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Júpiter (dios)

Júpiter ( en latín : Iūpiter o Iuppiter , [14] del protoitálico * djous "día, cielo" + * patēr "padre", por tanto " padre del cielo " en griego: Δίας o Ζεύς ), [15] también conocido como Jove ( gen . Iovis [ˈjɔwɪs] ), es el dios del cielo y del trueno , y rey ​​de los dioses en la religión y mitología romanas antiguas . Júpiter fue la deidad principal de la religión estatal romana a lo largo de las eras republicana e imperial , hasta que el cristianismo se convirtió en la religión dominante del Imperio . En la mitología romana, negocia con Numa Pompilio , el segundo rey de Roma , para establecer principios de la religión romana como la ofrenda o el sacrificio.

Generalmente se piensa que Júpiter se originó como un dios del cielo. Su instrumento de identificación es el rayo y su animal sagrado principal es el águila, [16] [17] que tenía precedencia sobre otras aves en la toma de auspicios [18] y se convirtió en uno de los símbolos más comunes del ejército romano (ver Aquila ). Los dos emblemas a menudo se combinaban para representar al dios en forma de un águila sosteniendo en sus garras un rayo, visto frecuentemente en monedas griegas y romanas. [19] Como dios del cielo, era un testigo divino de los juramentos, la confianza sagrada de la que dependen la justicia y el buen gobierno. Muchas de sus funciones se centraban en la Colina Capitolina , donde se encontraba la ciudadela . En la Tríada Capitolina , era el guardián central del estado con Juno y Minerva . Su árbol sagrado era el roble.

Los romanos consideraban a Júpiter como el equivalente del Zeus griego , [20] y en la literatura latina y el arte romano , los mitos y la iconografía de Zeus se adaptan bajo el nombre de Júpiter . En la tradición de influencia griega, Júpiter era el hermano de Neptuno y Plutón , los equivalentes romanos de Poseidón y Hades respectivamente. Cada uno presidía uno de los tres reinos del universo: el cielo, las aguas y el inframundo. El Diespiter itálico también era un dios del cielo que se manifestaba a la luz del día, generalmente identificado con Júpiter. [21] Tinia suele considerarse su contraparte etrusca . [22]

Papel en el estado

Los romanos creían que Júpiter les había concedido la supremacía porque lo habían honrado más que cualquier otro pueblo. Júpiter era "la fuente de los auspicios sobre los que se basaba la relación de la ciudad con los dioses". [23] Personificaba la autoridad divina de los más altos cargos de Roma, la organización interna y las relaciones externas. Su imagen en el Capitolio republicano e imperial ostentaba las insignias asociadas con los antiguos reyes de Roma y los más altos honores consulares e imperiales . [24]

Los cónsules juraban su cargo en nombre de Júpiter y lo honraban en las ferias anuales del Capitolio en septiembre. Para agradecerle su ayuda y asegurarse su apoyo continuo, sacrificaban un buey blanco (bos mas) con cuernos dorados. [25] Los generales triunfantes hacían una ofrenda sacrificial similar , entregando las prendas de su victoria a los pies de la estatua de Júpiter en el Capitolio. Algunos estudiosos han considerado que el triunfador encarnaba (o imitaba) a Júpiter en la procesión triunfal. [26]

La asociación de Júpiter con la realeza y la soberanía fue reinterpretada a medida que cambiaba la forma de gobierno de Roma. Originalmente, Roma estaba gobernada por reyes ; después de que se aboliera la monarquía y se estableciera la República , las prerrogativas religiosas fueron transferidas a los patres , la clase gobernante patricia . La nostalgia por la realeza (afectatio regni) se consideraba traición. Aquellos sospechosos de albergar ambiciones monárquicas eran castigados, independientemente de su servicio al estado. En el siglo V a. C., el triunfador Camilo fue enviado al exilio después de conducir un carro con un equipo de cuatro caballos blancos ( cuadriga ) , un honor reservado para el propio Júpiter. Cuando Marco Manlio , cuya defensa del Capitolio contra los invasores galos le había valido el nombre de Capitolino , fue acusado de pretensiones reales, fue ejecutado como traidor al ser arrojado desde la Roca Tarpeya . Su casa en la Colina Capitolina fue arrasada y se decretó que nunca se permitiría a ningún patricio vivir allí. [27] Júpiter Capitolino representaba una continuidad del poder real del período regio y confería poder a los magistrados que le presentaban sus respetos. [28]

Durante el conflicto de los órdenes , los plebeyos de Roma exigieron el derecho a ocupar cargos políticos y religiosos. Durante su primera secessio (similar a una huelga general ), se retiraron de la ciudad y amenazaron con fundar la suya propia. Cuando aceptaron regresar a Roma, juraron a Júpiter que la colina donde se habían retirado era símbolo y garante de la unidad de la res publica romana . [29] Los plebeyos finalmente se volvieron elegibles para todas las magistraturas y la mayoría de los sacerdocios, pero el sumo sacerdote de Júpiter ( Flamen Dialis ) permaneció reservado a los patricios. [30]

Flamen y Flaminica Dialis

Bajorrelieve de cinco sacerdotes romanos
Detalle de relieve del Altar Augusto de la Paz , que muestra flamines con el ápice puntiagudo
Estatua de Júpiter, Vaticano, Roma.
Cabeza de Júpiter coronada de laurel y hiedra. Camafeo de Sardónice ( Louvre )
Júpiter-Zeus con rayo y cetro entre las nubes. Fresco de Herculano , 1-37 d. C.
Fragmento de decoración de un arco de triunfo: La Guardia del Emperador, La Guardia Pretoriana , aparece en un relieve con un águila agarrando un rayo entre sus garras; en referencia a la forma equivalente romana de Júpiter .

Júpiter era servido por el patricio Flamen Dialis, el miembro de mayor rango de los flamines , un colegio de quince sacerdotes en el culto público oficial de Roma, cada uno de los cuales era devoto de una deidad en particular. Su esposa, la Flaminica Dialis, tenía sus propios deberes y presidía el sacrificio de un carnero a Júpiter en cada uno de los nundinae , los días de "mercado" de un ciclo del calendario, comparables a una semana. [31] La pareja debía casarse mediante el exclusivo ritual patricio confarreatio , que incluía un sacrificio de pan de espelta a Júpiter Farreus (de far , "trigo, grano"). [32]

El oficio de Flamen Dialis estaba limitado por varias prohibiciones rituales únicas, algunas de las cuales arrojaban luz sobre la naturaleza soberana del propio dios. [33] Por ejemplo, el flamen podía quitarse la ropa o el sombrero puntiagudo sólo cuando estaba bajo un techo, para evitar mostrarse desnudo al cielo, es decir, "como si estuviera bajo los ojos de Júpiter", como dios de los cielos. Cada vez que la Flaminica veía un rayo o escuchaba un trueno (el instrumento distintivo de Júpiter), se le prohibía continuar con su rutina normal hasta que aplacara al dios. [34]

Algunos privilegios del flamen de Júpiter pueden reflejar la naturaleza regia de Júpiter: tenía el uso de la silla curul , [35] y era el único sacerdote ( sacerdos ) que era precedido por un lictor [36] y tenía un asiento en el senado . [37] Otras regulaciones se refieren a su pureza ritual y su separación de la función militar; tenía prohibido montar a caballo o ver al ejército fuera del límite sagrado de Roma ( pomerium ). Aunque servía al dios que encarnaba la santidad del juramento, no era religiosamente permisible ( fas ) que el Dialis hiciera un juramento. [38] No podía tener contactos con nada muerto o relacionado con la muerte: cadáveres, funerales, hogueras funerarias, carne cruda. Este conjunto de restricciones refleja la plenitud de vida y la libertad absoluta que son características de Júpiter. [39]

Augures

Los augures publici eran un colegio de sacerdotes encargados de todas las inauguraciones y de la realización de las ceremonias conocidas como auguria . Su creación se atribuía tradicionalmente a Rómulo . Se les consideraba los únicos intérpretes oficiales de la voluntad de Júpiter , por lo que eran esenciales para la existencia misma del Estado romano, ya que los romanos veían en Júpiter la única fuente de autoridad estatal.

Feciales

Los feciales eran un colegio de 20 hombres dedicados a la administración religiosa de los asuntos internacionales del estado. [40] [41] [42] Su tarea era preservar y aplicar la ley fecial (ius fetiale) , un conjunto complejo de procedimientos destinados a garantizar la protección de los dioses en las relaciones de Roma con los estados extranjeros. Júpiter Lapis es el dios bajo cuya protección actúan, y a quien el fecial jefe (pater patratus) invoca en el rito de conclusión de un tratado. [43] Si se produce una declaración de guerra , el fecial invoca a Júpiter y Quirino , los dioses celestiales, terrenales y ctónicos, como testigos de cualquier posible violación del ius . Luego puede declarar la guerra en un plazo de 33 días. [44]

La acción de los feciales cae bajo la jurisdicción de Júpiter como defensor divino de la buena fe. Varios emblemas del oficio fecial pertenecen a Júpiter. El sílex era la piedra utilizada para el sacrificio fecial, albergada en el Templo de Júpiter Feretrius , al igual que su cetro. Las hierbas sagradas (sagmina) , a veces identificadas como verbena , debían ser tomadas de la ciudadela cercana (arx) para su uso ritual. [45] [46]

Júpiter y la religión en las secesiones de la plebe

El papel de Júpiter en el conflicto de órdenes es un reflejo de la religiosidad de los romanos. Por un lado, los patricios podían reclamar con naturalidad el apoyo del dios supremo, ya que ostentaban los auspicios del Estado. Por otro lado, la plebe (los plebeyos) argumentaban que, como Júpiter era la fuente de la justicia, contaban con su favor porque su causa era justa.

La primera secesión fue causada por la excesiva carga de deuda que soportaba la plebe. La institución legal del nexum permitía que un deudor se convirtiera en esclavo de su acreedor. La plebe argumentó que las deudas se habían vuelto insostenibles debido a los gastos de las guerras que querían los patricios. Como el Senado no accedió a la propuesta de una condonación total de la deuda presentada por el dictador y augur Manio Valerio Máximo, la plebe se retiró al Monte Sacer, una colina ubicada tres millas romanas al noreste de Roma, más allá del puente Nomentan sobre el río Anio . [47] El lugar es ventoso y generalmente era el sitio de ritos de adivinación realizados por arúspices. El Senado finalmente envió una delegación compuesta por diez miembros con plenos poderes para llegar a un acuerdo con la plebe, de la que formaban parte Menenio Agripa y Manio Valerio. Según la inscripción encontrada en Arezzo en 1688 y escrita por orden de Augusto, así como otras fuentes literarias, fue Valerio quien hizo descender a la plebe del Monte, después de que los secesionistas lo hubieran consagrado a Júpiter Territor y hubieran construido un altar ( ara ) en su cima. El temor a la ira de Júpiter fue un elemento importante en la solución de la crisis. La consagración del Monte probablemente se refería únicamente a su cima. El ritual requería la participación tanto de un augur (presumiblemente el propio Manio Valerio) como de un pontífice. [48]

La segunda secesión fue provocada por el comportamiento autócrata y arrogante de los decenviros , a quienes el pueblo romano había encargado la tarea de redactar las leyes en vigor hasta entonces, mantenidas en secreto por los magistrados patricios y los sacerdotes . Todas las magistraturas y los tribunos de la plebe habían dimitido de antemano. La tarea dio lugar a las XII Tablas, que, sin embargo, sólo se referían al derecho privado. La plebe se retiró una vez más al Sacer Mons: este acto, además de recordar la primera secesión, pretendía buscar la protección del dios supremo. La secesión terminó con la dimisión de los decenviros y una amnistía para los soldados rebeldes que habían desertado de su campamento cerca del monte Álgido mientras luchaban contra los volscos, abandonando a los comandantes. La amnistía fue concedida por el Senado y garantizada por el pontífice máximo Quinto Furio (en la versión de Livio) (o Marco Papirio) que también supervisó el nombramiento de los nuevos tribunos de la plebe, entonces reunida en el Aventino. El papel desempeñado por el pontífice máximo en una situación de vacancia de poderes es un elemento significativo que subraya la base religiosa y el carácter de la tribunicia potestas . [49]

Mitos y leyendas

Pintura de un Júpiter barbudo, sentado, desnudo de cintura para arriba y sosteniendo un bastón.
Júpiter en una pintura mural de Pompeya , con águila y globo terráqueo, 62-79 d. C.

Una línea dominante de estudios ha sostenido que Roma carecía de un cuerpo de mitos en su período más temprano, o que esta mitología original ha sido irremediablemente oscurecida por la influencia de la tradición narrativa griega . [50] Después de la influencia de la cultura griega en la cultura romana, la literatura y la iconografía latinas reinterpretaron los mitos de Zeus en representaciones y narraciones de Júpiter. En la historia legendaria de Roma, Júpiter a menudo se relaciona con los reyes y la realeza.

