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Lista de campos de concentración e internamiento

Un grupo de unos 25 prisioneros de guerra soviéticos desnudos y gravemente desnutridos, de pie en tres filas contra una pared de madera.
Prisioneros de guerra soviéticos de pie frente a una de las cabañas del campo de concentración de Mauthausen

Esta es una lista de campos de concentración e internamiento , organizada por países. En general, se designa un campo o grupo de campos al país cuyo gobierno fue responsable del establecimiento y/o funcionamiento del campo, independientemente de la ubicación del mismo, pero este principio puede o puede parecer que se ha omitido en casos como cuando las fronteras o el nombre de un país han cambiado o ha sido ocupado por una potencia extranjera.

Determinados tipos de campamentos están excluidos de esta lista, en particular los campamentos de refugiados administrados o respaldados por el Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados . Además, los campamentos de prisioneros de guerra que no recluyen a no combatientes o civiles se consideran en una categoría separada.

Argentina

Durante la Guerra Sucia que acompañó a la dictadura militar de 1976-1983 , hubo más de 300 lugares en todo el país que sirvieron como centros secretos de detención, donde se interrogaba, torturaba y asesinaba a personas. [1] A menudo se obligaba a los prisioneros a entregar y firmar propiedades, en actos de corrupción individual, más que oficial y sistemática. Los niños pequeños que eran llevados con sus familiares, y los bebés nacidos de prisioneras que luego eran asesinadas, con frecuencia eran entregados en adopción a familias políticamente aceptables, a menudo militares. Esto está documentado por una serie de casos que datan de la década de 1990 en los que los niños adoptados han identificado a sus verdaderas familias. [2] [3]

Se trataba de centros de detención clandestinos relativamente pequeños, más que verdaderos campamentos. Los años de mayor actividad fueron 1976-78. Según el informe de la CONADEP (Comisión Nacional Argentina sobre la Desaparición de Personas), [2] [3] 8.960 personas fueron asesinadas durante la Guerra Sucia. En él se afirma que "Tenemos razones para creer que la cifra real es mucho mayor", lo que se debe a que en el momento de la publicación del informe (a fines de 1984) la investigación no estaba completamente concluida; las organizaciones de derechos humanos consideran hoy que hubo 30.000 muertos ( desaparecidos ). En total, había 340 centros de detención clandestinos en todo el territorio del país. [4]

Australia

Primera Guerra Mundial

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, 2.940 hombres alemanes y austríacos fueron internados en diez campos diferentes en Australia. Casi todos los hombres que figuraban como austríacos eran de la región costera croata de Dalmacia , que entonces se encontraba bajo el dominio austríaco. [ cita requerida ]

En 1915 muchos de los campos más pequeños de Australia cerraron y sus reclusos fueron transferidos a campos más grandes. El campo más grande fue el Campo de Internamiento de Holsworthy en Holsworthy . [5] Las familias de los hombres internados fueron ubicadas en un campo cerca de Canberra . [ cita requerida ]

Segunda Guerra Mundial

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, se establecieron campos de internamiento en Orange y Hay , en Nueva Gales del Sur, para alemanes étnicos en Australia cuya lealtad era sospechosa; refugiados alemanes del nazismo , incluidos los " muchachos Dunera " ; e inmigrantes italianos, muchos de los cuales fueron trasladados posteriormente a Tatura, en Victoria (4.721 inmigrantes italianos fueron internados en Australia [6] ).

Día moderno

El Departamento de Inmigración y Protección Fronteriza gestiona actualmente dos centros de inmigración en las islas Nauru y Manus junto con los gobiernos anfitriones de Nauru y Papúa Nueva Guinea , para la detención indefinida de solicitantes de asilo que intentan llegar a Australia en barco. Las solicitudes de asilo para obtener el estatus de refugiado se procesan en estos centros. Son parte de la política del gobierno australiano de que a los solicitantes de asilo que intentan llegar a Australia en barco nunca se les permitirá establecerse en Australia, incluso si se determina que son refugiados, pero pueden establecerse en otros países. La intención clara de la política del gobierno australiano es disuadir a los solicitantes de asilo que intentan llegar a Australia en barco. La gran mayoría de los barcos provienen de Indonesia, que se utiliza como un punto de partida conveniente para los solicitantes de asilo de otros países que quieren llegar a Australia.

Estos centros no son campos de refugiados aprobados por el Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados , [7] y el funcionamiento de estas instalaciones ha causado controversia , como denuncias de tortura y otras violaciones de los derechos humanos . [8]

Austria-Hungría

Primera Guerra Mundial (Austria-Hungría)

A partir de 1914, se construyeron 16 campos en las regiones austriacas de Baja Austria, Alta Austria, Salzburgo y Estiria. [ cita requerida ] La mayoría de los prisioneros provenían de Rusia, Italia, Serbia y Rumania. [ cita requerida ] Los ciudadanos considerados enemigos del estado fueron desplazados de sus hogares y enviados a campos en todo el Imperio austrohúngaro . [ 9 ] Además de Internierungslager (campo de internamiento) para civiles de estados enemigos, Austria-Hungría encarceló a más de un millón de prisioneros de guerra aliados. [ 10 ]

Austria

El campo de internamiento de Thalerhof en Estiria , Austria.
El campo de internamiento de Steinklamm en la Baja Austria .

Bosnia y Herzegovina

Hungría

El campo de concentración de Nezsider en Hungría .

Bosnia y Herzegovina

Guerra de Bosnia

En un informe de la ONU se han corroborado y verificado 381 de los 677 supuestos campos, involucrando a todas las facciones en guerra durante la Guerra de Bosnia . [14] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ]

Civiles bosnios detenidos en Bosanska Krajina , principalmente de la región de Prijedor , en el campo de Manjača .

Bulgaria

Primera Guerra Mundial (Bulgaria)

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, Bulgaria formó parte de las Potencias Centrales junto con Alemania, Austria, Hungría y Turquía. Los búlgaros establecieron sus mayores campos de prisioneros en Sofía, así como campos de trabajo más pequeños en todo el reino, pero también campos de prisioneros militares en la Serbia ocupada por Bulgaria . [20]

Serbia ocupada por Bulgaria

Camboya

Campo de exterminio de Choung Ek: los huesos de niños pequeños que fueron asesinados por los Jemeres Rojos .

El régimen comunista totalitario de los Jemeres Rojos estableció más de 150 prisiones para opositores políticos, de las cuales Tuol Sleng es la más conocida. [23] Según Ben Kiernan , "todos menos siete de los veinte mil prisioneros de Tuol Sleng" fueron ejecutados. [24]

Canadá

Primera Guerra Mundial (Canadá)

Internamiento de ucranianos canadienses

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, 8.579 "extranjeros de nacionalidad enemiga" fueron internados, entre ellos 5.954 austrohúngaros , entre ellos ucranianos , croatas y serbios . Muchos de estos internados fueron utilizados para realizar trabajos forzados en campos de internamiento.

Campamentos y centros de reubicación en otros lugares de Canadá

Había campos de internamiento cerca de Kananaskis, Alberta ; Petawawa, Ontario ; Hull, Quebec ; [25] Minto, Nuevo Brunswick ; [26] y Amherst, Nueva Escocia . [27]

Unas 250 personas trabajaron como guardias en el campo de Amherst, Nueva Escocia, en las calles Park y Hickman desde abril de 1915 hasta septiembre de 1919. Los prisioneros, incluido León Trotsky , limpiaron el terreno alrededor de la granja experimental y construyeron la piscina en Dickey Park. [28]

Segunda Guerra Mundial (Canadá)

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el gobierno canadiense recluyó a personas de ascendencia alemana, italiana y japonesa, además de ciudadanos de otros orígenes que consideraba peligrosos para la seguridad nacional. Esto incluía tanto a fascistas (incluidos canadienses como Adrien Arcand, que había negociado con Hitler para obtener puestos en el gobierno de Canadá una vez que Canadá fuera conquistado), el alcalde de Montreal Camillien Houde (por denunciar el reclutamiento ) y organizadores sindicales y otras personas consideradas comunistas peligrosos . Dicho internamiento se legalizó mediante el Reglamento de Defensa de Canadá , aprobado el 3 de septiembre de 1939, cuyo artículo 21 decía:

El Ministro de Justicia, si está convencido de que, con el fin de impedir que una persona determinada actúe de manera perjudicial para la seguridad pública o la seguridad del Estado, es necesario hacerlo, podrá, no obstante lo dispuesto en este reglamento, dictar una orden [...] ordenando que dicha persona sea detenida en virtud de una orden dictada en virtud de este párrafo y se la considere bajo custodia legal.

Internamiento de refugiados judíos

Los refugiados europeos que lograron escapar de los nazis y llegaron a Gran Bretaña fueron detenidos como "extranjeros enemigos" en 1940. Muchos fueron internados en la Isla de Man y 2.300 fueron enviados a Canadá, en su mayoría judíos. Fueron transportados en los mismos barcos que los prisioneros de guerra alemanes e italianos. [29] Fueron enviados a campos en las provincias de Nuevo Brunswick , Ontario y Quebec , donde se mezclaron con fascistas canadienses y otros prisioneros políticos, prisioneros de guerra nazis, etc. [30]

Internamiento de alemanes canadienses

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, 850 canadienses alemanes fueron acusados ​​de ser espías de los nazis , así como de subversivos y saboteadores. Las autoridades dieron a los internados la oportunidad de defenderse; según las transcripciones de los tribunales de apelación, los internados y los funcionarios estatales debatieron conceptos contradictorios sobre la ciudadanía.

Muchos canadienses alemanes internados en el campo Petawawa provenían de una migración en 1876. Habían llegado a una pequeña zona un año después de que una migración polaca desembarcara en Wilno, Ontario . Su aldea, compuesta principalmente por agricultores, se llamaba Germanicus y está en el bosque a menos de 10 millas (16 km) de Eganville , Ontario . Sus granjas (originalmente fincas) fueron expropiadas por el gobierno federal sin compensación alguna, y los hombres fueron encarcelados detrás de alambre de púas en el campo AOAT. (La base de la Fuerza Aérea Foymount cerca de Cormac y Eganville se construyó en esta tierra expropiada). Fue notable que ninguno de estos colonos de 1876 o sus descendientes habían vuelto a visitar Alemania después de 1876, sin embargo fueron acusados ​​de ser agentes nazis alemanes.

