Aunque el soberano es compartido con otros 14 países independientes dentro de la Mancomunidad de Naciones , la monarquía de cada país es separada y legalmente distinta. [22] Como resultado, el monarca actual se titula oficialmente Rey de Canadá y, en esta capacidad, él y otros miembros de la familia real realizan funciones públicas y privadas a nivel nacional e internacional como representantes de Canadá. Sin embargo, el monarca es el único miembro de la familia real con algún papel constitucional . El monarca vive en el Reino Unido y, aunque varios poderes son solo del soberano, [23] la mayoría de los deberes gubernamentales y ceremoniales reales en Canadá son llevados a cabo por el representante del monarca, el gobernador general de Canadá . [27] En cada una de las provincias de Canadá , la monarquía está representada por un vicegobernador . Como los territorios caen bajo la jurisdicción federal, cada uno tiene un comisionado, en lugar de un vicegobernador, que representa directamente a la Corona federal en Consejo .
Toda la autoridad ejecutiva reside en el soberano, por lo que el consentimiento del monarca es necesario para que las cartas patentes y los decretos en consejo tengan efecto legal. Además, el monarca es parte del Parlamento de Canadá, por lo que se requiere el asentimiento real para permitir que los proyectos de ley se conviertan en ley. Si bien el poder para estos actos proviene del pueblo canadiense a través de las convenciones constitucionales de la democracia, [28] la autoridad ejecutiva sigue estando en manos de la Corona y solo la confía el soberano al gobierno en nombre del pueblo. Esto subraya el papel de la Corona en la salvaguarda de los derechos, las libertades y el sistema democrático de gobierno de los canadienses, reforzando el hecho de que "los gobiernos son servidores del pueblo y no al revés". [29] [30] Por lo tanto, dentro de la monarquía constitucional de Canadá, la participación directa del soberano en cualquiera de estas áreas de gobierno normalmente es limitada, y el soberano típicamente ejerce la autoridad ejecutiva solo con el consejo y consentimiento del Gabinete de Canadá , y las responsabilidades legislativas y judiciales del soberano se llevan a cabo en gran medida a través del Parlamento de Canadá , así como de los jueces y magistrados de paz . [29] Sin embargo, hay casos en los que el soberano o su representante tendrían el deber de actuar directa e independientemente bajo la doctrina de la necesidad para prevenir actos genuinamente inconstitucionales. [31] [32] En estos aspectos, el soberano y sus virreyes son custodios de los poderes de reserva de la Corona y representan el "poder del pueblo por encima del gobierno y los partidos políticos". [33] [34] Dicho de otra manera, la Corona funciona como garante del gobierno continuo y estable de Canadá y como una salvaguardia no partidista contra el abuso de poder . [37]
Canadá ha sido descrito como "una de las monarquías más antiguas del mundo" en la actualidad. [19] [38] Partes de lo que ahora es Canadá han estado bajo una monarquía desde el siglo XV como resultado del asentamiento colonial y, a menudo, de reclamos en competencia sobre territorio en nombre de las coronas inglesa (y luego británica) y francesa. [ 51] El gobierno monárquico se ha desarrollado como resultado de la colonización por parte de los imperios francés y británico que compiten por territorio en América del Norte y una sucesión correspondiente de soberanos franceses y británicos que reinan sobre Nueva Francia y la América británica , respectivamente. Como resultado de la conquista de Nueva Francia , se extinguieron los reclamos de los monarcas franceses y lo que se convirtió en la América del Norte británica quedó bajo la hegemonía de la monarquía británica que finalmente evolucionó hasta convertirse en la monarquía canadiense de la actualidad. [54] Con la excepción de Terranova de 1649 a 1660 , ninguna parte de lo que ahora es Canadá ha sido una república o parte de una república; [55] sin embargo, ha habido llamados aislados para que el país se convierta en una. Sin embargo, se considera que la Corona está "arraigada" en el marco gubernamental. [59] La institución que constituye el sistema de monarquía constitucional de Canadá se conoce a veces coloquialmente como la Corona de Maple [n 1] o Corona de Maples [63] , ya que Canadá ha desarrollado una "marca de monarquía reconociblemente canadiense". [64]
Territorios de ultramar de los reinos de la Commonwealth
Los 15 reinos de los que el rey Carlos III es el soberano reinante
El monarca es compartido en una unión personal con otros 14 reinos de la Commonwealth dentro de la Mancomunidad de Naciones de 56 miembros . Como reside [65] [66] [67] [68] en el Reino Unido, los virreyes (el gobernador general de Canadá en la esfera federal y un vicegobernador en cada provincia) representan al soberano en Canadá y pueden llevar a cabo la mayoría de los deberes gubernamentales reales, incluso cuando el monarca se encuentra en el país [n 2] Sin embargo, el monarca puede llevar a cabo deberes constitucionales y ceremoniales canadienses en el extranjero. [n 3] [n 4]
La evolución del papel del gobernador general de ser a la vez un representante del soberano y un "agente del gobierno británico" que "en asuntos considerados de interés 'imperial'... actuaba siguiendo instrucciones de la Oficina Colonial Británica " [73] a ser únicamente un representante del monarca se desarrolló con un aumento del nacionalismo canadiense tras el final de la Primera Guerra Mundial que culminó con la aprobación del Estatuto de Westminster en 1931. [74] [75] Desde entonces, la Corona ha tenido un carácter compartido y separado: el papel del soberano como monarca de Canadá ha sido distinto de su posición como monarca de cualquier otro reino, [n 3] [79] incluido el Reino Unido. [n 5] [85] Solo los ministros federales canadienses de la Corona pueden asesorar al soberano sobre todos y cada uno de los asuntos del estado canadiense, [n 6] [91] de los cuales el soberano, cuando no está en Canadá, se mantiene al tanto mediante comunicaciones semanales con el virrey federal. [92] La monarquía dejó así de ser una institución exclusivamente británica y, en Canadá, se convirtió en un establecimiento canadiense, [96] o "domesticado", [97] aunque todavía se la suele denominar "británica" tanto en el lenguaje jurídico como en el común, [46] por razones históricas, políticas y de conveniencia.
Esta división se ilustra de varias maneras: el soberano, por ejemplo, tiene un título canadiense único y, [98] cuando él y otros miembros de la familia real actúan en público específicamente como representantes de Canadá, utilizan, cuando es posible, símbolos canadienses, incluida la bandera nacional del país , símbolos reales únicos, uniformes de las fuerzas armadas , [103] y similares, así como aeronaves de las Fuerzas Canadienses u otros vehículos de propiedad canadiense para viajar. [104] Una vez en el espacio aéreo canadiense, o al llegar a un evento canadiense que se lleva a cabo en el extranjero, el secretario canadiense del Rey , los oficiales de la Real Policía Montada de Canadá (RCMP) y otros funcionarios canadienses reemplazarán a cualquiera de sus homólogos de otros reinos que escoltaban previamente al Rey u otro miembro de la familia real. [104] [105]
De manera similar, el soberano sólo recibe fondos canadienses para apoyar el desempeño de sus funciones cuando se encuentra en Canadá o cuando actúa como Rey de Canadá en el extranjero; los canadienses no pagan dinero alguno al Rey ni a ningún otro miembro de la familia real, ni para ingresos personales ni para apoyar residencias reales fuera de Canadá. [106] [107]
A la muerte del monarca, se produce una sucesión inmediata y automática por parte del heredero del soberano fallecido; [111] de ahí la frase, " el Rey ha muerto. Larga vida al Rey ". [112] [113] No es necesaria ninguna confirmación ni ceremonia adicional. El gabinete federal y la administración pública siguen el Manual de Procedimiento Oficial del Gobierno de Canadá para llevar a cabo diversas formalidades en torno a la transición. [114]
Según la costumbre, la ascensión al trono de un nuevo monarca es proclamada públicamente por el gobernador general en consejo , que se reúne en el Rideau Hall inmediatamente después de la muerte del monarca anterior. [114] Desde la adopción del Estatuto de Westminster, se ha considerado "constitucionalmente inapropiado" que las proclamaciones de ascensión de Canadá sean aprobadas por una orden en consejo británica, [77] ya que, desde entonces, el monarca ha asumido el trono canadiense de acuerdo con la ley canadiense. Para la ascensión al trono de Carlos III, la primera desde la creación de la Autoridad Heráldica Canadiense en 1989, el heraldo jefe leyó la proclamación real en voz alta. Si el Parlamento está en sesión, el primer ministro anunciará allí el fallecimiento de la Corona y propondrá un discurso conjunto de simpatía y lealtad al nuevo monarca. [114]
Una procesión conmemorativa en Ottawa antes de la ceremonia nacional de conmemoración por la muerte de la reina Isabel II
También sigue un período de duelo , durante el cual los retratos del monarca recientemente fallecido se cubren con tela negra y el personal de las casas de gobierno usa brazaletes negros . El Manual de Procedimiento Oficial del Gobierno de Canadá establece que el primer ministro es responsable de convocar al Parlamento, presentar una resolución de lealtad y condolencias del Parlamento al nuevo monarca y disponer que la moción sea secundada por el líder de la oposición oficial . [109] [115] El primer ministro luego moverá para levantar el Parlamento. [109] [115] La Corporación Canadiense de Radiodifusión mantiene un plan actualizado regularmente para una "transmisión de importancia nacional", anunciando el fallecimiento de un soberano y cubriendo las consecuencias, durante el cual se cancela toda la programación y publicidad regulares y los comentaristas de guardia contribuyen a un modo de noticias de 24 horas. [109] Como los funerales de los soberanos de Canadá, así como de sus consortes, se llevan a cabo en el Reino Unido, [116] los gobiernos federales y provinciales llevan a cabo servicios conmemorativos en todo Canadá. [116] [117] También pueden celebrarse ceremonias de este tipo para otros miembros de la familia real recientemente fallecidos. Es probable que el día del funeral del soberano sea un feriado federal. [109] [118]
En el Reino Unido, el nuevo monarca es coronado mediante un ritual antiguo, pero no necesario para que un soberano pueda reinar. [n 7] Según la Ley de Interpretación federal , [114] los funcionarios que ocupan un cargo federal bajo la Corona no se ven afectados por la muerte del monarca, ni están obligados a realizar nuevamente el Juramento de Lealtad . [119] Sin embargo, en algunas provincias, quienes ocupan cargos de la Corona deben prestar el Juramento al nuevo soberano. [120] Todas las referencias en la legislación federal a monarcas anteriores, ya sea en masculino (por ejemplo, Su Majestad ) o femenino (por ejemplo , La Reina ), siguen significando el soberano reinante de Canadá, independientemente de su género. [121] Esto se debe a que, en el derecho consuetudinario, la Corona nunca muere . Después de que un individuo accede al trono, generalmente continúa reinando hasta la muerte. [n 8]
El rey Eduardo VIII abdicó en 1936 y todos los posibles descendientes futuros suyos fueron excluidos de la línea de sucesión. [122] El gobierno británico en ese momento, deseando rapidez para evitar un debate embarazoso en los parlamentos de los Dominios, sugirió que los gobiernos de los Dominios de la Mancomunidad Británica (entonces Australia, Nueva Zelanda, el Estado Libre Irlandés , la Unión Sudafricana y Canadá) consideraran que quien fuera monarca del Reino Unido fuera automáticamente monarca de su respectivo Dominio. Al igual que con los otros gobiernos de los Dominios, el Gabinete canadiense, encabezado por el Primer Ministro William Lyon Mackenzie King , se negó a aceptar la idea y destacó que las leyes de sucesión eran parte de la ley canadiense y, como el Estatuto de Westminster de 1931 prohibía al Reino Unido legislar para Canadá, incluso en relación con la sucesión, [123] alterarlas requería la solicitud y el consentimiento de Canadá para que la legislación británica ( Ley de Declaración de Abdicación de Su Majestad, 1936 ) pasara a formar parte de la ley canadiense. [124] Sir Maurice Gwyer , primer consejero parlamentario del Reino Unido, reflejó esta posición, afirmando que la Ley de Establecimiento era parte de la ley en cada Dominio. [124] Así, se emitió la Orden en Consejo PC 3144 [125] , expresando la solicitud y el consentimiento del Gabinete para que la Ley de Declaración de Abdicación de Su Majestad de 1936 se convirtiera en parte de las leyes de Canadá y la Ley de Sucesión al Trono de 1937 dio ratificación parlamentaria a esa acción, trayendo juntas la Ley de Establecimiento y la Ley de Matrimonios Reales de 1772 a la ley canadiense. [126] [127] Esta última fue considerada por el Gabinete en 1947 como parte de la ley canadiense. [n 9] [128] El Departamento de Asuntos Exteriores incluyó todas las leyes relacionadas con la sucesión en su lista de leyes dentro de la ley canadiense.
