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Internamiento de estadounidenses de origen japonés

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , Estados Unidos reubicó y encarceló por la fuerza a unas 120.000 personas de ascendencia japonesa en diez campos de concentración operados por la Autoridad de Reubicación de Guerra (WRA), principalmente en el interior occidental del país . Aproximadamente dos tercios de los detenidos eran ciudadanos estadounidenses . Estas acciones fueron iniciadas por la Orden Ejecutiva 9066 , emitida por el presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt el 19 de febrero de 1942, tras el ataque del Japón imperial a Pearl Harbor , Guam , Filipinas y la isla Wake en diciembre de 1941. Antes de la guerra, alrededor de 127.000 estadounidenses de origen japonés vivían en los Estados Unidos continentales , de los cuales unos 112.000 vivían en la Costa Oeste . Aproximadamente 80.000 eran nisei ('segunda generación'; japoneses nacidos en Estados Unidos con ciudadanía estadounidense) y sansei ('tercera generación', los hijos de los nisei). El resto eran inmigrantes issei ('primera generación') nacidos en Japón, que no eran elegibles para la ciudadanía. En Hawái (entonces bajo la ley marcial ), donde más de 150.000 estadounidenses de origen japonés representaban más de un tercio de la población del territorio , solo entre 1.200 y 1.800 fueron encarcelados.

El internamiento tenía como objetivo mitigar un riesgo de seguridad que se creía que representaban los estadounidenses de origen japonés. La escala del encarcelamiento en proporción al tamaño de la población estadounidense de origen japonés superó con creces las medidas similares adoptadas contra los estadounidenses de origen alemán e italiano , que se contaban por millones y de los cuales algunos miles fueron internados, la mayoría de ellos no ciudadanos. Tras la orden ejecutiva, toda la Costa Oeste fue designada como zona de exclusión militar, y todos los estadounidenses de origen japonés que vivían allí fueron llevados a centros de concentración antes de ser enviados a campos de concentración en California, Arizona, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah y Arkansas. California definió a cualquier persona con 1dieciseisavo o más de linaje japonés como una persona que debería ser encarcelada. Un miembro clave del Comando de Defensa Occidental , el coronel Karl Bendetsen , llegó a decir: "Estoy decidido a que si tienen " una gota de sangre japonesa en ellos, deben ir al campo". [6] La Oficina del Censo de los Estados Unidos ayudó a los esfuerzos de encarcelamiento proporcionando datos censales individuales específicos . A los internados se les prohibía llevar a los campos más de lo que podían llevar consigo, y muchos se vieron obligados a vender parte o la totalidad de sus propiedades, incluidos sus negocios. En los campos, que estaban rodeados de alambradas de púas vigiladas por guardias armados, los internados vivían en barracones a menudo abarrotados y escasamente amueblados.

En su decisión de 1944 Korematsu v. United States , la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos confirmó la constitucionalidad de las expulsiones en virtud de la Cláusula del Debido Proceso de la Quinta Enmienda de la Constitución de los Estados Unidos . La Corte limitó su decisión a la validez de las órdenes de exclusión, evitando la cuestión del encarcelamiento de ciudadanos estadounidenses sin el debido proceso, pero dictaminó el mismo día en Ex parte Endo que un ciudadano leal no podía ser detenido, lo que inició su liberación. El 17 de diciembre de 1944, las órdenes de exclusión fueron revocadas y nueve de los diez campos fueron cerrados a fines de 1945. Inicialmente, a los estadounidenses de origen japonés se les prohibió el servicio militar en los EE. UU., pero en 1943 se les permitió unirse y 20 000 sirvieron durante la guerra. A más de 4000 estudiantes se les permitió abandonar los campos para asistir a la universidad. Los hospitales de los campos registraron 5981 nacimientos y 1862 muertes durante el encarcelamiento.