756 marineros alemanes, en su mayoría capturados en el este de Asia, fueron enviados desde campos en la India a Canadá en junio de 1941 ( Campo 33 ). [31]

Para el 19 de abril de 1941, 61 prisioneros habían logrado escapar de los campos de internamiento canadienses. Entre los fugitivos había 28 prisioneros alemanes que escaparon del campo de internamiento al este de Port Arthur, Ontario, en abril de 1941. [32]

Internamiento de canadienses italianos

El 10 de junio de 1940, Italia se unió a la guerra del lado del Eje. Después de eso, los canadienses italianos fueron objeto de un intenso escrutinio. Las organizaciones abiertamente fascistas fueron consideradas ilegales, mientras que las personas con inclinaciones fascistas fueron arrestadas, la mayoría de las veces sin orden judicial. Las organizaciones consideradas abiertamente fascistas también vieron confiscadas sus propiedades sin orden judicial. Una disposición bajo la Ley de Medidas de Guerra Canadiense fue promulgada inmediatamente por el Primer Ministro William Lyon Mackenzie King . Llamada Reglamento de Defensa de Canadá , permitía a las autoridades gubernamentales tomar las medidas necesarias para proteger al país de amenazas internas y enemigos. La misma tarde en que Italia se unió a las potencias del Eje, se pidió a los funcionarios consulares y de la embajada italiana que se fueran lo antes posible físicamente. Canadá, que estaba muy involucrado en el esfuerzo bélico del lado de los Aliados, vio a las comunidades italianas como un caldo de cultivo de posibles amenazas internas y un refugio de posibles redes de espionaje que ayudaran a las naciones fascistas del Eje de Italia y Alemania. Aunque muchos italianos eran antifascistas y ya no estaban involucrados políticamente con su patria, esto no impidió que entre 600 y 700 italianos fueran enviados a campos de internamiento en todo Canadá. [33] [34] [35] [36]

Los primeros prisioneros italianos fueron enviados al campo de concentración de Petawawa, en el valle del río Ottawa. En octubre de 1940, la redada ya había concluido. El italocanadiense de Montreal, Mario Duliani, escribió "La ciudad sin mujeres" sobre su vida en el campo de internamiento de Petawawa durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial; es un relato personal de las luchas de la época. En todo el país, los italianos fueron investigados por funcionarios de la RCMP que tenían una lista compilada de personas italianas que estaban políticamente involucradas y profundamente conectadas con las comunidades italianas. La mayoría de los individuos arrestados eran de las áreas de Montreal y Toronto; fueron declarados extranjeros enemigos . [33] [37]

Después de la guerra, el resentimiento y la sospecha hacia las comunidades italianas todavía persistían. Laval Fortier, comisionado para la inmigración en el extranjero después de la guerra, escribió: "El campesino del sur de Italia no es el tipo que buscamos en Canadá. Su nivel de vida, su forma de vida, incluso su civilización parecen tan diferentes que dudo que pueda llegar a ser un activo para nuestro país". [38] Tales comentarios reflejaban una gran proporción de la población que tenía opiniones negativas sobre las comunidades italianas. Una encuesta de Gallup publicada en 1946 mostró que el 73 por ciento de los quebequenses estaba en contra de la inmigración, y el 25 por ciento afirmó que los italianos eran el grupo de personas que más se quería excluir, a pesar de que los años anteriores a la guerra habían demostrado que los italianos eran un activo para la economía y la industria canadienses, ya que realizaban trabajos críticos que se consideraban muy poco atractivos, como tender vías a través de paisajes rurales y peligrosos y construir infraestructura en áreas urbanas. [33] [37]

Centros de internamiento y reubicación de canadienses japoneses

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Canadá recluyó a residentes de ascendencia japonesa. Más del 75% eran ciudadanos canadienses y eran vitales en sectores clave de la economía, en particular la pesca y también la tala de árboles y el cultivo de bayas. El exilio adoptó dos formas: centros de reubicación para familias e individuos relativamente adinerados que representaban una amenaza baja para la seguridad, y campos de internamiento para hombres solteros, los menos adinerados y aquellos considerados un riesgo para la seguridad. Después de la guerra, muchos no regresaron a la costa debido a los resentimientos por el trato recibido y al temor de una mayor hostilidad por parte de ciudadanos no japoneses; de los que regresaron, solo alrededor del 25% recuperó las propiedades y los negocios confiscados. La mayoría permaneció en otras partes de Canadá, en particular en ciertas partes del interior de Columbia Británica y en la vecina provincia de Alberta.

Campamentos y centros de reubicación en las regiones de West Kootenay y Boundary

Los campos de internamiento, llamados "centros de reubicación", estaban en Greenwood , Kaslo , Lemon Creek , New Denver , Rosebery , Sandon , Slocan City y Tashme . Algunos eran pueblos fantasmas casi vacíos cuando comenzó el internamiento, otros, como Kaslo y Greenwood, aunque menos poblados que en sus años de auge, eran comunidades importantes.

Centros de autosuficiencia en la región de Lillooet-Fraser Canyon

En otras regiones se encontró un tipo diferente de campamento, conocido como centro autosuficiente. Bridge River , Minto City , McGillivray Falls , East Lillooet y Taylor Lake estaban en el condado de Lillooet o cerca. Aparte de Taylor Lake, todos estos se llamaban "centros autosuficientes", no campos de internamiento. Los tres primeros de la lista estaban todos en una zona montañosa tan aislada físicamente que no se necesitaban vallas ni guardias, ya que la única salida de esa región era por ferrocarril o agua. McGillivray Falls y Tashme , en la autopista Crowsnest al este de Hope, Columbia Británica , estaban a poco más de las 100 millas mínimas de la costa requeridas por la orden de deportación, aunque Tashme tenía acceso directo por carretera a esa distancia, a diferencia de McGillivray. Debido al aislamiento del país inmediatamente hacia la costa de McGillivray, los hombres de ese campamento fueron contratados para trabajar en un aserradero en lo que desde entonces se ha llamado Devine , en honor al propietario del aserradero, que se encuentra dentro de la zona de cuarentena de 100 millas. Muchos de los que estaban en el campamento de East Lillooet fueron contratados para trabajar en la ciudad o en granjas cercanas, particularmente en Fountain , mientras que los de Minto y Minto Mine y los de Bridge River trabajaban para el ferrocarril o la compañía hidroeléctrica. [39] [40] [41] [42] [43]

Islas del Canal

Alderney, en las Islas del Canal , fue el único lugar de las Islas Británicas donde los alemanes establecieron campos de concentración durante su ocupación de las Islas del Canal . En enero de 1942, las fuerzas de ocupación alemanas establecieron cuatro campos, llamados Helgoland , Norderney, Borkum y Sylt (llamados así por las islas alemanas del Mar del Norte ), donde los rusos y otros europeos del este cautivos fueron utilizados como trabajadores esclavos para construir las defensas del Muro Atlántico en la isla. Alrededor de 460 [ cita requerida ] prisioneros murieron en los campos de Alderney.

Chile

Centro de detención y tortura de la DINA en el Chile de Pinochet

Algunos de los centros de detención en Chile en este periodo:

República Popular China

Laogai

Laogai ( chino :劳改; pinyin : Láogǎi ), la abreviatura de Láodòng Gǎizào (劳动改造), que significa reforma a través del trabajo, es un sistema de justicia penal que implica el uso del trabajo penal y granjas penitenciarias en la República Popular China (RPC). Láogǎi es diferente de láojiào , o reeducación a través del trabajo , que era el sistema de detención administrativa abolido para personas que no eran criminales pero habían cometido delitos menores , y tenía como objetivo "reformar a los delincuentes para que se convirtieran en ciudadanos respetuosos de la ley". [47] Las personas que fueron detenidas en el laojiao fueron detenidas en instalaciones que estaban separadas de las que comprendían el sistema penitenciario general del laogai . Sin embargo, ambos sistemas se basaban en el trabajo penal . Se ha estimado que el sistema ha causado decenas de millones [48] [49] [50] de muertes y también ha sido comparado con la esclavitud por sus críticos. [51] [52] [53] Las memorias de Harry Wu describen su experiencia en prisiones de reforma a través del trabajo desde 1960 hasta 1979. Wu relata su encarcelamiento por criticar al gobierno mientras estaba en la universidad y su liberación en 1979, después de lo cual se mudó a los Estados Unidos y finalmente se convirtió en activista. Los funcionarios del Partido Comunista Chino han argumentado que Wu exagera mucho el papel actual de los campos de trabajo chinos e ignora los tremendos cambios que han ocurrido en China desde la década de 1970. [ cita requerida ]

También hay acusaciones [ ¿por parte de quién? ] de que los campos de trabajo chinos [54] producen bienes que a menudo se venden en países extranjeros y cuyas ganancias van al gobierno de la República Popular China. Los productos incluyen de todo, desde té verde hasta motores industriales y carbón extraído de las minas. [55]

Falun Gong

Se han recibido informes de practicantes de Falun Gong detenidos en el Hospital de Trombosis de Sujiatun o en el "Campo de Concentración de Sujiatun". Se ha alegado [¿ por quién? ] que los practicantes de Falun Gong son asesinados para obtener sus órganos, que luego son vendidos a instalaciones médicas. [56] El gobierno chino rechaza estas acusaciones. [57] El Departamento de Estado de los EE. UU. visitó el supuesto campo en dos ocasiones, la primera sin previo aviso, y encontró que las acusaciones no eran creíbles. [58] [59] El disidente chino y director ejecutivo de la Fundación de Investigación Laogai , Harry Wu , después de haber enviado a sus propios investigadores al lugar, no pudo corroborar estas afirmaciones y creyó que los informes eran inventados. [60]

Tíbet

Sinkiang

En 2018, al menos 120.000 miembros de la minoría musulmana uigur de China estaban recluidos en campos de detención masiva, denominados por las autoridades chinas " campos de reeducación ", cuyo objetivo es cambiar el pensamiento político de los detenidos, sus identidades y creencias religiosas. [61] [62] Según Amnistía Internacional y Human Rights Watch , hasta 1 millón de personas han sido detenidas en estos campos, [63] que se encuentran en la región de Xinjiang . [64] Los informes internacionales indican que hasta 3 millones de uigures y otras minorías musulmanas pueden haber sido detenidos en los campos de reeducación de China en la región de Xinjiang. [65]

Croacia

Milicianos ustachas ejecutan a personas en una fosa común cerca del campo de concentración de Jasenovac

Segunda Guerra Mundial (Croacia)

Se estima que entre 320.000 y 340.000 serbios , 30.000 judíos croatas y 30.000 romaníes fueron asesinados durante el Estado Independiente de Croacia , incluidos entre 77.000 y 99.000 serbios, bosnios, croatas, judíos y romaníes asesinados en el campo de concentración de Jasenovac . [66] [67]

Guerras yugoslavas

Cuba

Guerra de Independencia de Cuba

Víctimas cubanas de la política de reconcentración española, 1896

Después de que el mariscal Campos no lograra pacificar la rebelión cubana , el gobierno conservador de Antonio Cánovas del Castillo envió a Valeriano Weyler . Esta elección contó con la aprobación de la mayoría de los españoles, que lo consideraron el hombre adecuado para aplastar la rebelión. Mientras sirvió como general español, se le llamó "el carnicero Weyler" porque cientos de miles de personas murieron en sus campos de concentración .