La Corte Suprema de Canadá declaró por unanimidad en la Referencia de Patriación de 1981 que la Carta de Derechos de 1689 está "indudablemente en vigor como parte de la ley de Canadá". [130] [131] Además, en O'Donohue v. Canada (2003), el Tribunal Superior de Justicia de Ontario determinó que la Ley de Establecimiento de 1701 es "parte de las leyes de Canadá" y que las reglas de sucesión están "necesariamente incorporadas a la Constitución de Canadá". [132] Otro fallo del Tribunal Superior de Ontario, en 2014, se hizo eco del caso de 2003, al afirmar que la Ley de Establecimiento "es un estatuto imperial que finalmente se convirtió en parte de la ley de Canadá". [133] Al desestimar la apelación de ese caso, el Tribunal de Apelaciones de Ontario declaró que "[l]as reglas de sucesión son parte del tejido de la constitución de Canadá y están incorporadas a ella". [134]
En una reunión del Comité Mixto Especial sobre la Constitución durante el proceso de repatriación de la Constitución canadiense en 1981, John Munro preguntó al entonces Ministro de Justicia Jean Chrétien sobre las "omisiones selectivas" de la Ley de Sucesión al Trono de 1937 , la Ley de Muerte de la Corona de 1901 , la Ley de Sellos , la Ley del Gobernador General y la Ley de Estilo y Títulos Reales de 1953 , desde el anexo a la Ley de la Constitución de 1982 . En respuesta, Chrétien afirmó que el anexo de la Ley de la Constitución de 1982 no era exhaustivo, y destacó que la sección 52(2) de la Ley de la Constitución de 1982 dice que "[l]a Constitución de Canadá incluye [...] las leyes y órdenes a las que se hace referencia en el anexo" y "[c]uando se utiliza la palabra 'incluye' [...] significa que si alguna vez hay otra cosa relacionada con la Constitución canadiense como parte de ella, debería haber estado allí, o podría haber estado allí, está cubierta. Por lo tanto, no tenemos que volver a enumerar [sic] las que usted está mencionando". [135] En la misma reunión, el Fiscal General Adjunto Barry Strayer declaró: "La cláusula 52(2) no es una definición exhaustiva de la Constitución de Canadá, de modo que si bien tenemos ciertas cosas enumeradas en el anexo que son claramente parte de la Constitución, eso no significa que no haya otras cosas que sean parte de la Constitución [...] [El anexo] no es una lista exhaustiva". [135]
Leslie Zines afirmó en la publicación de 1991, Constitutional Change in the Commonwealth (Cambio constitucional en la Mancomunidad) , que, aunque la sucesión al trono de Canadá estaba delineada por el derecho consuetudinario y la Ley de Establecimiento de 1701 , estos no formaban parte de la constitución canadiense, que "no contiene reglas para la sucesión al trono". [136] Richard Toporoski, escribiendo tres años después para la Liga Monárquica de Canadá , afirmó: "no existe ninguna disposición en nuestra ley, aparte de la Ley de Establecimiento de 1701 , que establezca que el rey o la reina de Canadá será la misma persona que el rey o la reina del Reino Unido. Si se cambiara la ley británica y no cambiáramos nuestra ley [...] la persona prevista en la nueva ley se convertiría en rey o reina en al menos algunos reinos de la Mancomunidad; Canadá continuaría con la persona que se hubiera convertido en monarca bajo la ley anterior". [137]
Canadá, junto con los demás reinos de la Commonwealth, se comprometió con el Acuerdo de Perth de 2011 , que proponía cambios en las normas que rigen la sucesión para eliminar la preferencia masculina y la eliminación de la descalificación derivada del matrimonio con un católico romano. Como resultado, el Parlamento canadiense aprobó la Ley de sucesión al trono de 2013 , que dio el asentimiento del país al proyecto de ley de sucesión a la Corona , que en ese momento se tramitaba en el Parlamento del Reino Unido. Al desestimar una impugnación a la ley sobre la base de que un cambio en la sucesión en Canadá requeriría el consentimiento unánime de todas las provincias en virtud del artículo 41(a) de la Ley constitucional de 1982 , el juez del Tribunal Superior de Quebec, Claude Bouchard, dictaminó que Canadá "no tenía que cambiar sus leyes ni su constitución para que las normas de sucesión real británica se modificaran y entraran en vigor" y la convención constitucional comprometió a Canadá a tener una línea de sucesión simétrica a las de otros reinos de la Commonwealth. [138] [139] El fallo fue confirmado por el Tribunal de Apelaciones de Quebec . [140] La Corte Suprema de Canadá se negó a escuchar una apelación en abril de 2020. [141]
El constitucionalista Philippe Lagassé sostiene que, a la luz de la Ley de Sucesión al Trono de 2013 y de los fallos judiciales que confirman esa ley, el artículo 41(a) de la Ley Constitucional de 1982 , que requiere una enmienda constitucional aprobada con el consentimiento unánime de las provincias, se aplica sólo al "cargo de la Reina", pero no a quién ocupa ese cargo, y que, por lo tanto, "poner fin al principio de simetría con el Reino Unido puede hacerse con el procedimiento general de enmienda, o incluso por el Parlamento solo en virtud del artículo 44 de la Ley Constitucional de 1982 ". [141] [142]
Ted McWhinney , otro erudito constitucional, sostuvo que un gobierno de Canadá que entonces fuera el futuro podría iniciar un proceso de eliminación gradual de la monarquía después de la muerte de Isabel II "de manera silenciosa y sin fanfarrias, simplemente al no proclamar legalmente a ningún sucesor de la Reina en relación con Canadá". Esto, afirmó, sería una forma de eludir la necesidad de una enmienda constitucional que requeriría el consentimiento unánime del Parlamento federal y de todas las legislaturas provinciales. [143] Sin embargo, Ian Holloway, decano de Derecho de la Universidad de Western Ontario , criticó la propuesta de McWhinney por ignorar las aportaciones provinciales y opinó que su implementación "sería contraria al claro propósito de quienes diseñaron nuestro sistema de gobierno". [144]
Ciertos aspectos de las normas de sucesión han sido impugnados en los tribunales. Por ejemplo, en virtud de las disposiciones de la Carta de Derechos de 1689 y la Ley de Establecimiento de 1701 , los católicos tienen prohibido suceder al trono; esta prohibición ha sido confirmada dos veces por los tribunales canadienses, una en 2003 y otra en 2014. [149] El jurista Christopher Cornell, de la Facultad de Derecho Dedman de la SMU, concluyó que "la prohibición de que el monarca canadiense sea católico, si bien es discriminatoria, es perfectamente (si no fundamentalmente) constitucional" y que si se va a "cambiar o eliminar la prohibición, tendrá que lograrse política y legislativamente a través de otro acuerdo multilateral similar al Acuerdo de Perth, en lugar de hacerlo judicialmente a través de los tribunales". [150]
Canadá no tiene leyes que permitan una regencia , si el soberano es menor de edad o está debilitado; [92] ninguna ha sido aprobada por el Parlamento canadiense y los gabinetes sucesivos desde 1937 dejaron en claro que la Ley de Regencia del Reino Unido no tenía aplicabilidad a Canadá, [92] ya que el Gabinete canadiense no había solicitado lo contrario cuando se aprobó la ley ese año y nuevamente en 1943 y 1953. Como las Cartas Patentes de 1947 , emitidas por el Rey Jorge VI, permiten al gobernador general de Canadá ejercer casi todos los poderes del monarca con respecto a Canadá, se espera que el virrey continúe actuando como representante personal del monarca, y no cualquier regente, incluso si el monarca es un niño o está incapacitado. [153]
Esto ha llevado a la pregunta de si el gobernador general tiene la capacidad de destituirse y nombrar a su sucesor virreinal en nombre del monarca. Si bien Lagassé argumentó que ese parece ser el caso, [142] tanto el Manual Canadiense de Procedimientos Oficiales , publicado en 1968, como la Oficina del Consejo Privado adoptaron la opinión opuesta. [154] [155] Lagassé y Patrick Baud afirmaron que se podían realizar cambios en las regulaciones para permitir que un gobernador general designara al siguiente gobernador general; [156] Christopher McCreery, sin embargo, criticó la teoría, argumentando que es poco práctico sugerir que un gobernador general se destituiría a sí mismo por consejo ministerial, [157] con la consecuencia de que, si se produjera una regencia prolongada, se eliminaría uno de los controles y equilibrios de la constitución. [158] La intención expresada cada vez que surgía el tema de la regencia entre los jefes de gobierno del reino de la Commonwealth era que el parlamento pertinente (excepto el del Reino Unido) aprobaría un proyecto de ley si surgiera la necesidad de una regencia y el gobernador general pertinente ya estaría facultado para otorgarle el asentimiento real. [159] El gobernador general que designa a su sucesor no es un poder que se haya utilizado hasta la fecha. [142]
Los virreyes federal y diez provinciales, junto con los tres comisionados territoriales, en su reunión anual de 2016, acompañados de sus respectivos socios y secretarios.
