El Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos ( USMC ), también conocido como los Marines de los Estados Unidos , es la rama del servicio de fuerza terrestre marítima de las Fuerzas Armadas de los Estados Unidos responsable de realizar operaciones expedicionarias y anfibias [11] a través de armas combinadas , implementando sus propias fuerzas de infantería , artillería , aéreas y de operaciones especiales . El Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos es uno de los ocho servicios uniformados de los Estados Unidos .
El Cuerpo de Marines ha sido parte del Departamento de la Marina de los Estados Unidos desde el 30 de junio de 1834 junto con su servicio hermano, la Armada de los Estados Unidos . [12] El USMC opera instalaciones en tierra y a bordo de buques de guerra anfibios en alta mar en todo el mundo. Además, varios de los escuadrones de aviación táctica de los Marines , principalmente los escuadrones de ataque de cazas de los Marines, también están integrados en las alas aéreas de portaaviones de la Armada y operan desde los portaaviones . [13]
La historia del Cuerpo de Marines comenzó cuando se formaron dos batallones de Marines Continentales el 10 de noviembre de 1775 en Filadelfia como una rama de servicio de tropas de infantería capaces de luchar tanto en el mar como en tierra. [14] En el teatro del Pacífico de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el Cuerpo tomó la iniciativa en una campaña masiva de guerra anfibia, avanzando de isla en isla . [15] [16] [17] A partir de 2022, el USMC tiene alrededor de 177.200 miembros en servicio activo y unos 32.400 efectivos en reserva . [3]
Como se describe en el Título 10 del Código de los Estados Unidos § 5063 y como se introdujo originalmente en la Ley de Seguridad Nacional de 1947 , las tres áreas principales de responsabilidad del Cuerpo de Marines de los EE. UU. son:
Esta última cláusula se deriva de un lenguaje similar en las leyes del Congreso "Para la mejor organización del Cuerpo de Marines" de 1834 y "Establecimiento y organización de un Cuerpo de Marines" de 1798. En 1951, el Comité de Servicios Armados de la Cámara de Representantes calificó la cláusula como "una de las funciones estatutarias -y tradicionales- más importantes del Cuerpo de Marines". Señaló que el Cuerpo ha realizado con mayor frecuencia acciones de naturaleza no naval, incluidas sus famosas acciones en Trípoli , la Guerra de 1812 , Chapultepec y numerosos deberes ocupacionales y de contrainsurgencia (como los de América Central, la Primera Guerra Mundial y la Guerra de Corea ). Si bien estas acciones no se describen con precisión como apoyo a campañas navales ni como guerra anfibia, su hilo conductor es que son de naturaleza expedicionaria, utilizando la movilidad de la Armada para proporcionar una intervención oportuna en asuntos exteriores en nombre de los intereses estadounidenses. [18]
La Banda de la Marina , apodada "La propia del presidente" por John Adams , proporciona música para las funciones estatales en la Casa Blanca . [19] Los marines de las Compañías Ceremoniales A y B, acuartelados en el Cuartel de la Marina, Washington, DC , protegen los retiros presidenciales, incluido Camp David , y los marines del Destacamento de Vuelo Ejecutivo de HMX-1 brindan transporte en helicóptero al Presidente y Vicepresidente , con los indicativos de llamada de radio " Marine One " y "Marine Two", respectivamente. [20] El Destacamento de Vuelo Ejecutivo también brinda transporte en helicóptero a los miembros del Gabinete y otros VIP . Por autoridad de la Ley de Servicio Exterior de 1946, los Guardias de Seguridad de la Marina del Comando de Seguridad de la Embajada de la Marina brindan seguridad a las embajadas , legaciones y consulados estadounidenses en más de 140 puestos en todo el mundo. [21]
La relación entre el Departamento de Estado y el Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos es casi tan antigua como el propio Cuerpo. Durante más de 200 años, los marines han servido a petición de varios Secretarios de Estado . Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , se necesitaba una fuerza alerta y disciplinada para proteger las embajadas, consulados y legaciones estadounidenses en todo el mundo. En 1947, se hizo una propuesta para que el Departamento de Defensa proporcionara personal del Cuerpo de Marines para tareas de guardia del Servicio Exterior según las disposiciones de la Ley de Servicio Exterior de 1946. Se firmó un Memorando de Acuerdo formal entre el Departamento de Estado y el Secretario de la Marina el 15 de diciembre de 1948, y 83 marines fueron enviados a misiones en el extranjero. Durante el primer año del programa, se desplegaron 36 destacamentos en todo el mundo. [22]
El Cuerpo de Marines fue fundado para servir como una unidad de infantería a bordo de buques de guerra y era responsable de la seguridad del barco y su tripulación llevando a cabo combates ofensivos y defensivos durante las acciones de abordaje y defendiendo a los oficiales del barco de motines ; con este último fin, sus cuarteles en el barco a menudo estaban estratégicamente posicionados entre los cuarteles de los oficiales y el resto del barco. Los marines continentales tripulaban grupos de asalto, tanto en el mar como en tierra. El primer desembarco de asalto anfibio de Estados Unidos ocurrió a principios de la Guerra de la Independencia , el 3 de marzo de 1776, cuando los marines obtuvieron el control de Fort Montagu y Fort Nassau , un depósito de municiones y puerto naval británico en New Providence , Bahamas. El papel del Cuerpo de Marines se ha expandido significativamente desde entonces; a medida que la importancia de su misión naval original disminuyó con el cambio de la doctrina de guerra naval y la profesionalización del servicio naval, el Cuerpo se adaptó centrándose en misiones anteriormente secundarias en tierra. La Doctrina de Base Avanzada de principios del siglo XX codificó sus deberes de combate en tierra, describiendo el uso de los Marines en la toma de bases y otras tareas en tierra para apoyar las campañas navales. En 1987, se cerró la Escuela Naval del Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos; en 1998, se disolvieron todos los Destacamentos de Marines a bordo de los buques.
A lo largo de los siglos XIX y XX, los destacamentos de marines sirvieron a bordo de cruceros, acorazados y portaaviones de la Armada. Los destacamentos de marines sirvieron en sus deberes tradicionales como fuerza de desembarco de un barco, manejando las armas del barco y proporcionando seguridad a bordo. Los destacamentos de marines se ampliaron con miembros de la tripulación del barco para los grupos de desembarco, como en la Primera expedición a Sumatra de 1832 y continuando en las campañas del Caribe y México de principios del siglo XX. Los marines desarrollaron tácticas y técnicas de asalto anfibio en costas defendidas a tiempo para su uso en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [23] Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, los marines continuaron sirviendo en buques capitales, y algunos fueron asignados a tripular baterías antiaéreas. [24]
En 1950, [25] el presidente Harry Truman respondió a un mensaje del representante estadounidense Gordon L. McDonough . McDonough había instado al presidente Truman a añadir una representación de los marines al Estado Mayor Conjunto . El presidente Truman, escribiendo en una carta dirigida a McDonough, declaró: "El Cuerpo de Marines es la fuerza policial de la Armada y mientras yo sea presidente así seguirá siendo. Tienen una máquina de propaganda que es casi igual a la de Stalin ". McDonough luego insertó la carta del presidente Truman, fechada el 29 de agosto de 1950, en el Registro del Congreso . Los congresistas y las organizaciones de marines reaccionaron, calificando los comentarios del presidente Truman de insulto y exigieron una disculpa. Truman se disculpó con el comandante de los marines en ese momento, escribiendo: "Lamento sinceramente la desafortunada elección de lenguaje que utilicé en mi carta del 29 de agosto al congresista McDonough sobre el Cuerpo de Marines". Aunque Truman se disculpó por su metáfora, no modificó su postura de que el Cuerpo de Marines debía seguir informando al secretario de la Marina. Se resarció sólo haciendo una visita sorpresa a la Liga del Cuerpo de Marines unos días después, cuando reiteró: "Cuando cometo un error, trato de corregirlo. Intento cometer el menor número posible". Recibió una ovación de pie. [26]