Fue nombrado gobernador de Cuba con plenos poderes para reprimir la insurgencia (la rebelión estaba muy extendida en Cuba) y restaurar el orden político en la isla y la rentabilidad de su producción azucarera. Al principio, Weyler se sintió muy frustrado por los mismos factores que habían dificultado la victoria a todos los generales de los ejércitos tradicionales que luchaban contra una insurgencia. Mientras que las tropas españolas marchaban según lo previsto y necesitaban suministros sustanciales, sus oponentes practicaban tácticas de golpe y fuga y vivían de la tierra, mezclándose con la población no combatiente. Llegó a las mismas conclusiones que sus predecesores: que para recuperar Cuba para España, tendría que separar a los rebeldes de los civiles poniendo a estos últimos en refugios seguros, protegidos por tropas españolas leales. A fines de 1897, el general Weyler había reubicado a más de 300.000 personas en esos "campos de reconcentración". Weyler aprendió esta táctica en la campaña de la Guerra Civil estadounidense del general Sherman, mientras ocupaba el puesto de agregado militar en la embajada española en Washington DC. {Cita requerida} Sin embargo, muchos creen erróneamente que él fue el origen de tales tácticas, ya que más tarde las utilizaron los británicos en la Segunda Guerra de los Bóers y más tarde se convirtieron en una designación para describir los campos de concentración de los regímenes del siglo XX de Hitler y Stalin. Aunque tuvo éxito al trasladar a grandes cantidades de personas, no logró proporcionarles lo necesario. En consecuencia, estas áreas se convirtieron en pozos negros de hambre y enfermedades, donde murieron cientos de miles de personas.

La política de "reconcentración" de Weyler tuvo otro efecto importante. Aunque facilitó el logro de sus objetivos militares, tuvo consecuencias políticas devastadoras. Aunque el gobierno conservador español apoyó incondicionalmente las tácticas de Weyler, los liberales las denunciaron enérgicamente por el daño que causaban a la población civil cubana. En la guerra de propaganda librada en Estados Unidos, los emigrados cubanos hicieron mucho hincapié en la inhumanidad de Weyler hacia sus compatriotas y se ganaron la simpatía de amplios grupos de la población estadounidense para su causa. Periodistas como William Randolph Hearst lo apodaron "el Carnicero" Weyler .

La estrategia de Weyler también fracasó en el plano militar debido a la rebelión en Filipinas , que requirió el redespliegue en 1897 de algunas tropas que ya se encontraban en Cuba. Cuando el primer ministro Antonio Cánovas del Castillo fue asesinado en junio, Weyler perdió a su principal partidario en España. Renunció a su cargo a fines de 1897 y regresó a Europa. Fue reemplazado en Cuba por el más conciliador Ramón Blanco y Erenas .

El gobierno de Fidel Castro

Las Unidades Militares de Ayuda a la Producción fueron campos de concentración de trabajos forzados que fueron establecidos por el gobierno comunista de Fidel Castro , desde noviembre de 1965 hasta julio de 1968.

Los métodos empleados fueron el lavado de cerebro de la población cubana y la obligaron a renunciar a supuestos valores " burgueses " y " contrarrevolucionarios ". Primero, se encerraba a la gente en celdas superpobladas ubicadas en comisarías de policía y luego se la llevaba a instalaciones de la policía secreta, cines, estadios, almacenes y lugares similares. Se les fotografiaba, se les tomaban las huellas dactilares y se les obligaba a firmar confesiones en las que se declaraba que eran la "escoria de la sociedad" a cambio de su liberación temporal hasta que fueran convocados a los campos de concentración. [69] Aquellos que se negaban a firmar las confesiones eran torturados física y psicológicamente. [69]

A partir de noviembre de 1965, personas que ya estaban clasificadas como "escoria de la sociedad" empezaron a llegar a los campos de concentración en trenes, autobuses, camiones y otros vehículos policiales y militares. [69]

En estos campos de concentración fueron encarcelados "desviados sociales" como homosexuales , vagabundos, testigos de Jehová y otros misioneros religiosos, donde serían " reeducados ". [70]

Dinamarca

Antes y durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial

Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial

Dinamarca recibió a unos 240.000 refugiados de Alemania y otros países después de la guerra. Fueron colocados en campos vigilados por el ejército restablecido. El contacto entre los daneses y los refugiados fue muy limitado y se impuso estrictamente. Alrededor de 17.000 murieron en los campos debido a heridas y enfermedades resultantes de su huida de Alemania o de las malas condiciones de los campos. [71] Los campos conocidos fueron

Finlandia

Guerra civil finlandesa

En la Guerra Civil Finlandesa , el victorioso Ejército Blanco y las tropas alemanas capturaron a unos 80.000 prisioneros rojos al final de la guerra el 5 de mayo de 1918. Una vez que el terror blanco se calmó, unos pocos miles, incluidos principalmente niños pequeños y mujeres, fueron liberados, dejando entre 74.000 y 76.000 prisioneros. Los campos de prisioneros más grandes fueron Suomenlinna (un archipiélago frente a la costa del centro de Helsinki ), Hämeenlinna , Lahti , Viipuri , Ekenäs , Riihimäki y Tampere . El Senado tomó la decisión de mantener detenidos a estos prisioneros hasta que se pudiera examinar la culpabilidad de cada persona. Una ley para un Tribunal de Traición se promulgó el 29 de mayo después de una larga disputa entre el ejército blanco y el Senado sobre el método de juicio adecuado a adoptar. El inicio del pesado y lento proceso de juicios se retrasó hasta el 18 de junio de 1918. El tribunal no cumplió con todos los estándares de justicia neutral, debido a la atmósfera mental que reinaba en la Finlandia blanca después de la guerra. Aproximadamente 70.000 rojos fueron condenados, principalmente por complicidad en traición. Sin embargo, la mayoría de las sentencias fueron leves y muchos salieron en libertad condicional. 555 personas fueron condenadas a muerte, de las cuales 113 fueron ejecutadas. Los juicios también revelaron que algunas personas inocentes habían sido encarceladas. [74]

El encarcelamiento masivo, combinado con la grave escasez de alimentos, provocó una alta tasa de mortalidad en los campos, y la catástrofe se vio agravada por una mentalidad de castigo, ira e indiferencia por parte de los vencedores. Muchos prisioneros se sintieron abandonados también por sus propios líderes, que habían huido a Rusia. La condición de los prisioneros se había debilitado rápidamente durante mayo, después de que el suministro de alimentos se interrumpiera durante la retirada de los Guardias Rojos en abril, y un gran número de prisioneros habían sido capturados ya durante la primera mitad de abril en Tampere y Helsinki. Como consecuencia, 2.900 murieron de hambre o murieron en junio como resultado de enfermedades causadas por la desnutrición y la gripe española , 5.000 en julio, 2.200 en agosto y 1.000 en septiembre. La tasa de mortalidad fue más alta en el campo de Ekenäs, con un 34%, mientras que en los demás la tasa varió entre el 5% y el 20%. En total, entre 11.000 y 13.500 finlandeses perecieron. Los muertos fueron enterrados en fosas comunes cerca de los campos. [75] La mayoría de los prisioneros fueron puestos en libertad condicional o indultados a finales de 1918 después de que la victoria de las potencias occidentales en la Primera Guerra Mundial también provocara un cambio importante en la situación política interna finlandesa. Quedaban 6.100 prisioneros rojos a finales de año, [76] 100 en 1921 (al mismo tiempo se devolvieron los derechos civiles a 40.000 prisioneros) y en 1927 los últimos 50 prisioneros fueron indultados por el gobierno socialdemócrata dirigido por Väinö Tanner . En 1973, el gobierno finlandés pagó reparaciones a 11.600 personas encarceladas en los campos después de la guerra civil. [77]

Segunda Guerra Mundial (Guerra de Continuación)

Niños rusos en un campo de concentración finlandés en Petrozavodsk . El cartel dice, en finlandés y ruso : "Campo de concentración. Está prohibido entrar en el campo y mantener conversaciones a través de la valla bajo pena de muerte". [78]

Cuando el ejército finlandés ocupó durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial Karelia Oriental entre 1941 y 1944 , que estaba habitada por habitantes étnicamente relacionados con los karelianos finlandeses (aunque nunca había sido parte de Finlandia, o antes de 1809 de la Finlandia sueca ), se establecieron varios campos de concentración para civiles étnicamente rusos . El primer campo se estableció el 24 de octubre de 1941, en Petrozavodsk . Los dos grupos más grandes eran 6.000 refugiados rusos y 3.000 habitantes de la orilla sur del río Svir evacuados a la fuerza debido a la proximidad de la línea del frente. Alrededor de 4.000 de los prisioneros perecieron debido a la desnutrición, el 90% de ellos durante la primavera y el verano de 1942. [79] El objetivo final era trasladar a la población de habla rusa a la Rusia ocupada por Alemania a cambio de cualquier población finlandesa de estas áreas, y también ayudar a vigilar a los civiles.

Población en los campos finlandeses:

Francia

Campo de concentración de Crest, uno de los campos de concentración franceses para gitanos, 1916

Isla del diablo

La Isla del Diablo fue una red de prisiones en la Guayana Francesa que funcionó entre 1852 y 1953 para internar a delincuentes menores y presos políticos en las que perecieron hasta el 75% de los 80.000 internados.

Argelia

Durante la conquista francesa de Argelia , que comenzó en 1830 y se completó en 1903 , los franceses utilizaron los campamentos para retener a los árabes, bereberes y turcos que habían expulsado a la fuerza de las áreas fértiles de tierra, con el fin de reemplazarlos principalmente por colonos franceses, españoles y malteses. [80] La conquista provocó la muerte de entre 500.000 y 1 millón de los aproximadamente 3 millones de argelinos por hambruna, enfermedades y guerra. [81] El historiador Ben Kiernan escribió sobre la conquista de Argelia: "En 1875, la conquista francesa estaba completa. La guerra mató aproximadamente a 825.000 argelinos indígenas desde 1830", [82]

Durante la Guerra de Independencia de Argelia (1954-1962), el ejército francés creó centros de reagrupamiento , que eran asentamientos construidos para poblaciones civiles desplazadas por la fuerza, con el fin de separarlas de los combatientes guerrilleros del Frente de Liberación Nacional (FLN) . [83] Según el funcionario Michel Rocard , 1.000.000 de argelinos fueron enviados a campos de reagrupamiento (incluidos niños). [84]

En 1959, Michel Rocard denunció las terribles condiciones de muchos de esos campos en un informe, filtrado y publicado en Le Monde . [85] Como consecuencia, los campos se modernizaron y pasaron a formar parte de un gran programa de renovación rural llamado Les Milles Villages (Mil Pueblos). [86]

Republicanos españoles

Tras el fin de la Guerra Civil Española , hubo duras represalias contra los antiguos enemigos de Franco. [87] Cientos de miles de republicanos huyeron al extranjero, especialmente a Francia y México . [88] Al otro lado de los Pirineos , los refugiados fueron confinados en campos de internamiento de la Tercera República Francesa , como el Campo de Rieucros , el Campo de Rivesaltes , el Campo de Gurs o el Campo de Vernet , donde fueron alojados en condiciones miserables 12.000 republicanos (en su mayoría soldados de la Columna Durruti [89] ). Los 17.000 refugiados alojados en Gurs fueron divididos en cuatro categorías ( brigadistas , pilotos, gudaris y españoles comunes). Los gudaris (vascos) y los pilotos encontraron fácilmente patrocinadores locales y empleos, y se les permitió abandonar el campo, pero los agricultores y la gente común, que no podían encontrar relaciones en Francia, fueron alentados por la Tercera República, de acuerdo con el gobierno franquista, a regresar a España. La gran mayoría así lo hizo y fueron entregados a las autoridades franquistas en Irún . Desde allí fueron trasladados al campo de Miranda de Ebro para su "purificación".