Nacimiento

Júpiter es representado como el gemelo de Juno en una estatua en Praeneste que los muestra amamantados por Fortuna Primigenia . [51] Sin embargo, una inscripción que también es de Praeneste dice que Fortuna Primigenia fue la primogénita de Júpiter. [52] Jacqueline Champeaux ve esta contradicción como el resultado de sucesivas fases culturales y religiosas diferentes, en las que una ola de influencia proveniente del mundo helénico convirtió a Fortuna en la hija de Júpiter. [53] La infancia de Zeus es un tema importante en la religión, el arte y la literatura griegas, pero solo hay representaciones raras (o dudosas) de Júpiter cuando era niño. [54]

Numa Pompilio

Enfrentado a un período de mal tiempo que puso en peligro la cosecha durante una primavera temprana, el rey Numa recurrió al plan de pedir el consejo del dios evocando su presencia. [55] Tuvo éxito gracias a la ayuda de Pico y Fauno, a quienes había encarcelado emborrachándolos. Los dos dioses (con un hechizo) evocaron a Júpiter, quien se vio obligado a bajar a la tierra en el Aventino (de ahí el nombre de Júpiter Elicio , según Ovidio). Después de que Numa esquivara hábilmente las peticiones del dios de sacrificios humanos, Júpiter accedió a su petición de saber cómo se evitan los rayos, pidiendo solo las sustituciones que Numa había mencionado: un bulbo de cebolla, cabellos y un pez. Además, Júpiter prometió que al amanecer del día siguiente daría a Numa y al pueblo romano peones del imperium . Al día siguiente, después de lanzar tres rayos a través de un cielo despejado, Júpiter envió desde el cielo un escudo. Como este escudo no tenía ángulos, Numa lo llamó ancile ; Como en él residía el destino del imperio , mandó hacer muchas copias para camuflar el auténtico. Pidió al herrero Mamurius Veturius que hiciera las copias y se las dio a los salios . Como única recompensa, Mamurius expresó el deseo de que su nombre fuera cantado en el último de sus carmina . [56] Plutarco da una versión ligeramente diferente de la historia, escribiendo que la causa de la milagrosa caída del escudo fue una plaga y no relacionándola con el imperio romano . [57]

Tulo Hostilio

Durante todo su reinado, el rey Tulo tuvo una actitud desdeñosa hacia la religión. Su temperamento era belicoso, y despreciaba los ritos religiosos y la piedad. Tras conquistar a los Albanos con el duelo entre los Horacios y los Curiacios , Tulo destruyó Alba Longa y deportó a sus habitantes a Roma. Según cuenta Livio , en el monte Albano se produjeron presagios ( prodigia ) en forma de lluvia de piedras porque los Albanos deportados habían desatendido sus ritos ancestrales vinculados al santuario de Júpiter. Además de los presagios, se oyó una voz que solicitaba a los Albanos que realizaran los ritos. Siguió una plaga y al final el propio rey enfermó. Como consecuencia, el carácter belicoso de Tulo se quebró; recurrió a la religión y a prácticas mezquinas y supersticiosas. Al final, encontró un libro de Numa que registraba un rito secreto sobre cómo evocar a Júpiter Elicio . El rey intentó realizarlo, pero como ejecutó el rito incorrectamente, el dios lanzó un rayo que quemó la casa del rey y mató a Tullus. [58]

Tarquino el Viejo

Al acercarse a Roma (donde Tarquino se dirigía para probar suerte en la política tras sus intentos fallidos en su natal Tarquinii ), un águila descendió en picado, se quitó el sombrero, voló en círculos chillando, volvió a ponerse el sombrero en la cabeza y se fue volando. La esposa de Tarquino, Tanaquil, interpretó esto como una señal de que se convertiría en rey basándose en el ave, el cuadrante del cielo del que procedía, el dios que la había enviado y el hecho de que tocara su sombrero (una prenda de vestir que se coloca en la parte más noble de un hombre, la cabeza). [59]

Se atribuye a Tarquino el Viejo la introducción de la Tríada Capitolina en Roma, al construir el llamado Capitolium Vetus. Macrobio escribe que esto surgió de sus creencias sobre los misterios de Samotracia. [60]

Culto

Bajorrelieve de un grupo familiar con un animal en el exterior de un gran edificio con columnas
El emperador Marco Aurelio , acompañado por su familia, ofrece un sacrificio en el exterior del templo de Júpiter Capitolino tras sus victorias en Alemania (finales del siglo II d. C.). Museo Capitolino , Roma
Estatua colosal de Júpiter en el Museo del Hermitage

Sacrificios

Las víctimas sacrificiales ( hostiae ) ofrecidas a Júpiter eran el buey (toro castrado), el cordero (en los idus, el ovis idulis ) y el carnero (una cabra castrada o un carnero castrado) (en los idus de enero). [61] Los animales debían ser blancos. La cuestión del género del cordero no está resuelta; mientras que un cordero sacrificial para una deidad masculina era normalmente macho, para el festival de apertura de la vendimia el flamen Dialis sacrificaba una cordera a Júpiter. [62] Esta regla parece haber tenido muchas excepciones, como lo demuestra el sacrificio de un carnero en las Nundinae por la flaminica Dialis . Durante una de las crisis de las Guerras Púnicas , se ofrecía a Júpiter cada animal nacido ese año. [63]

Templos

Templo de Júpiter Capitolino

El Templo de Júpiter Óptimo Máximo se encontraba en la Colina Capitolina de Roma. [64] Júpiter era adorado allí como una deidad individual, y con Juno y Minerva como parte de la Tríada Capitolina . El edificio fue supuestamente iniciado por el rey Tarquinius Priscus , completado por el último rey ( Tarquinius Superbus ) e inaugurado en los primeros días de la República romana (13 de septiembre de 509 a. C.). Estaba rematado con las estatuas de cuatro caballos tirando de una cuadriga , con Júpiter como auriga. Una gran estatua de Júpiter se encontraba en el interior; en los días festivos, su cara estaba pintada de rojo. [65] En (o cerca de) este templo estaba el Júpiter Lapis : la Piedra de Júpiter , sobre la que se podían realizar juramentos.

El Templo Capitolino de Júpiter probablemente sirvió como modelo arquitectónico para sus templos provinciales. Cuando Adriano construyó Aelia Capitolina en el lugar de Jerusalén , se erigió un templo a Júpiter Capitolino en el lugar del Templo destruido en Jerusalén .

Otros templos en Roma

En Roma había dos templos dedicados a Júpiter Estator ; el primero fue construido y dedicado en 294 a. C. por Marco Atilio Régulo después de la tercera guerra samnita. Estaba situado en la Vía Nova , debajo de la Porta Mugonia , antigua entrada al Palatino. [66] La leyenda atribuye su fundación a Rómulo. [67] Es posible que hubiera un santuario anterior ( fanum ) , ya que el culto a Júpiter está atestiguado epigráficamente. [68] Ovidio sitúa la dedicación del templo el 27 de junio, pero no está claro si esta era la fecha original, [69] o la rededicación después de la restauración por Augusto. [a]

Altar estrecho de piedra, con inscripción
Altar a Júpiter en las afueras de una fortaleza legionaria, siglos II-III d. C. Inscripción: «Dedicado por L. Lollius Clarus para él y su familia»

Un segundo templo de Júpiter Estator fue construido y consagrado por Quinto Cecilo Metelo Macedónico después de su triunfo en 146 a. C. cerca del Circo Flaminio . Estaba conectado al templo restaurado de Iuno Regina con un pórtico ( porticus Metelli ). [70] Augusto construyó el Templo de Júpiter Tonans cerca del de Júpiter Capitolino entre el 26 y el 22 a. C. [71]

Quinto Fabio Máximo Gurges dedicó un templo a Júpiter Víctor durante la tercera guerra samnita en el año 295 a. C. Probablemente se encontraba en el Quirinal, en el que se ha encontrado una inscripción que reza Diovei Victore [72] , pero fue eclipsado por el período imperial por el Templo de Júpiter Invictus en el Palatino, al que a menudo se hacía referencia con el mismo nombre. [73] Las inscripciones de la época imperial han revelado la existencia de un templo de Júpiter Propugnator en el Palatino, por lo demás desconocido . [74]

Iuppiter Latiaris y Feriae Latinae

El culto a Júpiter Latiaris era el culto más antiguo conocido al dios: se practicaba desde tiempos muy remotos cerca de la cima del Mons Albanus en el que se veneraba al dios como alto protector de la Liga Latina bajo la hegemonía de Alba Longa .

Tras la destrucción de Alba por el rey Tulo Hostilio, el culto fue abandonado. El dios manifestó su descontento mediante el prodigio de una lluvia de piedras: la comisión enviada por el senado romano para investigar también fue recibida con una lluvia de piedras y oyó una voz fuerte desde el bosque en la cima del monte pidiendo a los albanos que realizaran el servicio religioso al dios según los ritos de su país. Como consecuencia de este evento, los romanos instituyeron una fiesta de nueve días ( nundinae ). No obstante, se produjo una plaga: al final, el propio Tulo Hostilio fue afectado y finalmente asesinado por el dios con un rayo. [75] La fiesta fue restablecida en su sitio primitivo por el último rey romano Tarquino el Soberbio bajo el liderazgo de Roma.

Las feriae Latinae , o Latiar como se las conocía originalmente, [76] eran la fiesta común ( panegyris ) de los llamados latinos priscanos [77] y de los Albanos. [78] Su restauración pretendía fundamentar la hegemonía romana en esta tradición religiosa ancestral de los latinos. El culto original fue restablecido sin cambios como lo atestiguan algunas características arcaicas del ritual: la exclusión del vino del sacrificio [79] las ofertas de leche y queso y el uso ritual del balanceo entre los juegos. El balanceo es uno de los ritos más antiguos que imitan el ascenso al Cielo y está muy extendido. En el Latiar, el balanceo se realizaba en un árbol y el ganador era, por supuesto, el que se balanceaba más alto. Se dice que este rito fue instituido por los Albanos para conmemorar la desaparición del rey Latino , en la batalla contra Mezencio, rey de Caere : el rito simbolizaba una búsqueda de él tanto en la tierra como en el cielo. El balanceo, así como la bebida habitual de leche, también se consideraban para conmemorar y restablecer ritualmente la infancia. [80] Los romanos en la última forma del rito trajeron el buey sacrificial de Roma y a cada participante se le otorgó una porción de la carne, rito conocido como carnem petere . [81] Otros juegos se celebraban en cada distrito participante. En Roma se celebraba una carrera de carros ( quadrigas ) que partía del Capitolio: el ganador bebía un licor elaborado con absenta. [82] Esta competición se ha comparado con el rito védico de la vajapeya : en ella, diecisiete carros corren una carrera falsa que debe ganar el rey para poder beber una copa de madhu , es decir, soma . [83] La fiesta duraba al menos cuatro días, posiblemente seis según Niebuhr , un día para cada una de las seis decuriae latinas y albanas . [84] Según diferentes registros, 47 o 53 burgos participaron en el festival (los nombres enumerados también difieren en Plinio Naturalis historia III 69 y Dionisio de Halicarnaso AR V 61). El Latiar se convirtió en una característica importante de la vida política romana, ya que eran feriae conceptivae, es decir, su fecha variaba cada año: los cónsules y los magistrados más altos debían asistir poco después del comienzo de la administración, originalmente en los idus de marzo: las Feriae generalmente tenían lugar a principios de abril. No podían comenzar la campaña antes de su final y si alguna parte de los juegos se había descuidado o se había realizado de manera no ritual, el Latiar tenía que repetirse por completo. Las inscripciones de la época imperial registran el festival desde la época de los decenviros . [85] Wissowa destaca el vínculo interno del templo del Mons Albanus con el del Capitolio evidente en la asociación común con el rito del triunfo : [86] desde 231 a. C. algunos comandantes triunfantes habían triunfado allí por primera vez con las mismas características legales que en Roma. [87]

Calendario religioso

idus

Los idus (el punto medio del mes, con luna llena) estaban consagrados a Júpiter, porque en ese día la luz celestial brillaba día y noche. [88] Algunos (o todos) los idus eran Feriae Iovis , consagrados a Júpiter. [b] En los idus, un cordero blanco ( ovis idulis ) era conducido por la Vía Sagrada de Roma hasta la Ciudadela Capitolina y se le sacrificaba. [89] Los dos festivales epula Iovis de Júpiter caían en los idus, al igual que sus ritos de fundación del templo como Optimus Maximus , Victor , Invictus y (posiblemente) Stator . [90]

Nundinae

Las nundinae se celebraban cada noveno día, dividiendo el calendario en un ciclo de mercado análogo a una semana. Los días de mercado daban a la gente del campo ( pagi ) la oportunidad de vender en la ciudad y de estar informada de los edictos religiosos y políticos, que se publicaban durante tres días. Según la tradición, estos días festivos fueron instituidos por el rey Servio Tulio . [91] La suma sacerdotisa de Júpiter ( Flaminica Dialis ) santificaba los días sacrificando un carnero a Júpiter. [92]

Festivales

Durante la era republicana , había más días festivos fijos en el calendario romano dedicados a Júpiter que a cualquier otra deidad. [93]

Viticultura y vino

Los festivales de la viticultura y del vino estaban dedicados a Júpiter, ya que las uvas eran particularmente susceptibles al clima adverso. [94] Dumézil describe el vino como una bebida "real" con el poder de embriagar y exaltar, análoga al Soma védico . [95]

Tres fiestas romanas estaban relacionadas con la vinicultura y el vino.

La rústica Vinalia altera pedía el 19 de agosto buen tiempo para madurar las uvas antes de la cosecha. [96] Cuando las uvas estaban maduras, [97] se sacrificaba una oveja a Júpiter y el flamen Dialis cortaba las primeras uvas de la cosecha. [98] [99]

La Meditrinalia del 11 de octubre marcaba el final de la cosecha de uvas; el vino nuevo se prensaba , se cataba y se mezclaba con el vino viejo [100] para controlar la fermentación. En los Fasti Amiternini , esta fiesta se asigna a Júpiter. Fuentes romanas posteriores inventaron una diosa, Meditrina , probablemente para explicar el nombre de la fiesta. [101]

El 23 de abril, en la Vinalia urbana , se ofrecía vino nuevo a Júpiter. [c] Se vertían grandes cantidades de este vino en una zanja cerca del templo de Venus Ericina , que estaba situado en el Capitolio. [103]

Regifugium y Poplifugium

El Regifugium ("Huida del Rey") [104] del 24 de febrero se ha discutido a menudo en conexión con la Poplifugia del 5 de julio, un día sagrado para Júpiter. [105] [d] El Regifugium seguía al festival de Iuppiter Terminus (Júpiter de los Límites) el 23 de febrero. Los anticuarios romanos posteriores malinterpretaron el Regifugium como una celebración que marcaba la expulsión de la monarquía, pero el "rey" de este festival puede haber sido el sacerdote conocido como rex sacrorum , que representaba ritualmente la disminución y renovación del poder asociada con el Año Nuevo (1 de marzo en el antiguo calendario romano). [107] Una vacante temporal del poder (interpretada como un " interregno " anual) ocurrió entre el Regifugium del 24 de febrero y el Año Nuevo el 1 de marzo (cuando se pensaba que el ciclo lunar coincidía de nuevo con el ciclo solar), y la incertidumbre y el cambio durante los dos meses de invierno habían terminado. [108] Algunos estudiosos destacan el significado político tradicional del día. [109]

La Poplifugia ("Derrota de los ejércitos" [110] ), un día sagrado para Júpiter, puede marcar de manera similar la segunda mitad del año; antes de la reforma del calendario juliano , los meses se nombraban numéricamente, desde Quintilis (el quinto mes) hasta diciembre (el décimo mes). [e] La Poplifugia era un "ritual militar primitivo" para el cual la población masculina adulta se reunía para ritos de purificación, después de los cuales expulsaban ritualmente a los invasores extranjeros de Roma. [112]

Epula iovis

Había dos festivales llamados epulum Iovis ("Fiesta de Júpiter"). Uno se celebraba el 13 de septiembre, aniversario de la fundación del templo capitolino de Júpiter. El otro festival (y probablemente más antiguo) formaba parte de los Juegos Plebeyos (Ludi Plebei) y se celebraba el 13 de noviembre. [113] En el siglo III a. C., el epulum Iovis pasó a ser algo similar a un lectisternium . [114]

Ludi

Los juegos romanos más antiguos se celebraban después de un día (considerado dies ater , o "día negro", es decir, un día que tradicionalmente se consideraba desafortunado aunque no fuera nefas , véase también el artículo Glosario de las religiones romanas antiguas ) los dos Epula Iovis de septiembre y noviembre.