Cuando los cruceros artillados fueron retirados a fines de la década de 1970, los destacamentos restantes de marines solo fueron vistos en acorazados y portaaviones. Su misión original de brindar seguridad a bordo terminó en la década de 1990. [27]
El Cuerpo de Marines cumple un papel militar crítico como fuerza de guerra anfibia. Es capaz de realizar una guerra asimétrica con fuerzas convencionales , irregulares e híbridas . Si bien el Cuerpo de Marines no emplea ninguna capacidad única, como fuerza, puede desplegar rápidamente una fuerza de tarea de armas combinadas en casi cualquier lugar del mundo en cuestión de días. La estructura básica de todas las unidades desplegadas es una Fuerza de Tarea Aire-Tierra de Marines (MAGTF) que integra un elemento de combate terrestre , un elemento de combate de aviación y un elemento de combate logístico bajo un elemento de comando común . Si bien la creación de comandos conjuntos bajo la Ley Goldwater-Nichols ha mejorado la coordinación entre servicios entre cada rama, la capacidad del Cuerpo de mantener permanentemente fuerzas de tarea integradas de múltiples elementos bajo un solo comando proporciona una implementación más fluida de los principios de guerra de armas combinadas. [28]
La estrecha integración de las distintas unidades de la Infantería de Marina se debe a una cultura organizativa centrada en la infantería. Todas las demás capacidades de la Infantería de Marina existen para apoyar a la infantería. A diferencia de algunos ejércitos occidentales, el Cuerpo se mantuvo conservador frente a las teorías que proclamaban la capacidad de las nuevas armas para ganar guerras de forma independiente. Por ejemplo, la aviación de la Infantería de Marina siempre se ha centrado en el apoyo aéreo cercano y se ha mantenido en gran medida al margen de las teorías del poder aéreo que proclaman que el bombardeo estratégico puede ganar guerras por sí solo. [23]
Este enfoque en la infantería se combina con la doctrina de "Cada marine [es] un fusilero", un precepto del comandante Alfred M. Gray, Jr. , que enfatiza las habilidades de combate de infantería de cada marine. Todos los marines, independientemente de la especialización militar , reciben entrenamiento como fusileros , y todos los oficiales reciben entrenamiento adicional como comandantes de pelotón de infantería. [29] Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial en la Batalla de la Isla Wake , cuando todos los aviones de los marines fueron destruidos, los pilotos continuaron la lucha como oficiales de tierra, liderando a los empleados de suministros y cocineros en un esfuerzo defensivo final. [30] La flexibilidad de ejecución se implementa a través de un énfasis en la " intención del comandante " como principio rector para llevar a cabo las órdenes, especificando el estado final pero dejando abierto el método de ejecución. [31]
Las técnicas de asalto anfibio desarrolladas para la Segunda Guerra Mundial evolucionaron, con la incorporación de la doctrina de asalto aéreo y guerra de maniobras , hasta convertirse en la actual doctrina de " Maniobra Operativa desde el Mar " de proyección de poder desde los mares. [11] A los Marines se les atribuye el desarrollo de la doctrina de inserción de helicópteros y fueron los primeros en el ejército estadounidense en adoptar ampliamente los principios de guerra de maniobras, que enfatizan la iniciativa de bajo nivel y la ejecución flexible. A la luz de la guerra reciente que se ha alejado de las misiones tradicionales del Cuerpo, [32] los Marines han renovado el énfasis en las capacidades anfibias. [33]
El Cuerpo de Marines depende de la Armada para el transporte marítimo que le permite contar con capacidades de despliegue rápido. Además de tener una tercera parte de la Fuerza de Marines de Flota en Japón, las unidades expedicionarias de marines (MEU) suelen estar estacionadas en el mar para que puedan funcionar como primeros intervinientes en incidentes internacionales. [34] Para facilitar el despliegue rápido, se desarrolló el Sistema de Preposicionamiento Marítimo : flotas de buques portacontenedores se posicionan en todo el mundo con suficiente equipo y suministros para que una fuerza expedicionaria de marines se despliegue durante 30 días. [ cita requerida ]
Dos pequeños manuales publicados durante la década de 1930 establecieron la doctrina del Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos en dos áreas. El Manual de Guerras Pequeñas sentó las bases para las operaciones de contrainsurgencia de los marines desde Vietnam hasta Irak y Afganistán , mientras que el Manual de Operaciones de Desembarco Tentativo estableció la doctrina para las operaciones anfibias de la Segunda Guerra Mundial . La " Maniobra Operativa desde el Mar " fue la doctrina de proyección de poder en 2006. [11]
El Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos tiene sus orígenes en los Marines Continentales de la Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos , formados por el capitán Samuel Nicholas mediante una resolución del Segundo Congreso Continental el 10 de noviembre de 1775, para formar dos batallones de marines. [35] Esta fecha se celebra como el cumpleaños del Cuerpo de Marines . Nicholas fue nominado para liderar a los Marines por John Adams . [36] En diciembre de 1775, Nicholas formó un batallón de 300 hombres mediante el reclutamiento en su ciudad natal de Filadelfia. [35] [37]
En enero de 1776, los marines se hicieron a la mar bajo el mando del comodoro Esek Hopkins y en marzo emprendieron su primer desembarco anfibio, la batalla de Nasáu en las Bahamas, ocupando el puerto británico de Nasáu durante dos semanas. [38] El 3 de enero de 1777, los marines llegaron a la batalla de Princeton asignados a la brigada del general John Cadwalader , donde habían sido asignados por el general George Washington ; en diciembre de 1776, Washington se estaba retirando a través de Nueva Jersey y, al necesitar soldados veteranos, ordenó a Nicholas y a los marines que se unieran al Ejército Continental . La batalla de Princeton , donde los marines junto con la brigada de Cadwalader fueron reunidos personalmente por Washington, fue el primer enfrentamiento de combate terrestre de los marines; se estima que 130 marines estuvieron presentes en la batalla. [38]
Al final de la Guerra de Independencia de los Estados Unidos, tanto la Armada Continental como los Marines Continentales se disolvieron en abril de 1783. La institución fue resucitada el 11 de julio de 1798; en preparación para la Cuasi-Guerra con Francia , el Congreso creó el Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos. [39] Los marines habían sido alistados por el Departamento de Guerra ya en agosto de 1797 [40] para el servicio en las fragatas recién construidas autorizadas por la "Ley para proporcionar un armamento naval" del Congreso del 18 de marzo de 1794, [41] que especificaba el número de marines a reclutar para cada fragata. [42]
La acción más famosa de los marines en este período ocurrió durante la Primera Guerra Berberisca (1801-1805) contra los piratas berberiscos , [43] cuando William Eaton y el primer teniente Presley O'Bannon lideraron a 8 marines y 500 mercenarios en un esfuerzo por capturar Trípoli . Aunque solo llegaron a Derna , la acción en Trípoli ha sido inmortalizada en el Himno de los Marines y la espada mameluca que portaban los oficiales de los Marines. [44]