Tras la proclamación del régimen de Vichy por el mariscal Philippe Pétain , los refugiados se convirtieron en presos políticos y la policía francesa intentó capturar a los que habían sido liberados del campo. Junto con otros "indeseables", fueron enviados al campo de internamiento de Drancy antes de ser deportados a la Alemania nazi . Cerca de 5.000 españoles murieron así en el campo de concentración de Mauthausen [90]

Vichy Francia

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el gobierno francés de Vichy dirigió los llamados "campos de detención", como el de Drancy . También existían campos en los Pirineos , en la frontera con la España pronazi, entre ellos el de Rivesaltes , el de Récébédou , el de Gurs y el de Vernet . Desde estos, los franceses cooperaron en la deportación de unos 73.000 judíos a la Alemania nazi .

Además, en zonas que Alemania anexó formalmente a Francia, como Alsacia-Lorena , se construyeron campos de concentración, siendo el más grande el de Natzweiler-Struthof .

Los franceses de Vichy también tenían campos en el norte y el oeste de África, y posiblemente en la Somalia francesa y Madagascar . A continuación se indican las ubicaciones de los campos de concentración, los campos de prisioneros de guerra y los campos de internamiento en el oeste y el norte de África (de Vichy):

Los campamentos estaban ubicados en:

África occidental:

África del Norte:

También campamentos relacionados con el incidente de Laconia :

Los siguientes campamentos están bajo investigación:

Los campos de Conakry , Tombuctú y Kankan no tenían agua corriente, electricidad, gas, luz eléctrica, alcantarillado, retretes ni baños. Los prisioneros (principalmente británicos y noruegos ) fueron alojados en viviendas nativas: chozas y casas de barro y un cobertizo para tractores. Las autoridades francesas de Vichy en África Occidental llamaron a estos campos "campos de concentración".

Alemania

África del Sudoeste Alemana, 1904-1908

Entre 1904 y 1908, tras la represión alemana de los herero y los nama en el genocidio herero y namaqua , los supervivientes fueron internados [91] en los siguientes lugares del África sudoccidental alemana (actual Namibia ):

Primera Guerra Mundial (Alemania)

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, los civiles de sexo masculino (y también algunos de sexo femenino) de los Aliados que se vieron atrapados en el territorio alemán al estallar la guerra fueron internados. Los campos ( Internierungslager ) incluían los de:

Era nazi

Campo de concentración de Buchenwald , Weimar , Alemania nazi

El 30 de enero de 1933, Adolf Hitler fue nombrado canciller del débil gobierno de coalición de la República de Weimar . Aunque el partido nazi ( NSDAP ) era minoría, Hitler y sus asociados tomaron rápidamente el control del país. [95] En cuestión de días, se construyó el primer campo de concentración ( Konzentrationslager ), en Dachau , Alemania nazi , para albergar a personas consideradas peligrosas por la administración nazi, entre las que se incluían presuntos comunistas, activistas sindicales, políticos liberales e incluso pastores. Este campo se convirtió en el modelo para todos los campos de concentración nazis posteriores . Fue rápidamente seguido por Oranienburg-Sachsenhausen , que se convirtió en una instalación para el entrenamiento de oficiales de la SS-Calavera en el funcionamiento de los campos de concentración.

El 4 de julio de 1934, Heinrich Himmler nombró a Theodor Eicke , comandante del campo de Dachau, inspector de campos de concentración. En 1934, ya había ocho grandes campos, lo que dio inicio a la segunda fase de desarrollo. Todos los campos de detención más pequeños se fusionaron en seis campos principales: Dachau, Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald , Flossenburg y, tras la anexión de Austria en 1938, Mauthausen ; finalmente, en 1939, Ravensbrück (para mujeres). Se introdujeron los uniformes de pijama a rayas azules para los reclusos, así como la práctica de tatuarse el número del prisionero en el antebrazo. Eicke inició la práctica de subcontratar a los prisioneros como mano de obra esclava en la industria alemana, con subcampos o Arbeitskommandos para alojarlos. En esta época se instituyó el uso de delincuentes comunes como Kapo para brutalizar y ayudar en el manejo de los prisioneros. En noviembre de 1938 comenzaron las detenciones masivas de judíos alemanes, la mayoría de los cuales fueron enviados inmediatamente a los campos de concentración, donde fueron separados de los demás prisioneros y sometidos a un trato aún más duro.

La tercera fase comenzó después de la ocupación de Polonia en 1939. En los primeros meses, intelectuales polacos fueron detenidos, incluido casi todo el personal de la Universidad de Cracovia arrestado en noviembre de 1939. [96] Los campos de concentración de Auschwitz-I y Stutthof fueron construidos para albergarlos a ellos y a otros prisioneros políticos. Un gran número de ellos fueron ejecutados o murieron a causa del trato brutal y las enfermedades. Después de la ocupación de Bélgica, Francia y los Países Bajos en 1940, Natzweiler-Struthof , Gross Rosen y Fort Breendonk , además de una serie de campos más pequeños, se establecieron para albergar a intelectuales y prisioneros políticos de esos países que aún no habían sido ejecutados. [97] Muchos de estos intelectuales fueron retenidos primero en prisiones de la Gestapo , y aquellos que no fueron ejecutados inmediatamente después del interrogatorio fueron enviados a los campos de concentración.

Inicialmente, los judíos en los países ocupados fueron internados en otras KZ, pero predominantemente en guetos que eran partes amuralladas de las ciudades. Todos los judíos en Polonia occidental (anexionada al Reich) fueron transportados a guetos en el Gobierno General . Los judíos fueron utilizados para trabajar en las industrias, pero generalmente fueron transportados a trabajar y luego regresaron a la KZ o al gueto por la noche. Aunque estos guetos no estaban destinados a ser campos de exterminio, y no había una política oficial para matar gente, miles murieron debido al hambre, las enfermedades y las condiciones extremas. En la Checoslovaquia ocupada, se construyó el campo de concentración de Lety para albergar a los romaníes de Bohemia y Moravia . Después del avance nazi en la Unión Soviética en 1941 y 1942, se establecieron campos en Ucrania, Letonia, Lituania y Estonia, que consistieron en el campo de concentración de Janowska , el campo de Salaspils , el Noveno Fuerte y el campo de concentración de Vaivara . Durante este período, los soldados y civiles judíos fueron sistemáticamente ejecutados por los Einsatzgruppen de las SS que seguían a las tropas de primera línea. En la Conferencia de Wannsee del 20 de enero de 1942 se decretó la " Solución Final " para exterminar a todos los judíos que quedaban en Europa; Heydrich afirmó que todavía quedaban 11 millones por eliminar. [98] Para lograr esto se organizaron Vernichtungslager ( campos de exterminio ) especiales. El primero fue Chelmno , en el que fueron asesinados 152.000, principalmente del gueto de Łódź . El método para llevar a cabo asesinatos en masa se probó y perfeccionó aquí. Durante 1942 y 1943 se construyeron otros campos: Auschwitz-Birkenau II , parte de Majdanek , Treblinka , Bełżec y Sobibor para este propósito. A ellos fueron transportados judíos de otros campos de concentración y de los guetos desde toda la Europa ocupada. Sólo en estos seis campos, se calcula que 3,1 millones de judíos fueron asesinados en cámaras de gas y sus cuerpos quemados en crematorios masivos. Los nazis se dieron cuenta de que se trataba de un acto criminal [ cita requerida ] y la acción se mantuvo en secreto. Los campos de exterminio fueron destruidos en 1944 y principios de 1945 y enterrados. Sin embargo, los ejércitos soviéticos invadieron Auschwitz y Majdanek antes de que las pruebas pudieran ser destruidas por completo.

El senador estadounidense Alben W. Barkley observa los cuerpos de los prisioneros en el campo de concentración liberado de Buchenwald en abril de 1945

Otra categoría de campo de internamiento en la Alemania nazi era el campo de trabajo ( Arbeitslager ). Albergaban a civiles de los países ocupados que estaban siendo utilizados para trabajar en la industria, en las granjas, en las canteras, en las minas y en los ferrocarriles. Aproximadamente 12.000.000 de trabajadores forzados, la mayoría de los cuales eran europeos del este , fueron esclavizados en la economía de guerra alemana dentro de la Alemania nazi . [99] [100] Los trabajadores eran en su mayoría jóvenes y tomados de los países ocupados, predominantemente de Europa del Este, pero también muchos franceses e italianos. A veces eran tomados voluntariamente, más frecuentemente como resultado de lapanka en polaco, o rifa en idioma francés, en la que las personas eran recogidas en la calle o en su casa por unidades policiales. Sin embargo, por infracciones a menudo muy menores de las reglas, los trabajadores eran encarcelados en Arbeitserziehungslager especiales , en alemán campo de reeducación de trabajadores (abreviado como AEL y a veces denominado Straflager ). [101] Estos campos de castigo eran operados por la Gestapo y muchos de los internos fueron ejecutados o murieron a causa del trato brutal.

Por último, existía una categoría de campos de internamiento, llamados Ilag , en los que se retenía a civiles aliados (principalmente británicos y estadounidenses). Estos civiles habían sido atrapados tras las líneas del frente por el rápido avance de los ejércitos alemanes o por la repentina entrada de los Estados Unidos en la guerra. En estos campos, los alemanes acataban las reglas de la Tercera Convención de Ginebra . Las muertes se debían a enfermedades o simplemente a la vejez.

Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, las fuerzas de ocupación aliadas utilizaron los campos de internamiento para encerrar a presuntos nazis, generalmente utilizando las instalaciones de los campos nazis anteriores. Todos ellos fueron clausurados en 1949. En Alemania del Este, el gobierno comunista utilizó los campos de prisioneros para encerrar a presos políticos, opositores al régimen comunista o presuntos colaboradores nazis.

