relationships?). It is also known as MSV (Meaning, Sentence structure/syntax and Visual information such as the letters in the words).

According to some, three-cueing is not the most effective way for beginning readers to learn how to decode printed text.[399] While a cueing system does help students to "make better guesses", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. They also say that students should first decode the word, "then they can use context to figure out the meaning of any word they don't understand".

Consequently, researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists Mark Seidenberg and Timothy Shanahan do not support the theory. They say the three-cueing system's value in reading instruction "is a magnificent work of the imagination", and it developed not because teachers lack integrity, commitment, motivation, sincerity, or intelligence, but because they "were poorly trained and advised" about the science of reading.[400][401][402] In England, the simple view of reading and synthetic phonics are intended to replace "the searchlights multi-cueing model".[403][404] On the other hand, some researchers suggest that "context" can be useful, not to guess a word, but to confirm a word after it has been phonetically decoded.[151]

Three Ps (3Ps) – Pause Prompt Praise

The three Ps approach is used by teachers, tutors, and parents to guide oral reading practice with a struggling reader.[405] For some, it is merely a variation of the above-mentioned three-cueing system.

However, for others it is very different.[406] For example: when a student encounters a word they do not know or get it wrong, the three steps are: 1) pause to see if they can fix it themselves, even letting them read on a little, 2) prompt them with strategies to find the correct pronunciation, and 3) praise them directly and genuinely. In the prompt step, the tutor does not suggest the student skip the word or guess the word based on the pictures or the first sound. Instead, they encourage students to use their decoding training to sound out the word and use the context (meaning) to confirm they have found the correct word.

Guided reading, reading workshop, shared reading, leveled reading, silent reading (and self-teaching)

Guided reading is small group reading instruction that is intended to allow for the differences in students' reading abilities.[407] While they are reading, students are encouraged to use strategies from the three-cueing system, the searchlights model, or MSV.

It is no longer supported by the Primary National Strategy in England as synthetic phonics is the officially recognized method for teaching reading.[408][409]

In the United States, guided reading is part of the Reading Workshop model of reading instruction.[410]

The reading workshop model provides students with a collection of books, allows them the choice of what to read, limits students' reading to texts that can be easily read by them, provides teaching through mini-lessons, and monitors and supports reading comprehension development through one-on-one teacher-student conferences. Some reports state that it is 'unlikely to lead to literacy success' for all students, particularly those lacking foundational skills.[411][412]

Shared (oral) reading is an activity whereby the teacher and students read from a shared text that is determined to be at the students' reading level.

Leveled reading involves students reading from "leveled books" at an appropriate reading level. A student who struggles with a word is encouraged to use a cueing system (e.g. three-cueing, searchlights model or MSV) to guess its meaning. Many systems purport to gauge the students' reading levels using scales incorporating numbers, letters, colors, and lexile readability scores.[413]

Silent reading (and self-teaching) is a common practice in elementary schools. A 2007 study in the United States found that, on average only 37% of class time was spent on active reading instruction or practice, and the most frequent activity was students reading silently. Based on the limited available studies on silent reading, the NRP concluded that independent silent reading did not prove an effective practice when used as the only type of reading instruction to develop fluency and other reading skills – particularly with students who have not yet developed critical alphabetic and word reading skills.[414]

Other studies indicate that, unlike silent reading, "oral reading increases phonological effects".

According to some, the classroom method called DEAR (Drop everything and read) is not the best use of classroom time for students who are not yet fluent.[415] However, according to the self-teaching hypothesis, when fluent readers practice decoding words while reading silently, they learn what whole words look like (spelling), leading to improved fluency and comprehension.[416][417]

The suggestion is: "if some students are fluent readers, they could read silently while the teacher works with the struggling readers".

Logographic languages

Hieroglyph, one of the earliest forms of writing

Languages such as Chinese and Japanese are normally written (fully or partly) in logograms (hanzi and kanji, respectively), which represent a whole word or morpheme with a single character. There are a large number of characters, and the sound that each makes must be learned directly or from other characters that contain "hints" in them. For example, in Japanese, the On-reading of the kanji 民 is min and the related kanji 眠 shares the same On-reading, min: the right-hand part shows the character's pronunciation. However, this is not true for all characters. Kun readings, on the other hand, have to be learned and memorized as there is no way to tell from each character.

Ruby characters are used in textbooks to help children learn the sounds that each logogram makes. These are written in a smaller size, using an alphabetic or syllabic script. For example, hiragana is typically used in Japanese, and the pinyin romanization into Latin alphabet characters is used in Chinese.