Durante la Guerra de 1812 , destacamentos de marines en buques de la Armada tomaron parte en algunos de los grandes duelos de fragatas que caracterizaron la guerra, que fueron los primeros y últimos enfrentamientos del conflicto. Su contribución más significativa fue mantener el centro de la línea defensiva del general Andrew Jackson en la Batalla de Nueva Orleans de 1815 , la última gran batalla y uno de los enfrentamientos más unilaterales de la guerra. Con las noticias generalizadas de la batalla y la captura del HMS Cyane , el HMS Levant y el HMS Penguin , los enfrentamientos finales entre las fuerzas británicas y estadounidenses, los marines se habían ganado una reputación de tiradores expertos , especialmente en acciones defensivas y de barco a barco. [44] Jugaron un papel importante en la defensa de Sacket's Harbor , Nueva York y Norfolk y Portsmouth , Virginia, [45] también participaron en la defensa de Plattsburgh en 1814 en el valle de Champlain durante una de las ofensivas británicas finales a lo largo de la frontera entre Canadá y Estados Unidos. La batalla de Bladensburg , librada el 24 de agosto de 1814, fue uno de los peores días para las armas estadounidenses, aunque unas pocas unidades e individuos realizaron un servicio heroico. Entre ellos, se destacaron los 500 marineros del comodoro Joshua Barney y los 120 infantes de marina del capitán Samuel Miller, que infligieron la mayor parte de las bajas británicas y fueron la única resistencia estadounidense efectiva durante la batalla. Sin embargo, un último contraataque desesperado de los marines, con combates cuerpo a cuerpo, no fue suficiente; las fuerzas de Barney y Miller fueron superadas. De los 114 marines, 11 murieron y 16 resultaron heridos. Durante la batalla, el brazo del capitán Miller resultó gravemente herido, por su valiente servicio en acción, Miller fue ascendido al rango de mayor del Cuerpo de Marines de los EE. UU. [46]
Después de la guerra, el Cuerpo de Marines cayó en un malestar que terminó con el nombramiento de Archibald Henderson como su quinto comandante en 1820. Bajo su mandato, el Cuerpo asumió deberes de expedición en el Caribe, el Golfo de México , Key West , África Occidental, las Islas Malvinas y Sumatra . Al comandante Henderson se le atribuye el mérito de frustrar los intentos del presidente Jackson de combinar e integrar el Cuerpo de Marines con el Ejército. [44] En cambio, el Congreso aprobó la Ley para la Mejor Organización del Cuerpo de Marines en 1834, estipulando que el Cuerpo era parte del Departamento de la Marina como un servicio hermano de la Marina. [47]
El comandante Henderson ofreció a los marines el servicio voluntario en las guerras seminolas de 1835, y dirigió personalmente a casi la mitad de todo el Cuerpo (dos batallones) a la guerra. Una década después, en la guerra mexicano-estadounidense (1846-1848), los marines realizaron su famoso asalto al Palacio de Chapultepec en la Ciudad de México, que luego se celebraría como los "Salones de Montezuma" en el Himno de los Marines. Para ser justos con el Ejército de los EE. UU., la mayoría de las tropas que realizaron el asalto final en los Salones de Montezuma eran soldados y no marines. [48] Las fuerzas estadounidenses estaban dirigidas por el general del ejército Winfield Scott . Scott organizó dos grupos de asalto de aproximadamente 250 hombres cada uno para un total de 500 hombres, incluidos 40 marines. [ cita requerida ]
En la década de 1850, los marines prestaron servicio en Panamá y Asia y fueron asignados al Escuadrón de las Indias Orientales del comodoro Matthew Perry en su histórico viaje al Lejano Oriente. [49]
El Cuerpo de Marines jugó un papel pequeño en la Guerra Civil (1861-1865); su tarea más destacada fue el deber de bloqueo . A medida que más y más estados se separaron de la Unión , aproximadamente un tercio de los oficiales del Cuerpo abandonaron los Estados Unidos para unirse a la Confederación y formar el Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Confederados , que en última instancia jugó un papel pequeño en la guerra. El batallón de reclutas formado para la Primera Batalla de Bull Run tuvo un desempeño pobre, retirándose con el resto de las fuerzas de la Unión. [34] El deber de bloqueo incluía operaciones anfibias en el mar para asegurar bases avanzadas. A principios de noviembre de 1861, un grupo de marineros e infantes de marina desembarcó en las ciudades de Port Royal y Beaufort, Carolina del Sur. Unos días después, ese grupo de trabajo capturó la cercana isla Hilton Head. Un par de semanas después, un grupo de reconocimiento en fuerza capturó la isla Tybee. Esto es cuando la Unión instaló el bombardeo de artillería en Fort Pulaski y bombardeó Fort Pulaski. [50] En abril y mayo de 1862, los marines participaron en la captura y ocupación de Nueva Orleans y en la ocupación de Baton Rouge, Luisiana, [51] eventos clave en la guerra que ayudaron a asegurar el control de la Unión de la cuenca baja del río Misisipi y negaron a la Confederación un puerto importante y una base naval en la Costa del Golfo . [ cita requerida ]
El resto del siglo XIX estuvo marcado por la pérdida de fuerza y la introspección sobre la misión del Cuerpo de Marines. La transición de la Marina de la vela al vapor puso en tela de juicio la necesidad de marines en los buques de guerra. Mientras tanto, los marines sirvieron como un recurso conveniente para las intervenciones y los desembarcos para proteger los intereses estadounidenses en el extranjero. El Cuerpo participó en más de 28 intervenciones separadas en los 30 años desde el final de la Guerra Civil estadounidense hasta el final del siglo XIX. [52] Fueron llamados a frenar el malestar político y laboral dentro de los Estados Unidos. [53] Bajo el mandato del comandante Jacob Zeilin , las costumbres y tradiciones de los marines tomaron forma: el Cuerpo adoptó el emblema del Cuerpo de Marines el 19 de noviembre de 1868. Fue durante este tiempo que se escuchó por primera vez "El himno de los marines". Alrededor de 1883, los marines adoptaron su lema actual " Semper fidelis " ( Siempre fieles ). [44] John Philip Sousa , músico y compositor, se alistó como aprendiz de la Infantería de Marina a los 13 años, sirviendo desde 1867 hasta 1872, y nuevamente desde 1880 hasta 1892 como líder de la Banda de la Infantería de Marina . [54]
Durante la Guerra Hispano-Estadounidense (1898), los Marines lideraron a las fuerzas estadounidenses en tierra en Filipinas, Cuba y Puerto Rico , demostrando su preparación para el despliegue. En la Bahía de Guantánamo , Cuba, los Marines tomaron una base naval avanzada que sigue en uso hoy en día. Entre 1899 y 1916, el Cuerpo continuó su historial de participación en expediciones extranjeras, incluida la Guerra Filipino-Estadounidense , la Rebelión de los Bóxers en China, Panamá, las Pacificaciones cubanas, el incidente de Perdicaris en Marruecos, Veracruz , Santo Domingo y las Guerras del Banano en Haití y Nicaragua ; [ cita requerida ] las experiencias adquiridas en operaciones de contrainsurgencia y guerrilla durante este período se consolidaron en el Manual de Guerras Pequeñas . [ 55 ] [ mejor fuente necesaria ]
Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial , los marines sirvieron como parte de la Fuerza Expedicionaria Estadounidense bajo el mando del general John J. Pershing cuando Estados Unidos entró en la guerra el 6 de abril de 1917. El Cuerpo de Marines tenía un amplio grupo de oficiales y suboficiales con experiencia en batalla y, por lo tanto, experimentó una gran expansión. El Cuerpo de Marines de los EE. UU. entró en la guerra con 511 oficiales y 13 214 efectivos alistados y para el 11 de noviembre de 1918 había alcanzado una fuerza de 2400 oficiales y 70 000 alistados. [56] Los afroamericanos fueron completamente excluidos del Cuerpo de Marines durante este conflicto. [57] Opha May Johnson fue la primera mujer en alistarse en los Marines; se unió a la Reserva del Cuerpo de Marines en 1918 durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, convirtiéndose oficialmente en la primera mujer marine. [58] Desde entonces hasta el final de la Primera Guerra Mundial, 305 mujeres se alistaron en el Cuerpo. [59] Durante la Batalla de Belleau Wood en 1918, los Marines y los medios de comunicación estadounidenses informaron que los alemanes los habían apodado Teufel Hunden, que significa " perros del diablo " por su reputación como tropas de choque y tiradores a distancias de hasta 900 metros; no hay evidencia de esto en los registros alemanes (ya que Teufelshunde sería la frase alemana correcta). Sin embargo, el nombre se mantuvo en la tradición de los Marines de EE. UU. [60]
Entre las dos guerras mundiales , el Cuerpo de Marines estuvo encabezado por el comandante John A. Lejeune y, bajo su liderazgo, el Cuerpo estudió y desarrolló técnicas anfibias que serían de gran utilidad en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Muchos oficiales, incluido el teniente coronel Earl Hancock "Pete" Ellis , previeron una guerra en el Pacífico con Japón y emprendieron preparativos para tal conflicto. A lo largo de 1941, a medida que crecía la perspectiva de guerra, el Cuerpo presionó urgentemente para realizar ejercicios anfibios conjuntos con el Ejército y adquirió equipo anfibio que resultaría de gran utilidad en el conflicto venidero. [61]