Los juegos de septiembre se llamaban Ludi Magni ; originalmente no se celebraban todos los años, pero más tarde se convirtieron en los Ludi Romani anuales [115] y se celebraban en el Circo Máximo después de una procesión desde el Capitolio. Los juegos se atribuyeron a Tarquinius Priscus [116] y se vincularon al culto de Júpiter en el Capitolio. Los propios romanos reconocían analogías con el triunfo , que Dumézil cree que se pueden explicar por su origen etrusco común; el magistrado a cargo de los juegos vestido como el triunfador y la pompa circensis se parecían a una procesión triunfal. Wissowa y Mommsen argumentan que eran una parte separada del triunfo por los motivos anteriores [117] (una conclusión que Dumézil rechaza). [118]

Los Ludi Plebei se celebraban en noviembre en el Circo Flaminio . [119] Mommsen sostuvo que el epulum de los Ludi Plebei era el modelo de los Ludi Romani, pero Wissowa considera insuficiente la evidencia de esta suposición. [120] Los Ludi Plebei probablemente se establecieron en el año 534 a. C. Su asociación con el culto a Júpiter está atestiguada por Cicerón. [121]

Larentalia

Las feriae del 23 de diciembre estaban dedicadas a una importante ceremonia en honor de Acca Larentia (o Larentina ), en la que participaban algunas de las más altas autoridades religiosas (probablemente incluidos el Flamen Quirinalis y los pontífices ). Los Fasti Praenestini marcan el día como feriae Iovis , al igual que Macrobius. [122] No está claro si el rito de parentatio era en sí mismo la razón para el festival de Júpiter, o si se trataba de otro festival que coincidía el mismo día. Wissowa niega su asociación, ya que Júpiter y su flamen no estarían involucrados con el inframundo o las deidades de la muerte (ni estarían presentes en un rito funerario celebrado en una tumba). [123]

Nombre y epítetos

Bajorrelieve de Júpiter, desnudo de cintura para arriba y sentado en un trono.
Escultura neoática en bajorrelieve de Júpiter sosteniendo un rayo en su mano derecha; detalle del Puteal de la Moncloa (romano, siglo II), Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid

El nombre latino Iuppiter se originó como un compuesto vocativo del antiguo vocativo del latín * Iou y pater ("padre") y llegó a reemplazar el antiguo caso nominativo del latín * Ious . Jove [f] es una formación inglesa menos común basada en Iov- , la raíz de los casos oblicuos del nombre latino. Los estudios lingüísticos identifican la forma * Iou-pater como derivada del vocativo protoitálico * Djous Patēr , [15] y, en última instancia, del compuesto vocativo indoeuropeo * Dyēu-pəter (que significa "Oh Padre Dios del Cielo"; nominativo: * Dyēus -pətēr ). [124]

Las formas más antiguas del nombre de la deidad en Roma eran Dieus-pater ("padre del día/cielo"), y luego Diéspiter . [125] El filólogo del siglo XIX Georg Wissowa afirmó que estos nombres están conectados conceptual y lingüísticamente con Diovis y Diovis Pater ; compara las formaciones análogas Vedius - Veiove y fulgur Dium , en oposición a fulgur Summanum (rayo nocturno) y flamen Dialis (basado en Dius , dies ). [126] Los antiguos más tarde los vieron como entidades separadas de Júpiter. Los términos son similares en etimología y semántica ( dies , "luz del día" y Dius , "cielo diurno"), pero difieren lingüísticamente. Wissowa considera que el epíteto Dianus es digno de mención. [127] [128] Dieus es el equivalente etimológico del Zeus de la antigua Grecia y del Ziu (genitivo Ziewes ) de los teutónicos . La deidad indoeuropea es el dios del que se derivan o se han desarrollado los nombres y parcialmente la teología de Júpiter, Zeus y el Dyaus Pita védico indoario . [129]

La práctica romana de jurar por Júpiter para presenciar un juramento en los tribunales [130] [131] es el origen de la expresión «¡por Júpiter!», arcaica, pero todavía en uso. El nombre del dios también fue adoptado como el nombre del planeta Júpiter ; el adjetivo «jovial» describía originalmente a los nacidos bajo el planeta Júpiter [132] (que se consideraba alegre, optimista y de temperamento alegre ).

Jove era el homónimo original de las formas latinas del día de la semana que ahora se conoce en inglés como Thursday [g] (originalmente llamado Iovis Dies en latín ). Estas se convirtieron en jeudi en francés, jueves en español, joi en rumano , giovedì en italiano, dijous en catalán , Xoves en gallego , Joibe en friulano y Dijóu en provenzal .

Epítetos mayores

Los epítetos de un dios romano indican sus cualidades teológicas. El estudio de estos epítetos debe tener en cuenta sus orígenes (el contexto histórico de la fuente del epíteto).

Las formas de culto a Júpiter más antiguas de las que se tiene conocimiento pertenecen al culto estatal: entre ellas se encuentra el culto del monte (véase la nota n. 22). En Roma, este culto implicaba la existencia de santuarios particulares, de los cuales el más importante se encontraba en el monte Capitolino (antes Tarpeius ). El monte tenía dos cimas, ambas destinadas al desempeño de los actos de culto relacionados con Júpiter. La cima norte y más alta era el arx y en ella se encontraba el lugar de observación de los augures ( auguraculum ) y hacia ella se dirigía la procesión mensual de la sacra Idulia . [133] En la cima sur se encontraba el santuario más antiguo del dios: el santuario de Júpiter Feretrius , supuestamente construido por Rómulo y restaurado por Augusto. El dios no tenía aquí imagen y estaba representado por el sílex sagrado . [134] Los ritos más antiguos conocidos, los de los spolia opima y los de los feciales que conectan a Júpiter con Marte y Quirino, están dedicados a Júpiter Feretrius o Júpiter Lapis . [135] El concepto de dios del cielo ya se superponía con el dominio ético y político desde esta época temprana. Según Wissowa y Dumézil, Júpiter Lapis parece ser inseparable de Júpiter Feretrius , en cuyo pequeño templo en el Capitolio se alojó la piedra. [136]

Otro epíteto muy antiguo es Lucetius : aunque los antiguos, seguidos por algunos eruditos modernos como Wissowa, [126] lo interpretaron como referido a la luz del sol, el carmen Saliare muestra que se refiere al rayo. [137] Una confirmación adicional de esta interpretación la proporciona el significado sagrado del rayo que se refleja en la sensibilidad de la flaminica Dialis al fenómeno. [138] Al mismo complejo atmosférico pertenece el epíteto Elicius : mientras que los eruditos antiguos pensaban que estaba relacionado con el rayo, de hecho está relacionado con la apertura de los depósitos de lluvia, como lo atestigua la ceremonia de la Nudipedalia , destinada a propiciar la lluvia y consagrada a Júpiter. [139] y el ritual del lapis manalis , la piedra que se traía a la ciudad a través de la Porta Capena y se transportaba en tiempos de sequía, que se llamaba Aquaelicium . [140] Otros epítetos tempranos relacionados con la cualidad atmosférica de Júpiter son Pluvius , Imbricius , Tempestas , Tonitrualis , tempestatium divinarum potens , Serenator , Serenus [141] [h] y, referido al rayo, Fulgur , [143] Fulgur Fulmen , [144] más tarde como nomen agentis Fulgurator , Fulminator : [145] la alta antigüedad del culto está atestiguada por la forma neutra Fulgur y el uso del término para el bidental , el pozo del rayo cavado en el lugar alcanzado por un rayo. [146]

Estatua de bronce de Júpiter, procedente del territorio de los tréveros.

A group of epithets has been interpreted by Wissowa (and his followers) as a reflection of the agricultural or warring nature of the god, some of which are also in the list of eleven preserved by Augustine.[147][148] The agricultural ones include Opitulus, Almus, Ruminus, Frugifer, Farreus, Pecunia, Dapalis,[149] Epulo.[150] Augustine gives an explanation of the ones he lists which should reflect Varro's: Opitulus because he brings opem (means, relief) to the needy, Almus because he nourishes everything, Ruminus because he nourishes the living beings by breastfeeding them, Pecunia because everything belongs to him.[151]Dumézil maintains the cult usage of these epithets is not documented and that the epithet Ruminus, as Wissowa and Latte remarked, may not have the meaning given by Augustine but it should be understood as part of a series including Rumina, Ruminalis ficus, Iuppiter Ruminus, which bears the name of Rome itself with an Etruscan vocalism preserved in inscriptions, series that would be preserved in the sacred language (cf. Rumach Etruscan for Roman). However many scholars have argued that the name of Rome, Ruma, meant in fact woman's breast.[152] Diva Rumina, as Augustine testifies in the cited passage, was the goddess of suckling babies: she was venerated near the ficus ruminalis and was offered only libations of milk.[153] Here moreover Augustine cites the verses devoted to Jupiter by Quintus Valerius Soranus, while hypothesising Iuno (more adept in his view as a breastfeeder), i.e. Rumina instead of Ruminus, might be nothing else than Iuppiter: "Iuppiter omnipotens regum rerumque deumque Progenitor genetrixque deum...".

In Dumézil's opinion Farreus should be understood as related to the rite of the confarreatio the most sacred form of marriage, the name of which is due to the spelt cake eaten by the spouses, rather than surmising an agricultural quality of the god: the epithet means the god was the guarantor of the effects of the ceremony, to which the presence of his flamen is necessary and that he can interrupt with a clap of thunder.[154]

The epithet Dapalis is on the other hand connected to a rite described by Cato and mentioned by Festus.[155] Before the sowing of autumn or spring the peasant offered a banquet of roast beef and a cup of wine to Jupiter : it is natural that on such occasions he would entreat the god who has power over the weather, however Cato' s prayer of s one of sheer offer and no request. The language suggests another attitude: Jupiter is invited to a banquet which is supposedly abundant and magnificent. The god is honoured as summus. The peasant may hope he shall receive a benefit, but he does not say it. This interpretation finds support in the analogous urban ceremony of the epulum Iovis, from which the god derives the epithet of Epulo and which was a magnificent feast accompanied by flutes.[156]

Epithets related to warring are in Wissowa's view Iuppiter Feretrius, Iuppiter Stator, Iuppiter Victor and Iuppiter Invictus.[157] Feretrius would be connected with war by the rite of the first type of spolia opima which is in fact a dedication to the god of the arms of the defeated king of the enemy that happens whenever he has been killed by the king of Rome or his equivalent authority. Here too Dumézil notes the dedication has to do with regality and not with war, since the rite is in fact the offer of the arms of a king by a king: a proof of such an assumption is provided by the fact that the arms of an enemy king captured by an officer or a common soldier were dedicated to Mars and Quirinus respectively.

Iuppiter Stator was first attributed by tradition to Romulus, who had prayed to the god for his almighty help at a difficult time during the battle with the Sabines of king Titus Tatius.[158] Dumézil opines the action of Jupiter is not that of a god of war who wins through fighting: Jupiter acts by causing an inexplicable change in the morale of the fighters of the two sides. The same feature can be detected also in the certainly historical record of the battle of the third Samnite War in 294 BC, in which consul Marcus Atilius Regulus vowed a temple to Iuppiter Stator if "Jupiter will stop the rout of the Roman army and if afterwards the Samnite legions shall be victouriously massacred...It looked as if the gods themselves had taken side with Romans, so much easily did the Roman arms succeed in prevailing...".[159][160] In a similar manner one can explain the epithet Victor, whose cult was founded in 295 BC on the battlefield of Sentinum by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges and who received another vow again in 293 by consul Lucius Papirius Cursor before a battle against the Samnite legio linteata. The religious meaning of the vow is in both cases an appeal to the supreme god by a Roman chief at a time of need for divine help from the supreme god, albeit for different reasons: Fabius had remained the only political and military responsible of the Roman State after the devotio of P. Decius Mus, Papirius had to face an enemy who had acted with impious rites and vows, i.e. was religiously reprehensible.[161]

More recently Dario Sabbatucci has given a different interpretation of the meaning of Stator within the frame of his structuralistic and dialectic vision of Roman calendar, identifying oppositions, tensions and equilibria: January is the month of Janus, at the beginning of the year, in the uncertain time of winter (the most ancient calendar had only ten months, from March to December). In this month Janus deifies kingship and defies Jupiter. Moreover, January sees also the presence of Veiovis who appears as an anti-Jupiter, of Carmenta who is the goddess of birth and like Janus has two opposed faces, Prorsa and Postvorta (also named Antevorta and Porrima), of Iuturna, who as a gushing spring evokes the process of coming into being from non-being as the god of passage and change does. In this period the preeminence of Janus needs compensating on the Ides through the action of Jupiter Stator, who plays the role of anti-Janus, i.e. of moderator of the action of Janus.[162]

Epithets denoting functionality

Some epithets describe a particular aspect of the god, or one of his functions:

Syncretic or geographical epithets

Some epithets of Jupiter indicate his association with a particular place. Epithets found in the provinces of the Roman Empire may identify Jupiter with a local deity or site (see syncretism).

In addition, many of the epithets of Zeus can be found applied to Jupiter, by interpretatio romana. Thus, since the hero Trophonius (from Lebadea in Boeotia) is called Zeus Trophonius, this can be represented in English (as it would be in Latin) as Jupiter Trophonius. Similarly, the Greek cult of Zeus Meilichios appears in Pompeii as Jupiter Meilichius. Except in representing actual cults in Italy, this is largely 19th-century usage; modern works distinguish Jupiter from Zeus.

Theology

Sources

Marcus Terentius Varro and Verrius Flaccus[k] were the main sources on the theology of Jupiter and archaic Roman religion in general. Varro was acquainted with the libri pontificum ("books of the Pontiffs") and their archaic classifications.[171] On these two sources depend other ancient authorities, such as Ovid, Servius, Aulus Gellius, Macrobius, patristic texts, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch.

