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Cultura de la India

La cultura india es el legado de normas sociales y tecnologías que se originaron o están asociadas con la India, una región etnolingüísticamente diversa, perteneciente al subcontinente indio hasta 1947 y a la República de la India después de 1947. El término también se aplica más allá de la India a países y culturas cuyas historias están fuertemente conectadas con la India por inmigración, colonización o influencia, particularmente en el sur y el sudeste asiático . Los idiomas , religiones , danzas , música , arquitectura , comida y costumbres de la India difieren de un lugar a otro dentro del país.

La cultura india, a menudo etiquetada como una combinación de varias culturas, ha sido influenciada por una historia que tiene varios milenios de antigüedad, comenzando con la Civilización del Valle del Indo y otras áreas culturales tempranas. [1] [2]

Muchos elementos de la cultura india, como las religiones , las matemáticas , la filosofía , la cocina , los idiomas , la danza , la música y las películas han tenido un profundo impacto en la indosfera , la Gran India y el mundo. El Raj británico influyó aún más en la cultura india, por ejemplo, mediante la introducción generalizada del idioma inglés , que dio lugar a un dialecto inglés local e influyó en los idiomas indios. [3]

Cultura religiosa

Religiones de origen indio El hinduismo , el jainismo , el budismo y el sijismo [4] se basan en los conceptos de dharma y karma . Ahimsa , la filosofía de la no violencia , es un aspecto importante de las religiones nativas de la India cuyo defensor más conocido fue Shri Mahatma Gandhi , quien utilizó la desobediencia civil para unir a la India durante el movimiento de independencia de la India  ; esta filosofía inspiró aún más a Martin Luther King Jr. y James Bevel durante el movimiento de derechos civiles estadounidense . Las religiones de origen extranjero, incluidas las religiones abrahámicas , como el judaísmo, el cristianismo y el islam, también están presentes en la India [5] , así como el zoroastrismo [6] [7] y la fe baháʼí [8] [9], ambas escapando de la persecución del Islam [10] [11] [12] también han encontrado refugio en la India a lo largo de los siglos. [13] [14]

La India tiene 28 estados y 8 territorios de la unión con diferentes culturas y es el país más poblado del mundo. [15] La cultura india, a menudo etiquetada como una amalgama de varias culturas diferentes, se extiende por todo el subcontinente indio y ha sido influenciada y moldeada por una historia que tiene varios miles de años. [1] [2] A lo largo de la historia de la India, la cultura india ha sido fuertemente influenciada por las religiones dhármicas . [16] La influencia de las culturas del este y sudeste asiático en la antigua India y el hinduismo temprano, específicamente a través de grupos austroasiáticos , como los primeros munda y mon jemer , pero también tibetanos y otros grupos tibetano-birmanos , tuvo un impacto notable en los pueblos y culturas indias locales. Varios académicos, como el profesor Przyluski, Jules Bloch y Lévi, entre otros, concluyeron que existe una importante influencia cultural, lingüística y política mon-jemer (austroasiática) en la India primitiva, que también se puede observar en los préstamos austroasiáticos dentro de las lenguas indoarias y el cultivo del arroz , que fue introducido por los agricultores de arroz del este y sudeste asiático utilizando una ruta desde el sudeste asiático a través del noreste de la India hasta el subcontinente indio. [17] [18] Se les atribuye la configuración de gran parte de la filosofía , la literatura , la arquitectura , el arte y la música de la India . [19] La Gran India fue la extensión histórica de la cultura india más allá del subcontinente indio . Esto concierne particularmente a la difusión del hinduismo , el budismo , la arquitectura , la administración y el sistema de escritura desde la India a otras partes de Asia a través de la Ruta de la Seda por los viajeros y comerciantes marítimos durante los primeros siglos de la Era Común . [20] [21] Al oeste, la Gran India se superpone con la Gran Persia en las montañas Hindu Kush y Pamir . [22] A lo largo de los siglos, ha habido una importante fusión de culturas entre budistas , hindúes , musulmanes , jainistas , sijs y varias poblaciones tribales en la India.[23] [24]

La India es la cuna del hinduismo , el budismo , el jainismo , el sijismo y otras religiones . Se las conoce colectivamente como religiones indias. [25] Las religiones indias son una forma importante de religiones mundiales junto con las abrahámicas . Hoy en día, el hinduismo y el budismo son la tercera y cuarta religiones más grandes del mundo respectivamente, con más de 2 mil millones de seguidores en total, [26] [27] [28] y posiblemente hasta 2.5 o 2.6 mil millones de seguidores. [26] [29] Los seguidores de las religiones indias (hindúes, sijs, jainistas y budistas) representan alrededor del 80-82% de la población de la India.

La India es una de las naciones con mayor diversidad religiosa y étnica del mundo, con algunas de las sociedades y culturas más profundamente religiosas. La religión desempeña un papel central y definitivo en la vida de muchos de sus habitantes. Aunque la India es un país secular de mayoría hindú , tiene una gran población musulmana . A excepción de Jammu y Cachemira , Punjab , Meghalaya , Nagaland , Mizoram y Lakshadweep , los hindúes forman la población predominante en los 28 estados y 8 territorios de la unión. Los musulmanes están presentes en toda la India, con grandes poblaciones en Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , Maharashtra , Kerala , Telangana , Andhra Pradesh , Bengala Occidental y Assam ; mientras que solo Jammu y Cachemira y Lakshadweep tienen poblaciones mayoritariamente musulmanas. Los cristianos son otras minorías significativas de la India.

Debido a la diversidad de grupos religiosos en la India, ha habido una historia de agitación y violencia entre ellos. La India ha sido escenario de violentos enfrentamientos religiosos entre miembros de diferentes religiones, como hindúes , cristianos , musulmanes y sijs . [30] Varios grupos han fundado varios partidos políticos religiosos nacionales y, a pesar de las políticas gubernamentales, los grupos religiosos minoritarios están siendo objeto de prejuicios por parte de grupos más dominantes con el fin de mantener y controlar los recursos en determinadas regiones de la India. [30]

Según el censo de 2011, el 79,8% de la población de la India practica el hinduismo . El islam (14,2%), el cristianismo (2,3%), el sijismo (1,7%), el budismo (0,7%) y el jainismo (0,4%) son las otras religiones principales seguidas por la gente de la India. [31] Muchas religiones tribales , como el sarnaísmo , se encuentran en la India, aunque estas se han visto afectadas por las principales religiones como el hinduismo, el budismo, el islam y el cristianismo. [32] El jainismo, el zoroastrismo , el judaísmo y la fe bahá'í también son influyentes, pero sus números son menores. [32] El ateísmo y los agnósticos también tienen una influencia visible en la India, junto con una tolerancia autoatribuida a otras religiones. [32]

El ateísmo y el agnosticismo tienen una larga historia en la India y florecieron dentro del movimiento Śramaṇa . La escuela Cārvāka se originó en la India alrededor del siglo VI a. C. [33] [34] Es una de las primeras formas de movimiento materialista y ateo en la antigua India. [35] [36] Sramana , budismo , jainismo , Ājīvika y algunas escuelas de hinduismo consideran que el ateísmo es válido y rechazan el concepto de deidad creadora , ritualismo y supersticiones . [37] [38] [39] India ha producido algunos políticos ateos notables y reformadores sociales . [40] Según el informe WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism de 2012, el 81% de los indios eran religiosos, el 13% no eran religiosos, el 3% eran ateos convencidos y el 3% no estaban seguros o no respondieron. [41] [42]

Filosofía

La filosofía india comprende las tradiciones filosóficas del subcontinente indio . Hay seis escuelas de filosofía hindú ortodoxa : Nyaya , Vaisheshika , Samkhya , Yoga , Mīmāṃsā y Vedanta , y cuatro escuelas heterodoxas: Jain , Budista , Ājīvika y Cārvāka ; las dos últimas también son escuelas del hinduismo. [44] [45] Sin embargo, existen otros métodos de clasificación; Vidyarania, por ejemplo, identifica dieciséis escuelas de filosofía india incluyendo aquellas que pertenecen a las tradiciones Śaiva y Raseśvara . [46] Desde la India medieval (ca.1000-1500), las escuelas de pensamiento filosófico indio han sido clasificadas por la tradición brahmánica [47] [48] como ortodoxas o no ortodoxas -āstika o nāstika- dependiendo de si consideran los Vedas como una fuente infalible de conocimiento. [42]