En la Segunda Guerra Mundial , los marines desempeñaron un papel central en la Guerra del Pacífico , junto con el Ejército de los Estados Unidos. Las batallas de Guadalcanal , Bougainville , Tarawa , Guam , Tinián , Cabo Gloucester , Saipán , Peleliu , Iwo Jima y Okinawa vieron combates feroces entre los marines y el Ejército Imperial Japonés . Unos 600.000 estadounidenses sirvieron en el Cuerpo de Marines de los Estados Unidos en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [62]
La batalla de Iwo Jima, que comenzó el 19 de febrero de 1945, fue posiblemente el enfrentamiento de los marines más famoso de la guerra. Los japoneses habían aprendido de sus derrotas en la campaña de las Marianas y prepararon muchas posiciones fortificadas en la isla, incluidos fortines y una red de túneles. Los japoneses opusieron una resistencia feroz, pero las fuerzas estadounidenses alcanzaron la cima del monte Suribachi el 23 de febrero. La misión se cumplió con altas pérdidas de 26.000 bajas estadounidenses y 22.000 japonesas. [63]
Los marines desempeñaron un papel comparativamente menor en el teatro europeo . No obstante, continuaron proporcionando destacamentos de seguridad a las embajadas y barcos estadounidenses, aportaron personal a pequeños equipos de operaciones especiales lanzados a la Europa ocupada por los nazis como parte de las misiones de la Oficina de Servicios Estratégicos (OSS, precursora de la CIA ) y actuaron como planificadores y entrenadores del personal para las operaciones anfibias del Ejército de los EE. UU., incluido el desembarco de Normandía . [64] [65] Al final de la guerra, el Cuerpo se había expandido de dos brigadas a seis divisiones , cinco alas aéreas y tropas de apoyo, con un total de aproximadamente 485.000 marines. Además, se crearon 20 batallones de defensa y un batallón de paracaidistas . [66] Casi 87.000 marines fueron bajas durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial (incluidos casi 20.000 muertos) y 82 fueron galardonados con la Medalla de Honor . [67]
En 1942, se crearon los Seabees de la Armada , y el Cuerpo de Marines se encargó de su organización y entrenamiento militar. Muchas unidades de Seabee recibieron el uniforme estándar del Cuerpo de Marines y fueron rebautizadas como "Marine". A pesar de que el Cuerpo les dio su organización militar y entrenamiento militar, les proporcionó uniformes y rebautizó sus unidades, los Seabees siguieron siendo de la Armada. [nota 2] [68] [69] El historiador del Cuerpo de Marines, Gordon L. Rottmann, escribe que una de las "mayores contribuciones de la Armada al Cuerpo de Marines durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial fue la creación de los Seabees". [70]
A pesar de la predicción del Secretario de la Marina James Forrestal de que el izamiento de la bandera de los Marines en Iwo Jima significaba "un Cuerpo de Marines para los próximos quinientos años", [71] [72] el Cuerpo enfrentó una crisis institucional inmediata después de la guerra debido a un presupuesto repentinamente reducido. Los generales del Ejército que presionaban por un establecimiento de defensa fortalecido y reorganizado intentaron incorporar la misión y los activos de los Marines a la Marina y el Ejército. Con el apoyo del Congreso reunido apresuradamente y con la ayuda de la llamada " Rebelión de los Almirantes ", el Cuerpo de Marines rechazó tales esfuerzos para desmantelar el Cuerpo, lo que resultó en la protección legal del Cuerpo de Marines en la Ley de Seguridad Nacional de 1947. [ 73] Poco después, en 1952, la Ley Douglas-Mansfield otorgó al comandante una voz igual a la del Estado Mayor Conjunto en asuntos relacionados con los Marines y estableció la estructura de tres divisiones activas y alas aéreas que permanecen en la actualidad. [ cita requerida ]
El comienzo de la Guerra de Corea (1950-1953) vio a la Brigada Provisional de Marines formada apresuradamente manteniendo la línea defensiva en el Perímetro de Pusan . Para ejecutar una maniobra de flanqueo , el general Douglas MacArthur llamó a las fuerzas de las Naciones Unidas, incluidos los Marines de los EE. UU., para realizar un desembarco anfibio en Inchon . El desembarco exitoso resultó en el colapso de las líneas norcoreanas y la persecución de las fuerzas norcoreanas hacia el norte cerca del río Yalu hasta la entrada de la República Popular China en la guerra. Las tropas chinas rodearon, sorprendieron y abrumaron a las fuerzas estadounidenses sobreextendidas y superadas en número. El X Cuerpo del Ejército de los EE. UU., que incluía la 1.ª División de Marines y la 7.ª División de Infantería del Ejército, se reagrupó e infligió grandes bajas durante su retirada combativa a la costa, conocida como la Batalla del Embalse de Chosin .
La lucha se calmó después de la Batalla del Embalse de Chosin, pero a finales de marzo de 1953, la relativa calma de la guerra se rompió cuando el Ejército Popular de Liberación lanzó una ofensiva masiva sobre tres puestos avanzados atendidos por el 5.º Regimiento de Marines . Estos puestos avanzados tenían los nombres en código "Reno", "Vegas" y "Carson". La campaña se conoció colectivamente como la Campaña de las Ciudades de Nevada. Hubo combates brutales en Reno Hill, que finalmente fue capturada por los chinos. Aunque Reno se perdió, el 5.º Regimiento de Marines mantuvo tanto Vegas como Carson durante el resto de la campaña. En esta campaña, los Marines sufrieron aproximadamente 1.000 bajas y podrían haber sufrido mucho más sin la Fuerza de Tarea Faith del Ejército de los EE. UU . Los Marines continuarían una batalla de desgaste alrededor del paralelo 38 hasta el armisticio de 1953 . [74] Durante la guerra, el Cuerpo se expandió de 75.000 soldados regulares a una fuerza de 261.000 marines, en su mayoría reservistas; 30.544 marines murieron o resultaron heridos durante la guerra y 42 recibieron la Medalla de Honor . [75]
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The Marine Corps served in the Vietnam War, taking part in such battles as the Battle of Hue and the Battle of Khe Sanh in 1968. Individuals from the USMC generally operated in the Northern I Corps Regions of South Vietnam. While there, they were constantly engaged in a guerrilla war against the Viet Cong, along with an intermittent conventional war against the North Vietnamese Army, this made the Marine Corps known throughout Vietnam and gained a frightening reputation from the Viet Cong. Portions of the Corps were responsible for the less-known Combined Action Program that implemented unconventional techniques for counterinsurgency and worked as military advisors to the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps. Marines were withdrawn in 1971 and returned briefly in 1975 to evacuate Saigon and attempt a rescue of the crew of the SS Mayaguez.[76] Vietnam was the longest war up to that time for the Marines; by its end, 13,091 had been killed in action,[77][78] 51,392 had been wounded, and 57 Medals of Honor had been awarded.[79][80] Because of policies concerning rotation, more marines were deployed for service during Vietnam than World War II.[81]
While recovering from Vietnam, the Corps hit a detrimental low point in its service history caused by courts-martial and non-judicial punishments related partially to increased unauthorized absences and desertions during the war. Overhaul of the Corps began in the late 1970s, discharging the most delinquent, and once the quality of new recruits improved, the Corps focused on reforming the non-commissioned officer Corps, a vital functioning part of its forces.[28]
After the Vietnam War, the U.S. Marines resumed their expeditionary role, participating in the failed 1980 Iran hostage rescue attempt Operation Eagle Claw, the Operation Urgent Fury and the Operation Just Cause. On 23 October 1983, the Marine barracks in Beirut was bombed, causing the highest peacetime losses to the Corps in its history (220 marines and 21 other service members were killed) and leading to the American withdrawal from Lebanon. In 1990, Marines of the Joint Task Force Sharp Edge saved thousands of lives by evacuating British, French and American nationals from the violence of the Liberian Civil War.