Los orígenes de la soberanía canadiense se remontan a principios del siglo XVII, época en la que el monarca de Inglaterra se enfrentó con el parlamento sobre quién tenía la autoridad máxima, lo que culminó en la Revolución Gloriosa de 1688 y la posterior Declaración de Derechos de 1689 , que, como se menciona en otras partes de este artículo, hoy forma parte del derecho constitucional canadiense. Esto trajo a Canadá la noción británica de la supremacía del parlamento —del que el monarca es parte— y se trasladó a cada una de las provincias tras la implementación del gobierno responsable . Sin embargo, eso fue reemplazado cuando la Carta de Derechos y Libertades (dentro de la Ley Constitucional de 1982 ) introdujo en Canadá la idea estadounidense de la supremacía de la ley . [183] Aun así, el Rey sigue siendo el soberano de Canadá. [n 10] [185]
La monarquía de Canadá se estableció en la Confederación, cuando se declaró, en la sección 9 de la Ley Constitucional de 1867 , que su gobierno ejecutivo y autoridad continuarían y estarían en manos del monarca. La decisión de otorgar dicho poder, junto con el poder legislativo, a la Reina tangible y viviente, en lugar de a la Corona abstracta e inanimada, fue una elección deliberada de los redactores de la constitución. [186] Aun así, la Corona es el fundamento del país [187] [188] como "el centro mismo de la constitución y la democracia [de Canadá]". [187] Aunque Canadá es una federación, la monarquía canadiense es unitaria en todas las jurisdicciones del país, [189] la soberanía de las diferentes administraciones se transmite a través de la propia Corona, que tiene un alcance superior, como parte de las operaciones ejecutivas, legislativas y judiciales en cada una de las esferas federal y provincial [190] y la jefatura del estado es parte de todas por igual. [189] La Corona vincula así a los diversos gobiernos en un estado federal, [8] mientras que simultáneamente también está "dividida" en 11 jurisdicciones legales, u 11 "coronas" —una federal y 10 provinciales [191] —y el monarca asume una personalidad jurídica distinta en cada una. [n 11] [n 12] Como tal, la constitución instruye que cualquier cambio en la posición del monarca o sus representantes en Canadá requiere el consentimiento del Senado , la Cámara de los Comunes y las asambleas legislativas de todas las provincias. [194] La Corona, al ser compartida y equilibrada, [188] proporciona la base sobre la cual todas las diferentes regiones y pueblos de Canadá pueden vivir juntos pacíficamente [195] y David E. Smith dijo, en 2017, que era la "piedra angular de la arquitectura constitucional" de Canadá. [196]
La Corona está situada más allá de la política, existiendo para otorgar autoridad y proteger la constitución y el sistema de gobierno. [187] Por lo tanto, el poder reside en una institución que "funciona para salvaguardarlo en nombre de todos sus ciudadanos", en lugar de en un individuo singular. [197] El soberano y sus representantes normalmente "actúan 'no actuando'" [n 13] —mantienen el poder, pero no lo ejercen— tanto porque son figuras no electas como para mantener su neutralidad, "deliberada, insistente y resueltamente", [199] en caso de que tengan que ser un árbitro imparcial en una crisis constitucional y garantizar que se pueda reanudar el discurso democrático normal. [202] En consecuencia, la Corona cumple dos funciones: [203] como símbolo unificador y protector de los derechos y libertades democráticos, [188] "estrechamente entretejidos en la estructura de la constitución canadiense". [203]
Al mismo tiempo, a la monarca y a los demás miembros superiores de la familia real se les niegan o limitan una serie de libertades que la Constitución concede a todos los demás canadienses: libertad de religión, libertad de expresión, libertad de viajar, libertad de elegir una carrera, libertad de casarse y libertad de privacidad y de vida familiar. [204]
Si bien la Corona está facultada por la ley y la prerrogativa real , también disfruta de poderes inherentes que no le otorga ninguna de ellas. [205] El Tribunal de Apelaciones de Columbia Británica dictaminó en 1997 que "la Corona tiene las capacidades y poderes de una persona natural" [206] y sus acciones como persona natural están, al igual que las acciones de cualquier persona natural, sujetas a revisión judicial. [207] Además, se determinó en R. v Secretary of State for Health el ex parte C que, "como cuestión de capacidad, sin duda, [la Corona] tiene el poder de hacer lo que una persona privada puede hacer. Pero, como órgano de gobierno, solo puede ejercer esos poderes para el beneficio público y para fines identificablemente 'gubernamentales' dentro de los límites establecidos por la ley". [208] De manera similar, el uso de la prerrogativa real es justiciable, [209] sin embargo, solo cuando el "tema afecta los derechos o las expectativas legítimas de un individuo". [210]
El gobernador general es designado por el monarca por recomendación de su primer ministro federal y los vicegobernadores son designados por el gobernador general por recomendación del primer ministro federal. Los comisionados de los territorios de Canadá son designados por el gobernador federal en consejo, por recomendación del ministro de relaciones entre la Corona y los pueblos indígenas , pero, como los territorios no son entidades soberanas, los comisionados no son representantes personales del soberano. El Comité Asesor sobre Nombramientos Virreinales , que puede solicitar la opinión del primer ministro y de la comunidad provincial o territorial pertinente, propone candidatos para el nombramiento como gobernador general, vicegobernador y comisionado. [211] [212]
Inmunidad soberana
Desde 1918 se sostiene que la Corona federal es inmune a las leyes provinciales. [213] La convención constitucional también ha sostenido que la Corona, en derecho de cada provincia, está fuera de la jurisdicción de los tribunales de otras provincias. Sin embargo, esta opinión ha sido cuestionada. [214]
Los tenientes gobernadores no gozan de la misma inmunidad que el soberano en asuntos no relacionados con los poderes del cargo virreinal, como se decidió en el caso de la ex teniente gobernadora de Quebec Lise Thibault , quien había sido acusada de malversación de fondos públicos. [215]
Como encarnación viviente de la Corona , [121] [216] el soberano es considerado la personificación del Estado canadiense [n.° 14] [230] y está destinado a representar a todos los canadienses, independientemente de su afiliación política. [231] Como tal, él, junto con sus representantes virreinales, debe "permanecer estrictamente neutral en términos políticos". [95]
La persona del soberano reinante tiene así dos personalidades distintas en constante coexistencia, una antigua teoría de los "dos cuerpos del Rey": el cuerpo natural (sujeto a la enfermedad y la muerte) y el cuerpo político (que nunca muere). [232] La Corona y el monarca son "conceptualmente divisibles pero legalmente indivisibles [...] El cargo no puede existir sin el titular del cargo", [n 15] [78] por lo que, incluso en privado, el monarca siempre está "de servicio". [221] Los términos el estado , la Corona , [234] la Corona en derecho de Canadá , Su Majestad el Rey en derecho de Canadá ( en francés : Sa Majesté le Roi du chef du Canada ), [235] y similares son todos sinónimos y la personalidad jurídica del monarca a veces se denomina simplemente Canadá . [223] [236]
El monarca se encuentra en la cima del orden de precedencia canadiense y, como la encarnación del estado, también es el foco de los juramentos de lealtad, [n 16] [240] requeridos a muchos de los empleados antes mencionados de la Corona, así como a los nuevos ciudadanos , como por ejemplo el Juramento de Ciudadanía . La lealtad se otorga en reciprocidad al Juramento de Coronación del soberano , [241] en el que él o ella promete gobernar al pueblo de Canadá "de acuerdo con sus respectivas leyes y costumbres". [242]
Jefe de estado
Aunque se ha argumentado que el término jefe de Estado es republicano e inaplicable en una monarquía constitucional como Canadá, donde el monarca es la encarnación del Estado y por lo tanto no puede ser su jefe, [221] el soberano es considerado por fuentes oficiales del gobierno, [246] jueces, [247] eruditos constitucionales, [223] [248] y encuestadores como el jefe de Estado, [249] mientras que el gobernador general y los vicegobernadores son todos sólo representantes de esa figura y por lo tanto igualmente subordinados a ella. [250] Algunos gobernadores generales, su personal, publicaciones gubernamentales, [223] y eruditos constitucionales como Ted McWhinney y CES Franks, [251] [252] sin embargo, se han referido al cargo de gobernador general como el de jefe de Estado de Canadá; [253] [254] aunque, a veces, califican la afirmación con de facto o efectivo ; [258] Por ello, Franks ha recomendado que el gobernador general sea nombrado oficialmente jefe de Estado. [252] Otros consideran que el papel de jefe de Estado lo comparten tanto el soberano como sus virreyes. [262] Desde 1927, los gobernadores generales han sido recibidos en visitas de Estado al extranjero como si fueran jefes de Estado. [263]
El entonces gobernador general David Johnston pasa revista a la guardia de honor en Rashtrapati Bhavan durante una visita de Estado a la India, el 24 de febrero de 2014
Los funcionarios de Rideau Hall han intentado utilizar las Cartas Patentes de 1947 como justificación para describir al gobernador general como jefe de Estado. Sin embargo, el documento no hace tal distinción, [264] ni efectúa una abdicación de los poderes del soberano a favor del virrey, [92] ya que solo permite al gobernador general "actuar en nombre de la Reina". [265] [266] D. Michael Jackson, ex Jefe de Protocolo de Saskatchewan, argumentó que Rideau Hall había estado intentando "redefinir" al gobernador general como jefe de Estado desde la década de 1970 y que al hacerlo se adelantaba tanto a la Reina como a todos los vicegobernadores. [250] Esto no sólo causó "guerras de precedencia" en eventos provinciales (donde el gobernador general usurpó el lugar que le correspondía al vicegobernador como el funcionario de mayor rango presente) [267] [268] y la Gobernadora General Adrienne Clarkson se dio a sí misma precedencia ante la Reina en una ocasión nacional, [269] sino también cuestiones constitucionales al "desequilibrar [...] la simetría federalista". [189] [270] Esto ha sido considerado como una evolución natural y como un esfuerzo deshonesto para alterar la constitución sin escrutinio público. [264] [271]
En una encuesta realizada por Ipsos-Reid tras la primera prórroga del 40º Parlamento el 4 de diciembre de 2008, se descubrió que el 42% del grupo de muestra pensaba que el primer ministro era el jefe de Estado, mientras que el 33% pensaba que era el gobernador general. Sólo el 24% nombró a la Reina como jefa de Estado, [249] una cifra superior a la de 2002, cuando los resultados de una encuesta de EKOS Research Associates mostraron que sólo el 5% de los encuestados sabía que la Reina era la jefa de Estado (el 69% respondió que era el primer ministro). [272]
El estandarte real es la bandera oficial del monarca, que muestra las armas reales en forma de estandarte . [277] Tiene precedencia sobre todas las demás banderas en Canadá, incluida la bandera nacional y las de los otros miembros de la familia real [44] , y generalmente ondea en edificios, embarcaciones y vehículos en los que está presente el soberano (aunque se han hecho excepciones para su uso cuando el monarca no está presente). El estandarte real nunca se ondea a media asta porque siempre hay un soberano: cuando uno muere, su sucesor se convierte en el soberano instantáneamente. También se han incorporado elementos de las armas reales a la bandera del gobernador general ; de manera similar, las banderas de los tenientes gobernadores emplean los escudos del escudo de armas provincial relevante.