Las principales escuelas de filosofía india se formalizaron principalmente entre el año 1000 a. C. y los primeros siglos de la era común . Según el filósofo Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , las primeras de ellas, que se remontan a la composición de los Upanishads en el período védico posterior (1000-500 a. C.) , constituyen "las primeras composiciones filosóficas del mundo". [49] La competencia y la integración entre las diversas escuelas fueron intensas durante sus años de formación, especialmente entre el 800 a. C. y el 200 d. C. Algunas escuelas como el jainismo, el budismo, el saiva y el advaita vedanta sobrevivieron, pero otras, como el samkhya y el ajīvika , no lo hicieron; fueron asimiladas o se extinguieron. Los siglos posteriores produjeron comentarios y reformulaciones que continuaron hasta el siglo XX. Los autores que dieron un significado contemporáneo a las filosofías tradicionales incluyen a Shrimad Rajchandra , Swami Vivekananda , Ram Mohan Roy y Swami Dayananda Saraswati . [50]

Estructura familiar y boda

Matrimonio en la India

Durante generaciones, la India ha tenido una tradición predominante del sistema de familia conjunta . Es cuando los miembros extendidos de una familia (padres, hijos, los cónyuges de los hijos y sus descendientes, etc.) viven juntos. Por lo general, el miembro masculino de mayor edad es el jefe del sistema de familia india conjunta. En su mayoría, él toma todas las decisiones y reglas importantes, y es probable que los demás miembros de la familia las respeten. Con la economía actual, el estilo de vida y el costo de vida en la mayoría de las ciudades metropolitanas son altos, la población está dejando atrás el modelo de familia conjunta y adaptándose al modelo de familia nuclear . Antes, vivir en una familia conjunta tenía como propósito crear amor y preocupación por los miembros de la familia. Sin embargo, ahora es un desafío dar tiempo a los demás, ya que la mayoría de ellos están fuera por necesidades de supervivencia. [51] El aumento de las tendencias de los entornos familiares nucleares ha llevado a un cambio en la estructura de jefatura familiar tradicional y los hombres mayores ya no son los jefes de familia obligatorios, ya que en su mayoría viven solos durante la vejez y son mucho más vulnerables que antes. [52]

En un estudio de 1966, Orenstein y Micklin analizaron los datos de población y la estructura familiar de la India. Sus estudios sugieren que el tamaño de los hogares indios se había mantenido similar durante el período de 1911 a 1951. A partir de entonces, con la urbanización y el desarrollo económico, la India ha sido testigo de una ruptura de la familia conjunta tradicional en familias más nucleares. [53] [54] Sinha, en su libro, después de resumir los numerosos estudios sociológicos realizados sobre la familia india, señala que durante los últimos 60 años, la tendencia cultural en la mayor parte de la India ha sido un cambio acelerado de la familia conjunta a las familias nucleares, muy similar a las tendencias demográficas en otras partes del mundo. La familia conjunta tradicionalmente grande en la India, en la década de 1990, representaba un pequeño porcentaje de los hogares indios, y en promedio tenía un ingreso familiar per cápita más bajo. Encuentra que la familia conjunta aún persiste en algunas áreas y en ciertas condiciones, en parte debido a las tradiciones culturales y en parte debido a factores prácticos. [53] Los jóvenes de clases socioeconómicas más bajas son más proclives a pasar tiempo con sus familias que sus pares debido a las diferentes ideologías en la crianza rural y urbana. [55] Con la expansión de la educación y el crecimiento de la economía, el sistema tradicional de familia conjunta se está desintegrando rápidamente en toda la India y las actitudes hacia las mujeres trabajadoras han cambiado.

Matrimonio concertado

Los matrimonios concertados han sido la norma en la sociedad india desde hace mucho tiempo. Incluso hoy, la mayoría de los indios tienen sus matrimonios planeados por sus padres y otros familiares respetados. En el pasado, la edad para contraer matrimonio era joven. [56] La edad promedio para contraer matrimonio para las mujeres en la India ha aumentado a 21 años, según el Censo de la India de 2011. [57] En 2009, alrededor del 7% de las mujeres se casaron antes de los 18 años . [58]

En la mayoría de los matrimonios, la familia de la novia proporciona una dote al novio. Tradicionalmente, la dote se consideraba la parte de la riqueza familiar que le correspondía a la mujer, ya que una hija no tenía derecho legal a los bienes inmuebles de su familia natal. También incluía normalmente objetos de valor portátiles, como joyas y artículos del hogar, que la novia podía controlar durante toda su vida. [59] Históricamente, en la mayoría de las familias la herencia de los bienes familiares se transmitía a la línea masculina. Desde 1956, las leyes indias tratan a los hombres y a las mujeres como iguales en materia de herencia sin un testamento legal. [60] Los indios utilizan cada vez más un testamento legal para la herencia y la sucesión de propiedades; en 2004, aproximadamente el 20 por ciento utilizaba un testamento legal. [61]

En la India, la tasa de divorcios es baja: un 1%, en comparación con el 40% en los Estados Unidos. [62] [63] Sin embargo, estas estadísticas no reflejan un panorama completo. Hay una escasez de encuestas científicas o estudios sobre los matrimonios indios en los que se hayan solicitado en profundidad las perspectivas tanto de los esposos como de las esposas. Las encuestas por muestreo sugieren que los problemas con los matrimonios en la India son similares a las tendencias observadas en otras partes del mundo. Las tasas de divorcio están aumentando en la India. Las tasas de divorcio en las zonas urbanas son mucho más altas. Las mujeres inician alrededor del 80 por ciento de los divorcios en la India. [64]

Las opiniones están divididas sobre lo que significa este fenómeno: para los tradicionalistas, las cifras crecientes presagian el colapso de la sociedad, mientras que, para algunos modernistas, hablan de un nuevo y saludable empoderamiento para las mujeres. [65]

Estudios recientes sugieren que la cultura india está dejando de lado los matrimonios arreglados tradicionales. Banerjee et al. encuestaron a 41.554 hogares en 33 estados y territorios de la unión en India en 2005. Encontraron que las tendencias matrimoniales en India son similares a las tendencias observadas durante los últimos 40 años en China , Japón y otras naciones. [66] El estudio encontró que menos matrimonios son puramente arreglados sin consentimiento y que la mayoría de los matrimonios indios encuestados son arreglados con consentimiento. El porcentaje de matrimonios auto-arreglados (llamados matrimonios por amor en India) también estaba aumentando, particularmente en las partes urbanas de India. [67]

Rituales de boda

Un ritual de boda hindú en curso. La novia y el novio están sentados juntos, recibiendo instrucciones del sacerdote. El recipiente sagrado cuadrado para el fuego ( yajna kund ) está detrás del sacerdote.

Las bodas son ocasiones festivas en la India con amplias decoraciones, colores, música, bailes, disfraces y rituales que dependen de la religión de los novios, así como de sus preferencias. [68] La nación celebra alrededor de 10 millones de bodas al año, [69] de las cuales más del 80% son bodas hindúes .

Si bien hay muchos rituales relacionados con festivales en el hinduismo, vivaha (boda) es el ritual personal más extenso que un hindú adulto emprende en su vida. [70] [71] Las familias hindúes típicas gastan un esfuerzo significativo y recursos financieros para preparar y celebrar bodas. Los rituales y procesos de una boda hindú varían según la región de la India, las adaptaciones locales, los recursos familiares y las preferencias de la novia y el novio. Sin embargo, hay algunos rituales clave comunes en las bodas hindúes : Kanyadaan , Panigrahana y Saptapadi ; estos son respectivamente, regalar a la hija por parte del padre, tomar voluntariamente la mano cerca del fuego para significar la unión inminente y dar siete círculos antes de encender el fuego con cada círculo incluyendo un conjunto de votos mutuos. Collar de vínculo Mangalsutra que un novio hindú ata con tres nudos alrededor del cuello de la novia en una ceremonia de matrimonio. La práctica es parte integral de una ceremonia de matrimonio como se prescribe en Manusmriti , la ley tradicional que rige el matrimonio hindú. Después del séptimo círculo y los votos de Saptapadi , la pareja es legalmente marido y mujer. [71] [72] [73] Los sijs se casan mediante una ceremonia llamada Anand Karaj . La pareja camina alrededor del libro sagrado, el Guru Granth Sahib cuatro veces. Los musulmanes indios celebran una boda islámica tradicional siguiendo costumbres similares a las practicadas en Oriente Medio . Los rituales incluyen Nikah , el pago de una dote financiera llamada Mahr por parte del novio a la novia, la firma de un contrato de matrimonio y una recepción. [74] Las bodas cristianas indias siguen costumbres similares a las practicadas en los países cristianos de Occidente en estados como Goa, pero tienen más costumbres indias en otros estados.

Festivales

Las obras de arte de Rangoli generalmente se realizan durante Diwali o Tihar , Onam , Pongal y otros festivales hindúes en el subcontinente indio.