During the Persian Gulf War of 1990 to 1991, Marine task forces formed for Operation Desert Shield and later liberated Kuwait, along with Coalition forces, in Operation Desert Storm.[44] Marines participated in combat operations in Somalia (1992–1995) during Operations Restore Hope, Restore Hope II, and United Shield to provide humanitarian relief.[82] In 1997, Marines took part in Operation Silver Wake, the evacuation of American citizens from the U.S. Embassy in Tirana, Albania.[citation needed]
Following the attacks on 11 September 2001, President George W. Bush announced the Global War on Terrorism. The stated objective of the Global War on Terror is "the defeat of Al-Qaeda, other terrorist groups and any nation that supports or harbors terrorists".[83] Since then, the Marine Corps, alongside the other military services, has engaged in global operations around the world in support of that mission.[84]
In spring 2009, President Barack Obama's goal of reducing spending in the Defense Department was led by Secretary Robert Gates in a series of budget cuts that did not significantly change the Corps's budget and programs, cutting only the VH-71 Kestrel and resetting the VXX program.[85][86][87] However, the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform singled the Corps out for the brunt of a series of recommended cuts in late 2010.[88] In light of budget sequestration in 2013, General James Amos set a goal of a force of 174,000 Marines.[89] He testified that this was the minimum number that would allow for an effective response to even a single contingency operation, but it would reduce the peacetime ratio of time at home bases to time deployed down to a historical low level.[90]
Marines and other American forces began staging in Pakistan and Uzbekistan on the border of Afghanistan as early as October 2001 in preparation for Operation Enduring Freedom.[91] The 15th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units were some of the first conventional forces into Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in November 2001.[92]
After that, Marine battalions and squadrons rotated through, engaging the Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces. Marines of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit flooded into the Taliban-held town of Garmsir in Helmand Province on 29 April 2008, in the first major American operation in the region in years.[93] In June 2009, 7,000 marines with the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade (2nd MEB) deployed to Afghanistan in an effort to improve security[94] and began Operation Strike of the Sword the next month. In February 2010, the 2nd MEB launched the largest offensive of the Afghan Campaign since 2001, the Battle of Marjah, to clear the Taliban from their key stronghold in Helmand Province.[95] After Marjah, marines progressed north up the Helmand River and cleared the towns of Kajahki and Sangin. Marines remained in Helmand Province until 2014.[96]
U.S. Marines served in the Iraq War, along with its sister services. The I Marine Expeditionary Force, along with the U.S. Army's 3rd Infantry Division, spearheaded the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[97] The Marines left Iraq in the summer of 2003 but returned in the beginning of 2004. They were given responsibility for the Al Anbar Province, the large desert region to the west of Baghdad. During this occupation, the Marines lead assaults on the city of Fallujah in April (Operation Vigilant Resolve) and November 2004 (Operation Phantom Fury) and saw intense fighting in such places as Ramadi, Al-Qa'im and Hīt.[98] The service's time in Iraq courted controversy with events such as the Haditha killings and the Hamdania incident.[99][100] The Anbar Awakening and 2007 surge reduced levels of violence. The Marine Corps officially ended its role in Iraq on 23 January 2010 when it handed over responsibility for Al Anbar Province to the U.S. Army.[101] Marines returned to Iraq in the summer of 2014 in response to growing violence there.[102]
Throughout the Global War on Terrorism, the U.S. Marines have supported operations in Africa to counter Islamic extremism and piracy in the Red Sea. In late 2002, Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa was stood up at Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti to provide regional security.[103] Despite transferring overall command to the Navy in 2006, the Marines continued to operate in the Horn of Africa into 2007.[104]
In the 2020s, as the U.S. national strategy shifted from the war on terrorism to competition with China, the Marine Corps abandoned its previous plan to focus on land operations and strengthened its firepower configuration in the Indo-Pacific region to defeat the Chinese People's Liberation Army in possible island operations.[105] As part of this shift the USMC has established a joint deployment with the Australian military in Darwin starting with 200 Marines in 2011.[106]
The Department of the Navy, led by the Secretary of the Navy, is a military department of the cabinet-level U.S. Department of Defense that oversees the Marine Corps and the Navy. The most senior Marine officer is the Commandant (unless a Marine officer is the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs or Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs), responsible to the Secretary of the Navy for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping the Marine Corps so that its forces are ready for deployment under the operational command of the combatant commanders. The Marine Corps is organized into four principal subdivisions: Headquarters Marine Corps (HQMC), the Operating Forces, the Supporting Establishment, and the Marine Forces Reserve (MARFORRES or USMCR).[citation needed]
The Headquarters Marine Corps (HQMC) consists of the Commandant of the Marine Corps, the Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps, the Director Marine Corps Staff, the several Deputy Commandants, the Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps, and various special staff officers and Marine Corps agency heads that report directly to either the Commandant or Assistant Commandant. HQMC is supported by the Headquarters and Service Battalion, USMC providing administrative, supply, logistics, training, and services support to the Commandant and his staff.[citation needed] Additionally, Marine Corps' aircraft arm and intelligence arm are both organized under HQMC; those being the Marine Corps Aviation and Marine Corps Intelligence respectively.
The Operating Forces are divided into three categories: Marine Corps Forces (MARFOR) assigned to unified combatant commands, namely, the Fleet Marine Forces (FMF); Security Forces guarding high-risk naval installations; and Security Guard detachments at American embassies. Under the "Forces for Unified Commands" memo, in accordance with the Unified Command Plan, Marine Corps Forces are assigned to each of the combatant commands at the discretion of the secretary of defense. Since 1991, the Marine Corps has maintained component headquarters at each of the regional unified combatant commands.[107]
Marine Corps Forces are divided into Forces Command (MARFORCOM) and Pacific Command (MARFORPAC), each headed by a lieutenant general dual-posted as the commanding general of either FMF Atlantic (FMFLANT) or FMF Pacific (FMFPAC), respectively. MARFORCOM/FMFLANT has operational control of the II Marine Expeditionary Force; MARFORPAC/FMFPAC has operational control of the I Marine Expeditionary Force and III Marine Expeditionary Force.[34]
Additional service components under the Marine Corps Forces includes: the Marine Corps Forces Europe and Africa (MARFOREUR/AF) under U.S. European Command (EURCOM) and U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM); the Marine Corps Forces Central Command (MARFORCENT) under U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM); the Marine Corps Forces South (MARFORSOUTH) under U.S. Southern Command (SOUTHCOM); the Marine Corps Forces Cyberspace Command (MARFORCYBER) under U.S. Cyber Command (CYBERCOM); the Marine Corps Forces Space Command (MARFORSPACE) under U.S. Space Command (SPACECOM); and the Marine Corps Forces Strategic Command (MARFORSTRAT) under U.S. Strategic Command (STRATCOM).
The basic framework for deployable Marine units is the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF), a flexible structure of varying size. A MAGTF integrates a ground combat element (GCE), an aviation combat element (ACE), and a logistics combat element (LCE) under a common command element (CE), capable of operating independently or as part of a larger coalition. The MAGTF structure reflects a strong preference in the Corps toward self-sufficiency and a commitment to combined arms, both essential assets to an expeditionary force.[28]
The Supporting Establishment includes the Combat Development Command, the Logistics Command, the Systems Command, the Training and Education Command (including Recruiting Command), the Installations Command, the Marine Band, and the Marine Drum and Bugle Corps.[citation needed]
The Marine Corps operates many major bases, 14 of which host operating forces, seven support and training installations, as well as satellite facilities.[108] Marine Corps bases are concentrated around the locations of the Marine Expeditionary Forces, though reserve units are scattered throughout the US. The principal bases are Camp Pendleton on the West Coast, home to I Marine Expeditionary Force,[109] Camp Lejeune on the East Coast, home to II Marine Expeditionary Force,[110] and Camp Butler in Okinawa, Japan, home to III Marine Expeditionary Force.[111]
Other important bases include air stations, recruit depots, logistics bases, and training commands. Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms in California is the Marine Corps's largest base and home to the Corps's most complex combined-arms live-fire training.[citation needed] Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia is home to Marine Corps Combat Development Command and nicknamed the "Crossroads of the Marine Corps".[112][113]The Marine Corps maintains a significant presence in the National Capital Region, with Headquarters Marine Corps scattered amongst the Pentagon, Henderson Hall, Washington Navy Yard, and Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C. Additionally, Marines operate detachments at many installations owned by other branches to better share resources, such as specialty schools. Marines are also present at and operate many forward bases during expeditionary operations.[citation needed]
The Marine Forces Reserve (MARFORRES/USMCR) consists of the Force Headquarters Group, 4th Marine Division, 4th Marine Aircraft Wing, and the 4th Marine Logistics Group. The MARFORRES/USMCR is capable of forming a 4th Marine Expeditionary Force or reinforcing/augmenting active-duty forces.[citation needed]
Marine Forces Special Operations Command (MARSOC) includes the Marine Raider Regiment, the Marine Raider Support Group, and the Marine Raider Training Center (MRTC). Both the Raider Regiment and the Raider Support Group consist of a headquarters company and three operations battalions. MRTC conducts screening, assessment, selection, training and development functions for MARSOC units. Marine Corps Special Operations Capable forces include: Air Naval Gunfire Liaison Companies, the Chemical Biological Incident Response Force, the Marine Division Reconnaissance Battalions, Force Reconnaissance Companies, Maritime Special Purpose Force, and Special Reaction Teams. Additionally, all deployed MEUs are certified as "special operations capable", namely, "MEU(SOC)".