The examples above each spell the word kanji, which is made up of two kanji characters: 漢 (kan, written in hiragana as かん), and 字 (ji, written in hiragana as じ).

Textbooks are sometimes edited as a cohesive set across grades so that children will not encounter characters they are not yet expected to have learned.

Reading wars: phonics vs. whole language

For decades, the merits of phonics vs. whole language have been debated. It is sometimes referred to as the reading wars.[418][419]

Phonics was a popular way to learn reading in the 19th century. William Holmes McGuffey (1800–1873), an American educator, author, and Presbyterian minister who had a lifelong interest in teaching children, compiled the first four of the McGuffey Readers in 1836.[420]

McGuffey's Primer 1836

In 1841 Horace Mann, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, advocated for a whole-word method of teaching reading to replace phonics. Others advocated for a return to phonics, such as Rudolf Flesch in his book Why Johnny Can't Read (1955).

The whole-word method received support from Kenneth J. Goodman who wrote an article in 1967 entitled Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. In it, he says efficient reading is the result of the "skill in selecting the fewest, most productive cues necessary to produce guesses which are right the first time".[421] Although not supported by scientific studies, the theory became very influential as the whole language method.[422][378] Since the 1970s some whole language supporters such as Frank Smith, are unyielding in arguing that phonics should be taught little, if at all.[423]

Yet, other researchers say instruction in phonics and phonemic awareness are "critically important" and "essential" to developing early reading skills.[390][424][77] In 2000, the National Reading Panel (U.S.) identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction, of which phonics is one; the other four are phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.[125] Reports from other countries, such as the Australian report on Teaching reading (2005)[313] and the U.K. Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006) have also supported the use of phonics.

Some notable researchers such as Stanislas Dehaene and Mark Seidenberg have clearly stated their disapproval of whole language.[425][426]

Furthermore, a 2017 study in the UK that compared teaching with phonics vs. teaching whole written words concluded that phonics is more effective, saying "our findings suggest that interventions aiming to improve the accuracy of reading aloud and/or comprehension in the early stages of learning should focus on the systematicity present in print-to-sound relationships, rather than attempting to teach direct access to the meanings of whole written words".[427]

More recently, some educators have advocated for the theory of balanced literacy purported to combine phonics and whole language yet not necessarily consistently or systematically. It may include elements such as word study and phonics mini-lessons, differentiated learning, cueing, leveled reading, shared reading, guided reading, independent reading, and sight words.[428][429][430][431] According to a survey in 2010, 68% of K–2 teachers in the United States practice balanced literacy; however, only 52% of teachers included phonics in their definition of balanced literacy. In addition, 75% of teachers teach the three-cueing system (i.e., meaning/structure/visual or semantic/syntactic/graphophonic) that has its roots in whole language.[380][432]

In addition, some phonics supporters assert that balanced literacy is merely whole language by another name.[433] And critics of whole language and sceptics of balanced literacy, such as neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg, state that struggling readers should not be encouraged to skip words they find puzzling or rely on semantic and syntactic cues to guess words.[390][384][434]

Over time a growing number of countries and states have put greater emphasis on phonics and other evidence-based practices (see Phonics practices by country or region).

Requirements for proficient reading

According to the report by the US National Reading Panel (NRP) in 2000,[125][435] the elements required for proficient reading of alphabetic languages are phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency,[353] vocabulary,[340] and text comprehension. In non-Latin languages, proficient reading does not necessarily require phonemic awareness, but rather an awareness of the individual parts of speech, which may also include the whole word (as in Chinese characters) or syllables (as in Japanese) as well as others depending on the writing system being employed.

The Rose Report, from the Department for Education in England makes it clear that, in their view, systematic phonics, specifically synthetic phonics, is the best way to ensure that children learn to read; such that it is now the law.[314][436][437][438] In 2005 the government of Australia published a report stating "The evidence is clear ... that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read".[439] Phonics has been gaining acceptance in many other countries as can be seen from this page Practices by country or region.

Other important elements are: rapid automatized naming (RAN),[440][441] a general understanding of the orthography of the language, and practice.

Reading difficulties

Difficulties in reading typically involve difficulty with one or more of the following: decoding, reading rate, reading fluency, or reading comprehension.