One of the most important sources which preserve the theology of Jupiter and other Roman deities is The City of God against the Pagans by Augustine of Hippo. Augustine's criticism of traditional Roman religion is based on Varro's lost work, Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum. Although a work of Christian apologetics, The City of God provides glimpses into Varro's theological system and authentic Roman theological lore in general. According to Augustine,[172] Varro drew on the pontiff Mucius Scaevola's tripartite theology:

Jovian theology

Georg Wissowa stressed Jupiter's uniqueness as the only case among Indo-European religions in which the original god preserved his name, his identity and his prerogatives.[126] In this view, Jupiter is the god of heaven and retains his identification with the sky among the Latin poets (his name is used as a synonym for "sky".[174]) In this respect, he differs from his Greek equivalent Zeus (who is considered a personal god, warden and dispenser of skylight). His name reflects this idea; it is a derivative of the Indo-European word for "bright, shining sky". His residence is found atop the hills of Rome and of mountains in general; as a result, his cult is present in Rome and throughout Italy at upper elevations.[175] Jupiter assumed atmospheric qualities; he is the wielder of lightning and the master of weather. However, Wissowa acknowledges that Jupiter is not merely a naturalistic, heavenly, supreme deity; he is in continual communication with man by means of thunder, lightning and the flight of birds (his auspices). Through his vigilant watch he is also the guardian of public oaths and compacts and the guarantor of good faith in the State cult.[176] The Jovian cult was common to the Italic people under the names Iove, Diove (Latin) and Iuve, Diuve (Oscan, in Umbrian only Iuve, Iupater in the Iguvine Tables).

Wissowa considered Jupiter also a god of war and agriculture, in addition to his political role as guarantor of good faith (public and private) as Iuppiter Lapis and Dius Fidius, respectively. His view is grounded in the sphere of action of the god (who intervenes in battle and influences the harvest through weather).[177]

In Georges Dumézil's view, Jovian theology (and that of the equivalent gods in other Indo-European religions) is an evolution from a naturalistic, supreme, celestial god identified with heaven to a sovereign god, a wielder of lightning bolts, master and protector of the community (in other words, of a change from a naturalistic approach to the world of the divine to a socio-political approach).[138]

Painting of a mother feeding her child, watched by a shepherd, with lightning flashing across a dark sky in the background
One interpretation of the lightning in Giorgione's Tempest is that it represents the presence of Jupiter.[178]

In Vedic religion, Dyaus Pitar remained confined to his distant, removed, passive role and the place of sovereign god was occupied by Varuna and Mitra. In Greek and Roman religion, instead, the homonymous gods *Diou- and Διϝ- evolved into atmospheric deities; by their mastery of thunder and lightning, they expressed themselves and made their will known to the community. In Rome, Jupiter also sent signs to the leaders of the state in the form of auspices in addition to thunder. The art of augury was considered prestigious by ancient Romans; by sending his signs, Jupiter (the sovereign of heaven) communicates his advice to his terrestrial colleague: the king (rex) or his successor magistrates. The encounter between the heavenly and political, legal aspects of the deity are well represented by the prerogatives, privileges, functions and taboos proper to his flamen (the flamen Dialis and his wife, the flaminica Dialis).

Dumézil maintains that Jupiter is not himself a god of war and agriculture, although his actions and interest may extend to these spheres of human endeavour. His view is based on the methodological assumption that the chief criterion for studying a god's nature is not to consider his field of action, but the quality, method and features of his action. Consequently, the analysis of the type of action performed by Jupiter in the domains in which he operates indicates that Jupiter is a sovereign god who may act in the field of politics (as well as agriculture and war) in his capacity as such, i.e. in a way and with the features proper to a king. Sovereignty is expressed through the two aspects of absolute, magic power (epitomised and represented by the Vedic god Varuna) and lawful right (by the Vedic god Mitra).[179][180] However, sovereignty permits action in every field; otherwise, it would lose its essential quality. As a further proof, Dumézil cites the story of Tullus Hostilius (the most belligerent of the Roman kings), who was killed by Jupiter with a lightning bolt (indicating that he did not enjoy the god's favour). Varro's definition of Jupiter as the god who has under his jurisdiction the full expression of every being (penes Iovem sunt summa) reflects the sovereign nature of the god, as opposed to the jurisdiction of Janus (god of passages and change) on their beginning (penes Ianum sunt prima).[181]

Relation to other gods

Capitoline Triad

Statue of three figures, seated side by side
Capitoline Triad

The Capitoline Triad was introduced to Rome by the Tarquins. Dumézil thinks it might have been an Etruscan (or local) creation based on Vitruvius' treatise on architecture, in which the three deities are associated as the most important.[182] It is possible that the Etruscans paid particular attention to Menrva (Minerva) as a goddess of destiny, in addition to the royal couple Uni (Juno) and Tinia (Jupiter).[183] In Rome, Minerva later assumed a military aspect under the influence of Athena Pallas (Polias). Dumézil argues that with the advent of the Republic, Jupiter became the only king of Rome, no longer merely the first of the great gods.

Archaic Triad

The Archaic Triad is a hypothetical theological structure (or system) consisting of the gods Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. It was first described by Wissowa,[184] and the concept was developed further by Dumézil.[185][186] The three-function hypothesis of Indo-European society advanced by Dumézil holds that in prehistory, society was divided into three classes:

At least for the three main functions, people in each station in life had their religious counterparts the divine figures of the sovereign god, the warrior god, and the industrius god; there were almost always two separate gods for class 1, and sometimes more than one for class 3. Over time gods or, groups of gods might be consolidated or split, and it is unclear that there were ever any strict separations of all function.

The sovereign function (1) embodied in Jupiter entailed omnipotence; thence, a domain extended over every aspect of nature and life.[l]

The three functions are interrelated with one another, overlapping to some extent; the sovereign function, although including a part that is essentially religious in nature, is involved in many ways in areas pertaining to the other two. Therefore, Jupiter is the "magic player" in the founding of the Roman state and the fields of war, agricultural plenty, human fertility, and wealth.[187]

This hypothesis has not found widespread support among scholars.

Jupiter and Minerva

Apart from being protectress of the arts and craft as Minerva Capta, who was brought from Falerii, Minerva's association to Jupiter and relevance to Roman state religion is mainly linked to the Palladium, a wooden statue of Athena that could move the eyes and wave the spear. It was stored in the penus interior, inner penus of the aedes Vestae, temple of Vesta and considered the most important among the pignora imperii, pawns of dominion, empire.[190] In Roman traditional lore it was brought from Troy by Aeneas. Scholars though think it was last taken to Rome in the third or second century BC.[191]

Juno and Fortuna

The divine couple received from Greece its matrimonial implications, thence bestowing on Juno the role of tutelary goddess of marriage (Iuno Pronuba).

The couple itself though cannot be reduced to a Greek apport. The association of Juno and Jupiter is of the most ancient Latin theology.[192] Praeneste offers a glimpse into original Latin mythology: the local goddess Fortuna is represented as milking two infants, one male and one female, namely Jove (Jupiter) and Juno.[193] It seems fairly safe to assume that from the earliest times they were identified by their own proper names and since they got them they were never changed through the course of history: they were called Jupiter and Juno. These gods were the most ancient deities of every Latin town. Praeneste preserved divine filiation and infancy as the sovereign god and his paredra Juno have a mother who is the primordial goddess Fortuna Primigenia.[194] Many terracotta statuettes have been discovered which represent a woman with a child: one of them represents exactly the scene described by Cicero of a woman with two children of different sex who touch her breast. Two of the votive inscriptions to Fortuna associate her and Jupiter: " Fortunae Iovi puero..." and "Fortunae Iovis puero..."[195]

In 1882 though R. Mowat published an inscription in which Fortuna is called daughter of Jupiter, raising new questions and opening new perspectives in the theology of Latin gods.[196] Dumézil has elaborated an interpretative theory according to which this aporia would be an intrinsic, fundamental feature of Indoeuropean deities of the primordial and sovereign level, as it finds a parallel in Vedic religion.[197] The contradiction would put Fortuna both at the origin of time and into its ensuing diachronic process: it is the comparison offered by Vedic deity Aditi, the Not-Bound or Enemy of Bondage, that shows that there is no question of choosing one of the two apparent options: as the mother of the Aditya she has the same type of relationship with one of his sons, Dakṣa, the minor sovereign. who represents the Creative Energy, being at the same time his mother and daughter, as is true for the whole group of sovereign gods to which she belongs.[198] Moreover, Aditi is thus one of the heirs (along with Savitr) of the opening god of the Indoiranians, as she is represented with her head on her two sides, with the two faces looking opposite directions.[199] The mother of the sovereign gods has thence two solidal but distinct modalities of duplicity, i.e. of having two foreheads and a double position in the genealogy. Angelo Brelich has interpreted this theology as the basic opposition between the primordial absence of order (chaos) and the organisation of the cosmos.[200]

Janus

The relation of Jupiter to Janus is problematic. Varro defines Jupiter as the god who has potestas (power) over the forces by which anything happens in the world. Janus, however, has the privilege of being invoked first in rites, since in his power are the beginnings of things (prima), the appearance of Jupiter included.[201]

Saturn

The Latins considered Saturn the predecessor of Jupiter. Saturn reigned in Latium during a mythical Golden Age reenacted every year at the festival of Saturnalia. Saturn also retained primacy in matters of agriculture and money. Unlike the Greek tradition of Cronus and Zeus, the usurpation of Saturn as king of the gods by Jupiter was not viewed by the Latins as violent or hostile; Saturn continued to be revered in his temple at the foot of the Capitol Hill, which maintained the alternative name Saturnius into the time of Varro.[202]A. Pasqualini has argued that Saturn was related to Iuppiter Latiaris, the old Jupiter of the Latins, as the original figure of this Jupiter was superseded on the Alban Mount, whereas it preserved its gruesome character in the ceremony held at the sanctuary of the Latiar Hill in Rome which involved a human sacrifice and the aspersion of the statue of the god with the blood of the victim.[203]

Fides

The abstract personification Fides ("Faith, Trust") was one of the oldest gods associated with Jupiter. As guarantor of public faith, Fides had her temple on the Capitol (near that of Capitoline Jupiter).[204]

Dius Fidius

Dius Fidius is considered a theonym for Jupiter,[205][206] and sometimes a separate entity also known in Rome as Semo Sancus Dius Fidius. Wissowa argued that while Jupiter is the god of the Fides Publica Populi Romani as Iuppiter Lapis (by whom important oaths are sworn), Dius Fidius is a deity established for everyday use and was charged with the protection of good faith in private affairs. Dius Fidius would thus correspond to Zeus Pistios.[207] The association with Jupiter may be a matter of divine relation; some scholars see him as a form of Hercules.[208] Both Jupiter and Dius Fidius were wardens of oaths and wielders of lightning bolts; both required an opening in the roof of their temples.[136]

The functionality of Sancus occurs consistently within the sphere of fides, oaths and respect for contracts and of the divine-sanction guarantee against their breach. Wissowa suggested that Semo Sancus is the genius of Jupiter,[209] but the concept of a deity's genius is a development of the Imperial period.[210]

Some aspects of the oath-ritual for Dius Fidius (such as proceedings under the open sky or in the compluvium of private residences), and the fact the temple of Sancus had no roof, suggest that the oath sworn by Dius Fidius predated that for Iuppiter Lapis or Iuppiter Feretrius.[211]

Genius

Augustine quotes Varro who explains the genius as "the god who is in charge and has the power to generate everything" and "the rational spirit of all (therefore, everyone has their own)". Augustine concludes that Jupiter should be considered the genius of the universe.[212]

G. Wissowa advanced the hypothesis that Semo Sancus is the genius of Jupiter.[209] W. W. Fowler has cautioned that this interpretation looks to be an anachronism and it would only be acceptable to say that Sancus is a Genius Iovius, as it appears from the Iguvine Tables.[213]

Censorinus cites Granius Flaccus as saying that "the Genius was the same entity as the Lar" in his lost work De Indigitamentis.[214][215] probably referring to the Lar Familiaris. Mutunus Tutunus had his shrine at the foot of the Velian Hill near those of the Di Penates and of Vica Pota, who were among the most ancient gods of the Roman community of according to Wissowa.[216]

Dumézil opines that the attribution of a Genius to the gods should be earlier than its first attestation of 58 BC, in an inscription which mentions the Iovis Genius.[217]

A connection between Genius and Jupiter seems apparent in Plautus' comedy Amphitryon, in which Jupiter takes up the looks of Alcmena's husband in order to seduce her: J. Hubeaux sees there a reflection of the story that Scipio Africanus' mother conceived him with a snake that was in fact Jupiter transformed.[218] Scipio himself claimed that only he would rise to the mansion of the gods through the widest gate.[219]

Among the Etruscan Penates there is a Genius Iovialis who comes after Fortuna and Ceres and before Pales.[220] Genius Iovialis is one of the Penates of the humans and not of Jupiter though, as these were located in region I of Martianus Capella' s division of Heaven, while Genius appears in regions V and VI along with Ceres, Favor (possibly a Roman approximation to an Etruscan male manifestation of Fortuna) and Pales.[221] This is in accord with the definition of the Penates of man being Fortuna, Ceres, Pales and Genius Iovialis and the statement in Macrobius that the Larentalia were dedicated to Jupiter as the god whence the souls of men come from and to whom they return after death.[222]

Summanus

The god of nighttime lightning has been interpreted as an aspect of Jupiter, either a chthonic manifestation of the god or a separate god of the underworld. A statue of Summanus stood on the roof of the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, and Iuppiter Summanus is one of the epithets of Jupiter.[223] Dumézil sees the opposition Dius Fidius versus Summanus as complementary, interpreting it as typical to the inherent ambiguity of the sovereign god exemplified by that of Mitra and Varuna in Vedic religion.[224] The complementarity of the epithets is shown in inscriptions found on puteals or bidentals reciting either fulgur Dium conditum[225] or fulgur Summanum conditum in places struck by daytime versus nighttime lightning bolts respectively.[226] This is also consistent with the etymology of Summanus, deriving from sub and mane (the time before morning).[227]

Liber

Iuppiter was associated with Liber through his epithet of Liber (association not yet been fully explained by scholars, due to the scarcity of early documentation). In the past, it was maintained that Liber was only a progressively-detached hypostasis of Jupiter; consequently, the vintage festivals were to be attributed only to Iuppiter Liber.[228] Such a hypothesis was rejected as groundless by Wissowa, although he was a supporter of Liber's Jovian origin.[229] Olivier de Cazanove contends that it is difficult to admit that Liber (who is present in the oldest calendars—those of Numa—in the Liberalia and in the month of Liber at Lavinium[230]) was derived from another deity.[231] Such a derivation would find support only in epigraphic documents, primarily from the Osco-Sabellic area.[232] Wissowa sets the position of Iuppiter Liber within the framework of an agrarian Jupiter. The god also had a temple in this name on the Aventine in Rome, which was restored by Augustus and dedicated on 1 September. Here, the god was sometimes named Liber[233] and sometimes Libertas.[234] Wissowa opines that the relationship existed in the concept of creative abundance through which the supposedly-separate Liber might have been connected[235] to the Greek god Dionysos, although both deities might not have been originally related to viticulture.