Papel constitucional federal
La constitución de Canadá se basa en el modelo parlamentario de Westminster , en el que el papel del Rey es tanto legal como práctico, pero no político. [95] El soberano está investido de todos los poderes del estado, conocidos colectivamente como la prerrogativa real , [278] lo que lleva a que el pueblo sea considerado súbditos de la Corona. [279] Sin embargo, como el poder del soberano proviene del pueblo [30] [280] y el monarca es constitucional , él o ella no gobierna solo, como en una monarquía absoluta . En cambio, se considera a la Corona como una corporación única , siendo el monarca el centro de una construcción en la que el poder del todo es compartido por múltiples instituciones de gobierno [187] —el ejecutivo , el legislativo y el judicial [9] — que actúan bajo la autoridad del soberano, [223] [281] cuyo ejercicio está encomendado a los políticos (los parlamentarios elegidos y designados y los ministros de la Corona generalmente extraídos de entre ellos) y a los jueces y magistrados de paz . [29] Por lo tanto, se ha descrito a la monarquía como el principio subyacente de la unidad institucional de Canadá y al monarca como un "guardián de las libertades constitucionales" [48] [238] cuyo "trabajo es asegurar que el proceso político permanezca intacto y se le permita funcionar". [95]
El Gran Sello de Canadá utilizado durante el reinado de la reina Isabel II
El Gran Sello de Canadá "significa el poder y la autoridad de la Corona que fluyen del soberano al gobierno parlamentario" [282] y se aplica a documentos estatales como proclamaciones reales y cartas patentes que comisionan a ministros del Gabinete, senadores, jueces y otros funcionarios gubernamentales de alto rango. [283] El "préstamo" de autoridad real al Gabinete se ilustra por el gran sello que es confiado por el gobernador general, el guardián oficial del sello, al ministro de Innovación, Ciencia y Desarrollo Económico , quien es ex officio el registrador general de Canadá . [283] Tras un cambio de gobierno, el sello se devuelve temporalmente al gobernador general y luego se "presta" al siguiente registrador general entrante. [282]
La Corona es el pináculo de las Fuerzas Armadas canadienses , y la constitución coloca al monarca en la posición de comandante en jefe de toda la fuerza , aunque el gobernador general lleva a cabo los deberes asociados al cargo y también lleva el título de Comandante en Jefe en y sobre Canadá . [284]
El gobierno de Canadá —formalmente denominado Gobierno de Su Majestad [285] —está definido por la constitución como el Rey actuando siguiendo el consejo de su Consejo Privado; [288] lo que técnicamente se conoce como el Rey en Consejo , [8] o a veces el Gobernador en Consejo , [121] refiriéndose al gobernador general como el sustituto del Rey, aunque algunas tareas deben ser realizadas específicamente por el Rey, o los proyectos de ley que requieren el asentimiento de este. [291] Uno de los principales deberes de la Corona es "garantizar que siempre haya un gobierno elegido democráticamente", [261] lo que significa nombrar a un primer ministro para que luego encabece el Gabinete [292] —un comité del Consejo Privado encargado de asesorar a la Corona sobre el ejercicio de la prerrogativa real. [287] El monarca es informado por su virrey de la juramentación y la renuncia de los primeros ministros y otros miembros del ministerio, [292] permanece plenamente informado a través de comunicaciones regulares de sus ministros canadienses y mantiene audiencias con ellos siempre que sea posible. [243] Por convención, el contenido de estas comunicaciones y reuniones permanece confidencial para proteger la imparcialidad del monarca y su representante. [95] [293] Se ha cuestionado la idoneidad y viabilidad de esta tradición en una era de redes sociales . [294] [295]
En el concepto de monarquía constitucional y gobierno responsable , el asesoramiento ministerial es típicamente vinculante, [296] lo que significa que el monarca reina pero no gobierna , [297] el Gabinete gobierna "en confianza" para el monarca. [298] Este ha sido el caso en Canadá desde que el Tratado de París puso fin al reinado del último monarca absoluto del territorio , el rey Luis XV de Francia . Sin embargo, la prerrogativa real pertenece a la Corona y no a ninguno de los ministros [300] y las figuras reales y virreinales pueden usar unilateralmente estos poderes en situaciones excepcionales de crisis constitucional (un ejercicio de los poderes de reserva ), [n 17] lo que permite al monarca asegurarse de que "el gobierno se conduzca de conformidad con la constitución"; [261] él y los virreyes son garantes de la legitimidad constitucional, en oposición a la democrática, del gobierno y deben asegurar la continuidad de dicha legitimidad. [301] El uso de la prerrogativa real de esta manera se vio cuando el Gobernador General rechazó el consejo de su Primer Ministro de disolver el Parlamento en 1926 y cuando, en 2008, el Gobernador General tardó algunas horas en decidir si aceptaba o no el consejo de su Primer Ministro de prorrogar el Parlamento para evitar un voto de censura. [302] [303] Los poderes de prerrogativa también se han utilizado numerosas veces en las provincias . [302]
La prerrogativa real se extiende además a los asuntos exteriores, incluida la ratificación de tratados, alianzas, acuerdos internacionales y declaraciones de guerra , [304] la acreditación de altos comisionados y embajadores canadienses y la recepción de diplomáticos similares de estados extranjeros, [305] [306] y la emisión de pasaportes canadienses , [307] que siguen siendo propiedad del soberano. [308] También incluye la creación de honores dinásticos y nacionales , [309] aunque solo estos últimos se establecen por asesoramiento ministerial oficial.
Todas las leyes de Canadá son del monarca y el soberano es uno de los tres componentes del Parlamento de Canadá [310] [311] —formalmente llamado el Rey en el Parlamento [8] —pero el monarca y el virrey no participan en el proceso legislativo, salvo por el consentimiento real , expresado típicamente por un ministro de la Corona, [312] y el asentimiento real , que es necesario para que un proyecto de ley se promulgue como ley. Cualquiera de los dos puede realizar esta tarea, y la constitución permite al virrey la opción de diferir el asentimiento al soberano. [313]
El gobernador general es además responsable de convocar a la Cámara de los Comunes, mientras que el virrey o el monarca pueden prorrogar y disolver la legislatura, después de lo cual el gobernador general suele convocar a elecciones generales . Este elemento de la prerrogativa real no se ve afectado por la legislación que "fija" las fechas de las elecciones , ya que la Ley de modificación de la Ley de elecciones de Canadá especifica que no restringe los poderes de la Corona. [314] La nueva sesión parlamentaria está marcada por el monarca, el gobernador general o algún otro representante leyendo el Discurso del Trono . [315] Los miembros del Parlamento deben recitar el Juramento de Lealtad antes de poder tomar asiento. Además, la oposición oficial se denomina tradicionalmente Oposición Leal de Su Majestad , [318] lo que ilustra que, aunque sus miembros se oponen al gobierno en ejercicio, siguen siendo leales al soberano (como personificación del estado y su autoridad). [319]
El monarca no tiene la prerrogativa de imponer y recaudar nuevos impuestos sin la autorización de una ley del Parlamento . Sin embargo, debe obtenerse el consentimiento de la Corona antes de que cualquiera de las cámaras del Parlamento pueda siquiera debatir un proyecto de ley que afecte las prerrogativas o los intereses del soberano y ninguna ley del Parlamento vincula al Rey o sus derechos a menos que la ley establezca que lo hace. [320]
Tribunales (Rey en el banquillo)
Una sala de audiencias de la Corte Suprema de Canadá que muestra en la pared central una representación del escudo de armas real.
El soberano es responsable de impartir justicia a todos sus súbditos y, por tanto, se le considera tradicionalmente la fuente de la justicia [321] y su posición en los tribunales canadienses se denomina formalmente el Rey en el banquillo . [8] Las armas de Su Majestad en Derecho de Canadá se exhiben tradicionalmente en las salas de audiencias canadienses, [322] al igual que un retrato del soberano. [323] La insignia de la Corte Suprema también lleva una corona de San Eduardo para simbolizar la fuente de la autoridad de la corte.
El monarca no gobierna personalmente en los casos judiciales; esta función de la prerrogativa real es desempeñada en su lugar en confianza y en nombre del Rey por funcionarios de la corte de Su Majestad. [321] El derecho consuetudinario sostiene la noción de que el soberano " no puede hacer nada malo ": el monarca no puede ser procesado en sus propios tribunales -juzgado por él mismo- por delitos penales bajo sus propias leyes. [324] Canadá heredó la versión del derecho consuetudinario de la inmunidad de la Corona del derecho británico. [325] Sin embargo, con el tiempo, el alcance de dicha inmunidad se ha reducido constantemente por la ley estatutaria. Con la aprobación de la legislación pertinente a través de los parlamentos provinciales y federales, la Corona en su capacidad pública (es decir, demandas contra el Rey en Consejo), en todas las áreas de Canadá, ahora es responsable por agravio , como lo sería cualquier persona normal. [325] En casos internacionales, como soberano y bajo los principios establecidos del derecho internacional , el Rey de Canadá no está sujeto a demanda en tribunales extranjeros sin su consentimiento expreso. [326]
Dentro de la prerrogativa real está también la concesión de inmunidad procesal, [327] clemencia y el perdón de los delitos contra la Corona. [328] [329] Desde 1878, la prerrogativa del perdón siempre se ha ejercido por recomendación de los ministros. [330]
La constitución de Canadá incluye varios tratados entre la Corona y las Primeras Naciones de Canadá , los inuit y los métis , quienes, como los maoríes y el Tratado de Waitangi en Nueva Zelanda, [331] generalmente consideran que la afiliación no es entre ellos y el gabinete en constante cambio, sino con la Corona continua de Canadá, encarnada en el soberano reinante, [332] lo que significa que el vínculo entre el monarca y los pueblos indígenas en Canadá durará teóricamente "mientras brille el sol, crezca la hierba y fluyan los ríos". [333] [334]
He valorado enormemente la oportunidad de debatir [...] el proceso vital de reconciliación en este país, no un acto aislado, por supuesto, sino un compromiso permanente con la sanación, el respeto y la comprensión [...] con los pueblos indígenas y no indígenas de todo Canadá, comprometiéndose a reflexionar honesta y abiertamente sobre el pasado y a forjar una nueva relación para el futuro. [343]
El vínculo entre la Corona y los pueblos indígenas a veces se expresará simbólicamente a través de ceremonias. [344] Se han intercambiado regalos con frecuencia y se han otorgado títulos aborígenes a figuras reales y virreinales desde los primeros días del contacto indígena con la Corona. [349] Ya en 1710, los líderes indígenas se han reunido para discutir asuntos de tratados con miembros de la familia real o virreyes en audiencias privadas y muchos continúan usando su conexión con la Corona para promover sus objetivos políticos; [350] Las ceremonias públicas a las que asisten el monarca u otro miembro de la familia real se han empleado como una plataforma en la que presentar quejas, presenciadas por cámaras nacionales e internacionales. [353] Después de las protestas en todo el país , a partir de 2012, y el cierre de la Comisión de la Verdad y la Reconciliación en 2015, la atención se centró en el acercamiento entre las naciones en la relación de nación a nación. [360]
Los jefes hereditarios son líderes dentro de las Primeras Naciones que representan diferentes casas o clanes y cuyas jefaturas se transmiten de generación en generación; la mayoría de las Primeras Naciones tienen un sistema hereditario. [361] Los cargos tienen sus raíces en modelos tradicionales de gobernanza indígena que son anteriores a la colonización de Canadá [362] [363] y están organizados de una manera similar a la idea occidental de monarquía. [368] De hecho, los primeros exploradores europeos a menudo consideraban que los territorios pertenecientes a diferentes grupos aborígenes eran reinos, como a lo largo de la costa norte del río San Lorenzo , entre el río Trinity y la Isle-aux-Coudres , y el vecino "reino de Canadá", que se extendía al oeste hasta la isla de Montreal [369] —y los líderes de estas comunidades eran denominados reyes, [350] en particular aquellos elegidos por herencia. [370] [371]
Los miembros de la familia real han estado presentes en Canadá desde finales del siglo XVIII, y sus motivos incluyen participar en maniobras militares, servir como virrey federal o realizar viajes reales oficiales que "refuerzan el patrimonio colectivo del país". [384] Al menos se ha realizado un viaje real cada año entre 1957 y 2018. [385]
La función de "bienestar y servicio" de la monarquía se considera una parte importante del papel de la monarquía moderna y demuestra un cambio significativo en la institución en las últimas generaciones, desde una corona imperial muy ceremonializada a un jefe de estado "más demótico y visible" que "interactúa con la población general mucho más allá de los círculos limitados de la corte". [386] Como tal, una característica destacada de las giras son los paseos reales; una tradición iniciada en 1939 por la reina Isabel cuando estaba en Ottawa y se separó del séquito real para hablar directamente a los veteranos reunidos. [387] [388] Por lo general, los hitos importantes, los aniversarios o las celebraciones de la cultura canadiense justifican la presencia del monarca, [387] mientras que a otros miembros de la familia real se les pide que participen en ocasiones menores. Un miembro de la familia real que asista y atienda al monarca forma parte del séquito real.