La India, al ser una sociedad multicultural, multiétnica y multirreligiosa, celebra días festivos y festivales de varias religiones. Los tres días festivos nacionales de la India , el Día de la Independencia , el Día de la República y el Gandhi Jayanti , se celebran con celo y entusiasmo en toda la India. Además, muchos estados y regiones de la India tienen festivales locales según la demografía religiosa y lingüística predominante. Los festivales religiosos populares incluyen los festivales hindúes de Chhath , Navratri , Janmashtami , Diwali , Maha Shivratri , Ganesh Chaturthi , Durga Puja , Holi , Rath Yatra , Ugadi , Vasant Panchami , Rakshabandhan y Dussehra . Varios festivales de la cosecha como Makar Sankranti , Sohrai , Pusnâ , Hornbill , Chapchar Kut , Pongal , Onam y el festival de swinging Raja sankaranti también son bastante populares.

La India celebra una gran variedad de festivales debido a su gran diversidad. Muchos festivales religiosos, como Diwali (hindú), Eid (musulmán), Navidad (cristiano), etc., son celebrados por todos. El gobierno también proporciona instalaciones para la celebración de todos los festivales religiosos con igualdad y otorga reservas de carreteras, seguridad, etc., brindando igualdad a las diversas religiones y sus festivales.

Danza cheraw de Chapchar Kut en Mizoram . El festival de Chapchar Kut se celebra durante el mes de marzo, después de completar la tarea más ardua de la operación Jhum, es decir, limpiar la jungla (limpiar los restos de la quema).

El festival del Año Nuevo indio se celebra en diferentes partes de la India con un estilo único en diferentes momentos. Ugadi , Bihu , Gudhi Padwa , Puthandu , Vaisakhi , Pohela Boishakh , Vishu y Vishuva Sankranti son los festivales de Año Nuevo de diferentes partes de la India.

Ciertos festivales en la India son celebrados por múltiples religiones. Ejemplos notables incluyen Diwali , que es celebrado por hindúes, sikhs, budistas y jainistas en todo el país y Buddha Purnima , Krishna Janmashtami , Ambedkar Jayanti celebrados por budistas e hindúes. Los festivales sikhs, como Guru Nanak Jayanti , Baisakhi son celebrados con gran fanfarria por sikhs e hindúes de Punjab y Delhi, donde las dos comunidades juntas forman una abrumadora mayoría de la población. Añadiendo colores a la cultura de la India, el Festival Dree es uno de los festivales tribales de la India celebrados por los Apatanis del valle Ziro de Arunachal Pradesh , que es el estado más oriental de la India. Nowruz es el festival más importante entre la comunidad parsi de la India.

El Islam en la India es la segunda religión más grande con más de 172 millones de musulmanes, según el censo de la India de 2011. [31] Los festivales islámicos que se observan y se declaran festivos en la India son; Eid al-Fitr , Eid al-Adha (Bakri Eid), Milad-un-Nabi , Muharram y Shab-e-Barat . [78] Algunos de los estados de la India han declarado feriados regionales para los festivales populares regionales particulares; como Arba'een , Jumu'ah-tul-Wida y Shab-e-Qadar .

El cristianismo es la tercera religión más importante de la India , con más de 27,8 millones de cristianos, según el censo de 2011. [79] Con más de 27,8 millones de cristianos, de los cuales 17 millones son católicos romanos, la India es el hogar de muchos festivales cristianos. El país celebra la Navidad y el Viernes Santo como días festivos. [78]

Las ferias regionales y comunitarias también son festividades habituales en la India. Por ejemplo, la Feria de Pushkar en Rajastán es uno de los mercados de ganado más grandes del mundo.

Las mujeres levantan y cargan a otras mujeres en muchos festivales.

Saludos

Izquierda : El dios hindú Kubera a la izquierda con una persona en la postura Namaste ( templo Chennakesava del siglo XIII, Somanathapura , Karnataka, India ). Namaste o Añjali Mudrā son comunes en los relieves de los templos hindúes históricos.
Derecha : Relieve del pilar de entrada ( templo Thrichittatt Maha Vishnu , Kerala, India )

Los saludos indios se basan en Añjali Mudrā , incluidos Pranāma y Puja .

Los saludos incluyen Namaste (hindi, sánscrito y kannada) , Nômôskar en odia , Khulumkha ( tripuri ), Namaskar ( maratí ), Namaskara (kannada y sánscrito), Paranaam ( bhojpuri ), Namaskaram ( telugu , malayalam ), Vanakkam ( tamil ), Nômôshkar ( bengalí ), Nomoskar ( asamés ), Aadab ( urdu ) y Sat Shri Akal ( punyabi ). Todos estos son saludos o salutaciones comúnmente hablados cuando las personas se encuentran y son formas de despedida cuando se van. Namaskar se considera un poco más formal que Namaste, pero ambos expresan un profundo respeto. Namaskar es comúnmente utilizado en India y Nepal por hindúes , jainistas y budistas, y muchos continúan usándolo fuera del subcontinente indio . En la cultura india y nepalí , la palabra se pronuncia al comienzo de la comunicación escrita o verbal. Sin embargo, el mismo gesto de las manos juntas puede hacerse sin palabras o decirse sin el gesto de las manos juntas. La palabra se deriva del sánscrito ( Namah ): inclinarse , saludo reverencial y respeto , y (te): "a ti". Tomado literalmente, significa "me inclino ante ti". [80] En el hinduismo significa "me inclino ante lo divino en ti". [81] [82] En la mayoría de las familias indias, a los hombres y mujeres más jóvenes se les enseña a buscar la bendición de sus mayores inclinándose reverentemente ante ellos. Esta costumbre se conoce como Pranāma .

Juntar las manos con una sonrisa para saludar a Namaste es una práctica cultural común en la India .

Otros saludos incluyen Jai Jagannath (usado en Odia ) , Ami Aschi (usado en bengalí ), Jai Shri Krishna (en gujarati y los dialectos Braj Bhasha y Rajasthani del hindi ), Ram Ram/(Jai) Sita Ram ji ( dialectos Awadhi y Bhojpuri del hindi y otros dialectos Bihari ), y Sat Sri Akal ( punjabi ; usado por seguidores del sijismo ), As-salamu alaykum ( urdu ; usado por seguidores del Islam ), Jai Jinendra (un saludo común usado por seguidores del jainismo ), Jai Bhim (usado por seguidores del ambedkarismo ), Namo Buddhay (usado por seguidores del budismo ), Allah Abho (usado por seguidores de la fe baháʼí ), Shalom aleichem (usado por seguidores del judaísmo ), Hamazor Hama Ashobed (usado por seguidores del zoroastrismo ), Sahebji ( persa y Gujarati ; utilizado por el pueblo parsi ), Dorood ( persa y gujarati ; utilizado por el pueblo iraní ), Om Namah Shivaya / Jai Bholenath Jaidev (utilizado en Dogri y Kashmiri , también utilizado en la ciudad de Varanasi ), Jai Ambe Maa/Jai Mata di (utilizado en el este de la India ), Jai Ganapati Bapa (utilizado en marathi y konkani ), etc.

Estas formas tradicionales de saludo pueden estar ausentes en el mundo de los negocios y en el entorno urbano de la India, donde el apretón de manos es una forma común de saludo. [83]

Animales

La variada y rica vida salvaje de la India tiene un profundo impacto en la cultura popular de la región. El nombre común para la naturaleza salvaje en la India es jungla , que fue adoptado por los británicos que vivían en la India en el idioma inglés. La palabra también se hizo famosa en El libro de la selva de Rudyard Kipling . La vida salvaje de la India ha sido el tema de muchos otros cuentos y fábulas, como el Panchatantra y los cuentos de Jataka . [84]

En el hinduismo, la vaca es considerada un símbolo de ahimsa (no violencia), diosa madre y portadora de buena fortuna y riqueza. [85] Por esta razón, las vacas son veneradas en la cultura hindú y alimentarlas se considera un acto de adoración. Es por esto que la carne de res sigue siendo un alimento tabú en la sociedad hindú y jainista dominante. [86]

El artículo 48 de la Constitución de la India es uno de los principios rectores que establece que el Estado debe esforzarse por prohibir el sacrificio y el contrabando de ganado vacuno , terneros y otro ganado lechero y de tiro . [87] [88] A fecha de enero de 2012, la vaca sigue siendo un tema polémico y divisivo en la India. Varios estados de la India han aprobado leyes para proteger a las vacas, mientras que muchos estados no tienen restricciones sobre la producción y el consumo de carne de vacuno. Algunos grupos se oponen al sacrificio de vacas, mientras que otros grupos seculares argumentan que el tipo de carne que uno come debería ser una cuestión de elección personal en una democracia. Madhya Pradesh promulgó una ley en enero de 2012, a saber, la Ley Gau-Vansh Vadh Pratishedh (Sanshodhan), que convierte el sacrificio de vacas en un delito grave. [89]