Other scholars assert that there was no Liber (other than a god of wine) within historical memory.[236] Olivier de Cazanove argues that the domain of the sovereign god Jupiter was that of sacred, sacrificial wine (vinum inferium[237]),[238] while that of Liber and Libera was confined to secular wine (vinum spurcum);[239] these two types were obtained through differing fermentation processes. The offer of wine to Liber was made possible by naming the mustum (grape juice) stored in amphoras sacrima.[240]

Sacred wine was obtained by the natural fermentation of juice of grapes free from flaws of any type, religious (e. g. those struck by lightning, brought into contact with corpses or wounded people or coming from an unfertilised grapeyard) or secular (by "cutting" it with old wine). Secular (or "profane") wine was obtained through several types of manipulation (e.g. by adding honey, or mulsum; using raisins, or passum; by boiling, or defrutum). However, the sacrima used for the offering to the two gods for the preservation of grapeyards, vessels and wine[241] was obtained only by pouring the juice into amphors after pressing.[242] The mustum was considered spurcum (dirty), and thus unusable in sacrifices.[243] The amphor (itself not an item of sacrifice) permitted presentation of its content on a table or could be added to a sacrifice; this happened at the auspicatio vindamiae for the first grape[244] and for ears of corn of the praemetium on a dish (lanx) at the temple of Ceres.[245]

Dumézil, on the other hand, sees the relationship between Jupiter and Liber as grounded in the social and political relevance of the two gods (who were both considered patrons of freedom).[246] The Liberalia of March were, since earliest times, the occasion for the ceremony of the donning of the toga virilis or libera (which marked the passage into adult citizenship by young people). Augustine relates that these festivals had a particularly obscene character: a phallus was taken to the fields on a cart, and then back in triumph to town. In Lavinium they lasted a month, during which the population enjoyed bawdy jokes. The most honest matronae were supposed to publicly crown the phallus with flowers, to ensure a good harvest and repeal the fascinatio (evil eye).[230] In Rome representations of the sex organs were placed in the temple of the couple Liber Libera, who presided over the male and female components of generation and the "liberation" of the semen.[247] This complex of rites and beliefs shows that the divine couple's jurisdiction extended over fertility in general, not only that of grapes. The etymology of Liber (archaic form Loifer, Loifir) was explained by Émile Benveniste as formed on the IE theme *leudh- plus the suffix -es-; its original meaning is "the one of germination, he who ensures the sprouting of crops".[248]

The relationship of Jupiter with freedom was a common belief among the Roman people, as demonstrated by the dedication of the Mons Sacer to the god after the first secession of the plebs. Later inscriptions also show the unabated popular belief in Jupiter as bestower of freedom in the imperial era.[249]

Veiove

Scholars have been often puzzled by Ve(d)iove (or Veiovis, or Vedius) and unwilling to discuss his identity, claiming our knowledge of this god is insufficient.[250][251][252] Most, however, agree that Veiove is a sort of special Jupiter or anti-Iove, or even an underworld Jupiter. In other words, Veiove is indeed the Capitoline god himself, who takes up a different, diminished appearance (iuvenis and parvus, young and gracile), in order to be able to discharge sovereign functions over places, times and spheres that by their own nature are excluded from the direct control of Jupiter as Optimus Maximus.[253] This conclusion is based on information provided by Gellius,[254] who states his name is formed by adding prefix ve (here denoting "deprivation" or "negation") to Iove (whose name Gellius posits as rooted in the verb iuvo "I benefit"). D. Sabbatucci has stressed the feature of bearer of instability and antithesis to cosmic order of the god, who threatens the kingly power of Jupiter as Stator and Centumpeda and whose presence occurs side by side to Janus' on 1 January, but also his function of helper to the growth of the young Jupiter.[255] In 1858 Ludwig Preller suggested that Veiovis may be the sinister double of Jupiter.[256]

The god (under the name Vetis) is placed in the last case (number 16) of the outer rim of the Piacenza Liver—before Cilens (Nocturnus), who ends (or begins in the Etruscan vision) the disposition of the gods. In Martianus Capella's division of heaven, he is found in region XV with the dii publici; as such, he numbers among the infernal (or antipodal) gods. The location of his two temples in Rome—near those of Jupiter (one on the Capitoline Hill, in the low between the arx and the Capitolium, between the two groves where the asylum founded by Romulus stood, the other on the Tiber Island near that of Iuppiter Iurarius, later also known as temple of Aesculapius)[257]—may be significant in this respect, along with the fact that he is considered the father of Apollo, perhaps because he was depicted carrying arrows.[258] He is also considered to be the unbearded Jupiter.[259] The dates of his festivals support the same conclusion: they fall on 1 January,[260] 7 March[261] and 21 May,[262] the first date being the recurrence of the Agonalia, dedicated to Janus and celebrated by the king with the sacrifice of a ram. The nature of the sacrifice is debated; Gellius states capra, a female goat, although some scholars posit a ram. This sacrifice occurred rito humano, which may mean "with the rite appropriate for human sacrifice".[263] Gellius concludes by stating that this god is one of those who receive sacrifices so as to persuade them to refrain from causing harm.

The arrow is an ambivalent symbol; it was used in the ritual of the devotio (the general who vowed had to stand on an arrow).[264] It is perhaps because of the arrow and of the juvenile looks that Gellius identifies Veiove with Apollo[265] and as a god who must receive worship in order to obtain his abstention from harming men, along with Robigus and Averruncus.[266] The ambivalence in the identity of Veiove is apparent in the fact that while he is present in places and times which may have a negative connotation (such as the asylum of Romulus in between the two groves on the Capitol, the Tiberine island along with Faunus and Aesculapius, the kalends of January, the nones of March, and 21 May, a statue of his nonetheless stands in the arx. Moreover, the initial particle ve- which the ancient supposed were part of his name is itself ambivalent as it may have both an accrescitive and diminutive value.[267]

Maurice Besnier has remarked that a temple to Iuppiter was dedicated by praetor Lucius Furius Purpureo before the battle of Cremona against the Celtic Cenomani of Cisalpine Gaul.[268] An inscription found at Brescia in 1888 shows that Iuppiter Iurarius was worshipped there[269] and one found on the south tip of Tiber Island in 1854 that there was a cult to the god on the spot too.[270] Besnier speculates that Lucius Furius had evoked the chief god of the enemy and built a temple to him in Rome outside the pomerium. On 1 January, the Fasti Praenestini record the festivals of Aesculapius and Vediove on the Island, while in the Fasti Ovid speaks of Jupiter and his grandson.[271] Livy records that in 192 BC, duumvir Q. Marcus Ralla dedicated to Jupiter on the Capitol the two temples promised by L. Furius Purpureo, one of which was that promised during the war against the Gauls.[272] Besnier would accept a correction to Livy's passage (proposed by Jordan) to read aedes Veiovi instead of aedes duae Iovi. Such a correction concerns the temples dedicated on the Capitol: it does not address the question of the dedication of the temple on the Island, which is puzzling, since the place is attested epigraphically as dedicated to the cult of Iuppiter Iurarius, in the Fasti Praenestini of Vediove[273] and to Jupiter according to Ovid. The two gods may have been seen as equivalent: Iuppiter Iurarius is an awesome and vengeful god, parallel to the Greek Zeus Orkios, the avenger of perjury.[274]

A. Pasqualini has argued that Veiovis seems related to Iuppiter Latiaris, as the original figure of this Jupiter would have been superseded on the Alban Mount, whereas it preserved its gruesome character in the ceremony held on the sanctuary of the Latiar Hill, the southernmost hilltop of the Quirinal in Rome, which involved a human sacrifice. The gens Iulia had gentilician cults at Bovillae where a dedicatory inscription to Vediove has been found in 1826 on an ara.[275] According to Pasqualini it was a deity similar to Vediove, wielder of lightningbolts and chthonic, who was connected to the cult of the founders who first inhabited the Alban Mount and built the sanctuary. Such a cult once superseded on the Mount would have been taken up and preserved by the Iulii, private citizens bound to the sacra Albana by their Alban origin.[276]

Victoria

Roman coin, with bearded head on front and standing figure on reverse
Coin with laureate head of Jupiter (obverse) and (reverse) Victory, standing ("ROMA" below in relief)

Victoria was connected to Iuppiter Victor in his role as bestower of military victory. Jupiter, as a sovereign god, was considered as having the power to conquer anyone and anything in a supernatural way; his contribution to military victory was different from that of Mars (god of military valour). Victoria appears first on the reverse of coins representing Venus (driving the quadriga of Jupiter, with her head crowned and with a palm in her hand) during the first Punic War. Sometimes, she is represented walking and carrying a trophy.[277]

A temple was dedicated to the goddess afterwards on the Palatine, testifying to her high station in the Roman mind. When Hieron of Syracuse presented a golden statuette of the goddess to Rome, the Senate had it placed in the temple of Capitoline Jupiter among the greatest (and most sacred) deities.[278][279]

Although Victoria played a significant role in the religious ideology of the late Republic and the Empire, she is undocumented in earlier times. A function similar to hers may have been played by the little-known Vica Pota.[citation needed]

Terminus

Juventas and Terminus were the gods who, according to legend,[280] refused to leave their sites on the Capitol when the construction of the temple of Jupiter was undertaken. Therefore, they had to be reserved a sacellum within the new temple. Their stubbornness was considered a good omen; it would guarantee youth, stability and safety to Rome on its site.[281] This legend is generally thought by scholars to indicate their strict connection with Jupiter. An inscription found near Ravenna reads Iuppiter Ter.,[282] indicating that Terminus is an aspect of Jupiter.

Terminus is the god of boundaries (public and private), as he is portrayed in literature. The religious value of the boundary marker is documented by Plutarch,[283] who ascribes to king Numa the construction of temples to Fides and Terminus and the delimitation of Roman territory. Ovid gives a vivid description of the rural rite at a boundary of fields of neighbouring peasants on 23 February (the day of the Terminalia.[284] On that day, Roman pontiffs and magistrates held a ceremony at the sixth mile of the Via Laurentina (ancient border of the Roman ager, which maintained a religious value). This festival, however, marked the end of the year and was linked to time more directly than to space (as attested by Augustine's apologia on the role of Janus with respect to endings).[285] Dario Sabbatucci has emphasised the temporal affiliation of Terminus, a reminder of which is found in the rite of the regifugium.[286] Dumézil, on the other hand, views the function of this god as associated with the legalistic aspect of the sovereign function of Jupiter. Terminus would be the counterpart of the minor Vedic god Bagha, who oversees the just and fair division of goods among citizens.[287]

Iuventas

Along with Terminus, Iuventas (also known as Iuventus and Iuunta) represents an aspect of Jupiter (as the legend of her refusal to leave the Capitol Hill demonstrates. Her name has the same root as Juno (from Iuu-, "young, youngster"); the ceremonial litter bearing the sacred goose of Juno Moneta stopped before her sacellum on the festival of the goddess. Later, she was identified with the Greek Hebe. The fact that Jupiter is related to the concept of youth is shown by his epithets Puer, Iuuentus and Ioviste (interpreted as "the youngest" by some scholars).[288][205][289][290] Dumézil noted the presence of the two minor sovereign deities Bagha and Aryaman beside the Vedic sovereign gods Varuna and Mitra (though more closely associated with Mitra); the couple would be reflected in Rome by Terminus and Iuventas. Aryaman is the god of young soldiers. The function of Iuventas is to protect the iuvenes (the novi togati of the year, who are required to offer a sacrifice to Jupiter on the Capitol)[291] and the Roman soldiers (a function later attributed to Juno). King Servius Tullius, in reforming the Roman social organisation, required that every adolescent offer a coin to the goddess of youth upon entering adulthood.[292]

In Dumézil's analysis, the function of Iuventas (the personification of youth), was to control the entrance of young men into society and protect them until they reach the age of iuvenes or iuniores (i.e. of serving the state as soldiers).[289]

A temple to Iuventas was promised in 207 BC by consul Marcus Livius Salinator and dedicated in 191 BC.[293]

Penates

The Romans considered the Penates as the gods to whom they owed their own existence.[294] As noted by Wissowa Penates is an adjective, meaning "those of or from the penus" the innermost part, most hidden recess;[295] Dumézil though refuses Wissowa's interpretation of penus as the storeroom of a household. As a nation the Romans honoured the Penates publici: Dionysius calls them Trojan gods as they were absorbed into the Trojan legend. They had a temple in Rome at the foot of the Velian Hill, near the Palatine, in which they were represented as a couple of male youth. They were honoured every year by the new consuls before entering office at Lavinium,[296] because the Romans believed the Penates of that town were identical to their own.[297]

The concept of di Penates is more defined in Etruria: Arnobius (citing a Caesius) states that the Etruscan Penates were named Fortuna, Ceres, Genius Iovialis and Pales; according to Nigidius Figulus, they included those of Jupiter, of Neptune, of the infernal gods and of mortal men.[298] According to Varro the Penates reside in the recesses of Heaven and are called Consentes and Complices by the Etruscans because they rise and set together, are twelve in number and their names are unknown, six male and six females and are the cousellors and masters of Jupiter. Martianus states they are always in agreement among themselves.[299] While these last gods seem to be the Penates of Jupiter, Jupiter himself along with Juno and Minerva is one of the Penates of man according to some authors.[300]