Los deberes oficiales implican que la soberana represente al estado canadiense en su país o en el extranjero , o que sus familiares como miembros de la familia real participen en ceremonias organizadas por el gobierno, ya sea en Canadá o en otro lugar; [n 18] [410] a veces, estos individuos son empleados para afirmar la soberanía de Canadá sobre sus territorios. [n 19] El asesoramiento del Gabinete canadiense es el impulso para la participación real en cualquier evento canadiense, aunque, en la actualidad, el Jefe de Protocolo y su personal en el Departamento de Patrimonio Canadiense son, como parte del Programa de Símbolos Canadienses y Ceremoniales Estatales, [412] [413] responsables de orquestar cualquier evento oficial en o para Canadá que involucre a la familia real. [414]
Por el contrario, los miembros de la familia real desempeñan funciones no oficiales para organizaciones canadienses de las que pueden ser patrocinadores , ya sea asistiendo a eventos benéficos, visitando a miembros de las Fuerzas Canadienses como coronel en jefe o celebrando ciertos aniversarios clave. [406] [407] La invitación y los gastos asociados a estas actividades suelen correr a cargo de la organización asociada. [406] En 2005, los miembros de la familia real estuvieron presentes en un total de 76 compromisos canadienses, así como en varios más durante 2006 y 2007. [415] En el período comprendido entre 2019 y 2022, llevaron a cabo 53 compromisos, el número se redujo, y todos durante el último año y medio fueron virtuales, debido a las restricciones vigentes durante la pandemia de COVID-19 . [416] Los distintos virreyes participaron en 4.023 compromisos durante 2019 y 2020, tanto en persona como virtualmente. [417]
Aparte de Canadá, el Rey y otros miembros de la familia real desempeñan funciones públicas con regularidad en los otros 14 reinos de la Commonwealth en los que el Rey es jefe de Estado. Esta situación, sin embargo, puede significar que el monarca y/o los miembros de la familia real estén promoviendo una nación y no otra, una situación que ha sido criticada. [n 20]
Símbolos, asociaciones y premios
El símbolo principal de la monarquía es el propio soberano, [187] descrito como "la expresión personal de la Corona en Canadá", [419] y su imagen se utiliza para significar la soberanía canadiense y la autoridad gubernamental: su imagen, por ejemplo, aparece en la moneda y su retrato en los edificios gubernamentales. [238] El soberano también se menciona y es el tema de canciones, brindis leales y saludos. [420] Una cifra real , que aparece en edificios y sellos oficiales , o una corona, vista en los escudos de armas provinciales y nacionales , así como en las insignias y rangos de los regimientos y las fuerzas policiales canadienses , también se utiliza para ilustrar la monarquía como el lugar de la autoridad, [421] esto último sin hacer referencia a ningún monarca específico.
Desde los días del rey Luis XIV , [422] el monarca es la fuente de todos los honores en Canadá y las órdenes, [422] [423] condecoraciones y medallas forman "un elemento integral de la Corona". [422] Por lo tanto, las insignias y medallones de estos premios llevan una corona, una cifra y/o un retrato del monarca. De manera similar, la autoridad heráldica del país fue creada por la reina Isabel II y, operando bajo la autoridad del gobernador general, otorga nuevos escudos de armas , banderas e insignias en Canadá. El uso de la corona real en tales símbolos es un regalo del monarca que muestra apoyo y/o asociación real y requiere su aprobación antes de ser agregado. [421] [424]
Varias organizaciones civiles canadienses tienen asociación con la monarquía, ya sea por haber sido fundadas a través de una carta real , haber recibido el derecho a usar el prefijo real antes de su nombre , o porque al menos un miembro de la familia real actúa como mecenas . Además de The Prince's Trust Canada , establecida por Carlos III cuando era Príncipe de Gales, también se han fundado otras organizaciones benéficas y de voluntariado como obsequios a, o en honor de, algunos de los monarcas de Canadá o miembros de la familia real, como la Orden Victoriana de Enfermeras , un obsequio a la Reina Victoria por su Jubileo de Diamante en 1897; el Fondo Canadiense contra el Cáncer, creado en honor del Jubileo de Plata del Rey Jorge V en 1935; y el Fondo de la Reina Isabel II para Ayudar en la Investigación sobre las Enfermedades de los Niños. Asimismo, en Canadá se emiten varios premios en nombre de miembros anteriores o actuales de la familia real. Además, las organizaciones darán obsequios conmemorativos a los miembros de la familia real para marcar una visita u otra ocasión importante. Todas las monedas canadienses llevan la imagen del monarca reinante en el momento de la producción de la moneda, con una inscripción, Dei gratia Rex (a menudo abreviada como DG Rex ), una frase en latín traducida al inglés como " por la gracia de Dios , rey". [426] Durante el reinado de una monarca femenina, rex se reemplaza por regina , que en latín significa "reina".
A lo largo de la década de 1970, los símbolos de la monarquía y la monarquía fueron lentamente eliminados de la vista del público. Por ejemplo, el retrato de la Reina se veía menos en las escuelas públicas y el Royal Mail se convirtió en Canada Post . Smith atribuyó esto a la actitud que el gobierno de la época tenía hacia el pasado de Canadá; [427] sin embargo, nunca planteó la política en público ni durante ninguna de las conferencias constitucionales celebradas en esa década. [137] Sin embargo, Andrew Heard argumentó que prescindir de tales símbolos era necesario para facilitar la creciente aceptación simultánea de la monarca como Reina de Canadá. [428] Sin embargo, emblemas como el Escudo de Armas Real permanecieron, y se crearon otros, como el estandarte real de la monarca . Con los desarrollos posteriores de la bandera del gobernador general , la fundación de la Autoridad Heráldica Canadiense, los estandartes reales para otros miembros de la familia real y similares, Canadá, junto con Nueva Zelanda, es uno de los dos reinos que han "prestado la mayor atención a la nacionalización de los símbolos visuales de la monarquía". [429]
Importancia para la identidad canadiense
En su libro de 2018, The Canadian Kingdom: 150 Years of Constitutional Monarchy , Jackson escribió que "la manifestación canadiense de la monarquía no es solo histórica y constitucional, es política, cultural y social, y refleja y contribuye al cambio y la evolución en el gobierno, la autonomía y la identidad de Canadá". [64] Desde al menos la década de 1930, [430] los partidarios de la Corona han sostenido la opinión de que el monarca es un punto focal unificador para la "conciencia histórica" de la nación (la herencia del país está "indiscutiblemente vinculada con la historia de la monarquía" [384] ) y el patriotismo , las tradiciones y los valores compartidos canadienses , [384] "en torno a los cuales se cohesiona el sentido de la nación de una personalidad continua". [431] Esta infusión de la monarquía en el gobierno y la sociedad canadienses ayuda a fortalecer la identidad canadiense [384] y a distinguirla de la identidad estadounidense, [432] una diferencia que ha existido al menos desde 1864, cuando fue un factor en la decisión de los Padres de la Confederación de mantener la monarquía constitucional para el nuevo país en 1866. [433] El ex gobernador general Vincent Massey expresó en 1967 que la monarquía "representa cualidades e instituciones que significan Canadá para cada uno de nosotros y que, a pesar de todas nuestras diferencias y toda nuestra variedad, han mantenido a Canadá como canadiense". [434]
Quiero que la Corona en Canadá represente todo lo mejor y más admirado del ideal canadiense. Seguiré haciendo todo lo posible para que así sea durante mi vida. [435]
Isabel II, 1973
Pero, desde finales de los años 1960 hasta los años 2000, los gobiernos federales y provinciales alentaron a los canadienses a "descuidar, ignorar, olvidar, rechazar, degradar, reprimir, incluso odiar y ciertamente tratar como extranjero lo que sus padres y abuelos, ya sean espirituales o de sangre, consideraban la base de la nacionalidad, la autonomía y la historia canadienses", incluida la monarquía. [436] lo que resultó en una desconexión entre la población canadiense y su monarca. [433] El exgobernador general Roland Michener dijo en 1970 que los antimonárquicos afirmaban que la Corona canadiense es extranjera e incompatible con la sociedad multicultural de Canadá, [289] que el gobierno promovió como un identificador canadiense, y Lawrence Martin pidió en 2007 que Canadá se convirtiera en una república para "renovar la marca de la nación". [437] Sin embargo, Michener también afirmó que "[la monarquía] es nuestra por herencia y elección, y contribuye mucho a nuestra identidad canadiense distintiva y a nuestras posibilidades de supervivencia independiente entre las repúblicas de América del Norte y del Sur". [289] La periodista Christina Blizzard destacó en 2009 que la monarquía "hizo de [Canadá] un refugio de paz y justicia para los inmigrantes de todo el mundo", [438] mientras que Michael Valpy sostuvo en 2009 que la naturaleza de la Corona permitía el no conformismo entre sus súbditos, abriendo así la puerta al multiculturalismo y al pluralismo. [46] Johnston describió a la Corona como un lugar que proporciona "espacio para nuestros valores y creencias como canadienses". [188]
En los medios de comunicación y la cultura popular
Pintura y escultura
Además de las obras de arte oficiales, como monumentos y retratos encargados por organismos gubernamentales, los pintores canadienses han creado, por voluntad propia o para organizaciones privadas, representaciones más expresivas e informales de los monarcas de Canadá y otros miembros de la familia real, que van desde las bellas artes hasta el grafiti irreverente . Por ejemplo, el artista anglocanadiense Frederic Marlett Bell-Smith produjo The Artist Painting Queen Victoria en 1895, que ahora se encuentra en la Galería Nacional de Canadá . En la Biblioteca y Archivos de Canadá se encuentra la pintura The Unveiling of the National War Memorial , que captura la dedicación del monumento , en Ottawa, por el rey Jorge VI y la reina Isabel en 1939; aunque se desconoce el artista. [439]
(En el sentido de las agujas del reloj desde arriba) retrato de Isabel II por Lorena Ziraldo , 2014; figura de cera del Príncipe Carlos (ahora Carlos III) en el Museo de Cera Real de Londres, Victoria; The Artist Painting Queen Victoria de Frederic Marlett Bell-Smith , 1895; retrato pop art de Victoria, Toronto; The Unveiling of the National War Memorial , 1939; grafiti irreverente en Montreal que representa a Isabel II
Hilton Hassell representó a la Princesa Isabel (más tarde Reina Isabel II) bailando en la plaza Rideau Hall en 1951 y un retrato de Isabel II realizado por Lorena Ziraldo , de Ottawa , apareció en Hill Times y Ottawa Citizen .