En la década de 1970, bajo la creciente presión de la Liga de Ciudadanos Japoneses Estadounidenses (JACL) y las organizaciones de reparación , el presidente Jimmy Carter abrió una investigación para determinar si la decisión de poner a los estadounidenses de origen japonés en campos de concentración había sido justificada por el gobierno. Designó a la Comisión de Reubicación e Internamiento de Civiles en Tiempos de Guerra (CWRIC) para investigar los campos. En 1983, el informe de la Comisión, Justicia personal denegada, encontró poca evidencia de deslealtad japonesa en ese momento y concluyó que el encarcelamiento había sido producto del racismo . Recomendó que el gobierno pagara reparaciones a los detenidos. En 1988, el presidente Ronald Reagan firmó la Ley de Libertades Civiles de 1988 , que se disculpó oficialmente por el encarcelamiento en nombre del gobierno de los EE. UU. y autorizó un pago de $ 20,000 (equivalente a $ 52,000 en 2023) a cada ex detenido que todavía estuviera vivo cuando se aprobó la ley. La legislación admitió que las acciones del gobierno se basaron en "prejuicios raciales, histeria bélica y un fracaso del liderazgo político". En 1992, el gobierno de Estados Unidos finalmente desembolsó más de 1.600 millones de dólares (equivalentes a 4.120 millones de dólares en 2023) en reparaciones a 82.219 estadounidenses de origen japonés que habían sido encarcelados.

Fondo

Los estadounidenses de origen japonés antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial

Debido en gran parte a los cambios sociopolíticos que surgieron de la Restauración Meiji —y una recesión que fue causada por la abrupta apertura de la economía de Japón a la economía mundial— la gente emigró del Imperio de Japón en 1868 en busca de empleo. [7] De 1869 a 1924, aproximadamente 200.000 japoneses emigraron a las islas de Hawái, en su mayoría trabajadores que esperaban trabajar en las plantaciones de azúcar de las islas . Unos 180.000 fueron al continente estadounidense, y la mayoría de ellos se establecieron en la Costa Oeste y establecieron granjas o pequeñas empresas. [8] [9] La mayoría llegó antes de 1908, cuando el Acuerdo de Caballeros entre Japón y los Estados Unidos prohibió la inmigración de trabajadores no calificados. Una laguna legal permitió que las esposas de los hombres que ya vivían en los EE. UU. se unieran a sus maridos. La práctica de las mujeres que se casaban por poder e inmigraban a los EE. UU. resultó en un gran aumento en el número de " novias por fotografía ". [7] [10]

A medida que la población japonesa-estadounidense siguió creciendo, los estadounidenses de origen europeo que vivían en la Costa Oeste se resistieron a la llegada de este grupo étnico, temiendo la competencia y haciendo la afirmación exagerada de que hordas de asiáticos se apoderarían de las tierras agrícolas y los negocios de propiedad blanca. Grupos como la Liga de Exclusión Asiática , el Comité Conjunto de Inmigración de California y los Hijos Nativos del Oeste Dorado se organizaron en respuesta al surgimiento de este " peligro amarillo ". Presionaron con éxito para restringir los derechos de propiedad y ciudadanía de los inmigrantes japoneses, tal como grupos similares se habían organizado previamente contra los inmigrantes chinos. [11] A partir de finales del siglo XIX, se introdujeron varias leyes y tratados que intentaron frenar la inmigración desde Japón. La Ley de Inmigración de 1924 , que siguió el ejemplo de la Ley de Exclusión China de 1882 , prohibió efectivamente toda inmigración desde Japón y otros países asiáticos "indeseables".