Although the notion of a Marine special operations forces contribution to the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was considered as early as the founding of USSOCOM in the 1980s, it was resisted by the Marine Corps. Commandant Paul X. Kelley expressed the belief that marines should only support marines and that the Corps should not fund a special operations capability that would not directly support Marine Corps operations.[114] However, much of the resistance from within the Corps dissipated when Marine leaders watched the Corps' 15th and 26th MEU(SOC)s "sit on the sidelines" during the very early stages of Operation Enduring Freedom while other conventional units and special operations units from the Army, Navy, and Air Force actively engaged in operations in Afghanistan.[115] After a three-year development period, the Corps agreed in 2006 to supply a 2,500-strong unit, Marine Forces Special Operations Command, which would answer directly to USSOCOM.[116]
The Commandant of the Marine Corps is the highest-ranking officer of the Marine Corps, unless a Marine is either the chairman or vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The commandant has the U.S. Code Title 10 responsibility to staff, train, and equip the Marine Corps and has no command authority. The commandant is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and reports to the Secretary of the Navy.[117]
The Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps acts as the chief deputy to the commandant. The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is the senior enlisted Marine and acts as an adviser to the commandant. Headquarters Marine Corps comprises the rest of the commandant's counsel and staff, with deputy commandants that oversee various aspects of the Corps assets and capabilities. The 39th and current Commandant is Eric M. Smith, while the 20th and current Sergeant Major is Carlos A. Ruiz.[118]
Women have served in the United States Marine Corps since 1918.[119] The first woman to have enlisted was Opha May Johnson (1878–1955).[120][121] In January 2017, three women joined an infantry battalion at Camp Lejeune. Women had not served as infantry marines prior to this.[122] In 2017, the Marines released a recruitment advertisement that focused on women for the first time.[123] As of October 2019[update], female Marines make up 7.8% of the personnel.[citation needed]
In December 2020, the Marine Corps began a trial program to have females integrated into the training companies at their recruit depot in San Diego as Congress has mandated an end to the male-only program there. For the 60 female recruits, scheduled to begin training in San Diego in February 2021, the Corps will transfer female drill instructors from their recruit depot in Parris Island, which already has a coed program.[124] Fifty-three of these recruits successfully graduated from boot camp in April 2021 and became marines.[125][126]
In 1776 and 1777, a dozen African American marines served in the American Revolutionary War, but from 1798 to 1942, the Marine Corps followed a racially discriminatory policy of denying African Americans the opportunity to serve.[127] The Marine Corps was the last of the services to recruit African Americans, and its own history page acknowledges that it was a presidential order that "forced the Corps, despite objections from its leadership, to begin recruiting African American Marines in 1942.[128] It accepted them as recruits into segregated all-black units.[127] For the next few decades, the incorporation of black troops was not widely accepted within the Corps, nor was desegregation smoothly or quickly achieved. The integration of non-white Marine Corps personnel proceeded in stages from segregated battalions in 1942, to unified training in 1949, and finally full integration in 1960.[129]
Today the Marine Corps is a desegregated force, made up of Marines of all races working and fighting alongside each other. As of 2020, African Americans are currently underrepresented in the Marine Corps as compared to their overall percentage of the U.S. population. Concurrently, the Marine Corps is the only service where Hispanics are overrepresented per the same metric.[130]
As in the rest of the United States Armed Forces (excluding the Air Force and Space Force, which do not currently appoint warrant officers), Marine Corps ranks fall into one of three categories: commissioned officer, warrant officer, and enlisted, in decreasing order of authority. To standardize compensation, each rank is assigned a pay grade.[131]
Commissioned officers are distinguished from other officers by their commission, which is the formal written authority, issued in the name of the President of the United States, that confers the rank and authority of a Marine officer. Commissioned officers carry the "special trust and confidence" of the President of the United States.[18] Marine Corps commissioned officers are promoted based on an "up or out" system in accordance with the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980.[132]
Warrant officers are primarily formerly enlisted experts in a specific specialized field and provide leadership generally only within that speciality.
Enlisted marines in the pay grades E-1 to E-3 make up the bulk of the Corps's ranks. Although they do not technically hold leadership ranks, the Corps's ethos stresses leadership among all marines, and junior marines are often assigned responsibilities normally reserved for superiors. Those in the pay grades of E-4 and E-5 are non-commissioned officers (NCOs).[133] They primarily supervise junior Marines and act as a vital link with the higher command structure, ensuring that orders are carried out correctly. Marines E-6 and higher are staff non-commissioned officers (SNCOs), charged with supervising NCOs and acting as enlisted advisers to the command.[134]
The E-8 and E-9 levels have two and three ranks per pay grade, respectively, each with different responsibilities. The first sergeant and sergeant major ranks are command-oriented, serving as the senior enlisted marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding officer in matters of discipline, administration, and the morale and welfare of the unit. Master sergeants and master gunnery sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specific MOS. The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is a billet conferred on the senior enlisted marine of the entire Marine Corps, personally selected by the commandant, and is given a special pay grade above E-9. It is possible for an enlisted marine to hold a position senior to Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps which was the case from 2011 to 2015 with the appointment of Sergeant Major Bryan B. Battaglia to the billet of Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman, who is the most senior enlisted member of the United States military, serving in the Joint Chiefs of Staff.[135]
The Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) is a system of job classification. Using a four digit code, it designates what field and specific occupation a Marine performs. Segregated between officer and enlisted, the MOS determines the staffing of a unit. Some MOSs change with rank to reflect supervisory positions; others are secondary and represent a temporary assignment outside of a Marine's normal duties or special skill.[citation needed]
Every year, over 2,000 new Marine officers are commissioned, and 38,000 recruits are accepted and trained.[34] All new marines, enlisted or officer, are recruited by the Marine Corps Recruiting Command.[136]
Commissioned officers are commissioned mainly through one of three sources: Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps, Officer Candidates School, or the United States Naval Academy. Following commissioning, all Marine commissioned officers, regardless of accession route or further training requirements, attend The Basic School at Marine Corps Base Quantico. At The Basic School, second lieutenants, warrant officers, and selected foreign officers learn the art of infantry and combined arms warfare.[18]
Enlisted marines attend recruit training, known as boot camp, at either Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego or Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island. Historically, the Mississippi River served as a dividing line that delineated who would be trained where, while more recently, a district system has ensured a more even distribution of male recruits between the two facilities. All recruits must pass a fitness test to start training; those who fail will receive individualized attention and training until the minimum standards are reached.[137] Marine recruit training is the longest among the American military services; it is 13 weeks long including processing and out-processing.[138]
Following recruit training, enlisted marines then attend The School of Infantry at Camp Geiger or Camp Pendleton. Infantry marines begin their combat training, which varies in length, immediately with the Infantry Training Battalion. Marines in all other MOSs train for 29 days in Marine Combat Training, learning common infantry skills, before continuing on to their MOS schools, which vary in length.[139]
The Marine Corps has the most stable and most recognizable uniforms in the American military; the Dress Blues dates back to the early 19th century[34] and the service uniform to the early 20th century. Only a handful of skills (parachutist, air crew, explosive ordnance disposal, etc.) warrant distinguishing badges, and rank insignia is not worn on uniform headgear (with the exception of an officer's garrison service cover).
Marines have four main uniforms: dress, service, utility, and physical training. These uniforms have a few minor but very distinct variations from enlisted personnel to commissioned and non-commissioned officers. The Marine Corps dress uniform is the most elaborate, worn for formal or ceremonial occasions. There are four different forms of the dress uniform. The variations of the dress uniforms are known as "Alphas", "Bravos", "Charlies", or "Deltas". The most common being the "Blue Dress Alphas or Bravos", called "Dress Blues" or simply "Blues". It is most often seen in recruiting advertisements and is equivalent to black tie. There is a "Blue-White" Dress for summer, and Evening Dress for formal (white tie) occasions, which are reserved for SNCO's and officers. Versions with a khaki shirt in lieu of the coat (Blue Dress Charlie/Delta) are worn as a daily working uniform by Marine recruiters and NROTC staff.[140]
The service uniform was once the prescribed daily work attire in garrison; however, it has been largely superseded in this role by the utility uniform. Consisting of olive green and khaki colors. It is roughly equivalent in function and composition to a business suit.[140][failed verification]
The utility uniform, currently the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform, is a camouflage uniform intended for wear in the field or for dirty work in garrison, though it has been standardized for regular duty. It is rendered in MARPAT pixelated camouflage that breaks up the wearer's shape. In garrison, the woodland and desert uniforms are worn depending on the marine's duty station.[141][better source needed] Marines consider the utilities a working uniform and do not permit their wear off-base, except in transit to and from their place of duty and in the event of an emergency.[140]
As in any military organization, the official and unofficial traditions of the Marine Corps serve to reinforce camaraderie and set the service apart from others. The Corps's embrace of its rich culture and history is cited as a reason for its high esprit de corps.[18] An important part of the Marine Corps culture is the traditional seafaring naval terminology derived from its history with the Navy. "Marines" are not "soldiers" or "sailors".[142]