This complex concept is reflected in Martianus Capella's division of heaven, found in Book I of his De Nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae, which places the Di Consentes Penates in region I with the Favores Opertanei; Ceres and Genius in region V; Pales in region VI; Favor and Genius (again) in region VII; Secundanus Pales, Fortuna and Favor Pastor in region XI. The disposition of these divine entities and their repetition in different locations may be due to the fact that Penates belonging to different categories (of Jupiter in region I, earthly or of mortal men in region V) are intended. Favor(es) may be the Etruscan masculine equivalent of Fortuna.[301]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Based on the tradition of dedicating Jovian temples on the Ides. This assumption is supported by the calendar of Philocalus, which states on the Ides of January (13): Iovi Statori c(ircenses) m(issus) XXIV.
  2. ^ Rome's surviving calendars provide only fragmentary evidence for the Feriae but Wissowa believes that every Ide was sacred to him.
  3. ^ In Roman legend Aeneas vowed all of that year's wine of Latium to Jupiter before the battle with Mezentius[102]
  4. ^ Wissowa had already connected the Poplifugia to Jupiter.[106]
  5. ^ Jean Gagé thinks the murder of Servius Tullius occurred on this date, as Tarquin the Proud and his wife Tullia would have taken advtange of the occasion to claim publicly that Servius has lost the favour of the gods (especially Fortuna).[111]
  6. ^ Most common in poetry, for its useful meter, and in the expression "By Jove!"
  7. ^ English Thursday, German Donnerstag, is named after Thunor, Thor, or Old High German Donar from Germanic mythology, a deity similar to Jupiter Tonans.
  8. ^ Iuppiter Serenus has been recognized as an interpretatio of the Phocean god Ζευς Ούριος.[142]
  9. ^ cume tonas, Leucesie, prai ted tremonti....
  10. ^ Optimus is a superlative formed on ops [ability to help], the ancient form is optumus from opitumus, cf. the epithet Opitulus [The Helper].
  11. ^ The work of Verrius Flaccus is preserved through the summary of Sextus Pompeius Festus and his epitomist Paul the Deacon.
  12. ^ The colour relating to the sovereign function is white. The war function color is red, and the production / farming function color is black.[185][188][189]