Decoding

Brain activity in young and older children can be used to predict future reading skills. Cross-model mapping between the orthographic and phonologic areas in the brain is critical in reading. Thus, the amount of activation in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus while performing reading tasks can be used to predict later reading ability and advancement. Young children with higher phonological word characteristic processing have significantly better reading skills later on than older children who focus on whole-word orthographic representation.[444]

Difficulty with decoding is marked by having not acquired the phoneme-grapheme mapping concept. One specific disability characterized by poor decoding is dyslexia, a brain-based learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read.[445] These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence. It can also be inherited in some families, and recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia. Although the symptoms vary from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and/or rapid visual-verbal responding.[445] Adults can have either developmental dyslexia[446][447][448][449] or acquired dyslexia which occurs after a brain injury, stroke[450][451] or dementia.[452][453][447][448][450][451]

Reading rate

Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depending on age and measured with different tests in English, French and German

Individuals with reading rate difficulties tend to have accurate word recognition and normal comprehension abilities, but their reading speed is below grade level.[454] Strategies such as guided reading (guided, repeated oral-reading instruction), may help improve a reader's reading rate.[455]

Many studies show that increasing reading speed improves comprehension.[456] Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult levels. According to Carver (1990), children's reading speed increases throughout the school years. On average, from grade 2 to college, the reading rate increases 14 standard-length words per minute each year (where one standard-length word is defined as six characters in text, including punctuation and spaces).[457]

Scientific studies have demonstrated that speed reading – defined here as capturing and decoding words faster than 900 wpm – is not feasible given the limits set by the anatomy of the eye.[458]

Reading fluency

Individuals with reading fluency difficulties fail to maintain a fluid, smooth pace when reading. Strategies used for overcoming reading rate difficulties are also useful in addressing reading fluency issues.[435]

Reading comprehension

Individuals with reading comprehension difficulties are commonly described as poor comprehenders.[459] They have normal decoding skills as well as a fluid rate of reading, but have difficulty comprehending text when reading. The simple view of reading holds that reading comprehension requires both decoding skills and oral language comprehension ability.[165]

Increasing vocabulary knowledge, listening skills, and teaching basic comprehension techniques may help facilitate better reading comprehension. It is suggested that students receive brief, explicit instruction in reading comprehension strategies in the areas of vocabulary, noticing understanding, and connecting ideas.[460]

Scarborough's Reading Rope and The active view of reading model also outline some of the essential ingredients of reading comprehension.

Radio reading service

In some countries, a radio reading service provides a service for blind people and others who choose to hear newspapers, books, and other printed material read aloud, typically by volunteers. An example is Australia's Radio Print Handicapped Network with stations in capital cities and some other areas.

Reading achievement: national and international reports

The following organizations measure and report on reading achievement in the United States and internationally:

NAEP

In the United States, the National Assessment of Educational Progress or NAEP ("The Nation's Report Card") is the national assessment of what students know and can do in various subjects. Four of these subjects – reading, writing, mathematics, and science – are assessed most frequently and reported at the state and district level, usually for grades 4 and 8.[461]

In 2019, with respect to the reading skills of the nation's grade-four public school students, 35% performed at or above the NAEP Proficient level (solid academic performance), and 65% performed at or above the NAEP Basic level (partial mastery of the proficient level skills). It is believed that students who read below the basic level do not have sufficient support to complete their schoolwork.[462]

Reading scores for the individual States and Districts are available on the NAEP site. Between 2017 and 2019 Mississippi was the only State that had a grade-four reading score increase and 17 States had a score decrease.[463]

The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on reading results in the United States. In 2022 the average basic-level reading score among elementary schoolchildren was 3 points lower compared to 2019 (the previous assessment year) and roughly equivalent to the first reading assessment in 1992. Students of all ethnic groups other than Asians saw their scores decline. However, "black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN) students and students in high-poverty schools were disproportionately impacted". (This was substantiated by other sources).[464] In 2022, no states had a reading score increase and 30 states had a score decrease.[465] The results by race or ethnicity were as follows:[84]

NAEP reading assessment results are reported as average scores on a 0–500 scale.[466] The Basic Level is 208 and the Proficient Level is 238.[467] The average reading score for grade-four public school students was 219.[468] Female students had an average score that was 7 points higher than male students. Students who were eligible for the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) had an average score that was 28 points lower than that for students who were not eligible.