La prohibición de inmigración de 1924 produjo grupos generacionales inusualmente bien definidos dentro de la comunidad japonesa estadounidense. Los issei eran exclusivamente aquellos japoneses que habían inmigrado antes de 1924; algunos de ellos deseaban regresar a su patria. [12] Debido a que no se permitía la entrada de más inmigrantes, todos los estadounidenses de origen japonés nacidos después de 1924 nacieron, por definición, en los EE. UU. y, por ley, se los consideraba automáticamente ciudadanos estadounidenses. Los miembros de esta generación nisei constituían una cohorte distinta de la cohorte a la que pertenecían sus padres. Además de las diferencias generacionales habituales, los hombres issei eran típicamente entre diez y quince años mayores que sus esposas, lo que los hacía significativamente mayores que los hijos más pequeños de sus familias, a menudo numerosas. [10] La ley estadounidense prohibía a los inmigrantes japoneses convertirse en ciudadanos naturalizados, lo que los hacía dependientes de sus hijos cuando alquilaban o compraban una propiedad. La comunicación entre los niños angloparlantes y los padres que hablaban mayoritariamente o completamente en japonés era a menudo difícil. Un número significativo de Nisei mayores, muchos de los cuales nacieron antes de la prohibición de inmigración, ya se habían casado y formado sus propias familias cuando Estados Unidos entró en la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [13]

A pesar de la legislación racista que impedía a los issei convertirse en ciudadanos naturalizados (o poseer propiedades , votar o postularse para un cargo político), estos inmigrantes japoneses establecieron comunidades en sus nuevos pueblos de origen. Los estadounidenses de origen japonés contribuyeron a la agricultura de California y otros estados occidentales, introduciendo métodos de irrigación que les permitieron cultivar frutas, verduras y flores en tierras previamente inhóspitas. [14]

Tanto en las zonas rurales como en las urbanas, los kenjinkai, grupos comunitarios de inmigrantes de la misma prefectura japonesa , y los fujinkai , asociaciones de mujeres budistas, organizaban eventos comunitarios y realizaban obras de caridad, proporcionaban préstamos y asistencia financiera y construían escuelas de idioma japonés para sus hijos. Excluidas de la posibilidad de instalarse en barrios blancos, las pequeñas empresas propiedad de nikkei prosperaron en los Nihonmachi , o barrios japoneses de los centros urbanos, como Los Ángeles, San Francisco y Seattle . [15]

Un mapa de población por estado de la población japonesa estadounidense, con California liderando por un amplio margen con 93.717.
Mapa de la población japonesa estadounidense por estado, con California a la cabeza con 93.717, del Informe final, Evacuación japonesa de la costa oeste, 1942

En la década de 1930, la Oficina de Inteligencia Naval (ONI), preocupada por el creciente poder militar del Imperio japonés en Asia, comenzó a realizar vigilancia en las comunidades japonesas estadounidenses en Hawái. A partir de 1936, a instancias del presidente Roosevelt, la ONI comenzó a compilar una "lista especial de aquellos estadounidenses de origen japonés que serían los primeros en ser colocados en un campo de concentración en caso de problemas" entre Japón y los Estados Unidos. En 1939, nuevamente por orden del presidente, la ONI, la División de Inteligencia Militar y el FBI comenzaron a trabajar juntos para compilar un Índice de Detención Custodial más grande . [16] A principios de 1941, Roosevelt encargó a Curtis Munson que realizara una investigación sobre los estadounidenses de origen japonés que vivían en la Costa Oeste y en Hawái. Después de trabajar con funcionarios del FBI y la ONI y entrevistar a los estadounidenses de origen japonés y a quienes estaban familiarizados con ellos, Munson determinó que el "problema japonés" era inexistente. Su informe final al Presidente, presentado el 7 de noviembre de 1941, "certificó un grado notable, incluso extraordinario, de lealtad entre este grupo étnico generalmente sospechoso". [17] Un informe posterior de Kenneth Ringle (ONI), entregado al Presidente en enero de 1942, también encontró poca evidencia para apoyar las afirmaciones de deslealtad de los estadounidenses de origen japonés y argumentó en contra del encarcelamiento masivo. [18]