Hong Kong

Segunda Guerra Mundial (Japonés)

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, los japoneses, durante su ocupación de Hong Kong, internaron a ciudadanos enemigos (en su mayoría británicos, canadienses, estadounidenses y holandeses) en varios campos de internamiento de Hong Kong. Existieron campos en:

India

Durante ambas guerras mundiales, los británicos internaron a ciudadanos enemigos (en su mayoría alemanes). En 1939, esto también incluía a refugiados de los nazis, así como a alemanes que habían adquirido la ciudadanía británica, en la India. Existían campos en:

Primera Guerra Mundial (India)

Segunda Guerra Mundial (India)

La mayoría de los internados fueron deportados a finales de 1946. Los alemanes enviados a Hamburgo fueron enviados al antiguo campo de concentración de Neuengamme para su desnazificación. [31] [103]

Guerra chino-india

Durante la guerra chino-india de 1962, el gobierno indio internó y encarceló a 3000 civiles chino-indios en el campo de internamiento del desierto de Deoli , Rajastán , [104] [105] construido por las autoridades coloniales en 1942 como campo de prisioneros de guerra japoneses, alemanes e italianos durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. El gobierno indio no se ha disculpado ni ha ofrecido compensación a los internados hasta 2020. [106] [107]

Irlanda

El HMS  Argenta , durante la década de 1920, fue un buque utilizado por el gobierno británico como base militar y barco prisión para retener a los republicanos irlandeses como parte de su estrategia de internamiento . [108]

En febrero de 1923, en virtud de la Ley de Poderes Especiales de 1922, los británicos detuvieron a 263 hombres en el Argenta , que estaba amarrado en Belfast Lough . Esto se complementó con el internamiento en otros sitios en tierra, como el asilo de Larne , la prisión de Belfast y la cárcel de Derry . En conjunto, tanto el barco como el asilo retuvieron a 542 hombres sin juicio, el nivel más alto de población internada, durante junio de 1923. [108]

Las condiciones en el barco prisión Argenta eran "increíbles", dice la autora Denise Kleinrichert, quien escribió la historia oculta del "gulag flotante" de los años 20.

Enclaustrados en jaulas de cincuenta internos cada una, los prisioneros se veían obligados a utilizar retretes rotos que a menudo desbordaban el agua de la zona común. Privados de mesas, los hombres, ya debilitados, comían en el suelo contaminado, lo que a menudo les hacía caer enfermos.

Gracias a los esfuerzos de cabildeo de la autora Denise Kleinrichert, los archivos de todos los internados (la mayoría de ellos nombrados en un apéndice de su libro) ahora están disponibles para su consulta en la Oficina de Registro Público de Irlanda del Norte . [ cita requerida ]

Segunda Guerra Mundial (Irlanda)

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, conocida en Irlanda como la "Emergencia" , "K-Lines" era la parte del Campo de Curragh que se utilizaba como campo de internamiento. Se utilizaba para albergar a soldados alemanes, principalmente personal de la marina varado en Irlanda neutral. Se creó una sección separada para los militares aliados, en su mayoría soldados británicos, que entraron en territorio irlandés en violación de la política de neutralidad. El Campo de Internamiento Nº 1 , que había sido construido por los británicos antes de 1922, albergaba a republicanos que tenían un vínculo sospechoso con el IRA. [109]

Más tarde en la guerra, el campamento de Gormanston , cerca de Balbriggan , se utilizó para albergar a once aviadores aliados de vuelos operativos, pero ocho fueron liberados en junio de 1944; tres alemanes fueron retenidos allí por un corto período en 1945. [110]

Isla de Man

Vista del campo de prisioneros de guerra, Isla de Man. El campo de internamiento de Knockaloe, cerca de Peel, en la Isla de Man , en mayo de 1918, por el prisionero de guerra George Kenner .
Cementerio de San Patricio – Isla de Man. Esta sección del cementerio se reservó para las tumbas de los internados turcos del cercano campo de internamiento de Knockaloe , que albergó a más de 20.000 personas "extranjeras" durante la guerra de 1914-18.

Primera Guerra Mundial (Isla de Man)

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, el gobierno del Reino Unido internó a ciudadanos varones de las Potencias Centrales , principalmente Alemania, Austria-Hungría y la Turquía otomana en esta dependencia de la corona . [111] Fueron retenidos principalmente en campos de internamiento en Knockaloe , cerca de Peel , y uno más pequeño cerca de Douglas .

Segunda Guerra Mundial (Isla de Man)

During World War II the Isle of Man was used as the primary site for the internment of civilian enemy aliens, both male and female. The camps were predominantly in commandeered hotels and boarding houses in seaside towns on the island. Around the camps for males, barbed wire fences were erected and military guard was brought over from England. The low-risk internees were, however, allowed to work on farms on the island and to go on excursions such as for walks or to swim in the sea. The camps were in operation from 27 May 1940 to 5 September 1945.[112]The largest recorded number of internees on the island was roughly 14,000, reached in August 1940.[113]

There were ten camps on the island:

Italy

Israel

Israel has maintained concentration camps since its occupation of south lebanon til the present day. holding Palestinian and Lebanese POWs, journalists, and civilians. The IDF used extreme methods of torture such as rape, electrocuting the penises of prisoners, and much more examples of sexual abuse and rape. though Israel denies involvements in Khiam detention center, it has blamed its proxies in south lebanon, SLA, for the operation of the camp.[115] Most notably:

Japan

World War II (Japan)

Japan conquered south-east Asia in a series of victorious campaigns over a few months from December 1941. By March 1942 many civilians, particularly westerners in the region's European colonies, found themselves behind enemy lines and were subsequently interned by the Japanese.

The nature of civilian internment varied from region to region. Some civilians were interned soon after invasion; in other areas the process occurred over many months. In total, approximately 130,000 Allied civilians were interned by the Japanese during this period of occupation. The exact number of internees will never be known as records were often lost, destroyed, or simply not kept.

Liberated Dutch prisoners in Indonesia (Dutch East Indies) in 1945

The backgrounds of the internees were diverse. There was a large proportion of Dutch from the Dutch East Indies, but they also included Americans, British, and Australians. They included missionaries and their families, colonial administrators, and business people. Many had been living in the colonies for decades. Single women had often been nuns, missionaries, doctors, teachers and nurses.

Civilians interned by the Japanese were treated marginally better than the prisoners of war, but their death rates were the same. Although they had to work to run their own camps, few were made to labour on construction projects. The Japanese devised no consistent policies or guidelines to regulate the treatment of the civilians. Camp conditions and the treatment of internees varied from camp to camp. The general experience, however, was one of malnutrition, disease, and varying degrees of harsh discipline and brutality from the Japanese guards. Some Dutch women were forced into sexual slavery.[116][117]

The camps varied in size from four people held at Pangkalpinang in Sumatra to the 14,000 held in Tjihapit in Java. Some were segregated according to gender or race, there were also many camps of mixed gender. Some internees were held at the same camp for the duration of the war, and others were moved about. The buildings used to house internees were generally whatever was available, including schools, warehouses, universities, hospitals, and prisons.

Jean-Marie Faggiano receives a doll from Private First Class Theo Tanner of the U.S. First Cavalry. Tanner had just removed the doll from a dead Japanese soldier, killed during the liberation of the Santo Tomas Internment Camp in Manila, Philippines in February 1945

Organisation of the internment camps varied by location. The Japanese administered some camps directly; others were administered by local authorities under Japanese control. Korean POWs of the Japanese were also used as camp guards. Some of the camps were left for the internees to self-govern. In the mixed and male camps, management often fell to the men who were experienced in administration before their internment. In the women's camps the leaders tended to be the women who had held a profession prior to internment. Boys over the age of ten were generally considered to be men by the Japanese and were often separated from their mothers to live and work in male camps.

One of the most famous concentration camps operated by the Japanese during World War II was at the University of Santo Tomas in Manila, the Philippines, the Santo Tomas Internment Camp. The Dominican university was expropriated by the Japanese at the beginning of the occupation, and was used to house mostly American civilians, but also British subjects, for the duration of the war. There, men, women and children suffered from malnutrition and poor sanitation. The camp was liberated in 1945.

The liberation of the camps was not a uniform process. Many camps were liberated as the forces were recapturing territory. For other internees, freedom occurred many months after the surrender of the Japanese, and in the Dutch East Indies, liberated internees faced the uncertainty of the Indonesian War of Independence.

Civilian internees were generally disregarded in official histories, and few received formal recognition. Ironically, however, civilian internees have become the subject of several influential books and films. Agnes Newton Keith's account of internment on Berhala Island in Sandakan Harbour and Batu Lintang camp, Kuching, Three Came Home (1947), was one of the first of the memoirs. More recent publications include Jeanne Tuttle and Jolanthe Zelling's "Mammie's Journal of My Childhood" (2005); (Shirley Fenton-Huie's The Forgotten Ones (1992) and Jan Ruff O'Herne's Fifty Years of Silence (1997). Nevil Shute's novel A Town Like Alice was filmed in 1956, and J. G. Ballard's Empire of the Sun in 1987. Other films and television dramas have included Tenko and Paradise Road.[118][119][120]

Korea, Republic of

During the 1980s, South Korea had multiple internment camps, including the Brothers Home, which housed thousands of prisoners in Busan.[121]

Libya

Italian concentration camp in Abyar, Libya

The history of Libya as an Italian colony started in the 1910s and it lasted until February 1947, when Italy officially lost all of the colonies of the former Italian Empire.

Fighting intensified after the accession to power in Italy of the dictator Benito Mussolini and King Idris fled Libya for the safety of Egypt in 1922. From 1922 to 1928, Italian forces under General Pietro Badoglio waged a punitive pacification campaign. Badoglio's successor in the field, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani (known as 'The Butcher of Fezzan'), accepted the commission from Mussolini on the condition that he be allowed to crush the Libyan resistance unencumbered by the restraints of either Italian or international law. Reportedly, Mussolini immediately agreed and Graziani intensified the oppression. The Libyans continued to defend themselves, with the strongest voices of dissent coming from the Cyrenaica. Omar Mukhtar, a Senussi sheikh, became the leader of the uprising.

Soon afterwards, the colonial administration began the wholesale deportation of the people of Cyrenaica to deny the rebels the support of the local population. The forced migration of more than 100,000 people ended in concentration camps in Suluq- ALa byer and Al Agheila where tens of thousands died in squalid conditions. It is estimated (by Arab historians) that the number of Libyans who died – killed either through combat or mainly through starvation, execution and disease – is at a minimum of 80,000 or even up to one third of the Cyrenaican population.[122]

Mexico

During WW2 the US pressured Mexico to deport Japanese Mexicans to the US for internment and when Mexico refused, pressured Mexico to displace and intern them.[123][124]

Montenegro

The fort on the island of Mamula was converted into a concentration camp by the fascist forces of Benito Mussolini's Kingdom of Italy.

During the 1991 to 1995 Croatian War of Independence, the Yugoslav People's Army organized the Morinj camp near Kotor, Montenegro.

Netherlands

World War I (Netherlands)

During World War I, all foreign soldiers and ship crews that illegally entered the neutral Netherlands were interned in a specific camp based on their nationality (to avoid conflict). By far the largest camp was the one for British sailors and soldiers in Groningen. Unlike the Prisoners of War in the neighbouring countries at the time, Dutch prisoners had plenty of food, and tradesmen often came to the camp with a wide range of goods. The interned were paid a certain amount of compensation money by the Dutch authorities on top of any British aid that was channeled to them through the Dutch government. One prisoner later commented: "... we were quite well off, and the local people were very good to us."[125]

After a revolt in 1926 in the Dutch East Indies, a concentration camp for political prisoners was set up in what then was called Netherlands New Guinea, in the very remote jungle at Boven-Digoel (Upper Digul).[126] More camps were established for supposed German sympathizers at the start of World War II, including one at Onrust Island and one in Ngawi Regency. In Surinam, they also built camps for German nationals and German sympathizers, including one at Jodensavanne and one at Copieweg.