PIAAC

The Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) is an international study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) of cognitive and workplace skills in 39 countries between 2011 and 2018.[74] The Survey measures adults' proficiency in key information-processing skills – literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving. The focus is on the working-age population between the ages of 16 and 65. For example, the study shows the ranking of 38 countries as to the literacy proficiency among adults. According to the 2019 OECD report, the five countries with the highest ranking are Japan, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Australia; whereas Canada is 12th, England (UK) is 16th, and the United States is 19th.[154] It is also worth noting that the PIAAC table A2.1 (2013) shows the percentage of adults reading at-or-below level one (out of five levels). Some examples are Japan 4.9%, Finland 10.6%, Netherlands 11.7%, Australia 12.6%, Sweden 13.3%, Canada 16.4%, England 16.4%, and the United States 16.9%.[75]

PIRLS

The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) is an international study of reading (comprehension) achievement in fourth graders.[66] It is designed to measure children's reading literacy achievement, to provide a baseline for future studies of trends in achievement, and to gather information about children's home and school experiences in learning to read. The 2016 PIRLS report shows the 4th-grade reading achievement by country in two categories (literary and informational). The ten countries with the highest overall reading average are the Russian Federation, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland, Finland, Poland, Northern Ireland, Norway, Chinese Taipei, and England (UK). Some others are the United States 15th, Australia 21st, Canada 23rd, and New Zealand 33rd.[67][68][69]

PISA

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) measures 15-year-old school pupils scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading.[70] In 2018, of the 79 participating countries/economies, on average, students in Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang (China), and Singapore outperformed students from all other countries in reading, mathematics, and science. 21 countries have reading scores above the OECD average scores and many of the scores are not statistically different.[469][470]

Critics, however, say PISA is fundamentally flawed in its underlying view of education, its implementation, and its interpretation and impact on education globally.[71] In 2014, more than 100 academics from around the world called for a moratorium on PISA.[72][73] According to a 2023 book, PISA is failing in its mission. It suggests that flatlined student outcomes and policy shortcomings have much to do with PISA's implicit ideological biases, structural impediments such as union advocacy, and conflicts of interest.[471]

EQAO

The Education Quality and Accountability Office, EQAO, is an agency of the government of Ontario, Canada that reports on the publicly funded school system.[472] In 2022, it reported that 77% of grade three students in Ontario's English language schools met the provincial standard in reading in 2018–2019. This decreased to 73% in 2021–2022 and 2022–2023.[473]

53% of grade three students with special needs met the standard in 2018–2019, and this reduced to 48% in 2021–2022. 72% of grade three students who are English language learners met the standard in 2018–2019, and this reduced to 67% in 2021–2022.[474]

History

A Catholic monk reading in a monastery library

The history of reading dates back to the invention of writing during the 4th millennium BC. Although reading print text is now an important way for the general population to access information, this has not always been the case. With some exceptions, only a small percentage of the population in many countries was considered literate before the Industrial Revolution. Some of the pre-modern societies with generally high literacy rates included classical Athens and the Islamic caliphate.[475]

Scholars assume that reading aloud (Latin clare legere) was the more common practice in antiquity, and that reading silently (legere tacite or legere sibi) was unusual.[476] In his Confessions (c. 400), Saint Augustine remarks on Saint Ambrose's unusual habit of reading in silence.[476][477]

Michel de Certeau argued that while the Age of Enlightenment initially promoted the virtue of reading, writing was still considered a superior activity, due to a belief among social elites that writing was constructive and a sign of social initiative, while reading was straightforward consumption of what had already made; as such, readers were passive citizens.[478]

Before the mid-18th century, children's books in England usually focused on instruction or religious themes. Over time, a greater number of books were written with the intent of delighting children; for example, children's novels became increasingly popular over the 18th century. By 1800, the area of children's literature was flourishing, with perhaps as many as 50 books being printed every year in major cities.[479]

In 18th-century Europe, some considered the then-new practice of reading alone in bed to be dangerous and immoral, for a time. As reading became a less communal, largely silent activity, some raised concerns that reading in bed presented various dangers, such as fires caused by bedside candles of people reading before sleep. Some modern critics speculate that these concerns were rooted partially in fear that readers – especially women readers – would shirk their obligations to their family and community, and even transgress moral boundaries via the private fantasy afforded by books.[480] Also during the 18th century in England, reading novels was often criticized as a time-wasting pastime, when contrasted with the cultural seriousness carried by reading history, classical literature or poetry.[481]

Chapbooks were small, cheap forms of literature for children and adults that were sold on the streets, and covered a range of subjects such as ghost stories, crime, fantasy, politics, and disaster updates. They provided simple reading matter and were commonplace across England from the 17th to the 19th century. They are known to have been passed down through the generations. Their readership would have been largely among the poor, and among children of the middle class.[482]