Charles Pachter , de Toronto , diseñó la pintura Noblesse Oblige en 1972, que muestra a la reina Isabel II, con su uniforme del Regimiento de la Guardia y saludando, como lo hacía durante las ceremonias de Trooping the Colour , excepto que sobre un alce en lugar de su caballo, Burmese . A pesar de la gran controversia cuando se exhibió por primera vez, [440] "se ha convertido en una imagen cultural canadiense; la imagen del pueblo". [440] [441] Pachter, posteriormente hizo numerosas variaciones sobre el tema, [442] incluyendo Queen & Moose (1973) [443] y The Queen on a Moose (1988). [444] El artista dijo que "había una simetría asombrosa al poner a la soberana de su reino del norte (Canadá) sobre un animal que es el 'monarca del norte, torpe pero majestuoso ' ". [440] Pachter hizo piezas similares que muestran al hijo de Isabel, el príncipe Carlos (ahora rey Carlos III) y su esposa, Camilla , de pie junto a un alce [441] y al hijo de Carlos, el príncipe Guillermo , y su esposa, Catalina , con la vida silvestre canadiense, como un alce y una ardilla. [445] Para el Jubileo de Diamante de Isabel II , Pachter creó una serie de sellos postales falsos utilizando todas sus pinturas que incluyen miembros de la familia real, [440] a las que llamó "mis imágenes de marca para Canadá". [446] Algunas aparecieron en artículos accesorios vendidos en la Compañía de la Bahía de Hudson . [446]
En varios estadios de hockey de Canadá se colgaron retratos de Isabel II después de su ascenso al trono en 1952. Uno estuvo en Maple Leaf Gardens hasta principios de los años 1970, cuando el propietario Harold Ballard lo hizo quitar para construir más asientos, afirmando que "si la gente quiere ver fotografías de la Reina, puede ir a una galería de arte". [447] Se crearon tres grandes retratos de Isabel II para el Winnipeg Arena , que estuvieron en exhibición allí desde la inauguración del edificio en 1955 hasta 1999. [451]
En ocasión del sesquicentenario de la Confederación en 2017, el artista Timothy Hoey, radicado en la isla de Vancouver [452], creó una versión "Canadá 150" de su proyecto "O Canadá" de una década de duración, pintando 150 íconos canadienses con pintura acrílica sobre tablas de 20,3 por 25,4 centímetros (ocho por 10 pulgadas). [453] [454] Entre ellas hay numerosas representaciones de la reina Isabel II con otros iconos canadienses, como castores , Cheezies , la Grey Cup , [453] la Stanley Cup , [454] una botella de cerveza ( O Canada Liz Enjoying Some Wobbly-Pops ), [455] Rush ( O Canada Closer to the Heart ), la manta de punto de la Bahía de Hudson , [455] la autopista Transcanadiense , una canoa de abedul , una chaqueta de piel de ciervo , el uniforme de la Real Policía Montada de Canadá, un suéter de hockey de los Montreal Canadiens , etc. [453] Hoey había pintado previamente a Elizabeth, con atuendo formal y tiara, sosteniendo un palo de hockey frente a una manta de punto de la Bahía de Hudson; la obra titulada O-Canada Liz . [456] En 2021, representó a la Reina con un sombrero decorativo, uniforme de los Vancouver Canucks de la temporada 1978-1979 y equipo completo de portero . [457]
El comediante canadiense Scott Thompson interpretó regularmente una parodia de la reina Isabel II en un contexto canadiense en el programa de televisión de comedia de sketches The Kids in the Hall , [461] así como en otras producciones, como The Queen's Toast: A Royal Wedding Special [462] y Conan . Thompson también prestó su voz a una interpretación de la reina Isabel II en Canadá en el programa de televisión animado Fugget About It , en el episodio "Royally Screwed". [463]
La monarquía canadiense fue parodiada en " Royal Pudding ", el tercer episodio de la temporada 15 del programa de televisión animado South Park , que se emitió por primera vez el 11 de mayo de 2011. [464] La apertura se centra en una parodia de la boda del príncipe Guillermo y Catalina Middleton , [465] [466] con caricaturas de la reina Isabel II; el príncipe Guillermo, príncipe de Gales; y Catalina, princesa de Gales. Se hace mención específica de "la reina de Canadá" y "la familia real canadiense". [467] Posteriormente, el programa, en el segundo episodio de la temporada 26 , " The Worldwide Privacy Tour ", parodió al duque y la duquesa de Sussex como un príncipe de Canadá y "la esposa", quienes, después de un trato hostil en el funeral de la difunta reina de Canadá , aparecen en la televisión nacional y realizan una gira mundial exigiendo que las personas y los medios no les presten atención y se etiquetan a sí mismos como víctimas. [468]
La familia real canadiense es el grupo de personas que están relativamente estrechamente relacionadas con el monarca del país y, [469] como tal, pertenecen a la Casa de Windsor y deben su lealtad específicamente al rey o reina reinante de Canadá. [470] No existe una definición legal de quién es o no miembro de la familia real; sin embargo, el sitio web del Gobierno de Canadá enumera a los "miembros trabajadores de la familia real". [471]
Unlike in the United Kingdom, the monarch is the only member of the royal family with a title established through Canadian law and is styled by convention as His/Her Majesty,[472] as would be a queen consort. Otherwise, the remaining family members are, as a courtesy, styled and titled as they are in the UK,[472] according to letters patent issued there,[473][474] with additional French translations.[475]
Those in the royal family are distant relations of the Belgian, Danish, Greek, Norwegian, Spanish, and Swedish royal families and,[476] given the shared nature of the Canadian monarch, are also members of the British royal family. While Canadian and foreign media often refer to them as the "British royal family",[477][478] the Canadian government considers it inappropriate, as they are family members of the Canadian monarch.[479] Further, in addition to the few Canadian citizens in the royal family,[n 22] the sovereign is considered Canadian,[487] and those among his relations who do not meet the requirements of Canadian citizenship law are considered Canadian, which entitles them to Canadian consular assistance and the protection of the King's armed forces of Canada when they are in need of protection or aid outside of the Commonwealth realms,[470] as well as, since 2013, substantive appointment to the Order of Canada and Order of Military Merit.[488][489][490] Beyond formalities, members of the royal family have, on occasion, been said by the media and non-governmental organizations to be Canadian,[n 23] have declared themselves to be Canadian,[n 24] and some past members have lived in Canada for extended periods as viceroy or for other reasons.[n 25]
According to the Canadian Royal Heritage Trust, Prince Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent and Strathearn—due to his having lived in Canada between 1791 and 1800 and fathering Queen Victoria—is the "ancestor of the modern Canadian royal family".[502] Nonetheless, the concept of the Canadian royal family did not emerge until after the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, when Canadian officials only began to overtly consider putting the principles of Canada's new status as an independent kingdom into effect.[505] Initially, the monarch was the only member of the royal family to carry out public ceremonial duties solely on the advice of Canadian ministers; King Edward VIII became the first to do so when in July 1936 he dedicated the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in France.[n 18] Over the decades, however, the monarch's children, grandchildren, cousins, and their respective spouses began to also perform functions at the direction of the Canadian Crown-in-Council, representing the monarch within Canada or abroad, in a role specifically as members of the Canadian royal family.[506]
However, it was not until October 2002 when the term Canadian royal family was first used publicly and officially by one of its members: in a speech to the Nunavut legislature at its opening, Queen Elizabeth II stated: "I am proud to be the first member of the Canadian royal family to be greeted in Canada's newest territory."[507][508] Princess Anne used it again when speaking at Rideau Hall in 2014,[509] as did the now King Charles in Halifax the same year.[510] Also in 2014, then-Premier of SaskatchewanBrad Wall called Prince Edward a member of the Canadian royal family.[511] By 2011, both Canadian and British media were referring to "Canada's royal family" or the "Canadian royal family".[516]
While Heard observed in 2018 that no direct legal action has, so far, created a Canadian royal family,[517] he also asserted that the Canadian Heraldic Authority creating uniquely Canadian standards for members of the royal family other than the monarch was a symbolic "localization of the royal family";[518] Sean Palmer agreed, stating the banners are a sign the country has taken "'ownership' not only of the Queen of Canada, but of the other members of her family as well" and that doing so was another formal affirmation of the concept of a Canadian royal family "as distinct as the Queen of Canada is from the Queen of the United Kingdom".[508] Jai Patel and Sally Raudon also noted, in 2019, that the purpose of these heraldic banners was to recognize the owners' roles as members of the Canadian royal family.[519]
Federal residences and royal household
Official residences of the sovereign and their representative, the governor general
Buildings across Canada reserved by the Crown for the use of the monarch and his viceroys are called Government House, but may be customarily known by some specific name. The sovereign's and governor general's official residences are Rideau Hall in Ottawa and the Citadelle in Quebec City.[n 26][531] Each holds pieces from the Crown Collection.[532] Though neither was used for their intended purpose, Hatley Castle in British Columbia was purchased in 1940 by the federal government for the use of George VI and his family during the Second World War[533] and the Emergency Government Headquarters, built between 1959 and 1961 at CFS Carp and decommissioned in 1994, included a residential apartment for the sovereign or governor general in the case of a nuclear attack.[534]
British royalty have also owned homes and land in Canada in a private capacity: Edward VIII owned Bedingfield Ranch, near Pekisko, Alberta;[535] and Princess Margaret owned Portland Island, which was given to her by British Columbia in 1958. She offered it back to the province on permanent loan in 1961, which was accepted in 1966, and the island and surrounding waters eventually became Princess Margaret Marine Park.[536]
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police is tasked with providing security to the sovereign, the governor general (starting from when he or she is made governor general-designate[544]), and other members of the royal family; as outlined in the RCMP Regulations, the force "has a duty to protect individuals designated by the minister of public safety, including certain members of the royal family when visiting."[545] The RCMP's provision of service is determined based on threat and risk assessment, the seniority of the individual in terms of precedence and.[n 27] for members of the royal family, the nature of the royal tour—i.e. an official tour by the King or on behalf of the King or a working or private visit.[545] The governor general receives round-the-clock security from the Governor General Protection Detail,[547] part of the Personal Protection Group, based at Rideau Hall.
History
From colonies to independence
The Canadian monarchy can trace its ancestral lineage back to the kings of the Angles and the early Scottish kings and through the centuries since the claims of King Henry VII in 1497 and King Francis I in 1534; both being blood relatives of the current Canadian monarch. Former Prime Minister Stephen Harper said of the Crown that it "links us all together with the majestic past that takes us back to the Tudors, the Plantagenets, Magna Carta, habeas corpus, petition of rights, and English common law."[548] Though the first French and British colonizers of Canada interpreted the hereditary nature of some indigenous North American chieftainships as a form of monarchy,[552] it is generally accepted that Canada has been a territory of a monarch or a monarchy in its own right only since the establishment of the French colony of Canada in the early 16th century;[47] according to historian Jacques Monet, the Canadian Crown is one of the few that have survived through uninterrupted succession since before its inception.[53]
After the Canadian colonies of France were, via war and treaties, ceded to the British Crown, and the population was greatly expanded by those loyal to George III fleeing north from persecution during and following the American Revolution, British North America was in 1867 confederated by Queen Victoria to form Canada as a kingdom in its own right.[554] By the end of the First World War, the increased fortitude of Canadian nationalism inspired the country's leaders to push for greater independence from the King in his British Council, resulting in the creation of the uniquely Canadian monarchy through the Statute of Westminster, which was granted royal assent in 1931.[74][555] Only five years later, Canada had three successive kings in the space of one year, with the death of George V, the accession and abdication of Edward VIII, and his replacement by George VI.