The Marine Corps emblem is the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor, sometimes abbreviated "EGA", adopted in 1868.[143] The Marine Corps seal includes the emblem, also is found on the flag of the United States Marine Corps, and establishes scarlet and gold as the official colors.[144] The Marine motto Semper Fidelis means Always Faithful in Latin, often appearing as Semper Fi. The Marines' Hymn dates back to the 19th century and is the oldest official song in the United States armed forces. Semper Fi is also the name of the official march of the Corps, composed by John Philip Sousa. The mottos "Fortitudine" (With Fortitude); By Sea and by Land, a translation of the Royal Marines' Per Mare, Per Terram; and To the Shores of Tripoli were used until 1868.[145]
Two styles of swords are worn by marines: the officers' Mameluke Sword, similar to the Persian shamshir presented to Lt. Presley O'Bannon after the Battle of Derna, and the Marine NCO sword.[34] The Marine Corps Birthday is celebrated every year on 10 November in a cake-cutting ceremony where the first slice of cake is given to the oldest marine present, who in turn hands it off to the youngest marine present. The celebration includes a reading of Commandant Lejeune's Birthday Message.[146] Close Order Drill is heavily emphasized early on in a marine's initial training, incorporated into most formal events, and is used to teach discipline by instilling habits of precision and automatic response to orders, increase the confidence of junior officers and noncommissioned officers through the exercise of command and give marines an opportunity to handle individual weapons.[147]
Marines have several generic nicknames:
Some other unofficial traditions include mottos and exclamations:
In spite of any association or tangible evidence of extremism in the current culture of the Marine Corps, the Marines had two short associations in their ranks, particularly with White supremacy. In 1976 the Camp Pendleton Chapter of the Ku Klux Klan, which had over 100 members, was headed by an active duty marine. In 1986, a number of Marines were implicated in the theft of weapons for the White Patriot Party. While the sale of the weapons was to a supremacist organization it was never verified that the Marines were actual members of the organization. Although similar affiliation there is not evidence of correlation from the event in the 1976 to the events recorded in 1986. The USMC, along with the rest of the military, has since made an effort to address extremism in the ranks.[159]
The Corps encourages the idea that "marine" is an earned title, and most Marine Corps personnel take to heart the phrase, "Once a marine, Always a marine". They reject the term "ex-marine" in most circumstances. There are no regulations concerning the address of persons who have left active service, so a number of customary terms have come into common use.[73]
In 2001, the Marine Corps initiated an internally designed martial arts program, called Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Because of an expectation that urban and police-type peacekeeping missions would become more common in the 21st century, placing marines in even closer contact with unarmed civilians, MCMAP was implemented to provide marines with a larger and more versatile set of less-than-lethal options for controlling hostile, unarmed individuals. It is a stated aim of the program to instill and maintain the "Warrior Ethos" within marines.[160] The MCMAP is an eclectic mix of different styles of martial arts melded together. MCMAP consists of punches and kicks from Taekwondo and Karate, opponent weight transfer from Jujitsu, ground grappling involving joint locking techniques and chokes from Brazilian jiu-jitsu, and a mix of knife and baton/stick fighting derived from Eskrima, and elbow strikes and kick boxing from Muay Thai. Marines begin MCMAP training in boot camp, where they will earn the first of five available belts. The belts begin at tan and progress to black and are worn with standard utility uniforms.[161]
As of 2013, the typical infantry rifleman carries $14,000 worth of gear (excluding night-vision goggles), compared to $2,500 a decade earlier. The number of pieces of equipment (everything from radios to trucks) in a typical infantry battalion has also increased, from 3,400 pieces of gear in 2001 to 8,500 in 2013.[162]
The infantry weapon of the Marine Corps is the M27 IAR[163] service rifle. Most non-infantry marines have been equipped with the M4 Carbine[164] or Colt 9mm SMG.[165] The standard side arm is the SIG Sauer M17/M18[166] The M18 will replace all other pistols in the Marine Corps inventory, including the M9, M9A1, M45A1 and M007, as the M45A1 Close Quarter Battle Pistol (CQBP) in small numbers. Suppressive fire is provided by the, M249 SAW, and M240 machine guns, at the squad and company levels respectively. In 2018, the M27 IAR was selected to be the standard-issue rifle for all infantry squads.[167] In 2021, the Marine Corps committed to fielding suppressors to all its infantry units, making it the first branch of the U.S. military to adopt them for widespread use.[168]
The USMC infantry issued grenade launcher is the M320, which shoots a 40 mm grenade,[169] such as the M67 fragmentation grenade.[170] Indirect fire is also provided by the M203 grenade launcher and the M32 grenade launcher in fireteams, M224 60 mm mortar in companies, and M252 81 mm mortar in battalions. The M2 .50 caliber heavy machine gun and MK19 automatic grenade launcher (40 mm) are available for use by dismounted infantry, though they are more commonly vehicle-mounted. Precision firepower is provided by the M40 series[171] and the Barrett M107, while designated marksmen use the DMR variant of the M27, known as the M38, and the SAM-R.[citation needed]
The Marine Corps utilizes a variety of direct-fire rockets and missiles to provide infantry with an offensive and defensive anti-armor capability. The SMAW and AT4 are unguided rockets that can destroy armor and fixed defenses (e.g., bunkers) at ranges up to 500 meters. The smaller and lighter M72 LAW can destroy targets at ranges up to 200 meters.[172][173] The Predator SRAW, FGM-148 Javelin and BGM-71 TOW are anti-tank guided missiles. The Javelin can utilize top-attack profiles to avoid heavy frontal armor. The Predator is a short-range fire-and-forget weapon; the Javelin and TOW are heavier missiles effective past 2,000 meters that give infantry an offensive capability against armor.[174]
The Corps operates the same HMMWV as does the Army, which is in the process of being replaced by the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV). However, for its specific needs, the Corps uses a number of unique vehicles. The LAV-25 is a dedicated wheeled armored personnel carrier, similar to the Army's Stryker vehicle, used to provide strategic mobility.[175] Amphibious capability is provided by the AAV-7A1 Assault Amphibious Vehicle, an armored tracked vehicle that doubles as an armored personnel carrier, due to be replaced by the Amphibious Combat Vehicle, a faster vehicle with superior armor and weaponry. The threat of land mines and improvised explosive devices in Iraq and Afghanistan has seen the Corps begin purchasing heavily armored vehicles that can better withstand the effects of these weapons as part of the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected vehicle program.[176][177]
The Marines also operate the M777 155 mm howitzer and the High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS), a truck-mounted rocket artillery system. Both are capable of firing guided munitions.[178] In 2020, the Marine Corps retired its M1A1 Abrams tanks and eliminated all of its tank units. General David Berger explained the decision describing the long-serving Marine weapons system as "operationally unsuitable for our highest-priority challenges." The move leaves the Army as the sole American operator of tanks.[179]
The organic aviation capability of the Marine Corps is essential to its amphibious mission. Marine Corps Aviation operates both rotary-wing and fixed-wing aircraft mainly to provide Assault Support and close air support to its ground forces. Other aircraft types are used in a variety of support and special-purpose roles. The light transport and attack capabilities are provided by the Bell UH-1Y Venom and Bell AH-1Z Viper.[180] Medium-lift squadrons utilize the MV-22 Osprey tiltrotor. Heavy-lift squadrons are equipped with the CH-53E Super Stallion helicopter, which are being replaced with the upgraded CH-53K.[181]
Marine attack squadrons fly the AV-8B Harrier II; while the fighter/attack mission is handled by the single-seat and dual-seat versions of the F/A-18 Hornet strike-fighter aircraft. The AV-8B is a V/STOL aircraft that can operate from amphibious assault ships, land air bases and short, expeditionary airfields, while the F/A-18 can only be flown from land or aircraft carriers. Both are slated to be replaced by 340 of the STOVL B version of the F-35 Lightning II[182] and 80 of the carrier F-35C versions for deployment with Navy carrier air wings.[183][184][185][186]
The Corps operates its own organic aerial refueling assets in the form of the KC-130 Hercules; however, it also receives a large amount of support from the U.S. Air Force. The Hercules doubles as a ground refueler and tactical-airlift transport aircraft. The USMC electronic warfare plane, the EA-6B, was retired in 2019. The Marines operate unmanned aerial vehicles: the RQ-7 Shadow and Scan Eagle for tactical reconnaissance.[187]
Marine Fighter Training Squadron 401 (VMFT-401), operates F-5E, F-5F and F-5N Tiger II aircraft in support of air combat adversary (aggressor) training. Marine Helicopter Squadron One (HMX-1) operates the VH-3D Sea King and VH-60N Whitehawk helicopters in the VIP transport role, most notably Marine One, but are due to be replaced with the VH-92 Patriot.[188] A single Marine Corps C-130 Hercules aircraft, "Fat Albert", is used to support the U.S. Navy's flight demonstration team, the "Blue Angels".[189]
In general, the Marine Corps shares many resources with the other branches of the United States Armed Forces. However, the Corps has consistently sought to maintain its own identity with regard to mission, funding, and assets, while utilizing support available from the larger branches. While the Marine Corps has far fewer installations both in the U.S. and worldwide than the other branches, many Army posts, Naval stations, and Air Force bases have a Marine presence. They also cross-train with other countries.[citation needed]
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The Marine Corps's counterpart under the Department of the Navy is the United States Navy. As a result, the Navy and Marine Corps have a close relationship, more so than with other branches of the military. White papers and promotional literature have commonly used the phrase "Navy-Marine Corps Team",[190][191] or refer to "the Naval Service". Both the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and Commandant of the Marine Corps report directly to the Secretary of the Navy.[192][193]
Operationally, the Marine Corps provides the Fleet Marine Forces for service with the Navy's fleets, including the forward-deployed Marine Expeditionary Units embarked aboard Navy amphibious warships. The Corps also contributes some Marine Aviation fixed-wing fighter/attack assets (aircraft squadrons and related aircraft maintenance augmentation units) as part of the Carrier Air Wings deployed aboard aircraft carriers. The Marine Corps Security Force Regiment provides infantry-based security battalions and Fleet Anti-terrorism Security Team companies to guard and defend high-priority and overseas Navy bases. Security for the Presidential Retreat located aboard the Naval Support Activity Thurmont, aka Camp David is provided by the Marine infantry battalion stationed as part of the garrison aboard Marine Barracks Washington.