World War II (Netherlands)

Just before World War II engulfed the Netherlands, a camp was built in 1939 at Westerbork by the Dutch government for interning Jewish refugees who had fled Nazi Germany. During the German occupation this camp was used as a transit camp for Dutch Jews eventually deported to extermination camps in the East. Amersfoort (1941–1945) (in German: Polizeiliches Durchgangslager) was also a transit camp. The Herzogenbusch camp (1943–1944, known as Kamp Vught because of its location in that town) was a concentration camp, the only one in Western Europe outside Germany set up as well as run by the SS.[126]

Other camps were Camp Schoorl near Schoorl, Kamp Sint-Michielsgestel and Camp Erika near Ommen. Before the Shoah began, some two dozen labor camps for Jewish men were operated fulfilling an order of the German occupiers. In the Dutch East Indies, after the occupation of the Netherlands by the Germans in Europe started on 15 May 1940, Germans living in the Indies were rounded up and interned there. Almost all camps also had field offices for forced labor. In the cases of Vught as well as Amersfoort, there were work details for Philips factories, often under relatively favourable circumstances. Also, the huge construction activities for the 30 German airfields in the Netherlands relied partly upon labour from camps.[126]

After the war, the Dutch government launched Operation Black Tulip and started to gather the civil population of German background in concentration camps near the German border, especially Nijmegen, in order to deport them from the country. In total around 15% of the German population in the Netherlands was deported.

Numerous improvised and official camps were set up after the war, to keep Dutch who were suspected of collaboration with the Germans. Kamp Westerbork at one point housed some Jews as well as suspected collaborators and Germans. In these camps, a history of maltreatment by the guards, sometimes leading to death, has been collected.[126]

Indonesian National Revolution

During the Indonesian National Revolution, the war between the Netherland and Indonesia after World War II, the Dutch once again set up internment camps on territory they controlled in Indonesia, to detain Indonesian nationalists and captured members of the Indonesian armed forces.

New Zealand

In World War I German civilians living in New Zealand were interned in camps on Motuihe and Somes Islands. German, Italian and Japanese civilians were interned in World War II.

Norway

During World War II, the Beisfjord massacre took place at the "No. 1 camp Beisfjord" (Lager I Beisfjord).[127]

Korea, Democratic People's Republic of

Concentration camps came into being in North Korea in the wake of the country's liberation from Japanese colonial rule at the end of World War II. Those persons considered "adversary class forces", such as landholders, Japanese collaborators, religious devotees and the families of people who migrated to the South, were rounded up and detained in large facilities. Additional camps were later established in the late 1950s and 1960s in order to incarcerate the political victims of power struggles along with their families as well as overseas Koreans who migrated to the North. Later, the number of camps saw a marked increase with the cementing of the Kim Il Sung dictatorship and the Kim Jong Il succession. About a dozen concentration camps were in operation until the early 1990s, but some of them were closed and merged into the remaining six camps for the purpose of maintaining better secrecy and control.[128]

North Korea is known to operate six concentration camps, currently accommodating around 200,000 prisoners. These camps, officially called Kwan-li-so (Korean for "control and management center"), are large political penal-labor colonies in secluded mountain valleys of central and northeastern North Korea.[129][130] Once condemned as political criminals in North Korea, the defendants and three generations of their families (including children and old people) are incarcerated in one of the camps without trial and cut off from all outside contact. Prisoners reportedly work 14-hour days at hard labor and they are also forced to undergo ideological re-education. Starvation, torture and disease are commonplace.[131] Political criminals invariably receive life sentences.[132]

Kang Chol-hwan is a former prisoner of Yodok concentration camp and has written a book (The Aquariums of Pyongyang) about his time in the camp.[133] Shin Dong-hyuk is the only person known to have escaped from Kaechon internment camp and gave an account of his time in the camp.[134]

Ottoman Empire and Turkey

Armenian refugees collected near the body of a dead horse at Deir ez-Zor, during the Armenian genocide

Concentration camps known as Deir ez-Zor camps operated in the heart of the Syrian desert during 1915–1916, where many thousands of Armenian refugees were forced into death marches during the Armenian genocide. The United States vice-consul in Aleppo, Jesse B. Jackson, estimated that Armenian refugees, as far east as Deir ez-Zor and south of Damascus, numbered 150,000, all of whom were virtually destitute.[135]

Paraguay

Shortly before his absolute 26-year rule of Paraguay, in 1813 Dr. José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, then vice-consul of Paraguay, ordered the construction of the concentration camp of Tevego, situated on the Bolivian frontier bordering the Chaco to the west, and a marsh to the east.[136] It was guarded by a squadron of mulatto lancers, but was unable to fend off constant attacks from Indians, leading to its eventual abandonment in 1823.[137]

Poland

Camps for Russian prisoners and internees in Poland existed during 1919–1924. It is estimated between 16,000 and 20,000 Soviet soldiers held in the Polish POW camps died, out of the total of 80,000 to 85,000 prisoners.[138]

From 1934 to 1939 the government of Poland established Bereza Kartuska Prison for the internment of political opponents, Ukrainian nationalists and Communists in Bereza Kartuska (now in Belarus).

During World War II, Nazi Germany established many of its concentration camps in Occupied Poland. After World War II, the Soviet Army and the Communist government of Poland used some of the former German concentration camps as POW camps and they were later used as internment camps where Polish opponents of the Communists and the Soviets, as well as Ukrainians and ethnic Germans or their sympathizers, were imprisoned.

Attempts were later made to bring two of the camp commandants to justice; Salomon Morel and Czesław Gęborski. Gęborski spent 22 months in prison and died during his judicial process.

Portugal

Romania

The Kingdom of Romania established the Bogdanovka concentration camp for Jews in Transnistria Governorate.

Russia and the Soviet Union

The fence at the old Gulag camp in Perm-36, founded in 1943
Political prisoners on a break inside a mine in Dzhezkazgan, part of the Soviet Gulag system, in 1951–1960

In Imperial Russia, penal labor camps were known by the name katorga.

The first Soviet camps were organized in June 1918 for the detention of Czechoslovak soldiers.[139] The Solovki prison camp existed since 1923.

In the Soviet Union, labour penitentiary camps were simply called camps, almost always plural ("lagerya"). These were used as forced labor camps, and they had small percentages of political prisoners. After Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's book titled The Gulag Archipelago was published, they became known to the rest of the world as Gulags, after the branch of the NKVD (state security service) that managed them. (In the Russian language, the term is used to denote the whole system, rather than individual camps.)

In addition to what is sometimes referred to as the Gulag proper (consisting of the "corrective labor camps") there were "corrective labor colonies", originally intended for prisoners with short sentences, and "special resettlements" of deported peasants. At its peak, the system held a combined total of 2,750,000 prisoners. In all, perhaps more than 18,000,000 people passed through the Gulag system in 1929–1953, and millions more were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[140][141][142]

Of the 5.7 million Soviet prisoners of war who were captured by the Germans, 3.5 million of them had died in German captivity by the end of the war.[143]

After World War II, some 3,000,000 German POWs and civilians were sent to Soviet labor camps, as part of war reparations by forced labor.[citation needed]

After the 1990s

During the Second Chechen War, the Russian forces used the Chernokozovo internment camp as the main center of their filtration camp system in Chechnya from 1999 to 2003 to suppress Chechnya's independence movement. Tens of thousands of Chechens were arrested and detained in these camps. According to Chechen witnesses, the inmates were beaten while some women were raped by Russian soldiers.[144]

Since early 2017, there have been reports of gay concentration camps in Ramzan Kadyrov's Chechnya, which are allegedly being used for the extrajudicial detention and torture of men who are suspected of being gay or bisexual. Around 100 men have been imprisoned and at least three people have already died.[145] Chechnya is a predominantly Muslim, ultra-conservative society in which homophobia is widespread and homosexuality is taboo, and where having a gay relative is seen as a "stain on the entire extended family".[146]

An extensive list of Gulag camps is being compiled based on official sources.

Serbia

During World War II (operated by German Gestapo):

During the Yugoslav Wars:

During the Kosovo War (operated by KLA):

Slovakia

During the Second World War, the Slovak government made a small number (Nováky, Sereď) of transit camps for Jewish citizens. They were transported to Auschwitz-Birkenau and Ravensbrück concentration camps. For German help with aryanization of Slovakia, the Slovak government paid a fee of 500 Reichsmark for each Jew.[citation needed]

South Africa

Spain

Although the first modern concentration camps used to systematically dissuade rebels from fighting are usually attributed to the British during the Second Boer War, in the Spanish–American War, forts and camps were used by the Spanish in Cuba to separate rebels from their agricultural support bases. Upwards of 200,000 Cubans died by disease and famine in these environments.[148]

There were also Francoist concentration camps.[149] During the 21st century, immigration detention centers known as CIEs (Centro de Internamiento de Extranjeros) are run by the Spanish Ministry of the Interior.[150] Various civil organizations, such as (APDHA, SOS Racismo and Andalucía Acoge) have appealed to the Spanish Supreme Court to declare the regulations behind the CIEs null and void for violating eight aspects of human rights.[151]

Sri Lanka

Postcard from the Boer War Prisoner-of-war Camp at Diyatalawa in 1900

In 1900, the British War Office constructed a concentration camp in Diyatalawa to house Boer prisoners captured in the Second Boer War. Initially constructed to house 2,500 prisoners and 1,000 guards and staff, the number of prisoners increased to 5,000.[152][153]

In late 2008, as the Sri Lankan civil war drew to a close, the Sri Lankan Government established a number of camps to hold displaced people who managed to escape the war zone.[154][155] Between October 2008 and May 2009 290,000 displaced people were moved into the camps in government controlled territory.[156][157] These camps were guarded by the Sri Lankan military and surrounded by barbed wire.[158] The displaced people were not allowed to leave the camps and aid agencies were not allowed inside the camps.[159] The camps were described as internment camps by some NGO's, journalists and aid workers.[160][161][162][163][164][165]

The conditions in the camps were below minimum humanitarian standards.[166][167] There were reports of rape, torture, disappearances and arbitrary detention within the camps.[158][159][168] In early May 2009, days before the civil war ended, the government gave assurances that over 80% of the displaced people would be resettled by the end of 2009.[169] As the government failed to honour this commitment international concern grew over the slow pace of resettlement.[170][171] The resettlement process accelerated in late 2009 but it was not until September 2012, four years after they were established, the camps were officially closed.[172][173]

Sweden

During the Second World War, the Swedish government operated eight internment camps.

In May 1941 a total of ten camps for 3,000–3,500 were planned, but towards the end of 1941 the plans were put on ice and in 1943 the last camp was closed down. All the records were burned. After the war many of those who had been put in the camps had trouble finding work as few wanted to hire "subversive elements".

The Navy had at least one special detainment ship for communists and "troublemakers".

Most of the camps were not labour camps with the exception of Vindeln and Stensele where the internees were used to build a secret airbase.

Foreign soldiers were put in camps in Långmora and Smedsbo, German refugees and deserters in Rinkaby.[177] After the Second World War three camps were used for Baltic refugees from Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia (including 150 Baltic soldiers) at Ränneslätt, Rinkaby and Gälltofta.