En Gujarat, un estado occidental de la India, la Ley de Preservación Animal, promulgada en octubre de 2011, prohíbe matar vacas y comprar, vender y transportar carne de vacuno. En cambio, Assam y Andhra Pradesh permiten matar vacas con un certificado de aptitud para el sacrificio. En los estados de Bengala Occidental y Kerala, el consumo de carne de vacuno no se considera un delito. Contrariamente a los estereotipos, un número considerable de hindúes comen carne de vacuno, y muchos sostienen que sus escrituras, como los textos védicos y upanishads, no prohíben su consumo. En el estado de Kerala, en el sur de la India, por ejemplo, la carne de vacuno representa casi la mitad de toda la carne que consumen todas las comunidades, incluidos los hindúes. Los sociólogos sostienen que el consumo generalizado de carne de vaca en la India se debe a que es una fuente de proteína animal mucho más barata para los pobres que el cordero o el pollo, que se venden al doble de precio. Por estas razones, el consumo de carne de vacuno en la India después de la independencia en 1947 ha experimentado un crecimiento mucho más rápido que el de cualquier otro tipo de carne; En la actualidad, la India es uno de los cinco mayores productores y consumidores de carne de ganado vacuno del mundo. En Maharashtra y otros estados se ha prohibido la carne de vacuno desde 2015. Mientras que estados como Madhya Pradesh están aprobando leyes locales para prevenir la crueldad hacia las vacas, otros indios argumentan: "Si el objetivo real es prevenir la crueldad hacia los animales, ¿por qué discriminar a las vacas cuando cientos de otros animales son maltratados?" [90] [91] [92]

Cocina

La cocina india es diversa y va desde muy picante a muy suave, y varía según las estaciones de cada región. Esto refleja la agricultura local , el clima regional , las innovaciones culinarias y la diversidad cultural. En la India, la comida a veces se sirve en thali , un plato con arroz, pan y una selección de guarniciones. Arriba se muestran ejemplos de thali.

La comida india es tan diversa como la propia India. Las cocinas indias utilizan numerosos ingredientes, emplean una amplia gama de estilos de preparación de alimentos, técnicas de cocina y presentaciones culinarias. Desde ensaladas hasta salsas, desde platos vegetarianos hasta platos de carne, desde especias hasta platos sensuales, desde pan hasta postres, la cocina india es invariablemente compleja. Harold McGee, un favorito de muchos chefs con estrellas Michelin, escribe: "En cuanto a la inventiva pura, con la leche como ingrediente principal, ningún país del mundo puede igualar a la India". [93]

Viajo a la India al menos tres o cuatro veces al año. Siempre me resulta inspirador. Hay mucho que aprender de la India porque cada uno de sus estados es un país en sí mismo y cada uno tiene su propia cocina. Hay muchas cosas que aprender sobre las diferentes cocinas; me sorprende. Mantengo la mente abierta y me gusta explorar diferentes lugares y captar diferentes influencias a medida que avanzo. En realidad, no creo que haya un solo estado en la India que no haya visitado. La comida india es una cocina cosmopolita que tiene muchos ingredientes. No creo que ninguna cocina en el mundo tenga tantas influencias como la comida india. Es una cocina muy rica y muy variada. Cada región del mundo tiene su propia idea de cómo debe percibirse la comida india.

—  Atul Kochhar , el primer indio en recibir dos estrellas Michelin [94]

... me recuerda la primera Navidad que recuerdo, cuando mi abuela, que aún no conocía y que era india y vivía en Inglaterra, me envió una caja. Para mí, todavía conserva el sabor de la extrañeza, la confusión y la maravilla.

Una variedad típica de platos del norte de la India en un restaurante.

Según Sanjeev Kapoor , miembro del Panel Culinario Internacional de Singapore Airlines , la comida india ha sido durante mucho tiempo una expresión de la cocina mundial. Kapoor afirma: "Si miras hacia atrás en la historia de la India y estudias la comida que comían nuestros antepasados, notarás cuánta atención se prestaba a la planificación y la preparación de una comida. Se pensaba mucho en la textura y el sabor de cada plato". [96] Uno de esos registros históricos es Mānasollāsa ( sánscrito : मानसोल्लास , El deleite de la mente), escrito en el siglo XII. El libro describe la necesidad de cambiar la cocina y los alimentos con las estaciones, los diversos métodos de cocción, la mejor combinación de sabores, la sensación de los diversos alimentos, la planificación y el estilo de la cena, entre otras cosas. [97]

La India es conocida por su amor por la comida y las especias. La cocina india varía de una región a otra, lo que refleja los productos locales, la diversidad cultural y la variada demografía del país. En general, la cocina india se puede dividir en cinco categorías: norteña , meridional , oriental, occidental y nororiental. La diversidad de la cocina india se caracteriza por el uso diferente de muchas especias y hierbas, una amplia variedad de recetas y técnicas de cocina. Aunque una parte importante de la comida india es vegetariana , muchos platos indios también incluyen carnes como pollo , cordero , ternera (tanto de vaca como de búfalo), cerdo y pescado, huevo y otros mariscos. Las cocinas basadas en pescado son comunes en los estados orientales de la India, particularmente Bengala Occidental y los estados sureños de Kerala y Tamil Nadu . [98]

Algunos postres de repostería indios de cientos de variedades. En ciertas partes de la India, se les llama mithai o dulces. El azúcar y los postres tienen una larga historia en la India: alrededor del año 500 a. C., la gente de la India había desarrollado la tecnología para producir cristales de azúcar. En el idioma local, estos cristales se llamaban khanda (खण्ड), que es el origen de la palabra caramelo . [99]

A pesar de esta diversidad, surgen algunos hilos unificadores. Los usos variados de las especias son una parte integral de ciertas preparaciones de alimentos y se utilizan para realzar el sabor de un plato y crear sabores y aromas únicos. La cocina de la India también ha sido influenciada por varios grupos culturales que ingresaron a la India a lo largo de la historia, como los asiáticos centrales , los árabes , los mogoles y los colonos europeos . Los dulces también son muy populares entre los indios, particularmente en Bengala Occidental, donde tanto los hindúes bengalíes como los musulmanes bengalíes distribuyen dulces para marcar ocasiones alegres. Existe evidencia específica de influencias tempranas de áreas culturales derivadas del este y sudeste asiático, principalmente a través de grupos austroasiáticos ( mon jemeres ) durante el período neolítico , en ciertos elementos culturales y políticos de la India antigua , y que pueden haber llegado junto con la expansión del cultivo de arroz desde el sudeste asiático continental . Un número significativo de minorías étnicas en el centro , este y noreste de la India son hablantes de lenguas austroasiáticas, sobre todo los munda y los khasic . [100] [101] [102] [103] [104]


El pollo tikka masala es un plato indio que se convirtió en el plato nacional del Reino Unido . Se popularizó gracias a los inmigrantes indios que vivían en Gran Bretaña.

La cocina india es una de las más populares en todo el mundo. [105] En la mayoría de los restaurantes indios fuera de la India, el menú no hace justicia a la enorme variedad de cocina india disponible: la cocina más común servida en el menú sería la cocina punjabi ( el pollo tikka masala es un plato muy popular en el Reino Unido). Existen algunos restaurantes que sirven cocinas de otras regiones de la India, aunque son pocos y distantes entre sí. Históricamente, las especias y hierbas indias fueron uno de los productos comerciales más buscados. El comercio de especias entre la India y Europa condujo al surgimiento y dominio de los comerciantes árabes hasta tal punto que los exploradores europeos, como Vasco da Gama y Cristóbal Colón , se propusieron encontrar nuevas rutas comerciales con la India, lo que llevó a la Era de los Descubrimientos . [106] La popularidad del curry , que se originó en la India, en toda Asia a menudo ha llevado a que el plato sea etiquetado como el plato "panasiático". [107]

La cocina india regional continúa evolucionando. En las principales ciudades indias predominan las fusiones de métodos de cocina occidentales y del este de Asia con cocinas tradicionales, junto con adaptaciones regionales de comida rápida. [108]

Una típica sadya de Kerala en una hoja de plátano
Biryani de Hyderabadi
Bhojanam de Andhra