King George VI and Queen Elizabeth attending the King's Plate in Toronto during their 1939 royal tour
King George VI became in 1939 the first reigning monarch of Canada to tour the country, doing so with his wife, Queen Elizabeth. Only weeks later, the King, on the advice of his Canadian Prime Minister, declared war on Nazi Germany.[557] Throughout the conflict, George boosted the morale of his Canadian troops[558] while Governor General the Earl of Athlone (the King's uncle) supported the war effort in Canada. The men were occasionally assisted in their efforts by other members of the royal family.
Elizabeth II undertook her first tour of Canada in 1951, when Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh. She would go on to officiate at various moments of importance in the nation's history: She opened Parliament in 1957[559]—on the same tour, delivering, from Rideau Hall, her first-ever live television broadcast[560]—and in 1977; opened the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1959;[384] celebrated Canada's centennial;[384] and proclaimed the country to be fully independent, via constitutional patriation, in 1982.[498] That act is said to have entrenched the monarchy in Canada,[561] due to the stringent amending formula that must be followed in order to alter the monarchy in any way.[194]
Through the 1960s and 1970s, the rise of Quebec nationalism and changes in Canadian identity created an atmosphere where the purpose and role of the monarchy came into question. Some references to the monarch and the monarchy were removed from the public eye and moves were made by the federal government to constitutionally alter the Crown's place and role in Canada, first by explicit legal amendments and later by subtle attrition.[564] But, provincial and federal ministers, along with loyal national citizen's organizations, ensured that the system remained the same in essence.[565]
The Queen publicly expressed her personal support for the Meech Lake Accord, which attempted to bring Quebec governmental support to the patriated constitution.[566] The accord failed, prompting Elizabeth to deliver a nationally-broadcast speech in Ottawa supporting Canadian unity.[567] In the lead-up to the referendum on Quebec independence in 1995, the Queen was tricked by a Montreal radio DJ into revealing her desire to see the "no" side win, offering to help however she could.[568][569] Elizabeth followed the results closely on the day of the vote.[569]
Elizabeth II, the first monarch to be titled Queen of Canada, wearing her Canadian insignia, as sovereign of the Order of Canada and the Order of Military Merit, 2010
By 2002, the royal tour and associated fêtes for the Queen's Golden Jubilee proved popular with Canadians across the country,[571][572][573] though Canada's first republican organization since the 1830s was also founded that year. Celebrations took place across the country to mark the Queen's Diamond Jubilee in 2012,[574][575] the first such event in Canada since that for Victoria in 1897. On 9 September 2015, she became the second-longest reigning monarch in Canadian history (preceded only by King Louis XIV);[576] events were organized to celebrate her as the "longest-reigning sovereign in Canada's modern era."[577]Prince Charles represented his mother, the Queen, two years later, at the main events in Ottawa recognizing the 150th anniversary of Confederation.[578]
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Queen expressed her support for all Canadians and thanks to those who were caring for the vulnerable and providing essential services.[579] As the pandemic waned into 2022, celebrations were mounted around the country and throughout the year to mark the Queen's Platinum Jubilee;[580] the first-ever such event in Canadian history.[581] It was also, though, the first time since at least Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1887 that the federal Cabinet did not advise the Crown to create an associated medal.[582] In response, six provinces produced their own Platinum Jubilee medals; another first.[583]
The subject of reconciliation with Canada's Indigenous peoples came to the forefront of the public consciousness in 2021, particularly in regard to residential schools. Statues of Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth II in Winnipeg were vandalized.[584][585] On the first National Day for Truth and Reconciliation, Elizabeth made a public statement, saying she "joins with all Canadians [...] to reflect on the painful history that Indigenous peoples endured in residential schools in Canada and on the work that remains to heal and to continue to build an inclusive society."[586] In the same year, the Queen appointed Mary Simon as the first Indigenous governor general in Canadian history.[n 28][587] During Charles's tour for his mother's Platinum Jubilee, the BBC's royal correspondent observed that "there [was] no shying away from acknowledging and highlighting the scandalous way many indigenous peoples have been treated in Canada."[354]
Queen Elizabeth II died on 8 September 2022 and was succeeded by her eldest son, Charles III. The Queen's final public statement was issued on 7 September, in the aftermath of the 2022 Saskatchewan stabbings,[588][589] stating she "mourn[s] with all Canadians at this tragic time."[590] Elizabeth reigned for almost half of Canada's history since Confederation,[591] being only the sixth Canadian monarch since 1867.[592]
Prior to the 1970s, Canadians' view of the monarchy was more focused on the person of the monarch than the institution's place in the country's framework.[518] Smith, in 2017, and Jackson, in 2018, observed the shift continuing, especially as "the process of 'Canadianization' of the Crown picked up momentum in the early 21st century."[596][597]
Still, beginning in the later decades of the 20th century, commentators stated that contemporary Canadians had and have a poor understanding of the Canadian monarchy;[598] something the Monarchist League of Canada (MLC) claims opponents of the monarchy exacerbate by spreading disinformation and then take advantage of.[599] Jackson wrote in his book, The Crown and Canadian Federalism, that this is part of a wider ignorance about Canadian civics[600] and Hugo Cyr agreed,[601] while Smith researched for his 1995 book, The Invisible Crown, he found it difficult to "find anyone who could talk knowledgeably about the subject".[602] Former Governors General Clarkson and Johnston made similar observations[188][603] and Senator Lowell Murray wrote in 2003, "the Crown has become irrelevant to most Canadians' understanding of our system of government", which he attributed to the "fault of successive generations of politicians, of an educational system that has never given the institution due study, and of past viceregal incumbents themselves".[604]
On education, teacher and author Nathan Tidridge asserted that, beginning in the 1960s, the role of the Crown disappeared from provincial education curricula, as the general subject of civics came to receive less attention.[563] He said Canadians are being "educated to be illiterate, ambivalent, or even hostile toward our constitutional monarchy".[600] The MLC agreed, stating Canada has "an educational system which unfortunately often fails to provide comprehensive knowledge of Canada's constitution."[599]
Michael Valpy also pointed to the fact that "the Crown's role in the machinery of Canada's constitutional monarchy rarely sees daylight. Only a handful of times in our history has it been subjected to glaring sunshine, unfortunately resulting in a black hole of public understanding as to how it works."[605] He later iterated, "the public's attention span on the constitutional intricacies of the monarchy is clinically short".[606] At the same time, it has been theorized the monarchy is so prevalent in Canada—by way of all manner of symbols, place names, royal tours, etcetera—that Canadians fail to take note of it; the monarchy "functions like a tasteful wallpaper pattern in Canada: enjoyable in an absent-minded way, but so ubiquitous as to be almost invisible".[486]
John Pepall argued in 1990 that, among all this, a "Liberal-inspired republican misconception of the role" of governor general had taken root, though the Conservative government headed by Brian Mulroney exacerbated the matter.[607] The position of prime minister has simultaneously undergone, with encouragement from its occupants,[607] what has been described as a "presidentialization",[608][609] to the point that its incumbents publicly outshine the actual head of state.[610][611] David S. Donovan felt Canadians mostly consider the monarch and her representatives as purely ceremonial and symbolic figures,[612] while also still viewing the sovereign as British, even if they understand he is King of Canada.[517] It was argued by Alfred Neitsch that this undermined the Crown's legitimacy as a check and balance in the governmental system,[613] a situation Helen Forsey (daughter of Canadian constitutional expert Eugene Forsey) said prime ministers take advantage of, portraying themselves as the embodiment of popular democracy and the reserve powers of the Crown as illegitimate.[n 29] The issue is particularly acute in Quebec,[297] where sovereigntist politicians consider the Canadian monarchy as British, foreign, and, consequently, as symbol of oppression.[614]
Beginning slightly earlier, a "growing interest in the Crown and its prerogatives" was observed, as evidenced by "a burst of articles, books and conferences";[602] the monarchy attracted increased attention from academics, as well as those involved with the law, government, and public policy.[615] This was attributed to the coincidental occurrence of publicly prominent events over a number of years, including the 2008 prorogation dispute; an increased use of royal symbols as directed by the Cabinet while headed by Stephen Harper, including three consecutive royal tours;[616] court cases focusing on the Oath of Citizenship; and increasingly active governors. Smith and Lagassé noted in early 2016 that post-secondary students were giving more focus to the subject of the Crown.[602]
Some Canadians have taken the opposite extreme view of the Crown's powers, such as when, in 2013, the leader of the Green Party of Canada, Elizabeth May, wrote to Queen Elizabeth II asking her to call a "royal inquiry" to "investigate what may potentially be criminal activities which [sic] influenced Canada's last election" and "restore Canada to a free and fair democracy." The monarch's secretary instructed May, "as a constitutional sovereign, Her Majesty acts through her personal representative, the Governor-General, on the advice of her Canadian ministers and it is to them that your appeal should be directed."[617] So many protesters involved in the 2022 Freedom Convoy called and emailed the office of Governor General Mary Simon to pressure her into dismissing her Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau, or dissolving Parliament that Simon made a rare public statement on the role of the governor general. Lagassé pointed to that as "evidence of a recent trend in protest movements", saying, "it has become routine in Canadian politics to write a letter to the Queen, Governor General, or a lieutenant governor asking them to exercise their powers in some way, contrary to constitutional conventions. This is political theatre, no more."[618]
The relationship between Canada's Indigenous peoples and the monarch remains unchanged, aside from the issue of reconciliation arising in it through the late 2010s into the 2020s,[597] when there were some assertions by activists and in the media that the monarchy and the Queen herself represented colonialism[623] and racism[624] and she did not do enough to either prevent or rectify supposed offences.[621] Those who made such claims also, though, mistook the independent Canadian Crown[625] as the British Crown in Canada and demonstrated a misunderstanding of the Crown-Indigenous peoples relationship[626][627] and the workings of constitutional monarchy and responsible government,[628] in which the sovereign must, outside of constitutional crises, follow the directions of his or her ministers and parliamentarians.[632] The leader of the Parti Québécois, Paul St-Pierre Plamondon, claimed in 2022, "we cannot overlook that she [Queen Elizabeth II] represented an institution, the British Crown, that has caused significant harm to Quebecers and Indigenous nations."[614]
Within Quebec, too, the Canadian Crown is frequently misrepresented as the British Crown and that false foreignness used in political, particularly sovereigntist, discourse as an argument in favour of extracting the Crown from Quebec or Quebec from Canada. For instance, in the televised Radio-Canada leaders' debate on 22 September 2022, during that year's general election in the province, the moderator, Patrice Roy [fr], asked the panel, with "incredulous chuckles", "should we still, in Quebec, swear allegiance to the British Crown, thus Charles III [to take one's seat in the National Assembly]?"[633]Bloc Québécois leader Yves-François Blanchet on 26 October 2022 tabled a motion in the House of Commons proposing that the "House express its desire to sever ties between the Canadian state and the British monarchy."[634] This motion was defeated 266 to 44.[634]
Debate
Outside of academic circles, there has been little national debate on the monarchy.[635] The position of monarch in Canada is highly protected by the Constitution Act, 1982—which mandates that any major constitutional amendment, such as any change to the monarchy, must receive unanimous consent of the Senate, the House of Commons, and all 10 provincial legislative assemblies—and treaties between the Crown and Indigenous peoples that play a role in entrenching the monarchy.[n 30]
Canada has two special-interest groups representing the debate, who occasionally argue the issue in the media: the Monarchist League of Canada (MLC) and Citizens for a Canadian Republic.[637][638] There are also other organizations that support and advocate the monarchy, such as the Institute for the Study of the Crown in Canada,[639] the Canadian Royal Heritage Trust,[640] the Friends of the Canadian Crown,[641] Canadian Friends of the Royal Family,[642] the Société de la Couronne du Canada [fr],[643] the Orange Order in Canada,[644] and the United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada.[645]
Out of Canada's four most prominent political parties, neither the Liberal Party nor the Conservative Party are officially in favour of abolishing the monarchy (the Conservative Party cite support for constitutional monarchy as a founding principle in its policy declaration)[646] and the New Democratic Party has no official position on the role of the Crown. Only some members of Parliament belonging to these parties and the leaders of the Bloc Québécois have made any statements suggesting abolition of the monarchy.[647][648]
Opinion polls on the Canadian monarchy have been regularly conducted since the 1990s. An analysis of these polls in 2008 highlighted an increased disaffection with the monarchy, albeit with internal contradictions in specific polling results, with some criticizing the polling questions for using "inconsistent and sometimes ambiguous wording."[649] Questions often describe the monarch or monarchy as "British", terminology at odds with the contemporary situation in Canada, wherein the monarchy is a Canadian institution,[651] separate from that of the United Kingdom,[653] and it, the Crown, and royal family are referred to as Canadian.[659] Both monarchists and republicans agree the populace's general lack of understanding about the monarchy affects opinions.[599][660]
The idea of a uniquely Canadian monarch,[661] either one descended from the House of Windsor or coming from a First Nations royal house,[666] has been proffered as an alternative. However, there has been no popular or official support for such a change.