References

  1. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5. Retrieved 4 February 2008.
  2. ^ Saturni filius, frg. 2 in the edition of Baehrens.
  3. ^ Keats, John (26 April 2007). Selected Poems: Keats: Keats. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141936918 – via Google Books.
  4. ^ Demiraj 2011, p. 70; Demiraj 2002, p. 34; Demiraj 1997, pp. 431–432; Mann 1977, p. 72; Treimer 1971, p. 32; Curtis 2017, p. 1746; Kölligan 2017, p. 2254.
  5. ^ "Baal (ancient deity)". Encyclopædia Britannica (online ed.). 31 July 2024.
  6. ^ West, M.L. (1966) Hesiod Theogony: 18–31; Kirk, G.S. (1970) Myth: Its meaning and function in ancient and other cultures: 214–220 Berkeley and Los Angeles; with Zeus being the Greek equivalent of Jupiter.
  7. ^ Basham, A. L., ed. (1986), "Jupiter", The Wonder that was India, Rupa & Co, p. 236
  8. ^ West, M. L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-19-928-075-9.
  9. ^ Burkert, Walter (2005). "Chapter Twenty: Near Eastern Connections". In Foley, John Miles (ed.). A Companion to Ancient Epic. New York City, New York and London, England: Blackwell Publishing. pp. 295, 299–300. ISBN 978-1-4051-0524-8.
  10. ^ Krul, Julia (2018). The Revival of the Anu Cult and the Nocturnal Fire Ceremony at Late Babylonian Uruk. Brill. p. 41. doi:10.1163/9789004364943. ISBN 9789004364936.
  11. ^ Pleins, J. David (2010). When the great abyss opened: classic and contemporary readings of Noah's flood. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-19-973363-7.
  12. ^ Kropp, Andreas J. M. (2010). "Jupiter, Venus and Mercury of Heliopolis (Baalbek)". Syria (87): 229–264. doi:10.4000/syria.681.
  13. ^ Fontenrose (1980), pp. 150, 158.
  14. ^ Iūpiter is thought to be the historically older form and Iuppiter, to have arosen through the so-called littera-rule. Compare Weiss (2010). "Observations on the littera rule" (PDF). Cornell Phonetics Lab. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2016.
  15. ^ a b de Vaan, Michiel (31 October 2018). Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages. Leiden; Boston. p. 315. ISBN 9789004167971.
  16. ^ Dumézil (1974), p. [page needed] citing Pliny Naturalis Historia X 16. A. Alföldi Zu den römischen Reiterscheiben in Germania 30 1952 p. 188 and n. 11.
  17. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 215 n. 58.
  18. ^ Servius Ad Aeneidem II 374.
  19. ^ Dictionary of Roman Coins, see e.g. reverse of "Consecratio" coin of Emperor Commodus & coin of Ptolemy V Epiphanes minted c. 204–180 BC.
  20. ^ Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215.
  21. ^ Diespiter should not be confused with Dis pater, but the two names do cause confusion even in some passages of ancient literature; P.T. Eden, commentary on the Apocolocyntosis (Cambridge University Press, 1984, 2002), pp. 111–112.
  22. ^ Massimo Pallottino, "Etruscan Daemonology", p. 41, and
    Robert Schilling, "Rome", pp. 44 and 63,
    both in (1981, 1992) Roman and European Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, transl. from the 1981 French edition;
    Giuliano Bonfante and Larissa Bonfante, (1983, 2003) The Etruscan Language: An Introduction, Manchester University Press rev. ed., pp. 24, 84, 85, 219, 225;
    Nancy Thomson de Grummond, (2006), Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, pp. 19, 53–58 et passim;
    Jean MacIntosh Turfa, (2012), Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice Cambridge University Press, p. 62.
  23. ^ Beard, North & Price (1998), p. 59, Vol. 1.
  24. ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (2007), p. 58.
  25. ^ Scheid, in Rüpke (2007), pp. 263–271; Dumézil (1977), p. 181 citing Jean Bayet Les annales de Tite Live édition G. Budé vol. III 1942 Appendix V p. 153 and n. 3.
  26. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 259 note 4: cf. Servius Eclogae X 27 "unde etiam triumphantes habent omnia insignia Iovis, sceptrum palmatamque togam" "wherefore also the triumphing commanders have all the insignia of Jupiter, the sceptre and the toga palmata'". On the interpretation of the triumphal dress and of the triumph, Larissa Bonfante has offered an interpretation based on Etruscan documents in her article : "Roman Triumphs and Etruscan Kings: the Changing Face of the Triumph" in Journal of Roman Studies 60 1970 pp. 49–66 and tables I–VIII. Mary Beard rehearses various views of the triumphator as god or king in The Roman Triumph (Harvard University Press, 2007), pp. 226–232, and expresses skepticism.
  27. ^ Dumézil (1977) citing Livy V 23, 6 and VI 17, 5.
  28. ^ a b Dumézil (1977), p. 177.
  29. ^ Dumézil (1977) citing Dionysius of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities VI 90, 1; Festus s.v. p. 414 L 2nd.
  30. ^ Forsythe (2005–2006), p. 159 et passim..
  31. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.16.
  32. ^ Matthew Dillon and Lynda Garland, "Religion in the Roman Republic", in Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar (Routledge, 2005), pp. 127, 345.
  33. ^ Most of the information about the Flamen Dialis is preserved by Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights X 15.
  34. ^ Macrobius Saturnalia I 16, 8: flaminica quotiens tonitrua audisset feriata erat, donec placasset deos. The adjective feriatus, related to feriae, "holy days", pertains to keeping a holiday, and hence means "idle, unemployed", not performing one's usual tasks.
  35. ^ Livy I 20, 1–2.
  36. ^ Plutarch Quaestiones Romanae 113.
  37. ^ Livy XXVII 8, 8.
  38. ^ Aulus Gellius, 10.15.5: item iurare Dialem fas numquam est; Robert E.A. Palmer, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464L, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 85; Francis X. Ryan, Rank and Participation in the Republican Senate (Franz Steiner, 1998), p. 165. The Vestals and the Flamen Dialis were the only Roman citizens who could not be compelled to swear an oath (Aulus Gellius 10.15.31); Robin Lorsch Wildfang, Rome's Vestal Virgin: A Study of Rome's Vestal Priestesses in the Late Republic and Early Empire (Routledge, 2006), p. 69.
  39. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 147.
  40. ^ Dumézil (1977), pp. 94–96, 169, 192, 502–504.
  41. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 104.
  42. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus Rom. Ant. I 21, 1; Livy I 32, 4. See also ius gentium.
  43. ^ Livy I 24, 8.
  44. ^ Livy I 32, 10.
  45. ^ Dumézil (1977), pp. 502–504 & 169.
  46. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 104, citing Paulus p. 92 M.; Servius Aeneis XII 206; Livy I 24, 3–8; IX 5, 3; XXX 43, 9; Festus p. 321 M.; Pliny Naturalis historia XXII 5; Marcianus apud Digesta I 8, 8 par. 1; Servius Aeneis VIII 641; XII 120.
  47. ^ Varro in his Lingua Latina V writes of "Crustumerian secession" ("a secessione Crustumerina").
  48. ^ F. Vallocchia "Manio Valerio Massimo dittatore ed augure" in Diritto @ Storia 7 2008 (online).
  49. ^ C. M. A. Rinolfi "Plebe, pontefice massimo, tribuni della plebe: a proposito di Livio 3.54.5–14" in Diritto @ Storia 5 2006 (online).
  50. ^ Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Characteristic Traits of Ancient Roman Religion", in Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion (Brill, 1980), p. 241, ascribing the view that there was no early Roman mythology to W.F. Otto and his school.
  51. ^ Described by Cicero, De divinatione 2.85, as cited by Littlewood (2010), p. 212.
  52. ^ CIL 1.60, as cited by Littlewood (2010), p. 212.
  53. ^ J. Champeaux Fortuna. Le culte de la Fortune à Rome et dans le monde romain. I Fortuna dans la religion archaïque 1982 Rome: Publications de l'Ecole Française de Rome; as reviewed by John Scheid in Revue de l' histoire des religions 1986 203 1: pp. 67–68 (Comptes rendus).
  54. ^ Fowler (1899), pp. 223–225.
  55. ^ Dumézil (1977), pp. 51–52 & 197.
  56. ^ Ovid Fasti III, 284–392. Festus s.v. Mamuri Veturi p. 117 L as cited by Dumézil (1977), p. 197
  57. ^ Plutarch Numa 18.
  58. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 175 citing Livy I 31.
  59. ^ R. Bloch Prodigi e divinazione nell' antica Roma Roma 1973. Citing Livy I 34, 8–10.
  60. ^ Macrobius Saturnalia III 6.
  61. ^ Ovid Fasti I, 587–588.
  62. ^ Varro De Lingua Latina VI 16. Sacrifices to Jupiter are also broached in Macrobius Saturnalia III 10. The issue of the sacrificial victims proper to a god is one of the most vexed topics of Roman religion: cf. Gérard Capdeville "Substitution de victimes dans les sacrifices d'animaux à Rome" in Mélanges de l'École française de Rome 83 2 1971 pp. 283–323. Also G. Dumézil "Quaestiunculae indo-italicae: 11. Iovi tauro verre ariete immolari non licet" in Revue d'études latins 39 1961 pp. 242–257.
  63. ^ Beard, North & Price (1998), pp. 32–36, Vol. 1: the consecration made this a "Sacred Spring" (ver sacrum). The "contract" with Jupiter is exceptionally detailed. All due care would be taken of the animals, but any that died or were stolen before the scheduled sacrifice would count as if already sacrificed. Sacred animals were already assigned to the gods, who ought to protect their own property.
  64. ^ Dumézil (1977), pp. 258–261.
  65. ^ Ovid, Fasti I, 201f.
  66. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 107; Livy X 36, 1 and 37, 15 f.
  67. ^ Livy I 12; Dionysius of Halicarnassus II 59; Ovid Fasti VI, 793; Cicero Catilinaria I 33.
  68. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 107: CIL VI 434, 435; IX 3023, 4534; X59-4; also III 1089.
  69. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 198 & n. 1.
  70. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 108 and n. 1 citing Vitruvius De Architectura III 1, 5.
  71. ^ Gros, Pierre (1997). "Iuppiter Tonans". In Steinby, Eva Margareta (ed.). Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae (in French). Vol. 3. Rome: Edizioni Quazar. pp. 159–160. ISBN 978-88-7140-096-9.
  72. ^ CIL VI 438.
  73. ^ Coarelli, Filippo (1997). "Iuppiter Invictus". In Steinby, Eva Margareta (ed.). Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae (in Italian). Vol. 3. Rome: Edizioni Quazar. p. 143. ISBN 978-88-7140-096-9.
  74. ^ Protocols of a sacerdotal collegium: Wissowa (1912), citing CIL VI 2004–2009.
  75. ^ Livy I 31 1–8.
  76. ^ Macrobius I 16. This identification has though been challenged by A. Pasqualini.
  77. ^ Festus s.v. prisci Latini p. : "the Latin towns that existed before the foundation of Rome".
  78. ^ L. Schmitz in W. Smith Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London 1875 s. v. Feriae p. 529.
  79. ^ Cicero De Divinatione I 18; Dionysius Hal. AR IV 49, 3; Festus p. 212 L l. 30 f.; Scholiasta Bobiensis ad Ciceronis pro Plancio 23.
  80. ^ Festus s.v. oscillantes p. 194 M; C. A. Lobeck Aglaophamus sive de theologiae mysticae Graecorum causis libri tres Königsberg 1829 p. 585.
  81. ^ Cicero Pro Plancio 23; Varro De Lingua Latina VI 25; Pliny Naturalis historia III 69.
  82. ^ Pliny XXVII 45.
  83. ^ de Cazanove (1988), p. 252 cites A. Alföldi Early Rome and the Latins Ann Arbor 1965 p. 33 n. 6.
  84. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 109; L. Schmitz in Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London 1875 s. v. Feriae p. 529: Niebuhr History of Rome II p. 35 citing Livy V 42, Plutarch Camillus 42.
  85. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 110. CIL 2011–2022; XIV 2236–2248.
  86. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 110.
  87. ^ Livy XLII 21, 7.
  88. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 101, citing Macrobius Saturnalia I 15, 14 and 18, Iohannes Lydus De Mensibus III 7, Plutarch Quaestiones Romanae 24.
  89. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 101, citing Varro De Lingua Latina V 47; Festus p. 290; Müller, Paulus p. 104; Ovid Fasti I, 56 and 588; Macrobius Sat. I 15, 16.
  90. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 101: the epula Iovis fell on 13 September and 13 November. The temple foundation and festival dates are 13 September for Jupiter Optimus Maximus, 13 April for Jupiter Victor, 13 June for Jupiter Invictus, and perhaps 13 January for Jupiter Stator.
  91. ^ Cassius and Rutilius apud Macrobius I 16, 33. Tuditanus claimed they were instituted by Romulus and T. Tatius I 16, 32.
  92. ^ Macrobius I 16, 30: "...flaminica Iovi arietem solet immolare"; Dumézil (1977), p. 163 & n. 42, citing A. Kirsopp Michels The Calendar of the Roman Republic 1967 pp. 84–89.
  93. ^ Lipka (2009), p. 36.
  94. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 101–102.
  95. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 174.
  96. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 101, citing Pliny NH XVIII 289: "This festival day was established for the placation (i. e. averting) of storms", "Hunc diem festum tempestatibus leniendis institutum".
  97. ^ Wissowa (1912), citing Digest II 12, 4.
  98. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 173.
  99. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 102.
  100. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 101–102, citing Varro De Lingua Latina VI 21 Novum vetus vinum bibo, novo veteri morbo medeor.
  101. ^ G. Dumézil, Fêtes romaines d' été et d' automne, Paris, 1975, pp. 97–108.
  102. ^ cf. Dumézil (1977), p. 173; Ovid Fasti IV, 863 ff.
  103. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 102, citing Varro De Lingua Latina VI 16; Pliny Naturalis historia XVIII 287; Ovid Fasti IV, 863 ff; Paulus p. 65 and 374 M.
  104. ^ Forsythe (2005–2006), p. 136. Populus originally meant not "the people", but "army".
  105. ^ Robert Turcan, The Cults of the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 1992, 1996, 2001 printing, originally published 1989 in French), p. 75.
  106. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 102, citing Cassius Dio XLVII 18 and the Fasti Amiternini (feriae Iovis).
  107. ^ Forsythe (2005–2006), p. 137.
  108. ^ André Magdelain "Auspicia ad patres redeunt" in Hommage á Jean Bayet Bruxelles 1964 527 ff. See also Jean Bayet Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine Paris 1957 p. 99; Jacques Heurgon, Rome et la Méditerranée occcidentale Paris 1969 pp. 204–208.; Paul-M. Martin "La fonction calendaire du roi de Rome et sa participation á certaines fêtes" in Annales de Bretagne et des pays de l' Ouest 83 1976 2 pp. 239–244 part. p. 241; and Sabbatucci (1988), as reviewed by Turcan (1989), p. 71
  109. ^ Lipka (2009), p. 33, note 96.
  110. ^ Forsythe (2005–2006), p. 192.
  111. ^ Jean Gagé "La mort de Servius Tullius et le char de Tullia" in Revue belge de philologie et d' histoire 41 1963 1 pp. 25–62.
  112. ^ Forsythe (2005–2006), p. 132.
  113. ^ Henri Le Bonniec Le culte de Cérès á Rome Paris 1958 p. 348, developing Jean Bayet Les annales de Tite Live (Titus Livius AUC libri qui supersunt) ed. G. Budé vol. III Paris 1942 Appendix V pp. 145–153.
  114. ^ Dumézil (1977), pp. 485–486.
  115. ^ Mommsen Römischen Forschungen II p. 42 ff. puts their founding on 366 BC at the establishment of the curule aedility. Cited by Wissowa (1912), p. 111.
  116. ^ Livy I 35, 9.
  117. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 111–112, citing Livy V 41, 2; Tertullian De corona militis 13; Dionysius of Halicarnassus Antiq. Rom. VII 72. Marquardt Staatsverwaltung III 508.
  118. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 488.
  119. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 181 citing Jean Bayet Les annales de Tite Live édition G. Budé vol. III 1942 Appendix V p. 153 and n. 3.
  120. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 112, citing Mommsen CIL I 2nd p. 329, 335; Rǒmische Forschungen II 45, 4.
  121. ^ In Verrem V 36 and Paulus s.v. ludi magni p. 122 M.
  122. ^ Macrobius I 10, 11.
  123. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 102, citing Gellius X 15, 12. 24; Paulus p. 87 M.; Pliny Naturalis historia XVIII 119; Plutarch Quaest. Romanae 111.
  124. ^ "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). 2000. Archived from the original on 1 March 2009. Retrieved 27 September 2008.
  125. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 100, citing Varro De Lingua Latina V 66: "The same peculiarity is revealed even better by the ancient name of Jupiter: since once he was named Diovis and Diespiter, that is Dies Pater (Day Father); consequently the beings issued from him are named dei (gods), dius (god), diuum (day) hence the expressions sub diuo and Dius Fidius. This is why the temple of Dius Fidius has an opening in the roof, in order to allow the view of the diuum i. e. the caelum sky" tr. by J. Collart quoted by Y. Lehmann below; Paulus p. 71:"dium (the divinised sky), who denotes what is in the open air, outside the roof derives from the name of Iupiter, as well as Dialis, epithet of the flamen of Jupiter and dius that is applied to a hero descended from the race of Jupiter" and 87 M.
  126. ^ a b c Wissowa (1912), p. 100.
  127. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 100, n. 2.
  128. ^ CIL V 783: Iovi Diano from Aquileia.
  129. ^ Müller, H. F. "Jupiter". The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. p. 161.
  130. ^ a b Platner & Ashby (1929), p. 293.
  131. ^ a b Der Große Brockhaus, vol. 9, Leipzig: Brockhaus 1931, p. 520
  132. ^ Walter W. Skeat, A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, Oxford: Clarendon Press 1882, Oxford University Press 1984, p. 274
  133. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 108, citing Varro De Lingua Latina V 47 and Festus p. 290 M. s.v. Idulia.
  134. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 108, citing Paulus p. 92 M.; Servius Ad Aeneidem VIII 641.
  135. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 108, citing Festus p. 189 M. s.v. lapis; Polybius Historiae III 25, 6.
  136. ^ a b Dumézil (1977), p. 169.
  137. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 167. The carmen Saliare has: "cume tonas Leucesie prai ted tremonti/ quot tibi etinei deis cum tonarem".
  138. ^ a b Dumézil (1977), pp. 167–168.
  139. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 168 citing Petronius Satyricon 44.
  140. ^ Paulus s. v. p. 94 L 2nd; p. 2 M; Tertullian Apologeticum 40.
  141. ^ Apuleius De Mundo 37; cf. Iuppiter Serenus CIL VI 431, 433; XI 6312; Iuppiter Pluvialis CIL XI 324.
  142. ^ F. Cenerini above p. 104 citing Giancarlo Susini "Iuppiter Serenus e altri dei" in Epigraphica 33 1971 pp. 175–177.
  143. ^ Vitruvius De Architectura I 2, 5; CIL I 2nd p. 331: sanctuary in the Campus Martius, dedicated on 7 October according to calendaries.
  144. ^ CIL XII 1807.
  145. ^ CIL VI 377; III 821, 1596, 1677, 3593, 3594, 6342 cited by Wissowa (1912), p. 107.