Reading became even more pronounced in the 19th century with public notes, broadsides, catchpennies, and printed songs becoming common street literature, it informed and entertained the public before newspapers became readily available. Advertisements and local news, such as offers of rewards for catching criminals or for the return of stolen goods, appeared on public notices and handbills, while cheaply printed sheets – broadsheets and ballads – covered political or criminal news such as murders, trials, executions, disasters, and rescues.[483]

Technological improvements during the Industrial Revolution in printing and paper production; and new distribution networks enabled by improved roads and rail helped push an increased demand for printed (reading) matter. Besides this, social and educational changes (such as wider schooling rates) along with increasing literacy rates, particularly among the middle and working classes, helped boost a new mass market for printed material.[484] The arrival of gas and electric lighting in private homes meant that reading after dark no longer had to take place by oil lamp or candlelight.[481]

In 19th-century Russia, reading practices were highly varied, as people from a wide range of social statuses read Russian and foreign-language texts ranging from high literature to the peasant lubok.[485] Provincial readers such as Andrei Chikhachev give evidence of the omnivorous appetite for fiction and non-fiction alike among middling landowners.[486]

History of learning to read

The history of learning to read dates back to the invention of writing during the 4th millennium BC.[487]

Concerning the English language in the United States, the phonics principle of teaching reading was first presented by John Hart in 1570, who suggested the teaching of reading should focus on the relationship between what is now referred to as graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds).[488]

In the colonial times of the United States, reading material was not written specifically for children, so instruction material consisted primarily of the Bible and some patriotic essays. The most influential early textbook was The New England Primer, published in 1687. There was little consideration given to the best ways to teach reading or assess reading comprehension.[489][490]

Phonics was a popular way to learn reading in the 1800s. William Holmes McGuffey (1800–1873), an American educator, author, and Presbyterian minister who had a lifelong interest in teaching children, compiled the first four of the McGuffey Readers in 1836.[420]

The whole-word method was introduced into the English-speaking world by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, the director of the American School for the Deaf.[491] It was designed to educate deaf people by placing a word alongside a picture.[492] In 1830, Gallaudet described his method of teaching children to recognize a total of 50 sight words written on cards.[493][494] Horace Mann, the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachusetts, U.S., favored the method for everyone, and by 1837 the method was adopted by the Boston Primary School Committee.[495]

By 1844 the defects of the whole-word method became so apparent to Boston schoolmasters that they urged the Board to return to phonics.[496] In 1929, Samuel Orton, a neuropathologist in Iowa, concluded that the cause of children's reading problems was the new sight method of reading. His findings were published in the February 1929 issue of the Journal of Educational Psychology in the article "The Sight Reading Method of Teaching Reading as a Source of Reading Disability".[497]

The meaning-based curriculum came to dominate reading instruction by the second quarter of the 20th century. In the 1930s and 1940s, reading programs became very focused on comprehension and taught children to read whole words by sight. Phonics was taught as a last resort.[489]

Edward William Dolch developed his list of sight words in 1936 by studying the most frequently occurring words in children's books of that era. Children are encouraged to memorize the words with the idea that it will help them read more fluently. Many teachers continue to use this list, although some researchers consider the theory of sight word reading to be a "myth". Researchers and literacy organizations suggest it would be more effective if students learned the words using a phonics approach.[368][498][499]

In 1955, Rudolf Flesch published a book entitled Why Johnny Can't Read, a passionate argument in favor of teaching children to read using phonics, adding to the reading debate among educators, researchers, and parents.[500]

An American girl reading a newspaper (1969)

Government-funded research on reading instruction in the United States and elsewhere began in the 1960s. In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers began publishing studies with evidence on the effectiveness of different instructional approaches. During this time, researchers at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) conducted studies that showed early reading acquisition depends on the understanding of the connection between sounds and letters (i.e. phonics). However, this appears to have had little effect on educational practices in public schools.[501][502]

In the 1970s, the whole language method was introduced. This method de-emphasizes the teaching of phonics out of context (e.g. reading books), and is intended to help readers "guess" the right word.[503] It teaches that guessing individual words should involve three systems (letter clues, meaning clues from context, and the syntactical structure of the sentence). It became the primary method of reading instruction in the 1980s and 1990s. However, it is falling out of favor. The neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg refers to it as a "theoretical zombie" because it persists despite a lack of supporting evidence.[426][376] It is still widely practiced in related methods such as sight words, the three-cueing system and balanced literacy.[504][501][505]