Switzerland

Wauwilermoos camp assumably in winter 1943/44

During World War II more than 100,000 mainly Allied soldiers were interned in Switzerland. Internees from the UK, France, Poland and Russia, and Italians and Germans who fled combat, the Swiss government had to – unlike civilians,[178][179] for instance Jews refugees,[180] who usually were sent back to the territories occupied by the Nazi regime – keep these soldiers interned until the end of the hostilities, in line to the Geneva Convention of 1929. The soldiers were held in barracks, and they were used as workers for agriculture and industry, except the officers who not were compelled to forced labour and stayed in unoccupied mountain hotels, mainly in Davos.[179] The Swiss government operated during World War II in Switzerland at least three internment camps:

In addition, there was as number of regularly internment camps.

United Kingdom

Bermuda

During the Second Boer War, several small islands in Bermuda's Great Sound were used as natural concentration camps, despite protests by the local government. 4,619 Boers were interned on these islands, compared to Bermuda's total population of around 17,000; at least 34 Boers died in transit to Bermuda.[183]

Cyprus

After World War II, British efforts to prevent Jewish emigration into their Palestine Mandate led to the construction of internment camps in Cyprus where up to 30,000 Holocaust survivors were held at any one time to prevent their entry into the country. They were released in February 1949 after the founding of Israel.[184]

England

During World War I Irish republicans were imprisoned in camps in Shrewsbury and Bromyard. [citation needed]

During World War II, initially, refugees who had fled from Germany were also included, as were suspected British Nazi sympathisers such as British Union of Fascists leader Oswald Mosley. The British government rounded up 74,000 German, Austrian and Italian aliens. Within 6 months the 112 alien tribunals had individually summoned and examined 64,000 aliens, and the vast majority were released, having been found to be "friendly aliens" (mostly Jews); examples include Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold and later members of the Amadeus Quartet. British nationals were detained under Defence Regulation 18B. Eventually only 2,000 of the remainder were interned. Initially they were shipped overseas, but that was halted when a German U-boat sank the SS Arandora Star in July 1940 with the loss of 800 internees, though this was not the first loss that had occurred. The last internees were released late in 1945, though many were released in 1942. In Britain, internees were housed in camps and prisons. Some camps had tents rather than buildings with internees sleeping directly on the ground. Men and women were separated and most contact with the outside world was denied. A number of prominent Britons including writer H. G. Wells campaigned against the internment of refugees.

Ireland: pre-1922

During the Irish war of independence of 1919 to 1921, 12,000 Irish people were held without trial.[citation needed] During this war Ballykinlar Barracks Internment Camp, County Down held over 2,000 men from all 32 Counties of Ireland.[185]

Kenya

During the 1954–60 Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya, camps were established to hold suspected rebels. It is unclear how many were held, but estimates range from 80,000[186] to 160,000[187][188] of the Kikuyu population, with 1,090 Mau Mau detainees sentenced to death and executed by hanging.[188][186] Maltreatment is said to have included torture and summary executions.[189][190]

Malaya

Civilians forcefully relocated by the British military as part of the Briggs Plan

Beginning in 1950, under the Briggs Plan (a response to the Malayan Emergency) Chinese squatters were relocated to hundreds of internment camps in various areas of the Malay Peninsula. Known as New Villages, these camps were intended to become permanent settlements. As attacks by the Malayan Communist Party declined, the curfews were lifted, fences removed, and the camps gradually ceased to be internment camps. To this day many villages founded in this way are known as New Villages and remain ethnically Chinese.

Northern Ireland

One of the most famous example of modern internment (and one which made world headlines) occurred in Northern Ireland in 1971, when hundreds of nationalists and Irish Republicans were arrested by the British Army and the Royal Ulster Constabulary on the orders of then Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, Brian Faulkner, with the backing of the British government. Historians generally view that period of internment as inflaming sectarian tensions in Northern Ireland while failing in its stated aim of arresting members of the paramilitary Provisional IRA. Many of the people arrested were completely unconnected with the Provisional IRA but, through bungling and incompetence, had their names appear on the list of those to be interned,[citation needed] while over 100 IRA men escaped arrest. The backlash against internment and its bungled application contributed to the decision of the British government under Prime Minister Edward Heath to suspend the Stormont governmental system in Northern Ireland and replace it with Direct rule from London, under the authority of a British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland.

From 1971 internment began, beginning with the arrest of 342 suspected republican guerrillas and paramilitary members on 9 August. They were held at HM Prison Maze then called Long Kesh Detention Centre. By 1972, 924 men were interned. Serious rioting ensued, and 23 people died in three days. The British government attempted to show some balance by arresting some loyalist paramilitaries later, but out of the 1,981 men interned,[191] only 107 were loyalists. Internment was ended in 1975, but had resulted in increased support for the IRA and created political tensions which culminated in the 1981 Irish Hunger Strike and the death of Bobby Sands, member of British Parliament (Anti H-Block/Armagh Political Prisoner Party.)[192][193] His death resulted in a new surge of IRA recruitment and activity. The imprisonment of people under anti-terrorism laws specific to Northern Ireland continued until the Good Friday Agreement of 1998, but these laws required the right to a fair trial be respected. However non-jury Diplock courts tried paramilitary-related trials, to prevent jury intimidation.

Many of those interned were held in a detention facility located at RAF Long Kesh military base, later known as Long Kesh Detention Centre and eventually becoming Her Majesty's Prison Maze, outside Belfast. Internment had previously been used as a means of repressing the Irish Republican Army. It was used between 1939–1945 and 1956–1962. On all these occasions, internment has had a somewhat limited success.

Scotland

During the Second World War the British government allowed the Polish Government in Exile to establish and run its own internment camps in Scotland. Locations as identified by the historian Simon Webb include Rothesay on the Isle of Bute, and Tighnabruaich on the Scottish mainland. Rothesay was used to house the political enemies of the leader of the Polish Government in Exile, Władysław Sikorski, as well as Poles considered by Sikorski's Government in Exile of being morally dubious. Tighnabruaich held criminals under the jurisdiction of the Polish Government in Exile. Webb claims the Poles were later allowed to open further camps at Kingledoors, Auchterarder and Inverkeithing near Edinburgh. Although deaths, and claims of torture and privations were made by numerous British Members of Parliament against the internment camps, the camps treated as sovereign Polish territory and local Scottish police forces were unable to investigate what happened in them. Webb also suggests that being Jewish or a suspected Communist was often enough to lead to Polish citizens under the jurisdiction of the Polish Government in Exile being sent to one of the internment camps.[194]

South Africa

Lizzie van Zyl, shortly before her death in Bloemfontein Concentration Camp

The term concentration camp was first used by the British military during the Boer War (1899–1902). Facing attack by Boer guerrillas, British forces rounded up the Boer women and children as well as black people living on Boer land, and sent them to 34 tented camps scattered around South Africa. Altogether, 116,572 Boers were interned, roughly a quarter of the population.[195] This was done as part of a scorched earth policy to deny the Boer guerrillas access to the supplies of food and clothing they needed to continue the war.[196]

One such camp was situated at East London, South Africa.[197] Though they were not extermination camps, the women and children of Boer men who were still fighting were given smaller rations. The poor diet and inadequate hygiene led to contagious diseases such as measles, typhoid and dysentery. Coupled with a shortage of medical facilities, this led to large numbers of deaths—a report after the war concluded that 27,927 Boer (of whom 22,074 were children under 16) and 14,154 black Africans had died of starvation, disease and exposure in the camps.[195]

In contrast to these figures, during the war the British, Colonial and South African forces' casualties included 5,774 killed in action and 13,250 deaths from disease, while the Boers' casualties in the Transvaal and Orange Free State up to December 1901, included 2640 killed in action and 945 deaths from disease.[198]

During World War I, South African troops invaded neighboring German South-West Africa. German settlers were rounded up and sent to concentration camps in Pretoria and later in Pietermaritzburg.

Soviet Russia

During its 1918 invasion of Soviet Russia, the UK built two concentration camps: Mudyug island[199] and Iukang on Ostrovnoy island.[200]

Wales

During World War I, there was a concentration camp in Frongoch, Merionethshire. First German POWs were held here until 1916, then 1,800 Irish political prisoners were held there following the Easter Rising, including Michael Collins. The prisoners were very poorly treated and Frongoch became a breeding ground for Irish revolutionaries.

United States

Indigenous people

Cherokee

The first large-scale confinement of a specific ethnic group in detention centers began in the summer of 1838, when President Martin Van Buren ordered the U.S. Army to enforce the Treaty of New Echota (a Native American removal treaty) by rounding up the Cherokee into prison camps before relocating them. Called "emigration depots", the three main ones were located at Ross's Landing (Chattanooga, Tennessee), Fort Payne, Alabama, and Fort Cass (Charleston, Tennessee). Fort Cass was the largest, with over 4,800 Cherokee prisoners held over the summer of 1838.[201] Many died in these camps due to disease, which spread rapidly because of the close quarters and bad sanitary conditions:

Dakota

The United States – Dakota Indian War of 1862 resulted in the loss of life, fear, suffering and hardship for early Minnesotan citizens while disproportionately harming the Dakota and other indigenous people who found themselves on either side of the conflict, much like the concurrent Civil War. Minnesota Governor Alexander Ramsey decreed on 9 September 1862 that "the Sioux Indians of Minnesota must be exterminated or driven forever beyond the borders of the state" leading to the forced removal and banishment of the indigenous people who would surrender and to the government-sanctioned bounties that would be awarded for the scalps of any fleeing or resisting indigenous person.[citation needed]

On 26 December 1862 thirty eight Dakota warriors, including We-Chank-Wash-ta-don-pee (often called Chaska), who was pardoned, were hanged with the label of murderers and rapists of civilians rather than 'war criminals' in the largest mass execution in United States history at the order of President Abraham Lincoln, with the remaining 361 prisoners being sent to segregated prison camps in other states just days before the Emancipation Proclamation was issued.[202]

During the winter of 1862-63 more than 1600 Dakota non-combatants, including women, children and the elderly, as well as "mixed-blood" families and Christian and farmer Dakota who had opposed the war, were force-marched to a fenced concentration camp near the base of Fort Snelling, which was built on the Dakota sacred area of Bdóte, at the meeting point of the Minnesota River and the Mississippi River. Living conditions and sanitation were poor, and infectious diseases such as measles struck the camp, killing between an estimated 102 and 300 Dakota.[203] Here the women were separated from the men before being exiled to reservations in neighboring states and Canada. These reservations tended to disregard Native American culture and traditions and their children were placed in boarding schools, which focused on European-based culture and religions.[204]

By 1862, the scorched earth tactics employed by General James Henry Carleton and his subordinate, Colonel Kit Carson against the Navajo had pushed many to the brink of starvation.[205][206] Carleton then ordered some 10,000 Navajo on a 300 mi (480 km) forced march known as the Long Walk of 1864, from their homeland in the Four Corners region, to the area of Bosque Redondo in the New Mexico Territory, where they remained interned for the next four years.[207] Conditions in the camp proved deplorable, and many died from starvation and disease, until by December 1865, their numbers had been reduced to around 6,000.[208][209] The Navajo were allowed to return home in 1868, with the signing of the Treaty of Bosque Redondo, after negotiations with William Tecumseh Sherman and Samuel F. Tappan of the Indian Peace Commission.[209]

Philippines

On 7 December 1901, during the Philippine–American War, General J. Franklin Bell began a concentration camp policy in Batangas—everything outside the "dead lines" was systematically destroyed: humans, crops, domestic animals, houses, and boats. A similar policy had been quietly initiated on the island of Marinduque some months before.[210][211]

World War I (United States)

Several Germans in an internment camp at Fort Douglas during World War I

At the height of the First World War, many of German descent became the target of two regulations passed by President Woodrow Wilson.[212] Two of the four main World War I-era internment camps were located in Hot Springs, N.C., and Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia.[213] Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer wrote that "All aliens interned by the government are regarded as enemies, and their property is treated accordingly."