La cocina de Andhra Pradesh y Telangana consiste en la cocina Telugu , del pueblo Telugu , así como la cocina Hyderabadi (también conocida como cocina Nizami), de la comunidad musulmana Hyderabadi . [109] [110] La comida Hyderabadi se basa en gran medida en ingredientes no vegetarianos, mientras que la comida Telugu es una mezcla de ingredientes vegetarianos y no vegetarianos. La comida Telugu es rica en especias y los chiles se usan abundantemente. La comida también tiende a ser más bien picante con tamarindo y jugo de lima, ambos utilizados generosamente como agentes acidificantes. El arroz es el alimento básico del pueblo Telugu. El almidón se consume con una variedad de currys y sopas o caldos de lentejas . [111] [112] Tanto los alimentos vegetarianos como los no vegetarianos son populares. La cocina de Hyderabadi incluye delicias populares como Biryani , Haleem , Baghara baingan y Kheema, mientras que los platos cotidianos de Hyderabadi tienen algunos puntos en común con la comida Telugu de Telanganita, con su uso de tamarindo, arroz y lentejas, junto con carne. [111] El yogur es un añadido común a las comidas, como una forma de moderar el picante . [113]

Ropa

La vestimenta tradicional en la India varía mucho en las diferentes partes del país y está influenciada por la cultura local, la geografía, el clima y los entornos rurales/urbanos. Los estilos populares de vestimenta incluyen prendas drapeadas como el sari y el mekhela sador para las mujeres y el kurta , dhoti o lungi o panche (en kannada) para los hombres. Las prendas cosidas también son populares, como el churidar o el salwar-kameez para las mujeres, con dupatta (bufanda larga) arrojada sobre el hombro que completa el atuendo. El salwar suele ser holgado, mientras que el churidar es de corte más ajustado. [114] El dastar , un tocado usado por los sijs , es común en Punjab .

Las mujeres indias perfeccionan su sentido del encanto y la moda con maquillaje y adornos. Bindi , mehendi , pendientes, brazaletes y otras joyas son comunes. En ocasiones especiales, como ceremonias de matrimonio y festivales, las mujeres pueden usar colores alegres con varios adornos hechos con oro, plata u otras piedras y gemas regionales. Bindi es a menudo una parte esencial del maquillaje de una mujer hindú. Usado en la frente, algunos consideran que el bindi es una marca auspiciosa. Tradicionalmente, el bindi rojo era usado solo por mujeres hindúes casadas, y bindi de color era usado por mujeres solteras, pero ahora todos los colores y brillo se han convertido en parte de la moda femenina. Algunas mujeres usan sindoor , un polvo tradicional rojo o rojo anaranjado (bermellón) en la raya del cabello (localmente llamado mang ). Sindoor es la marca tradicional de una mujer casada para los hindúes. Las mujeres hindúes solteras no usan sindoor ; tampoco lo hacen más de 1 millón de mujeres indias de religiones distintas a la hindú y agnósticas / ateas que pueden estar casadas. [114] Los estilos de maquillaje y vestimenta difieren regionalmente entre los grupos hindúes, y también según el clima o la religión, ya que los cristianos prefieren el estilo occidental y los musulmanes el árabe. [115] Para los hombres, las versiones cosidas incluyen kurta ( pijama) y pantalones y camisas de estilo europeo. En los centros urbanos y semiurbanos, a menudo se puede ver a hombres y mujeres de todos los orígenes religiosos con jeans, pantalones, camisas, trajes, kurtas y una variedad de otras modas. [116]

Lenguas y literatura

Historia

El idioma sánscrito, cualquiera que sea su antigüedad, es de una estructura maravillosa; más perfecto que el griego, más copioso que el latín y más exquisitamente refinado que ambos, pero teniendo con ambos una afinidad más fuerte, tanto en las raíces de los verbos como en las formas gramaticales, de la que podría haberse producido por accidente; tan fuerte, de hecho, que ningún filólogo podría examinarlos a los tres, sin creer que han surgido de alguna fuente común , que, tal vez, ya no existe; hay una razón similar, aunque no tan contundente, para suponer que tanto el gótico como el celta, aunque mezclados con un idioma muy diferente, tuvieron el mismo origen que el sánscrito...

—Sir  William Jones, 1786 [118]

The Rigvedic Sanskrit is one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Aryan languages, and one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European languages. The discovery of Sanskrit by early European explorers of India led to the development of comparative Philology. The scholars of the 18th century were struck by the far-reaching similarity of Sanskrit, both in grammar and vocabulary, to the classical languages of Europe. Intensive scientific studies that followed have established that Sanskrit and many Indian derivative languages belong to the family which includes English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Celtic, Greek, Baltic, Armenian, Persian, Tocharian, and other Indo-European languages.[119]

Tamil, one of India's major classical language, descends from Proto-Dravidian languages spoken around the third millennium BCE in peninsular India. The earliest inscriptions of Tamil have been found on pottery dating back to 500 BC. Tamil literature has existed for over two thousand years[120] and the earliest epigraphic records found date from around the 3rd century BCE.[121]

Language families in India and its neighbouring countries. India has 22 official languages – 15 of which are Indo-European. The 2001 census of India found 122 first languages in active use. The second map shows the distribution of Indo-European languages throughout the world.

The evolution of language within India may be distinguished over three periods: old, middle and modern Indo-Aryan. The classical form of old Indo-Aryan was Sanskrit meaning polished, cultivated and correct, in distinction to Prakrit – the practical language of the migrating masses evolving without concern to proper pronunciation or grammar, the structure of language changing as those masses mingled, settled new lands and adopted words from people of other native languages. Prakrita became middle Indo-Aryan leading to Pali (the language of early Buddhists and Ashoka era in 200–300 BCE), Prakrit (the language of Jain philosophers) and Apabhramsa (the language blend at the final stage of middle Indo-Aryan). It is Apabhramsa, scholars claim,[119] that flowered into Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi, Punjabi, and many other languages now in use in India's north, east and west. All of these Indian languages have roots and structures similar to Sanskrit, to each other and to other Indo-European languages. Thus we have in India three thousand years of continuous linguistic history recorded and preserved in literary documents. This enables scholars to follow language evolution and observe how, by changes hardly noticeable from generation to generation, an original language alters into descendant languages that are now barely recognisable as the same.[119]

Sanskrit has had a profound impact on the languages and literature of India. Hindi, India's most spoken language, is a "Sanskritised register" of the Delhi dialect. In addition, all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Munda languages and Dravidian languages, have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (tatsama words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (tadbhava words).[124] Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated to constitute roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages,[125] and the literary forms of (Dravidian) Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada. Tamil, although to a slightly smaller extent, has also been significantly influenced by Sanskrit.[124] Part of the Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, the Bengali language arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages and its roots are traced to the 5th-century BCE Ardhamagadhi language.[126][127]

Another major Classical Dravidian language, Kannada is attested epigraphically from the mid-1st millennium AD, and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 9th- to 10th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Pre-old Kannada (or Purava Hazhe-Gannada) was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Satavahana and Kadamba periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years.[128][129][130][131] The Ashoka rock edict found at Brahmagiri (dated 230 BCE) has been suggested to contain a word in identifiable Kannada.[132] Odia is India's 6th classical language in addition to Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.[133] It is also one of the 22 official languages in the 8th schedule of Indian constitution. Odia's importance to Indian culture, from ancient times, is evidenced by its presence in Ashoka's Rock Edict X, dated to the 2nd century BC.[134][135]

The language with the largest number of speakers in India is Hindi and its various dialects. Early forms of present-day Hindustani developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhraṃśa vernaculars of present-day North India in the 7th–13th centuries. During the time of Islamic rule in parts of India, it became influenced by Persian.[136] The Persian influence led to the development of Urdu, which is more Persianized and written in the Perso-Arabic script. Modern standard Hindi has a lesser Persian influence and is written in the Devanagari script.

During the 19th and 20th centuries, Indian English literature developed during the British Raj, pioneered by Rabindranath Tagore, Mulk Raj Anand and Munshi Premchand.[137]

In addition to Indo-European and Dravidian languages, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages are in use in India.[138][139] The 2011 Linguistic Survey of India states that India has over 780 languages and 66 different scripts, with its state of Arunachal Pradesh with 90 languages.[140]

Epics

The Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa are the oldest preserved and well-known epics of India. Versions have been adopted as the epics of Southeast Asian countries like Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos (sargas),[141] and tells the story of Rama (an incarnation or Avatar of the Hindu preserver-god Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the demon king of Lanka, Ravana. This epic played a pivotal role in establishing the role of dhárma as a principal ideal guiding force for Hindu way of life.[142] The earliest parts of the Mahabharata text date to 400 BC[143] and is estimated to have reached its final form by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century AD).[144] Other regional variations of these, as well as unrelated epics include the Tamil Ramavataram, Assamese Saptakanda Ramayana, Kannada Pampa Bharata, Hindi Ramacharitamanasa, and Malayalam Adhyathmaramayanam. In addition to these two great Indian epics, there are The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature composed in classical Tamil languageManimegalai, Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi, Silappadikaram, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi.

Performing arts

Dance

Dance in India includes classical (above), semiclassical, folk and tribal.