In the 1980s the three-cueing system (the searchlights model in England) emerged. According to a 2010 survey 75% of teachers in the United States teach the three-cueing system.[380] It teaches children to guess a word by using "meaning cues" (semantic, syntactic and graphophonic). While the system does help students to "make better guesses", it does not help when the words become more sophisticated; and it reduces the amount of practice time available to learn essential decoding skills. Consequently, present-day researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists Mark Seidenberg and professor Timothy Shanahan do not support the theory.[400][401][402] In England, synthetic phonics is intended to replace "the searchlights multi-cueing model".[403][404]

In the 1990s Balanced literacy arose. It is a theory of teaching reading and writing that is not clearly defined. It may include elements such as word study and phonics mini-lessons, differentiated learning, cueing, leveled reading, shared reading, guided reading, independent reading and sight words.[428][429][430][431] For some, balanced literacy strikes a balance between whole language and phonics. Others say balanced literacy in practice usually means the whole language approach to reading.[506] According to a survey in 2010, 68% of K–2 teachers in the United States practice balanced literacy. Furthermore, only 52% of teachers included phonics in their definition of balanced literacy.[380]

In 1996 the California Department of Education took an increased interest in using phonics in schools.[507] And in 1997 the department called for grade one teaching in concepts about print, phonemic awareness, decoding and word recognition, and vocabulary and concept development.[508]

By 1998 in the U.K. whole language instruction and the searchlights model were still the norm; however, there was some attention to teaching phonics in the early grades, as seen in the National Literacy Strategies.[509][510]

21st century

In 2000 the National Reading Panel in the U.S. identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.

Beginning in 2000, several reading research reports were published:

In Australia, the 2005 report, Teaching Reading, recommends teaching reading based on evidence and teaching systematic, explicit phonics within an integrated approach.[512][513] The executive summary says "systematic phonics instruction is critical if children are to be taught to read well, whether or not they experience reading difficulties".[439] As of October 5, 2018, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including effective reading instruction, phonics, and sample phonics lessons.[514][515]

In Scotland a seven-year study (the Clackmannanshire Report) was published in 2005.[516] It compared analytic phonics with synthetic phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged students. The report found that, using synthetic phonics children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performed at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds in primary school (whereas with analytic phonics teaching, they did significantly less well.); and boys performed better than or as well as girls.[325] A five-year follow-up of the study concluded that the beneficial effects were long-lasting, in fact the reading gains increased.[517] Subsequently, Education Scotland concluded that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4–7). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than analytic phonics programs; however, it is most important to teach systematically.[518]

Until 2006, the English language syllabus of Singapore advocated "a balance between decoding and meaning-based instruction […] phonics and whole language". However, a review in 2006 advocated for a "systematic" approach. Subsequently, the syllabus in 2010 had no mention of whole language and advocated for a balance between "systematic and explicit instruction" and "a rich language environment". It called for increased instruction in oral language skills together with phonemic awareness and the key decoding elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, and analogy phonics.[519]

In 2007 the Department of Education (DE) in Northern Ireland was required by law to teach children foundational skills in phonological awareness and the understanding that "words are made up of sounds and syllables and that sounds are represented by letters (phoneme/grapheme awareness)".[520] In 2010 the DE required that teachers receive support in using evidence-based practices to teach literacy and numeracy, including a "systematic programme of high-quality phonics" that is explicit, structured, well-paced, interactive, engaging, and applied in a meaningful context.[521]

In 2008, the National Center for Family Literacy, with the National Institute for Literacy,[522] published a report entitled Developing Early Literacy. It is a synthesis of the scientific research on the development of early literacy skills in children ages zero to five as determined by the National Early Literacy Panel that was convened in 2002. Amongst other things, the report concluded that code-focused interventions on the early literacy and conventional literacy skills of young children yield a moderate to large effect on the predictors of later reading and writing, irrespective of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, or population density.[523]

In 2010 the Common Core State Standards Initiative was introduced in the United States. The English Language Arts Standards for Reading: Foundational Skills in Grades 1–5 include recommendations to teach print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, and fluency.[524]

In the United Kingdom, a 2010 government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics.[525] The 2013 curriculum[526] has "statutory requirements" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using systematic synthetic phonics in regards to word reading, reading comprehension, fluency, and writing. This includes having skills in "sound to graphemes", "decoding", and "blending".[437][438]

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

In 2013, the National Commission for UNESCO launched the Leading for Literacy project to develop the literacy skills of grades 1 and 2 students. The project facilitates the training of primary school teachers in the use of a synthetic phonics program. From 2013 to 2015, the Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of Education appointed seven reading specialist to help primary and secondary school teachers improve their literacy instruction. From February 2014 to January 2016, literacy coaches were hired in selected primary schools to assist teachers of kindergarten, grades 1 and 2 with pedagogy and content of early literacy instruction. Primary schools have been provided with literacy resources for instruction, including phonemic awareness, word recognition, vocabulary manipulatives, phonics, and comprehension.