World War II (United States)

In reaction to the bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japan in 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 on 19 February 1942, which allowed military commanders to designate areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded." Under this order all Japanese and Americans of Japanese ancestry were removed from Western coastal regions to concentration camps in Arkansas, California, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, Utah, and Idaho; German and Italian citizens, permanent residents, and American citizens of those respective ancestries (and American citizen family members) were removed from (among other places) the West and East Coast and relocated or interned, and roughly one-third of the US was declared an exclusionary zone.

The Fort Lincoln, North Dakota internment camp opened in April 1941 and closed in 1945. It had a peak population of 650. In 2014 it housed the United Tribes Technical College. Some CCC barracks and two brick army barracks were fenced and used to house the internees. The first internees were Italian and German seamen. 800 Italians arrived, but they were soon sent to Fort Missoula in Montana. The first Japanese American Issei arrived in 1942, but they were also transferred to other camps. The Germans were the only internees left at the camp until February 1945, when 650 more Japanese Americans were brought in. These Japanese Americans had previously renounced their U.S. citizenship and were left waiting to be deported to Japan. The brick buildings remain, but others are gone. A newspaper article from The Bismarck Tribune, 2 March 1946, stated that 200 Japanese were still being held at Fort Lincoln.

The locations of internment camps for German-Americans during World War II

Oklahoma housed German and Italian POW's at Fort Reno, located near El Reno, and Camp Gruber, near Braggs, Oklahoma.

Almost 120,000 Japanese Americans and resident Japanese aliens would eventually be removed from their homes and relocated.

About 2,200 Japanese living in South America (mostly in Peru) were transported to the United States and placed in internment camps.[214]

Approximately 5,000 Germans living in several Latin American republics were also removed and transported to the United States and placed in internment camps.[215] In addition, at least 10,905 German Americans were held in more than 50 internment sites throughout the United States and Hawaii.

Aleut peoples living on the Aleutian Islands were also interned during the war. Funter Bay was one such camp.[216] Restitution was paid by the US government in 1987 and 1993.

Political dissidents

Per the Emergency Detention Act (Title II of the McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950), six concentration camps were constructed in 1952 with the expectation that they would need to be used to detain political dissidents in the event that the U.S. government was forced to declare a state of emergency. They were originally intended to hold alleged communists, anti-war activists, civil rights 'militants,' and other dissidents. They were maintained from the 1950s to the 1960s, but they were never used for their intended purpose.[217]

Afghan War and the occupation of Iraq

Guantánamo force-feeding restraint chair

In 2002, the United States opened the Guantanamo Bay detention camp in Cuba and the Parwan Detention Facility in Afghanistan. Both facilities were established in order to detain people captured during the Afghan War. In 2003, in order to detain people captured during the Occupation of Iraq, the United States transformed an Iraqi prison into an internment and detention camp commonly referred to as Baghdad Central Prison or Abu Ghraib Prison. Guantanamo Bay has been called an "Internment Camp" by The Intercept[218] and a "Concentration Camp" by the Los Angeles Times.[219]

Due to the American government's policy of holding detainees indefinitely,[220][221] a number of captives have been held for extended periods without being legally charged, including Ayman Saeed Abdullah Batarfi who was captured in 2001 and released from the Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp in 2009. A document leaked from the International Committee of the Red Cross was published by The New York Times in November 2004, which accused the U.S. military of cruelty "tantamount to torture" against detainees held at the Guantanamo Bay facility.[222][223] In May 2005, the human rights group Amnesty International referred to the Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp as "the Gulag of our times."[224]

In September 2006, after a series of abuses including the rape and murder of prisoners was reported to the public,[225] control of the Baghdad Central Prison was transferred to the Iraqis. Subsequent investigative reports suggest that the United States continued to directly influence and oversee a campaign of torture carried out inside Iraqi facilities even after the handover of Iraq and related facilities was finalized.[226] In March 2013 it was revealed that American officials, under pressure from Afghan officials, reached an agreement after more than a year of negotiations to hand over control of Bagram Theater Internment Facility to the Afghan government. In the deal, Bagram Theater Internment Facility, called "the other Guantanamo," "Guantanamo's evil twin" or "Obama's Gitmo" by human rights groups after reports of systematic abuse,[227] was renamed the Afghan National Detention Facility at Parwan. Additionally, the agreement extended authority for American officials to have say over which detainees could be released from the facility, containing guarantees from the Afghan government that certain detainees would not be released regardless of whether or not they could be tried for circumstances related to their individual detentions. The Afghans formally took over control of other day-to-day operations.[228][229][230] Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp remains open and fully operated by Americans.[231][232][233][234][235][236][237][238][239][240]

Migrants on the Mexico–United States border

In 2018, Donald Trump instituted a "zero tolerance" policy which mandated the criminal prosecution of all adults who were accused of violating immigration laws by immigration authorities.[241][242][243] This policy directly led to the large-scale,[244][245] forcible separation of children and parents arriving at the United States-Mexico border,[246] including those who were seeking asylum from violence in their home countries.[247] Parents were arrested and put into criminal detention, while their children were taken away, classified as unaccompanied alien minors, to be put into child immigrant detention centers.[243][248]

Even though Trump signed an executive order which ostensibly ended the family separation component of his administration's migrant detentions in June 2018, it continued under alternative justifications into 2019.[249]

By the end of 2018, the number of children being held had swelled to a high of nearly 15,000,[250][251] which by August 2019 had been reduced to less than 9,000.[252] In 2019, many experts, including Andrea Pitzer, the author of One Long Night: A Global History of Concentration Camps, have acknowledged the designation of the detention centers as "concentration camps"[253][254] particularly given that the centers, previously cited by Texas officials for more than 150 health violations[255] and reported deaths in custody,[256] reflect a record typical of the history of deliberate substandard healthcare and nutrition in concentration camps.[257]

This family separation policy and the detention facilities again came under scrutiny following a 2021 surge in migrant arrivals.[258]

Even though some organizations have refused to label these facilities "concentration camps",[259][260] hundreds of Holocaust and genocide scholars rejected this refusal via an open letter which was addressed to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.[261][262]

South and North Vietnam

In South Vietnam, the government of Ngo Dinh Diem countered North Vietnamese subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956) by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political re-education centers." This was a ruthless program that resulted in the incarceration of many non-communists, even though it also resulted in the successful curtailment of communist activity in the country, if only for a time. The North Vietnamese government claimed that over 65,000 individuals were incarcerated and 2,148 individuals were killed in the process by November 1957, but these estimates may be exaggerated.[263]

The Strategic Hamlet Program was a plan to stop the spread of Communism which was implemented between 1961 and 1963 by the government of South Vietnam and US military advisors, the Strategic Hamlet Program was implemented during the Vietnam War. In an attempt to isolate the communists by preventing them from influencing the rural South Vietnamese population, the South Vietnamese government and Us military advisors constructed thousands of new, tightly controlled protected villages or "strategic hamlets". In some cases, people voluntarily moved into these settlements, but in most cases, people were forcibly relocated, and as a result, these settlements have been described as internment camps. The rural peasants would be provided with protection, economic support, and aid by the government, thereby strengthening their relationship with the South Vietnamese government (GVN). It was hoped that this program would convince the peasants to become increasingly loyal to the South Vietnamese government, however, the Strategic Hamlet Program was a failure, it alienated many and after it was canceled, the Viet Cong's influence increased and rural peasants moved back to their old homes or they moved to larger cities.[264]

In the years which followed the North Vietnamese conquest of South Vietnam, up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to re-education camps, where many of them were forced to perform hard labor, tortured, starved, and exposed to diseases.[265]

Yugoslavia

Nazi camps

Nazi concentration camps in Yugoslavia.
Jasenovac monument by Bogdan Bogdanović.

During the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia (1941–1944), as many as 70 Nazi concentration camps were formed in Yugoslavia.[266] The main victims in these camps were ethnic Serbs, Jews and Roma.[267] It is estimated that between 1 million and 1.7 million people perished as victims of the Nazi occupation of Yugoslavia.[268]

List of the camps:[266]

Communist camps

In 1931, 499,969 citizens of Yugoslavia listed their native language as German and they comprised 3.6% of population of the country.[270] In 1944, an unknown and disputed number of the Danube Swabians left the country,[271] together with the defeated German army.[272] As a result of the decisions of the Anti-fascist Council of national liberation of Yugoslavia ("Antifašističko veće narodnog oslobođenja Jugoslavije" – AVNOJ) in Jajce on 21 November 1943 and on 21 November 1944 in Belgrade all legal rights and citizenship were collectively canceled for about 168,000 civilian members of the Danube Swabian minority who remained in Yugoslavia (mostly in the Bačka and Banat regions) after military defeat of the German army. Furthermore, they were fully dispossessed of all property. About 7,000 German-speaking citizens were killed by the local Yugoslav partisans in the autumn of 1944. Most of the other Danube Swabian civilians were interned and driven into numerous labor camps and at least eight additional prison camps were built for those who were unable to work: the old, the sick, and children under the age of 14 and mothers with small children under the age of 2 or 3.[273]

These camps for the sick, the elderly, children, and those who were unable to work were:

In the Bačka:

Memorial on the edge of the mass grave of Knićanin, the monument was built by members of the "society for German Serbian cooperation".

In the Banat:

In Syrmia:

In Slavonia:

Over a three-year period, 48,447 of the interned Danube Swabians died in the labor and prison camps from starvation, cold, and disease. Nearly 35,000 of them succeeded in crossing the escape routes from the camps into nearby Hungary and Romania. Beginning in the summer of 1946,[274] thousands of orphaned children were forcibly taken from the camps and placed in children's homes. Over the next decade, most of them were returned to their families by the International Red Cross ICRC.[275] Additionally, more than 8,000 women between the ages of 18 and 35 and over 4,000 men between the ages of 16 and 45 were deported from the Bačka and Banat regions of Yugoslavia to forced labor camps in the USSR from the end of 1944 through the beginning of 1945.

The camps were disbanded in 1948 and the Yugoslav government recognized the citizenship of the remaining Danube Swabians.[276] In 1948, 57,180 Germans lived in Yugoslavia.[270] In the following decades, most of them emigrated to Germany.[277]

See also

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