^For instance, Governor General Jules Léger ended the second session of the 30th Canadian Parliament on 17 October 1977, while Queen Elizabeth II was in Ottawa to deliver the Speech from the Throne at the opening of the third session on 18 October. Governor General Adrienne Clarkson granted royal assent to four bills on 19 May 2005,[69] while Queen Elizabeth II was touring Saskatchewan and Alberta to mark the 100th anniversary of those provinces joining Confederation.
^ a b cThe sovereign has carried out foreign relations as the representative uniquely of Canada.
^The English Court of Appeal ruled in 1982, while "there is only one person who is the Sovereign within the British Commonwealth [...] in matters of law and government the Queen of the United Kingdom, for example, is entirely independent and distinct from the Queen of Canada."[80]
^In 1997, then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair intended to offer a life peerage to Canadian businessman Conrad Black. However, citing the 1919 Nickle Resolution, the Canadian Cabinet advised the Queen not to grant Black such an honour. If Blair had not yielded, the Queen would have been in the situation of having to grant an honour on the advice of her British Prime Minister and to object to the same as Queen of Canada on the advice of then-Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien.
^For example, Edward VIII was never crowned, yet was undoubtedly king during his short time on the throne.
^Gary Toffoli of the Canadian Royal Heritage Trust stated that the approval given by the Queen in her Canadian Council in 1981 to the marriage of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer[128] separately to the same approval given by the Queen in her British Council illustrated the existence of the Royal Marriages Act in Canadian law.[129] In 1947, the King in his Canadian Council gave the same consent to the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Philip Mountbatten, again separate from the approval he gave in his British Council.[128]
^Upon acceding to the throne on 8 September 2022, King Charles III stated, "I am deeply aware of this great inheritance and of the duties and heavy responsibilities of sovereignty, which have now passed to me. In taking up these responsibilities, I shall strive to follow the inspiring example I have been set in upholding constitutional government and to seek the peace, harmony, and prosperity of [...] the Commonwealth realms and territories throughout the world."[184]
^For example, if a lawsuit is filed against the federal government, the respondent is formally described as His Majesty the King in Right of Canada, or simply Rex.[152] Likewise, in a case in which a party sues both the province of Saskatchewan and the federal government, the respondents would be formally called His Majesty the King in Right of Saskatchewan and His Majesty the King in Right of Canada.[192]
^Illustrative of this arrangement is property transfers; of this, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources states: "When public land is required by the federal government or one of its departments, or any provincial ministry, the land itself is not transferred. What is transferred is the responsibility to manage the lands on behalf of Her Majesty the Queen (HMQ). This is accomplished by an order-in-council or a minister's order, which transfers management of land either from HMQ in right of Ontario to HMQ in right of Canada as represented by a department or to HMQ in right of Ontario as represented by another ministry. The Crown does not transfer ownership to itself."[193]
^Robert E. Hawkins called this "inefficient efficiency", which can "be placed alongside the other oxymorons that convention embeds in our constitution, oxymorons like loyal opposition, liberal democracy, and constitutional monarchy itself."[198]
^The sovereign has been described by Eugene Forsey as the "symbolic embodiment of the people—not a particular group or interest or party, but the people, the whole people";[95] his daughter, Helen Forsey, said of his opinion on the Crown, "for him, the essence of the monarchy was its impartial representation of the common interests of the citizenry as a whole, as opposed to those of any particular government."[95] The Department of Canadian Heritage said the Crown serves as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians,"[81][217] a concept akin to that expressed by King Louis XIV: "l'État, c'est moi", or, "I am the state".[218]Robertson Davies stated in 1994, "the Crown is the consecrated spirit of Canada",[219] and past Ontario chairman of the Monarchist League of Canada Gary Toffoli opined, "the Queen is the legal embodiment of the state at both the national and the provincial levels [...] She is our sovereign and it is the role of the Queen, recognized by the constitutional law of Canada, to embody the state."[220]
^As Peter Boyce put it: "The Crown as a concept cannot be disentangled from the person of the monarch; but, standard reference to the Crown extends well beyond the Queen's person."[233]
^It is stated in the Rules & Forms of the House of Commons of Canada that, "allegiance to the King means allegiance to the country."[237]
^ a b cThough the royal family represents other countries abroad, as directed by their respective cabinets, and typically the governor general will undertake state visits and other foreign duties on behalf of the Queen of Canada,[223][389][390] members of the royal family will also take part in Canadian events overseas.[405]
^Former Minister of External Affairs Mitchell Sharp commented on a situation wherein Elizabeth II was in Latin America to promote British goods at the same time a Canadian ministerial trip to the same area was underway to promote Canadian products. Sharp stated: "We couldn't ask Her Majesty to perform the function she was performing for Britain on that Latin American trip because the Queen is never recognized as Queen of Canada, except when she is in Canada."[418] The Queen's participation in Canadian events overseas contradicts Sharp's statement, however.[n 3][n 18]
^Such events include Troopings of the Colour, inspections of the troops, and anniversaries of key battles; whenever the sovereign or a member of his family is in Ottawa, they lay a wreath at the National War Memorial.
^Two Canadian citizens married into the royal family: In 1988, Sylvana Jones (née Tomaselli in Placentia, Newfoundland) wed George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews, a great-grandson of King George V, and, on 18 May 2008, Autumn Kelly, originally from Montreal, married Queen Elizabeth II's eldest grandson, Peter Phillips.[480] The latter couple has two children, 19th and 20th in line to the throne as of 2024[update], who each hold dual Canadian and British citizenship,[481][482] as do the three children of George Windsor, though only the youngest, Lady Amelia Windsor, is in line to the throne, 43rd as of 2023[update].[483] More distantly, Princes Boris and Hermann Friedrich of Leiningen, great-great-great grandsons of Queen Victoria, are also Canadian citizens.
^In 1919, Prince Edward Albert (the future King Edward VIII) asserted, "I want Canada to look upon me as a Canadian, if not actually by birth, yet certainly in mind and spirit."[495]Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh, said in 1951 that, when in Canada, she was "amongst fellow countrymen" and,[93][496] after acceding to the throne as Queen Elizabeth II, she, when departing the United States for Canada in 1983, stated to PresidentRonald Reagan, "I'm going home to Canada tomorrow".[497] In 2005, Elizabeth said she agreed with the statement earlier made by her mother, Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, that Canada felt like a "home away from home";[498] in the same year, she remarked, "I have always felt not only welcome but at home in Canada."[384] Similarly, the Queen said in 2010, in Nova Scotia, "it is very good to be home".[499]
^While the government houses are the King's official residences in Canada, they are almost exclusively occupied by the sovereign's representative in each of those jurisdictions.[520][521]
^For example, when the Duke and Duchess of Sussex resided for a time on Vancouver Island, as they were planning their future as members of the royal family, the RCMP provided the couple's security. However, when the Sussexes decided to step down as senior members of the royal family, the RCMP reassessed its provision of service. In a briefing note to the then-Minister of Public Safety, Bill Blair, the force noted, "the Sussex family's stay in Canada is of a private nature and, to date, there have been no official outings wherein the Duke and Duchess are representing the Queen. There is no indication of either the Duke or Duchess participating in any official capacity for the Crown in Canada in the next two months. Should this change, however, the RCMP will assess and provide security accordingly."[546]
^Indigenous persons had already been appointed as lieutenant governors during Elizabeth's reign.
^Lagassé said, "you would need to have Indigenous peoples involved and consulted properly as well, in particular, since their treaty rights are understood to flow from treaties with the Crown."[636]
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Further information
Reading
Bousfield, Arthur; Toffoli, Gary (1991). Royal Observations: Canadians and Royalty. Hamilton: Dundurn Press. ISBN 1-55002-076-5. Royal Observations: Canadians and Royalty.
Canadian Press (2002). Queen Elizabeth II and the Royal Family in Canada (Golden Jubilee). Toronto: Quarry Heritage. ISBN 1-55082-301-9.
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Farthing, John (1957), Robinson, Judith (ed.), Freedom Wears a Crown (First ed.), Toronto: Kingswood House, ASIN B002CZW3T2
Jackson, D. Michael (2018a), The Canadian Kingdom: 150 Years of Constittuional Monarchy, Toronto: Dundurn, ISBN 978-1-4597-4118-8, retrieved 15 April 2023
Munro, Kenneth (1977). Coates, Colin (ed.). "The Crown and French Canada: The role of the Governors-General in Making the Crown relevant, 1867–1917". Imperial Canada. The University of Edinburgh: 109–121.
Munro, Kenneth (March 2001). "Canada as Reflected in her Participation in the Coronation of her Monarchs in the Twentieth Century". Journal of Historical Sociology. 14: 21–46. doi:10.1111/1467-6443.00133.
Skolnik, Michael L. (1990). "Lipset's "Continental Divide" and the Ideological Basis for Differences in Higher Education between Canada and United States". Canadian Journal of Higher Education. 20 (2): 81–93. doi:10.47678/cjhe.v20i2.183075. ISSN 0316-1218.
Smith, David E. (1999). The Republican Option in Canada: Past and Present. Toronto-Buffalo-London: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-4469-7. The Republican Option in Canada: Past and Present.
Tasko, Patti (2007). Canada's Queen: Elizabeth II: A Celebration of Her Majestys Friendship with the People of Canada. Toronto: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-15444-1.
Tidridge, Nathan; Guthrie, Gavin (2007). The Canadian Monarchy: Exploring the role of Canada's Crown in the day-to-day life of our country. Toronto: Monarchist League of Canada. ISBN 978-0-9781853-0-5.
Vaughan, Frederick (2004). Canadian Federalist Experiment: From Defiant Monarchy to Reluctant Republic. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2537-8.
Viewing
The Royal Visit (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board. 1939.
Bairstow, David; Parker, Gudrun; Roger (1951). Royal Journey (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board.
Stark, Allen (1953). Canada at the Coronation (Film). Ottawa: National Film Board.
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