In 2013 the State of Mississippi passed the Literacy-Based Promotion Act.[527][528] The Mississippi Department of Education provided resources for teachers in the areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension and reading strategies.[529][257][463]

The school curriculum in Ireland focuses on ensuring children are literate in both the English language and the Irish language. The 2014 teachers' Professional Development guide[530] covers the seven areas of attitude and motivation, fluency, comprehension, word identification, vocabulary, phonological awareness, phonics, and assessment. It recommends that phonics be taught in a systematic and structured way and is preceded by training in phonological awareness.

In 2014 the California Department of Education said children should know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade, and be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)".[531] In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words.[532]

In 2015 the New York State Public School system revised its English Language Arts learning standards, calling for teaching involving "reading or literacy experiences" as well as phonemic awareness from prekindergarten to grade 1 and phonics and word recognition for grades 1–4.[533] That same year, the Ohio Legislature set minimum standards requiring the use of phonics including guidelines for teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.[534][535][536]

In 2016 the What Works Clearinghouse[229] and the Institute of Education Sciences published an Educator's Practice Guide on Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade.[537] It contains four recommendations to support reading: 1) teach students academic language skills, including the use of inferential and narrative language, and vocabulary knowledge, 2) develop awareness of the segments of sounds in speech and how they link to letters (phonemic awareness and phonics), 3) teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words (phonics and synthetic phonics), and 4) ensure that each student reads connected text every day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension.[538][539]

In 2016 the Colorado Department of Education updated their Elementary Teacher Literacy Standards with standards for development in the areas of phonology, phonics and word recognition, fluent automatic reading, vocabulary, text comprehension, handwriting, spelling, and written expression.[540] At the same time, the Department of Education in Delaware produced a plan to improve education results. It states that "students who aren't reading at grade level aren't able to comprehend up to half of the printed fourth-grade curriculum". Furthermore, it says a gap exists between what is known about how to teach reading and how teachers can teach reading. It goes on to say that teachers' preparation programs must include evidence-based practices, including the five essential components of reading instruction (phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension).[541]

The European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) 2016[542] reports that Hungarian children in grades one and two receive explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics "as the route to decode words". In grades three and four they continue to apply their knowledge of phonics; however, the emphasis shifts to the more meaning-focused technical aspects of reading and writing (i.e., vocabulary, types of texts, reading strategies, spelling, punctuation, and grammar).[543]

In 2017 the Ohio Department of Education adopted Reading Standards for Foundational Skills K–12 laying out a systematic approach to teaching phonological awareness in kindergarten and grade one, and grade-level phonics and word analysis skills in decoding words (including fluency and comprehension) in grades 1–5.[87]

In 2018 the Arkansas Department of Education published a report about their new initiative known as R.I.S.E., Reading Initiative for Student Excellence, which was the result of The Right to Read Act, passed in 2017.[265] The first goal of this initiative is to provide educators with the in-depth knowledge and skills of "the science of reading" and evidence-based instructional strategies.[544] This included a focus on research-based instruction on phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension; specifically systematic and explicit instruction.[545][546]

As of 2018, the Ministry of Education in New Zealand has online information to help teachers support their students in years 1–3 in relation to sounds, letters, and words. It states that phonics instruction "is not an end in itself" and it is not necessary to teach students "every combination of letters and sounds".[547]

Piper et al 2018 published the results of a study of early literacy and numeracy outcomes in developing countries entitled Identifying the essential ingredients to literacy and numeracy improvement: Teacher professional development and coaching, student textbooks, and structured teachers' guides.[548] It concluded that "Including teachers' guides was by far the most cost-effective intervention".