Let drama and dance (Nātya, नाट्य) be the fifth vedic scripture. Combined with an epic story, tending to virtue, wealth, joy and spiritual freedom, it must contain the significance of every scripture, and forward every art.

— First chapter of Nātyaśāstra, sometime between 200 BCE – 200 CE.[146][147]

India has had a long romance with the art of dance. The Hindu Sanskrit texts Natya Shastra (Science of Dance) and Abhinaya Darpana (Mirror of Gesture) are estimated to be from 200 BCE to early centuries of the 1st millennium CE.[147][148][149]

kuchipudi performer

The Indian art of dance as taught in these ancient books, according to Ragini Devi, is the expression of inner beauty and the divine in man.[150] It is a deliberate art, nothing is left to chance, each gesture seeks to communicate the ideas, each facial expression the emotions.

Mohiniyattam at Kannur district school kalothsavam 2019

Indian dance includes eight classical dance forms, many in narrative forms with mythological elements. The eight classical forms accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, yakshagana of Karnataka, manipuri of Manipur, odissi (orissi) of the state of Odisha and the sattriya of Assam.[151][152]

Bhangra dancers in Punjab, India

In addition to the formal arts of dance, Indian regions have a strong free form, folksy dance tradition. Some of the folk dances include the bhangra of Punjab; the bihu of Assam; the zeliang of Nagaland; the Jhumair, Domkach, chhau of Jharkhand; the Ghumura Dance, Gotipua, Mahari dance and Dalkhai of Odisha; the qauwwalis, birhas and charkulas of Uttar Pradesh; the jat-jatin, nat-natin and saturi of Bihar; the ghoomar of Rajasthan and Haryana; the dandiya and garba of Gujarat; the kolattam of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana; the yakshagana of Karnataka; lavani of Maharashtra; Dekhnni of Goa. Recent developments include adoption of international dance forms particularly in the urban centres of India, and the extension of Indian classical dance arts by the Kerala Christian community, to tell stories from the Bible.[153]

Tribal Gondi Karma Naach, Chhattisgarh.
A Kalbelia woman performing popular Folk dance in Thar desert, Rajasthan
Cham dance during Dosmoche festival in Leh Palace

Drama

Indian drama and theatre has a long history alongside its music and dance. Kalidasa's plays like Shakuntala and Meghadoota are some of the older dramas, following those of Bhasa. Kutiyattam of Kerala, is the only surviving specimen of the ancient Sanskrit theatre, thought to have originated around the beginning of the Common Era, and is officially recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. It strictly follows the Natya Shastra.[154] Nātyāchārya Māni Mādhava Chākyār is credited for reviving the age old drama tradition from extinction. He was known for mastery of Rasa Abhinaya. He started to perform the Kalidasa plays like Abhijñānaśākuntala, Vikramorvaśīya and Mālavikāgnimitra; Bhasa's Swapnavāsavadatta and Pancharātra; Harsha's Nagananda.[155][156]

Puppetry

Kathputli Puppeteer from Rajasthan, India

India has a long tradition of puppetry. In the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata there are references to puppets. Kathputli, a form of string puppet performance native to Rajasthan, is notable and there are many Indian ventriloquists and puppeteers. The first Indian ventriloquist, Professor Y. K. Padhye, introduced this form of puppetry to India in the 1920s and his son, Ramdas Padhye, subsequently popularised ventriloquism and puppetry. Ramdas Padhye's son, Satyajit Padhye is also a ventriloquist and puppeteer. Almost all types of puppets are found in India.

Sakhi kandhei (String puppets of Odisha)

India has a rich and ancient tradition of string puppets or marionettes. Marionettes with jointed limbs controlled by strings allow far greater flexibility and are therefore the most articulate of the puppets. Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are some of the regions where this form of puppetry has flourished. The traditional marionettes of Rajasthan are known as Kathputli. Carved from a single piece of wood, these puppets are like large dolls that are colourfully dressed. The string puppets of Orissa are known as Kundhei. The string puppets of Karnataka are called Gombeyatta. Puppets from Tamil Nadu, known as Bommalattam, combine the techniques of rod and string puppets.

Rod puppets are an extension of glove-puppets, but are often much larger and supported and manipulated by rods from below. This form of puppetry now is found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa. The traditional rod puppet form of West Bengal is known as Putul Nautch. They are carved from wood and follow the various artistic styles of a particular region. The traditional rod puppet of Bihar is known as Yampuri.

Glove puppets are also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets. The head is made of either papier mâché, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck. The rest of the figure consists of a long, flowing skirt. These puppets are like limp dolls, but in the hands of an able puppeteer, are capable of producing a wide range of movements. The manipulation technique is simple the movements are controlled by the human hand, the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb in the two arms of the puppet. With the help of these three fingers, the glove puppet comes alive.

The tradition of glove puppets in India is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Kerala. In Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays usually present social themes, whereas in Orissa such plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna. In Orissa, the puppeteer plays a dholak (hand drum) with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other. The delivery of the dialogue, the movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak are well synchronised and create a dramatic atmosphere. In Kerala, the traditional glove puppet play is called Pavakoothu.

Shadow play

A scene from Tholpavakoothu shadow play.

Shadow puppets are an ancient part of India's culture and art, particularly regionally as the keelu bomme and Tholu bommalata of Andhra Pradesh, the Togalu gombeyaata in Karnataka, the charma bahuli natya in Maharashtra, the Ravana chhaya in Odisha, the Tholpavakoothu in Kerala and the thol bommalatta in Tamil Nadu. Shadow puppet play is also found in pictorial traditions in India, such as temple mural painting, loose-leaf folio paintings, and the narrative paintings.[157] Dance forms such as the Chhau of Odisha literally mean "shadow".[158] The shadow theatre dance drama theatre are usually performed on platform stages attached to Hindu temples, and in some regions these are called Koothu Madams or Koothambalams.[159] In many regions, the puppet drama play is performed by itinerant artist families on temporary stages during major temple festivals.[160] Legends from the Hindu epics Ramayana and the Mahabharata dominate their repertoire.[160] However, the details and the stories vary regionally.[161][162]

During the 19th century and early parts of the 20th century of the colonial era, Indologists believed that shadow puppet plays had become extinct in India, though mentioned in its ancient Sanskrit texts.[160] In the 1930s and thereafter, states Stuart Blackburn, these fears of its extinction were found to be false as evidence emerged that shadow puppetry had remained a vigorous rural tradition in central Kerala mountains, most of Karnataka, northern Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu, Odisha and southern Maharashtra.[160] The Marathi people, particularly of low caste, had preserved and vigorously performed the legends of Hindu epics as a folk tradition. The importance of Marathi artists is evidenced, states Blackburn, from the puppeteers speaking Marathi as their mother tongue in many non-Marathi speaking states of India.[160]

According to Beth Osnes, the tholu bommalata shadow puppet theatre dates back to the 3rd century BCE, and has attracted patronage ever since.[163] The puppets used in a tholu bommalata performance, states Phyllis Dircks, are "translucent, lusciously multicolored leather figures four to five feet tall, and feature one or two articulated arms".[164] The process of making the puppets is an elaborate ritual, where the artist families in India pray, go into seclusion, produce the required art work, then celebrate the "metaphorical birth of a puppet" with flowers and incense.[165]

The tholu pava koothu of Kerala uses leather puppets whose images are projected on a backlit screen. The shadows are used to creatively express characters and stories in the Ramayana. A complete performance of the epic can take forty-one nights, while an abridged performance lasts as few as seven days.[166] One feature of the tholu pava koothu show is that it is a team performance of puppeteers, while other shadow plays such as the wayang of Indonesia are performed by a single puppeteer for the same Ramayana story.[166] There are regional differences within India in the puppet arts. For example, women play a major role in shadow play theatre in most parts of India, except in Kerala and Maharashtra.[160] Almost everywhere, except Odisha, the puppets are made from tanned deer skin, painted and articulated. Translucent leather puppets are typical in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, while opaque puppets are typical in Kerala and Odisha. The artist troupes typically carry over a hundred puppets for their performance in rural India.[160]

Music

Musical instrument types used in the Indian Classical Music. Clockwise from upper left:A Saraswati Veena, Sarangi, Bansuri flute, Tabla drums.[167][168]
Group of Dharohar folk musicians performing in Mehrangarh Fort, Jodhpur, India

Music is an integral part of India's culture. Natyasastra, a 2000-year-old Sanskrit text, describes five systems of taxonomy to classify musical instruments.[169] One of these ancient Indian systems classifies musical instruments into four groups according to four primary sources of vibration: strings, membranes, cymbals, and air. According to Reis Flora, this is similar to the Western theory of organology. Archeologists have also reported the discovery of a 3000-year-old, 20-key, carefully shaped polished basalt lithophone in the highlands of Odisha.[170]

The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the Samaveda (1000 BC) that are still sung in certain Vedic Śrauta sacrifices; this is the earliest account of Indian musical hymns.[171] It proposed a tonal structure consisting of seven notes, which were named, in descending order, as Krusht, Pratham, Dwitiya, Tritiya, Chaturth, Mandra and Atiswār. These refer to the notes of a flute, which was the only fixed frequency instrument. The Samaveda, and other Hindu texts, heavily influenced India's classical music tradition, which is known today in two distinct styles: Carnatic and Hindustani music. Both the Carnatic music and Hindustani music systems are based on the melodic base (known as Rāga), sung to a rhythmic cycle (known as Tāla); these principles were refined in the nātyaśāstra (200 BC) and the dattilam (300 AD).[172]

The current music of India includes multiple varieties of religious, classical, folk, filmi, rock and pop music and dance. The appeal of traditional classical music and dance is on the rapid decline, especially among the younger generation.