Las actitudes raciales de Roosevelt hacia los estadounidenses de origen japonés

La decisión de Roosevelt de internar a los estadounidenses de origen japonés era coherente con sus antiguas opiniones raciales. Durante la década de 1920, por ejemplo, había escrito artículos en el Macon Telegraph en los que se oponía a los matrimonios mixtos entre blancos y japoneses por fomentar "la mezcla de sangre asiática con sangre europea o estadounidense" y elogiaba la prohibición de California de que los japoneses de primera generación poseyeran tierras. En 1936, siendo presidente, escribió en privado que, en relación con los contactos entre los marineros japoneses y la población estadounidense de origen japonés en caso de guerra, "todo ciudadano japonés o no ciudadano en la isla de Oahu que se encuentre con estos barcos japoneses o tenga alguna conexión con sus oficiales u hombres debería ser identificado en secreto pero definitivamente y su nombre debería figurar en una lista especial de los que serían los primeros en ser enviados a un campo de concentración". [19]

Después de Pearl Harbor

En las semanas inmediatamente posteriores al ataque a Pearl Harbor, el presidente ignoró el consejo de sus asesores, en particular el de John Franklin Carter , quien lo instó a hablar en defensa de los derechos de los estadounidenses de origen japonés. [19]

El San Francisco Examiner , abril de 1942
Tatsuro Masuda, un estadounidense de origen japonés, desplegó esta pancarta en Oakland, California, el día después del ataque a Pearl Harbor. Dorothea Lange tomó esta fotografía en marzo de 1942, justo antes de su internamiento.
Un niño es "etiquetado para evacuación", Salinas, California , mayo de 1942. Foto de Russell Lee .
Una tienda japonesa-estadounidense, Asahi Dye Works, cierra. El aviso en el frente es una referencia a que Owens Valley fue el primer y uno de los mayores centros de detención de japoneses-estadounidenses.

El ataque sorpresa a Pearl Harbor el 7 de diciembre de 1941, llevó a los líderes militares y políticos a sospechar que el Japón imperial estaba preparando una invasión a gran escala de la costa oeste de los Estados Unidos . [20] Debido a la rápida conquista militar de Japón de una gran parte de Asia y el Pacífico, incluida una pequeña parte de la costa oeste de los Estados Unidos (es decir, la Campaña de las Islas Aleutianas ) entre 1937 y 1942, algunos estadounidenses [¿ quiénes? ] temían que sus fuerzas militares fueran imparables.

La opinión pública estadounidense inicialmente apoyó a la gran población de estadounidenses de origen japonés que vivían en la Costa Oeste, y el diario Los Angeles Times los caracterizó como "buenos estadounidenses, nacidos y educados como tales". Muchos estadounidenses creían que su lealtad a los Estados Unidos era incuestionable. [21] Sin embargo, seis semanas después del ataque, la opinión pública a lo largo del Pacífico comenzó a volverse contra los estadounidenses de origen japonés que vivían en la Costa Oeste, ya que la prensa y otros estadounidenses [ cita requerida ] se pusieron nerviosos por la posibilidad de una actividad de quinta columna . Aunque algunos miembros de la administración (incluido el fiscal general Francis Biddle y el director del FBI J. Edgar Hoover ) desestimaron todos los rumores de espionaje estadounidense de origen japonés en nombre del esfuerzo bélico japonés, la presión sobre la administración aumentó a medida que la marea de la opinión pública se volvía contra los estadounidenses de origen japonés.

Una encuesta de la Oficina de Hechos y Cifras del 4 de febrero (dos semanas antes de la orden del presidente) informó que la mayoría de los estadounidenses expresaron satisfacción con los controles gubernamentales existentes sobre los estadounidenses de origen japonés. Además, en su autobiografía de 1962, el fiscal general Francis Biddle , que se oponía al encarcelamiento, restó importancia a la influencia de la opinión pública en la decisión del presidente. Incluso consideró dudoso "que, dejando de lado la prensa política y de grupos especiales, la opinión pública incluso en la Costa Oeste apoyara la evacuación". [22] Sin embargo, el apoyo a medidas más duras hacia los estadounidenses de origen japonés aumentó con el tiempo, en parte porque Roosevelt hizo poco por utilizar su cargo para calmar las actitudes. Según una encuesta de marzo de 1942 realizada por el Instituto Americano de Opinión Pública , después de que el encarcelamiento se estaba volviendo inevitable, el 93% de los estadounidenses apoyó la reubicación de los no ciudadanos japoneses de la Costa del Pacífico , mientras que solo el 1% se opuso. Según la misma encuesta, el 59% apoyó la reubicación de los japoneses nacidos en el país y ciudadanos estadounidenses, mientras que el 25% se opuso.