There has been a strong debate in France on the teaching of phonics ("méthode syllabique") versus whole language ("méthode globale"). After the 1990s, supporters of the latter started defending a so-called "mixed method" (also known as Balanced literacy) in which approaches from both methods are used. Influential researchers in psycho-pedagogy, cognitive sciences, and neurosciences, such as Stanislas Dehaene[176] and Michel Fayol have put their heavy scientific weight on the side of phonics. In 2018 the ministry created a science educational council that openly supported phonics.[549][550] In April 2018, the minister issued a set of four guiding documents[551] for early teaching of reading and mathematics and a booklet[552] detailing phonics recommendations. Some have described his stance as "traditionalist",[553] but he openly declared that the so-called mixed approach is no serious choice.[554]

In 2019 the Minnesota Department of Education introduced standards requiring school districts to "develop a local literacy plan to ensure that all students have achieved early reading proficiency by no later than the end of third grade" by a Statute of the Minnesota Legislature requiring elementary teachers to be able to implement comprehensive, scientifically based reading and oral language instruction in the five reading areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.[555][556]

Also in 2019, 26% of grade 4 students in Louisiana were reading at the proficiency level according to the Nation's Report Card, as compared to the National Average of 34%.[557] In March 2019 the Louisiana Department of Education revised their curriculum for K–12 English Language Arts including requirements for instruction in the alphabetic principle, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, fluency and comprehension.[558][559]

And again in 2019, 30% of grade 4 students in Texas were reading at the proficiency level according to the Nation's Report Card.[557][560][468] In June of that year the Texas Legislature passed a Bill requiring all kindergarten through grade-three teachers and principals to "begin a teacher literacy achievement academy before the 2022–2023 school year".[561] The required content of the academies' training includes the areas of The Science of Teaching Reading, Oral Language, Phonological Awareness, Decoding (i.e. Phonics), Fluency and Comprehension. The goal is to "increase teacher knowledge and implementation of evidence-based practices to positively impact student literacy achievement".[562]

In 2021, the State of Connecticut passed an act concerning the "right to read" that will take effect in 2023. It requires education standards that are evidenced-based and scientifically based and focused on competency in the five areas of reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary development, and reading fluency, including oral skills and reading comprehension.[563] In the same year, the state of North Carolina passed a bill requiring that the teaching of reading be based on the science of reading.[564]

In Canada, on January 27, 2022, the Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC) released a report on its public inquiry into the right to read.[565] It followed the unanimous decision of the Supreme Court of Canada, on November 9, 2012, recognizing that learning to read is not a privilege, but a basic and essential human right.[566]

The OHRC's report deals with all students, not just those with learning disabilities.[567] The inquiry found that Ontario is not fulfilling its obligations to meet students' right to read. Specifically, foundational word-reading skills are not effectively targeted in Ontario's education system. With science-based approaches to reading instruction, early screening, and intervention, we should see only about 5% of students reading below grade level. However, in 2018–2019, 26% of all Ontario Grade 3 students and 53% of Grade 3 students with special education needs (students who have an Individual Education Plan), were not meeting the provincial EQAO standard. The results improved only slightly for Grade 6 students, where 19% of all students and 47% of students with special education needs did not meet the provincial standard.

The Ontario curriculum encourages the use of the three-cueing system and balanced literacy, which are ineffective because they teach children to "guess" the meaning of a word rather than sound it out. What is required is a) evidence-based curriculum and instruction (including explicit and systematic instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics), b) evidence-based screening assessments, c) evidence-based reading interventions, d) accommodations that are not used as a substitute for teaching students to read, and e) professional assessments (yet, not required for interventions or accommodations).

The Minister of Education for Ontario responded to this report by saying the government is taking immediate action to improve student literacy and making longer-term reforms to modernize the way reading is taught and assessed in schools, with a focus on phonics. Their plan includes "revising the elementary Language curriculum and the Grade 9 English course with scientific, evidence-based approaches that emphasize direct, explicit and systematic instruction, and removing references to unscientific discovery and inquiry-based learning, including the three-cueing system, by 2023."[568]

On April 23, 2022, the Center for Research in Education and Social Policy at the University of Delaware presented the results of a study of the long-term effects of Reading Recovery. The conclusion was that the "long-term impact estimates were significant and negative". The study found that children who received Reading Recovery had scores on state reading tests in third and fourth grade that were below the test scores of similar children who did not receive Reading Recovery. It suggests three possible hypotheses for this outcome: 1) while Reading Recovery produces large impacts on early literacy measures, it does not give students the required skills for success in later grades; or, 2) the gains are lost because students do not receive sufficient intervention in later grades; or, 3) the impacts of the early intervention was washed out by subsequent experiences.[569][570]

Between 2013 and 2022, 30 States have passed laws or implemented new policies related to evidence-based reading instruction.[57]

For more information on reading educational developments, see Phonics practices by country or region.

Other terms

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Paintings

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See also

References

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Further reading

External links