Prominent contemporary Indian musical forms included filmi and Indipop. Filmi refers to the wide range of music written and performed for mainstream Indian cinema, primarily Bollywood, and accounts for more than 70 percent of all music sales in the country.[173] Indipop is one of the most popular contemporary styles of Indian music which is either a fusion of Indian folk, classical or Sufi music with Western musical traditions.[174]

Visual arts

Painting

Cave paintings from Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora and Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made coloured floor design (Rangoli) is still a common sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South Indian) Indian homes. Raja Ravi Varma is one of the classical painters from medieval India.

Pattachitra, Madhubani painting, Mysore painting, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting and Mughal painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while Nandalal Bose, M. F. Husain, S. H. Raza, Geeta Vadhera, Jamini Roy and B. Venkatappa[175] are some modern painters. Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamacnahri, Devajyoti Ray and Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These recent artists have acquired international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery in Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display a few good Indian paintings.

Sculpture

The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilisation, where stone and bronze figures have been discovered. Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism developed further, India produced some extremely intricate bronzes as well as temple carvings. Some huge shrines, such as the one at Ellora were not constructed by using blocks but carved out of solid rock.

Sculptures produced in the northwest, in stucco, schist, or clay, display a very strong blend of Indian and Classical Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman influence. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved almost simultaneously. During the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries) sculpture reached a very high standard in execution and delicacy in modeling. These styles and others elsewhere in India evolved leading to classical Indian art that contributed to Buddhist and Hindu sculptures throughout Southeast Central and East Asia.

Architecture

Indian architecture encompasses a multitude of expressions over space and time, constantly absorbing new ideas. The result is an evolving range of architectural production that nonetheless retains a certain amount of continuity across history. Some of its earliest production are found in the Indus Valley civilisation (2600–1900 BC) which is characterised by well-planned cities and houses. Religion and kingship do not seem to have played an important role in the planning and layout of these towns.[177]

During the period of the Mauryan and Gupta empires and their successors, several Buddhist architectural complexes, such as the caves of Ajanta and Ellora and the monumental Sanchi Stupa were built. Later on, South India produced several Hindu temples like Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura, Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur built by Raja Raja Chola, the Sun Temple, Konark, Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, and the Buddha stupa (Chinna Lanja dibba and Vikramarka kota dibba) at Bhattiprolu. Rajput kingdoms oversaw the construction of Khajuraho Temple Complex, Chittor Fort and Chaturbhuj Temple, etc. during their reign. Angkor Wat, Borobudur and other Buddhist and Hindu temples indicate strong Indian influence on South East Asian architecture, as they are built in styles almost identical to traditional Indian religious buildings.

The traditional system of Vaastu Shastra serves as India's version of Feng Shui, influencing town planning, architecture, and ergonomics. It is unclear which system is older, but they contain certain similarities. Feng Shui is more commonly used throughout the world. Though Vastu is conceptually similar to Feng Shui in that it also tries to harmonise the flow of energy, (also called life-force or Prana in Sanskrit and Chi/Ki in Chinese/Japanese), through the house, it differs in the details, such as the exact directions in which various objects, rooms, materials, etc. are to be placed.

With the advent of Islamic influence from the west, Indian architecture was adapted to allow the traditions of the new religion, creating the Indo-Islamic style of architecture. The Qutb complex, a group of monuments constructed by successive sultanas of the Delhi Sultanate is one of the earliest examples. Fatehpur Sikri,[179] Taj Mahal,[180] Gol Gumbaz, Red Fort of Delhi[181] and Charminar are creations of this era, and are often used as the stereotypical symbols of India.

British colonial rule in India saw the development of Indo-Saracenic style and mixing of several other styles, such as European Gothic. The Victoria Memorial and the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus are notable examples.

Indian architecture has influenced eastern and southeastern Asia, due to the spread of Buddhism. A number of Indian architectural features such as the temple mound or stupa, temple spire or shikhara, temple tower or pagoda and temple gate or torana, have become famous symbols of Asian culture, used extensively in East Asia and South East Asia. The central spire is also sometimes called a vimanam. The southern temple gate, or gopuram is noted for its intricacy and majesty.

Contemporary Indian architecture is more cosmopolitan. Cities are extremely compact and densely populated. Mumbai's Nariman Point is famous for its Art Deco buildings. Recent creations such as the Lotus Temple,[182] Golden Pagoda and Akshardham, and the various modern urban developments of India like Bhubaneswar and Chandigarh, are notable.

Sports and martial arts

Sports

Field hockey was considered to be the national game of India, but this has been recently denied by the Government of India, clarifying on a Right to Information Act (RTI) filed that India has not declared any sport as the national game.[183][184][185] At a time when it was especially popular, the India men's national field hockey team won the 1975 Men's Hockey World Cup, and 8 gold, 1 silver, and 2 bronze medals at the Olympic Games. However, field hockey in India no longer has the following that it once did.[185]

Cricket is considered the most popular sport in India.[184] The India national cricket team won the 1983 Cricket World Cup, the 2011 Cricket World Cup, the 2007 ICC World Twenty20, the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the Challenger Series. In addition, BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition.

Football is popular in the Indian state of Kerala also considered as home of football in India.The city of Kolkata is the home to the largest stadium in India, and the second largest stadium in the world by capacity, Salt Lake Stadium.National clubs such as Mohun Bagan A.C., Kingfisher East Bengal F.C., Prayag United S.C., and the Mohammedan Sporting Club.[186]

Chess is commonly believed to have originated in northwestern India during the Gupta empire,[187][188][189][190] where its early form in the 6th century was known as chaturanga. Other games which originated in India and continue to remain popular in wide parts of northern India include Kabaddi, Gilli-danda, and Kho kho. Traditional southern Indian games include Snake boat race and Kuttiyum kolum. The modern game of polo is derived from Manipur, India, where the game was known as 'Sagol Kangjei', 'Kanjai-bazee', or 'Pulu'.[191][192]It was the anglicised form of the last, referring to the wooden ball that was used, which was adopted by the sport in its slow spread to the west. The first polo club was established in the town of Silchar in Assam, India, in 1833.

In 2011, India inaugurated a privately built Buddh International Circuit, its first motor racing circuit. The 5.14-kilometre circuit is in Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, near Delhi. The first Formula One Indian Grand Prix event was hosted here in October 2011.[193][194]

Indian martial arts

Indian martial arts

One of the best known forms of ancient Indian martial arts is the Kalarippayattu from Kerala. This ancient fighting style is mentioned in Sangam literature 400 BCE and 600 CE and is regarded as one of the oldest surviving martial arts.[197][198] In this form of martial arts, various stages of physical training include ayurvedic massage with sesame oil to impart suppleness to the body (uzichil); a series of sharp body movements so as to gain control over various parts of the body (miapayattu); and, complex sword fighting techniques (paliyankam).[199]Silambam, which was developed around 200 AD, traces its roots to the Sangam period in southern India.[200] Silambam is unique among Indian martial arts because it uses complex footwork techniques (kaaladi), including a variety of spinning styles. A bamboo staff is used as the main weapon.[200] The ancient Tamil Sangam literature mentions that between 400 BCE and 600 CE, soldiers from southern India received special martial arts training which revolved primarily around the use of spear (vel), sword (val) and shield (kedaham).[201]

Among eastern states, Paika akhada is a martial art found in Odisha. Paika akhada, or paika akhara, roughly translates as "warrior gymnasium" or "warrior school".[202] In ancient times, these were training schools of the peasant militia. Today's Paika akhada teach physical exercises and martial arts in addition to the Paika dance, performance art with rhythmic movements and weapons being hit in time to the drum. It incorporates acrobatic manoeuvres and use of the khanda (straight sword), patta (guantlet-sword), sticks, and other weapons.