Cooperation between the two services includes the training and instruction of some future Marine Corps officers (most are trained and commissioned through Marine Corps OCS), all Marine Corps Naval Aviators (aircraft pilots) and Naval Flight Officers (airborne weapons and sensor system officers), and some Navy and Marine Corps enlisted personnel. The Corps receives a significant portion of its officers from the United States Naval Academy (USNA) and Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC). USNA and NROTC staff and faculty includes Marine Corps instructors. Marine Corps aviators and flight officers are trained in the Naval Air Training Command (NATRACOM) and are designated, or winged as Naval Aviators or Naval Flight Officers. The Marine Corps provides flight instructors to the Naval Air Training Command as well as drill instructors to the Navy's Officer Candidate School. Many enlisted marines, particularly those in the aviation maintenance specialties, are trained at Navy technical training centers. The Marine Corps also provides ground combat training support to various Navy field medical (Hospital Corpsmen), Naval Construction Force (Seabee), and Navy Expeditionary Warfare personnel, units, and commands.
Training alongside each other is viewed as critical, as the Navy provides transport, logistical, and combat support to put Marine units into the fight, such as maritime prepositioning ships and naval gunfire support. Most Marine aviation assets ultimately derive from the Navy, with regard to acquisition, funding, and testing, and Navy aircraft carriers typically deploy with a Marine squadron alongside Navy squadrons. Marines do not recruit or train noncombatants such as chaplains or medical/dental personnel; naval personnel fill these roles. Some of these sailors, particularly Hospital corpsmen and Religious program specialists, generally wear Marine uniforms emblazoned with Navy insignia. Conversely, the Marine Corps is responsible for conducting land operations to support naval campaigns, including the seizure of naval bases. Both services operate a network security team in conjunction.
Marines and sailors share many naval traditions, especially terminology and customs. Marine Corps Medal of Honor recipients wear the Navy variant of this and other awards;[23] and with few exceptions, the awards and badges of the Navy and Marine Corps are identical. Much of testing for new Marine Corps aircraft is done at Naval Air Station Patuxent River. The Navy's Blue Angels flight demonstration team is staffed by both Navy and Marine officers and enlisted personnel.[23]
In 2007, the Marine Corps joined with the Navy and Coast Guard to adopt a new maritime strategy called A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower that raises the notion of prevention of war to the same philosophical level as the conduct of war.[194] This new strategy charts a course for the Navy, Coast Guard and Marine Corps to work collectively with each other and international partners to prevent regional crises, human-made or natural, from occurring or reacting quickly should one occur to avoid negative impacts to the United States.
The Marine Corps capabilities overlap with those of the United States Army, historically creating competition for funding and missions. The competition dates back to the founding of the Continental Marines, when General George Washington refused to allow the initial Marine battalions to be drawn from among his Continental Army. In the aftermath of World War II, Army leadership made efforts to restructure the American defense establishment including the dissolution of the Marine Corps and the folding of its capabilities into the other services. Leading this movement were such prominent Army officers as General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall.[73] The Goldwater-Nichols Act significantly reshaped the services roles and relationships with each other, enforcing more joint decision making.[195] Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 tasks both the Army and Marine Corps with expeditionary and amphibious operations.[196] With most of the 2000s spent in operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates voiced concerns that the Marine Corps are becoming a "second Army".[32] Since these comments, the Marine Corps has shed its main battle tanks, reduced its size, and focused more on operations in littoral areas where the Army is not explicitly tasked to operate.[197]
The Army maintains much larger and diverse combat arms, special operations, and logistics forces. The Army has much lighter and expeditionary forces in its infantry and airborne infantry brigade combat teams. The Army also maintains heavier and more logistically taxing armored brigade combat teams.[198] The Marine Corps, in comparison, maintains forces between these two extremes of mobility and protection. The Marine Corps organizes much smaller deployable units with integrated aviation support. The Marine Corps was historically hesitant to provide forces to U.S. Special Operations Command, instead making specialty units available to its division commanders. The Army has maintained Special Forces, Rangers, civil affairs, psychological operations, special operations aviation, and special missions units for decades. In 2003, the Marine Corps[199] created the present-day successors to the Marine Raiders and provided them to Special Operations Command starting with the establishment of MCSOCOM Detachment One. The modern Marine Raider training pipeline was based on input from U.S. Army Ranger and Special Forces units.[115]
Culturally, marines and soldiers share most of the common U.S. military slang and terminology, but the Corps utilizes a large number of naval terms and traditions incompatible with Army lifestyle, as well as its own unique vernacular. As the Army Reserve and Army National Guard is much larger than the Marine Corps's Reserve, many more former active duty marines continue their service in the Army's reserve components.[200] The Army does not require transfers from the Marines, Air Force Security Forces, or special operations of any branch to attend Army Basic Combat Training.[201] Due to the requirement that all inter-service transfers attend Marine Corps Recruit Training, very few former soldiers serve in the Marine Corps.
While some of Marine Corps Aviation assets ultimately derive from the Navy, a large amount of support is drawn from the United States Air Force. The Marine Corps makes extensive use of the USAF Air Mobility Command to airlift marines and equipment, along with utilizing close air support from the Air Force. The Air Force may also attach Tactical Air Control Party units to conventional Marine ground forces to provide coordination for close air support.[202]
The Air Force traditionally provides the Joint Force Air Component Commander (JFACC) who controls "sorties for air defense, and long range interdiction and reconnaissance" while the MAGTF commander retains control of the Marines' organic aviation assets, however Marine Aviation missions not directly in the support of the MAGTF will be typically controlled by the JFACC.[203][204][205]
The Marine Corps shares a sphere of operation with units of the United States Coast Guard, including operation of the Joint Maritime Training Center (JMTC) (previously known as the Special Missions Training Center (SMTC)), a joint Coast Guard, Navy, and Marine Corps training facility located on the Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.[206][207]
According to the Department of the Navy (from whence the Marine Corps receives its funding), for FY 2019, the Marine Corps received $43.2B in funding.[208]
* not exact since certain fields are combined with Navy expenditures[citation needed]
In 2013, the USMC became the first American military branch to ever have a fully audited annual budget.[210]
The Marine Band played at Thomas Jefferson's Inauguration in 1801 and hasn't missed a single one since. Jefferson was a violin player who loved music almost as much as he loved freedom. He named the band "The President's Own".
During this time of the late 1760s and into the 1770s leading up to the War for our Independence … Samuel Nicholas would spend time aboard super-cargo merchant ships traveling to and from China. At the time of his nomination by (future U.S. President) John Adams to lead the Continental Marines in Nov. of 1775, he would have been well known in the community of Philadelphia for his maritime knowledge and experience.
Marines fought like teufel hunden, legendary wild, devil dogs that at one time roamed the forests of northern Germany
He reminds his charges that "at Belleau Wood the Marines were so vicious that the German infantrymen called them Teufel-Hunden – 'devil dogs'
the 5th and 6th Marine Regiments earned the nickname of "Teufel Hunden" (devil dog) by the Germans in World War I during the 1918 Château-Thierry campaign near the French village of Bouresches, the Battle of Belleau Wood
based on Chinese pronunciation of Marine
In 1804 the Secretary of the Navy ordered Marines to wear black leather stock collars when on duty
Most likely it was the pillbox cap and high stiff collar making a Marine appear similar to a Mason jar
Long before Hollywood popularized it, Marines used the phrase to reflect their preference for being a fluid, loosely reined force that could spontaneously react to rapidly changing situations, rather than a rigid outfit that moved in a specific direction with a precise plan.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Marine Corps.
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