  146. ^ Festus s. v. provorsum fulgur p. 229 M: "...; itaque Iovi Fulguri et Summano fit, quod diurna Iovis nocturna Summani fulgura habentur." as cited by Wissowa (1912), p. 107
  147. ^ Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 11. Pecunia is tentatively included in this group by Wissowa (1912), p. 105 n. 4. Cfr. Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 11 & 12.
  148. ^ Frugifer CIL XII 336. Apuleius De Mundo 37.
  149. ^ Cato De Agri Cultura 132; Paulus s. v. p. 51 M.
  150. ^ CIL VI 3696.
  151. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 105 n. 4 understands Pecunia as protector and increaser of the flock.
  152. ^ Bruno Migliorini s.v. Roma in Enciclopedia Italiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti vol. XXIX p. 589; A. W. Schlegel Sämtliche Werke Leipzig 1847 XII p. 488; F. Kort Römische Geschichte Heidelberg 1843 p.32-3.
  153. ^ Hammond & Scullard (1970), p. 940.
  154. ^ Servius IV 339.
  155. ^ Cato De Agri Cultura 132; Festus s. v. daps, dapalis, dapaticum pp. 177–178 L 2nd.
  156. ^ Epulo CIL VI 3696.
  157. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 105–108.
  158. ^ Livy I 12, 4–6.
  159. ^ Livy X 36, 11.
  160. ^ Dumézil (1996), pp. 174–175.
  161. ^ Livy X 29, 12–17; nefando sacro, mixta hominum pecudumque caedes, "by an impious rite, a mixed slaughter of people and flock" 39, 16; 42, 6–7.
  162. ^ Sabbatucci (1988), as summarized in the review by Turcan (1989), p. 70
  163. ^ Hyginus. Astronomica. Translated by Mary Grant. pt.1, ch.2, sec.13. Archived from the original on 1 June 2013.
  164. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 168.
  165. ^ St. Augustine, The City of God, Books 1–10, Pg 218
  166. ^ St. Augustine, The City of God, Books 1–10
  167. ^ a b Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 11.
  168. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita Book 1.
  169. ^ CIL II, 2525; Toutain. 1920. 143ff.
  170. ^ Smith, Dictionary, s.v. "Ladicus")
  171. ^ Dumézil (1974), "Remarques preliminaires" X; Dumézil (1977), p. 59 ff; citing Lucien Gerschel "Varron logicien" in Latomus 17 1958 pp. 65–72.
  172. ^ Augustine De Civitate Dei IV 27; VI 5.
  173. ^ Pépin, J. (1956). "La théologie tripartite de Varron". Revue des études augustiniennes. 2: 265–294. doi:10.1484/J.REA.5.103923. Dumézil has pointed out that even though Augustine may be correct in pointing out cases in which Varro presented under the civil theology category contents that may look to belong to mythic theology, nevertheless he preserved under this heading the lore and legends ancient Romans considered their own.
  174. ^ Wissowa (1912) cites three passages from Horace, Carmina: I 1, 25 manet sub Iove frigido venator; I 22, 20 quod latus mundi nebulae malusque Iuppiter urget; III 10, 7 ut glaciet nives puro numine Iuppiter.
  175. ^ On the Esquiline lies the sacellum of Iuppiter Fagutalis (Varro De Lingua Latina V 152, Paulus p. 87 M., Pliny Naturalis historia XVI 37, CIL VI 452); on the Viminal is known a Iuppiter Viminius (Varro De Lingua Latina V 51, Festus p. 376); a Iuppiter Caelius on the Caelius (CIL VI 334); on the Quirinal the so called Capitolium Vetus (Martial V 22, 4; VII 73, 4). Outside Rome: Iuppiter Latiaris on Mons Albanus, Iuppiter Appenninus (Orelli 1220, CIL VIII 7961 and XI 5803) on the Umbrian Apennines, at Scheggia, on the Via Flaminia, Iuppiter Poeninus (CIL 6865 ff., cfr. Bernabei Rendiconti della Regia Accademia dei Lincei III, 1887, fascicolo 2, p. 363 ff.) at Great Saint Bernard Pass, Iuppiter Vesuvius (CIL X 3806), Iuppiter Ciminus (CIL XI 2688); the Sabine Iuppiter Cacunus (CIL IX 4876, VI 371). Outside Italy Iuppiter Culminalis in Noricum and Pannonia (CIL III 3328, 4032, 4115, 5186; Supplememtum 10303, 11673 etc.) as cited by Wissowa (1912), p. 102 and Francesca Cenerini "Scritture di santuari extraurbani tra le Alpi e gli Appennini" in Mélanges de l'École française de Rome 104 1992 1 pp. 94–95.
  176. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 100–101
  177. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 103–108.
  178. ^ Salvatore Settis (1990). Giorgione's Tempest: Interpreting the Hidden Subject. University of Chicago Press. p. 62, summarising this scholarly interpretation: "The lightning is Jove" cf. Peter Humfrey (1997). Painting in Renaissance Venice. Yale University Press. p. 118f.
  179. ^ Dumézil (1996), p. 239.
  180. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 171.
  181. ^ Varro apud Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 9.
  182. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 274 ff.
  183. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 271 citing Ovid Fasti III, 815–832.
  184. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 23, 133–134
  185. ^ a b Dumézil (1941–1948).
  186. ^ Dumézil (1970), pp. 137–165.
  187. ^ a b Dumézil (1970), pp. 172, 175.
  188. ^ a b c Dumézil (1948).
  189. ^ Dumézil (1970), p. [page needed].
  190. ^ Montanari (1990), pp. 73 ff, citing Cicero Pro Scauro 48: "pignus nostrae salutis atque imperii"; Servius Ad Aeneidem II 188, 16: "Illic imperium fore ubi et Palladium"; Festus s.v. p. 152 L.
  191. ^ Montanari (1990), pp. 73 ff, citing M. Sordi "Lavinio, Roma e il Palladio" in CISA 8 1982 p. 74 ff.; W. Vollgraf "Le Palladium de Rome" in BAB 1938 pp. 34 ff.
  192. ^ Dumézil (1956), pp. 71–78.
  193. ^ Cicero De nat. Deor. II 85–86: "Is est locus saeptus religiose propter Iovis pueri, qui lactens cum Iunone in gremio sedens, mamma appetens, castissime colitur a matribus": "This is an enclosed place for religious reasons because of Iupiter child, who is seated on the womb with Juno suckling, directed towards the breast, very chastely worshipped by mothers".
  194. ^ Dumézil (1956), p. 96 ff.
  195. ^ CIL XIV 2868 and 2862 (mutile).
  196. ^ R. Mowat "Inscription latine sur plaque de bronze acquise à Rome par par M. A. Dutuit" in Mem. de la Soc. nat. des Antiquités de France 5me Ser. 3 43 1882 p. 200: CIL XIV 2863: ORCEVIA NUMERI/ NATIONU CRATIA/ FORTUNA DIOVO FILEA/ PRIMOCENIA/ DONOM DEDI. Cited by Dumézil (1996), p. 71 ff.
  197. ^ Dumézil (1956), chapt. 3.
  198. ^ Ṛg-Veda X 72, 4–5; Dumézil (1996), p. [page needed] and Mariages indo-européens pp. 311–312: "Of Aditi Daksa was born, and of Daksa Aditi, o Daksa, she who is your daughter".
  199. ^ Dumézil (1956), p. 91 n. 3.
  200. ^ A. Brelich Tre variazioni romane sul tema delle origini. I. Roma e Preneste. Una polemica religiosa nell'Italia antica Pubbl. dell'Univ. di Roma 1955–1956.
  201. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 101 & 290. Discussed at length by Augustine, City of God VII 9 and 10. Also Ovid Fasti I, 126.
  202. ^ D. Briquel "Jupiter, Saturne et le Capitol" in Revue de l'histoire des religions 198 2. 1981 pp. 131–162; Varro V 42; Vergil Aeneis VIII 357-8; Dionysius Hal. I 34; Solinus I 12; Festus p. 322 L; Tertullian Apologeticum 10; Macrobius I 7, 27 and I 10, 4 citing a certain Mallius. See also Macrobius I 7, 3: the annalistic tradition attributed its foundation to king Tullus Hostilius. Studies by E. Gjerstad in Mélanges Albert Grenier Bruxelles 1962 pp. 757–762; Filippo Coarelli in La Parola del Passato 174 1977 p. 215 f.
  203. ^ A. Pasqualini "Note sull'ubicazione del Latiar" in Mélanges de l'École française de Rome 111 1999 2 p[. 784–785 citing M. Malavolta "I ludi delle feriae Latinae a Roma" in A. Pasqualini (ed.) Alba Longa. Mito storia archeologia. Atti dell'incontro di studio, Roma-Albano laziale 27–29 gennaio 1994 Roma 1996 pp. 257–273; Eusebius De laude Constantini 13, 7 = MPG XX col. 1403–1404; J. Rives "Human sacrifice among Pagans and Christians" in Journal of Roman Studies LXXXV 1995 pp. 65–85; Iustinus Apologeticum II 12, 4–5; G. Pucci "Saturno: il lato oscuro" in Lares LVIII 1992 p. 5-7.
  204. ^ Wissowa (1912), pp. 100–101; Dumézil (1996), p. 348; Cicero De Natura Deorum II 61.
  205. ^ a b Dumézil (1974), p. [page needed].
  206. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 189.
  207. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 103.
  208. ^ Roger D. Woodard Vedic and Indo-European Sacred Space Chicago Illinois Un. Press 2005 p. 189. The scholar thinks Dius Fidius is the Roman equivalent of Trita Apya, the companion of Indra in the slaying of Vrtra.
  209. ^ a b G. Wissowa in Roschers Lexicon 1909 s.v. Semo Sancus col. 3654; Wissowa (1912), p. 131 f.
  210. ^ Fowler (1899), p. 139.
  211. ^ O. Sacchi "Il trivaso del Quirinale" in Revue internationale de droit de l'Antiquité 2001 pp. 309–311, citing Nonius Marcellus s.v. rituis (L p. 494): Itaque domi rituis nostri, qui per dium Fidium iurare vult, prodire solet in compluvium., 'thus according to our rites he who wishes to swear an oath by Dius Fidius he as a rule walks to the compluvium (an unroofed space within the house)'; Macrobius Saturnalia III 11, 5 on the use of the private mensa as an altar mentioned in the ius Papirianum; Granius Flaccus indigitamenta 8 (H. 109) on king Numa's vow by which he asked for the divine punishment of perjury by all the gods.
  212. ^ Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 13, referencing also Quintus Valerius Soranus; H. Wagenvoort "Genius a genendo" Mnemosyne 4. Suppl., 4, 1951, pp. 163–168; Dumézil (1977), p. 315, discussing G. Wissowa's and K. Latte's opinions.
  213. ^ Fowler (1899), p. 189.
  214. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 318.
  215. ^ Censorinus De Die Natali 3, 1.
  216. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 243.
  217. ^ CIL IX 3513 from the lex templi of the temple of Iuppiter Liber at Furfo, Samnium.
  218. ^ Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae VI 1, 6. Silius Italicus Punica XIII 400–413. Cited by Dumézil (1977), p. 435, referencing J. Hubeaux Les grands mythes de Rome Paris 1945 pp. 81–82 and J. Aymard "Scipion l' Africain et les chiens du Capitol" in Revue d'études latins 31 1953 pp. 111–116.
  219. ^ Cicero De Republica VI 13: = Somnium Scipionis.
  220. ^ Arnobius Adversus Nationes IV 40, 2.
  221. ^ G. Capdeville "Les dieux de Martianus Capella" in Revue de l'histoire des religions 213 1996 3. p. 285.
  222. ^ Macrobius I 10, 16.
  223. ^ E. and A. L. Prosdocimi in Etrennes M. Lejeune Paris 1978 pp. 199–207 identify him as an aspect of Jupiter. See also A. L. Prosdocimi "'Etimologie di teonimi: Venilia, Summano, Vacuna" in Studi linguistici in onore di Vittore Pisani Milano 1969 pp. 777–802.
  224. ^ Dumézil (1977), pp. 184–185 citing his Mitra Varuna, essai sur deux représentations indo-européennes de la souveraineté Paris 1940–1948.
  225. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 107, citing CIL VI 205; X 49 and 6423.
  226. ^ Wissowa (1912), CIL VI 206.
  227. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 185.
  228. ^ Ludwig Preller Rõmische Mythologie I Berlin 1881 pp. 195–197; E. Aust s. v. Iuppiter (Liber) in Roscher lexicon II column 661 f.
  229. ^ de Cazanove (1988), p. [page needed] cites Wissowa (1912), p. 120 and A. Schnegelsberg De Liberi apud Romanos cultu capita duo Dissertation Marburg 1895 p. 40.
  230. ^ a b Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 21.
  231. ^ de Cazanove (1988), p. 247 n. 4.
  232. ^ Inscriptions from the territory of the Frentani (Zvetaieff Sylloge inscriptionum Oscarum nr. 3); Vestini (CIL IX 3513; I 2nd 756 Furfo); Sabini (Jordan Analecta epigraphica latina p. 3 f.= CIL I 2nd 1838) and Campani (CIL X 3786 Iovi Liber(o) Capua).
  233. ^ Fasti Arvales ad 1. September.
  234. ^ Monumentum Ancyranum IV 7; CIL XI 657 Faventia; XIV 2579 Tusculum.
  235. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 106.
  236. ^ de Cazanove (1988), p. 248 cites Fr. Bömer Untersuchungen über die Religion der Sklaven in Griechenland und Rom I Wiesbaden 1957 p. 127 f.
  237. ^ Trebatius Testa apud Arnobius Ad nationes VII 31: "solum quod inferetur sacrum..." "only that which is spilt is considered sacred..."; also Cato De Agri Cultura CXXXII 2; CXXXIV 3; Servius IX 641; Isidore XX 2,7.
  238. ^ de Cazanove (1988), p. 248 ff.
  239. ^ Marcus Antistius Labeo apud Festus s. v., p. 474 L.
  240. ^ Fr. Altheim Terra Mater Giessen 1931 p. 22 and n. 4 while acknowledging the obscurity of the etymology of this word proposed the derivation from sacerrima as bruma from brevissima; Onomata Latina et Graeca s.v.: novum vinum; Corpus Glossatorum Latinorum II p. 264: απαρχη γλεύκους.
  241. ^ Columella De Re Rustica XII 18, 4 mentions a sacrifice to Liber and Libera immediately before.
  242. ^ Paulus s. v. sacrima p. 423 L; Festus p. 422 L (mutile).
  243. ^ Isidore Origines XX 3, 4; Enrico Monatanari "Funzione della sovranitá e feste del vino nella Roma repubblicana" in Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni 49 1983 pp. 242–262.
  244. ^ G. Dumézil "Quaestiunculae indo-italicae" 14–16 in Revue d' études latins XXXIX 1961 pp. 261–274.
  245. ^ Henri Le Bonniec Le culte de Cérès à Rome Paris 1958 pp. 160–162.
  246. ^ Dumézil (1977), pp. 331–332.
  247. ^ Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 3, 1.
  248. ^ "Liber et liberi" in Revue d'études latins 14 1936 pp. 52–58.
  249. ^ "...curatores Iovi Libertati" CIL XI 657 and "Iovi Obsequenti publice" CIL XI 658 from Bagnacavallo; "Iuppiter Impetrabilis" from Cremella sopra Monza published by G. Zecchini in Rivista di studi italiani e latini 110 1976 pp. 178–182. The double presence of Jupiter and Feronia at Bagnacavallo has led to speculation that the servile manumissio (legal ritual action by which slaves were freed) was practised in this sanctuary : Giancarlo Susini "San Pietro in Sylvis, santuario pagense e villaggio plebano nel Ravennate" in Mélanges offertes à G. Sanders Steenbrugge 1991 pp. 395–400. Cited in F. Cenerini above p. 103.
  250. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 188 n. 44.
  251. ^ Fowler (1899), pp. 121–122.
  252. ^ Kurt Latte Römische Religionsgeschichte Munich 1960 p. 81 and n. 3.
  253. ^ G. Piccaluga "L' anti-Iupiter" in Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni XXXIV 1963 p. 229-236; E. Gierstad "Veiovis, a pre-indoeuropean God in Rome?" in Opuscola Romana 9, 4 1973 pp. 35–42.
  254. ^ Aulus Gellius V 12.
  255. ^ Sabbatucci (1988), as summarized by Turcan (1989), pp. 70, 72–73. On the aspect of making Jupiter grow up, Turcan cites the denarii struck by Manius Fonteius and Valerian the younger of the type Iovi crescenti mentioned by A. Alföldi in Studien zur Geschichte der Weltkrisedes 3. Jhd. n.Chr. Darmstadt 1067 p. 112 f.
  256. ^ Ludwig Preller Römische Mythologie I p. 262 f.
  257. ^ Ovid Fasti I, 291–294.
  258. ^ Ferruccio Bernini Ovidio. I Fasti (translation and commentary), III 429; Bologna 1983 (reprint).
  259. ^ Vitruvius De Architectura IV 8, 4.
  260. ^ Ovid Fasti. Fasti Praenestini CIL I 2nd p. 231: Aescu]lapio Vediovi in insula.
  261. ^ Fasti Praen.: Non. Mart. F(as)...]ovi artis Vediovis inter duos lucos; Ovid Fasti III, 429–430.
  262. ^ Ovid Fasti V, 721–722. XII Kal. Iun. NP Agonia (Esq. Caer. Ven. Maff.); Vediovi (Ven.).
  263. ^ Wissowa on the grounds of Paulus's glossa humanum sacrificium p. 91 L interprets "with a rite proper to a ceremony in honour of the deceased". G. Piccaluga at n. 15 and 21 pp. 231–232 though remarks that Gellius does not state sacrificium humanum but only states...immolaturque ritu humano capra.
  264. ^ Livy VIII 9, 6.
  265. ^ Gellius V 12, 12.
  266. ^ Gellius V 12. The Romans knew and offered a cult to other such deities: among them Febris, Tussis, Mefitis.
  267. ^ G. Piccaluga "L' anti-Juppiter" in Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religioni XXXIV 1963 p. 233-234 and notes 30, 31 citing Gellius V 12 and Pliny the Elder Naturalis Historia XVI 216: "Non et simulacrum Veiovis in arce?".
  268. ^ Livy XXXI 21.
  269. ^ Ettore Pais CIL Supplementa Italica I addimenta al CIL V in Atti dei Lincei, Memorie V 1888 n. 1272: I O M IUR D(e) C(onscriptorum) S(ententia).
  270. ^ CIL I 1105: C. Volcaci C. F Har. de stipe Iovi Iurario... onimentum.
  271. ^ Ovid Fasti I, 291–295.
  272. ^ Livy XXXV 41.
  273. ^ Cfr. above: "Aeculapio Vediovi in insula".
  274. ^ Maurice Besnier "Jupiter Jurarius" in Mélanges d'archéologie et d' histoire 18 1898 pp. 287–289.
  275. ^ CIL XIV 2387 = ILS 2988 = ILLRP 270=CIL I 807: Vediovei patrei genteiles Iuliei leege Albana dicata.
  276. ^ A. Pasqualini "Le basi documenatarie della leggenda di Alba Longa" Universita' di Roma Torvergata 2012 online.
  277. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 408.
  278. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 413.
  279. ^ Livy XXVII 2, 10–12.
  280. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus Rom. Antiquities III 69, 5–6.
  281. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus above III 69; Florus I 7, 9.
  282. ^ CIL XI 351.
  283. ^ Plutarch Numa 16.
  284. ^ Ovid Fasti II, 679.
  285. ^ Augustine De Civitate Dei VII 7.
  286. ^ Sabbatucci (1988), p. [page needed].
  287. ^ Dumézil (1977), pp. 186–187.
  288. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 135.
  289. ^ a b Dumézil (1977), pp. 185–186.
  290. ^ C. W. Atkins "Latin 'Iouiste' et le vocabulaire religieux indoeuropéen" in Mélanges Benveniste Paris, 1975, pp. 527–535.
  291. ^ Wissowa (1912), p. 135, citing Servius Danielis Eclogae IV 50.
  292. ^ Piso apud Dionysius of Halicarnassus Rom. Antiquities IV 15, 5.
  293. ^ Livy XXXV 36, 5.
  294. ^ Macrobius Saturnalia III 4, 8–9 citing Varro: "Per quos penitus spiramus". Sabine Mac Cormack The Shadows of Poetry: Vergil in the Mind of Augustine University of California Press 1998 p. 77.
  295. ^ Dumézil (1977), pp. 311–312.
  296. ^ Varro De Lingua Latina V 144; Plutarch Coriolanus XXIX 2; Macrobius Saturnalia III 4, 11; Servius Ad Aeneidem II 296: as cited by Dumézil (1977), p. 313.
  297. ^ Dumézil (1977), p. 313.
  298. ^ Arnobius Adversus nationes III 40. Cf. also Lucan Pharsalia V 696; VII 705; VIII 21.
  299. ^ Arnobius Adversus Nationes III 40, 3; Martianus Capella De Nuptiis I 41: "Senatores deorum qui Penates ferebantur Tonantis ipsius quorumque nomina, quoniam publicari secretum caeleste non pertulit, ex eo quod omnia pariter repromittunt, nomen eis consensione perficit".
  300. ^ Arnobius Adversus Nationes III 40 4; Macrobius Saturnalia III 4 9.
  301. ^ Gérard Capdeville "Les dieux de Martianus Capella" in Revue de l'histoire des religions 213 1996 3 p. 285 citing Carl Olof Thulin Die Götter des Martianus Capella und der Bronzeleber von Piacenza (=RGVV 3. 1) Giessen 1906 pp. 38–39. On the topic see also A. L. Luschi "Cacu, Fauno e i venti' in Studi Etruschi 57 1991 pp. 105–117.

Works cited

Further reading

Enlaces externos