In northern India, the musti yuddha evolved in 1100 AD and focussed on mental, physical and spiritual training.[203] In addition, the Dhanur Veda tradition was an influential fighting arts style which considered the bow and the arrow to be the supreme weapons. The Dhanur Veda was first described in the 5th-century BCE Viṣṇu Purāṇa[198] and is also mentioned in both of the major ancient Indian epics, the Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata. A distinctive factor of Indian martial arts is the heavy emphasis laid on meditation (dhyāna) as a tool to remove fear, doubt and anxiety.[204]

Indian martial arts techniques have had a profound impact on other martial arts styles across Asia. The 3rd-century BCE Yoga Sutras of Patanjali taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These elements of yoga, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.[205] According to some historical accounts, the South Indian Buddhist monk Bodhidharma was one of the main founders of the Shaolin Kungfu.[206]

Popular media

Television

Bollywood actors at International Indian Film Academy Awards, Toronto 2011

Indian television started off in 1959 in New Delhi with tests for educational telecasts.[207][208] Indian small screen programming started off in the mid-1970s. Only one national channel, the government-owned Doordarshan existed around that time. The year 1982 marked a revolution in TV programming in India, as the New Delhi Asian games became the first to be broadcast on the colour version of TV. The Ramayana and Mahabharat were among the popular television series produced. By the late 1980s television set ownership rapidly increased.[209] Because a single channel was catering to an ever-growing audience, television programming quickly reached saturation. Hence the government started another channel that had part of national programming and part regional. This channel was known as DD 2 (later DD Metro). Both channels were broadcast terrestrially.

In 1991, the government liberated its markets, opening them up to cable television. Since then, there has been a spurt in the number of channels available. Today, the Indian small screen is a huge industry by itself and offers hundreds of programmes in almost all the regional languages of India. The small screen has produced numerous celebrities of their own kind, some even attaining national fame for themselves. TV soaps enjoy popularity among women of all classes. Indian TV also consists of Western channels such as Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, HBO, and FX. In 2016 the list of TV channels in India stood at 892.[210]

Cinema

Bollywood is the informal name given to the popular Mumbai-based film industry in India. Bollywood and the other major cinematic hubs (in Bengali cinema, the Oriya film industry, Bhojpuri, Assamese, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, Punjabi and Telugu) constitute the broader Indian film industry, whose output is considered to be the largest in the world in terms of number of films produced and number of tickets sold.

India has produced many cinema-makers like S.Shankar, S.S.Rajamouli, Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, J. C. Daniel, K. Viswanath, Ram Gopal Varma, Bapu, Ritwik Ghatak, Guru Dutt, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Shaji N. Karun, Girish Kasaravalli, Shekhar Kapoor, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Nagraj Manjule, Shyam Benegal, Shankar Nag, Girish Karnad, G. V. Iyer, Mani Ratnam, and K. Balachander (see also: Indian film directors). With the opening up of the economy in recent years and consequent exposure to world cinema, audience tastes have been changing. In addition, multiplexes have mushroomed in most cities, changing the revenue patterns.

Perceptions of Indian culture

An Ao Naga girl in her traditional attire in Nagaland, Northeast India.
Garo couple in traditional dress, Meghalaya

India's diversity has inspired many writers to describe their perceptions of the country's culture. These writings paint a complex and often conflicting picture of the culture of India. India is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse countries in the world. The concept of "Indian culture" is a very complex and complicated matter. Indian citizens are divided into various ethnic, religious, caste, linguistic and regional groups, making the realities of "Indianness" extremely complicated. This is why the conception of Indian identity poses certain difficulties and presupposes a series of assumptions about what concisely the expression "Indian" means. However, despite this vast and heterogeneous composition, the creation of some sort of typical or shared Indian culture results from some inherent internal forces (such as a robust Constitution, universal adult franchise, flexible federal structure, secular educational policy, etc.) and from certain historical events (such as Indian Independence Movement, Partition, wars against Pakistan, etc.) Hindu Sanskriti Ankh is an ancient series of books originally from northern part of India highlighting the Bharatiya Sanskriti, that is, the culture of India.

According to industry consultant Eugene M. Makar, for example, traditional Indian culture is defined by a relatively strict social hierarchy. He also mentions that from an early age, children are reminded of their roles and places in society.[211] This is reinforced, Makar notes, by the way, many believe gods and spirits have an integral and functional role in determining their life. Several differences such as religion divide the culture. However, a far more powerful division is the traditional Hindu bifurcation into non-polluting and polluting occupations. Strict social taboos have governed these groups for thousands of years, claims Makar. In recent years, particularly in cities, some of these lines have blurred and sometimes even disappeared. He writes important family relations extend as far as 1 gotra, the mainly patrilinear lineage or clan assigned to a Hindu at birth. In rural areas & sometimes in urban areas as well, it is common that three or four generations of the family live under the same roof. The patriarch often resolves family issues.[211]

Others have a different perception of Indian culture. According to an interview with C.K. Prahalad by Des Dearlove, author of many best selling business books, modern India is a country of very diverse cultures with many languages, religions, and traditions. Children begin by coping and learning to accept and assimilate in this diversity. Prahalad – who was born in India and grew up there – claimed, in the interview, that Indians, like everyone else in the world, want to be treated as unique, as individuals, want to express themselves and seek innovation.[212] In another report, Nancy Lockwood of Society for Human Resource Management, the world's largest human resources association with members in 140 countries, writes that in the past two decades or so, social change in India is in dramatic contrast to the expectations from traditional Indian culture. These changes have led to Indian families giving education opportunities to girls, accepting women working outside the home, pursuing a career, and opening the possibility for women to attain managerial roles in corporate India. Lockwood claims that change is slow, yet the scale of cultural change can be sensed from the fact that of India's 397 million workers, 124 million are now women. The issues in India with women empowerment are similar to those elsewhere in the world.[213]

According to Amartya Sen, the India born Nobel Laureate in Economics, the culture of modern India is a complex blend of its historical traditions, influences from the effects of colonial rule over centuries and current Western culture – both collaterally and dialectically. Sen observes that external images of India in the West often tend to emphasise the difference – real or imagined – between India and the West.[214] There is a considerable inclination in the Western countries to distance and highlight the differences in Indian culture from the mainstream of Western traditions, rather than discover and show similarities. Western writers and media usually misses, in important ways, crucial aspects of Indian culture and traditions. The deep-seated heterogeneity of Indian traditions, in different parts of India, is neglected in these homogenised descriptions of India. The perceptions of Indian culture, by those who weren't born and raised in India, tend to be one of at least three categories, writes Sen:

The curatorial approach, one inspired by a systematic curiosity for the cultural diversity of India within India, is mostly absent.

Susan Bayly, in her book, observes that there is a considerable dispute in India and Orientalist scholars on perceived Indian culture. She acknowledges that many dispute claims of the pervasiveness of caste and strict social hierarchy in modern India. Bayly notes that much of the Indian subcontinent was populated by people for whom the formal distinctions of caste and strict social hierarchies were of only limited importance in their lifestyles.[215]

According to Rosser, an American sociologist, Americans of South Asian origins feel the Western perception of the culture of India has numerous stereotypes. Rosser notes that the discourse in much of the United States about the culture of India is rarely devoted to independent India. People quickly make sweeping and flawed metaphysical assumptions about its religion and culture but are far more circumspect when evaluating civil society and political culture in modern India. It is as if the value of South Asia resides only in its ancient contributions to human knowledge whereas its pathetic attempts to modernise or develop are to be winked at and patronised.[216] Rosser conducted numerous interviews and summarised the comments. The study reports a stark contrast between Western perceptions of the culture of India, versus the direct experience of the interviewed people. For example:

The presentation of South Asians is a standard pedagogic approach which runs quickly from the "Cradle of Civilisation"—contrasting the Indus Valley with Egypt and Mesopotamia—on past the Aryans, who were somehow our ancestors— to the poverty-stricken, superstitious, polytheistic, caste-ridden Hindu way of life ... and then somehow magically culminates with a eulogy of Mahatma Gandhi. A typical textbook trope presents standard Ancient India Meets the Age of Expansion Approach with a colour photo of the Taj Mahal. There may be a sidebar on ahimsa or a chart of connecting circles graphically explaining samsara and reincarnation or illustrations of the four stages of life or the Four Noble Truths. Amid the dearth of real information, there may be found an entire page dedicated to a deity such as Indra or Varuna, who admittedly are rather an obscure vis-à-vis the beliefs of most modern Hindus.

— A South Asian in America[216]

There is new debate arising as to whether or not Indian culture is decaying.[217]

See also

References

Citations

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Works cited

Bibliography

Further reading

External links