Las medidas de encarcelamiento y encarcelamiento tomadas contra los estadounidenses de origen japonés después del ataque se enmarcan en una tendencia más amplia de actitudes antijaponesas en la Costa Oeste de los Estados Unidos. [23] Con este fin, ya se habían hecho preparativos en la recopilación de nombres de individuos y organizaciones estadounidenses de origen japonés, junto con otros ciudadanos extranjeros como alemanes e italianos, que iban a ser eliminados de la sociedad en caso de conflicto. [24] El ataque del 7 de diciembre a Pearl Harbor , que llevó a los Estados Unidos a la Segunda Guerra Mundial , permitió la implementación de la política gubernamental dedicada al encarcelamiento, con la acción y la metodología habiéndose preparado ampliamente antes de que estallara la guerra a pesar de los múltiples informes que habían sido consultados por el presidente Roosevelt expresando la noción de que los estadounidenses de origen japonés representaban una pequeña amenaza. [25]

Incidente de Niihau

Aunque el impacto en las autoridades estadounidenses es controvertido, el incidente de Niihau siguió inmediatamente al ataque a Pearl Harbor, cuando Ishimatsu Shintani, un issei, y Yoshio Harada, un nisei, y su esposa issei Irene Harada en la isla de Ni'ihau liberaron violentamente a un aviador naval japonés derribado y capturado, atacando a sus compañeros isleños de Ni'ihau en el proceso. [26]

Comisión Roberts

Varias de las preocupaciones sobre la lealtad de los japoneses étnicos parecían provenir de prejuicios raciales más que de alguna evidencia de malversación. El informe de la Comisión Roberts , que investigó el ataque a Pearl Harbor, se publicó el 25 de enero y acusó a personas de ascendencia japonesa de espionaje antes del ataque. [27] Aunque la conclusión clave del informe fue que el general Walter Short y el almirante Husband E. Kimmel habían sido negligentes en el cumplimiento de sus deberes durante el ataque a Pearl Harbor, un pasaje hizo una vaga referencia a "agentes consulares japoneses y otras... personas que no tenían relaciones abiertas con el servicio exterior japonés" que transmitían información a Japón. Era poco probable que estos "espías" fueran estadounidenses de origen japonés, ya que los agentes de inteligencia japoneses desconfiaban de sus homólogos estadounidenses y preferían reclutar "personas blancas y negras". [28] Sin embargo, a pesar del hecho de que el informe no mencionaba a los estadounidenses de ascendencia japonesa, los medios nacionales y de la Costa Oeste utilizaron el informe para vilipendiar a los estadounidenses de origen japonés e inflamar la opinión pública en su contra. [29]

Cuestionando la lealtad

El mayor Karl Bendetsen y el teniente general John L. DeWitt , jefe del Comando de Defensa Occidental , cuestionaron la lealtad de los japoneses a los Estados Unidos. DeWitt dijo:

El hecho de que hasta ahora no haya ocurrido nada es más o menos… ominoso, en el sentido de que considero que, en vista de que no hemos tenido intentos esporádicos de sabotaje, se está ejerciendo un control y cuando lo tengamos será sobre una base masiva. [27]

En una conversación con el gobernador de California, Culbert L. Olson , afirmó además :

En la actualidad, se está desarrollando una enorme cantidad de opinión pública contra los japoneses de todas las clases, es decir, extranjeros y no extranjeros, para expulsarlos de la tierra, y en el sur de California, alrededor de Los Ángeles (en esa zona también), quieren y están presionando al gobierno para que expulse a todos los japoneses. De hecho, no lo están instigando ni desarrollando personas que no piensen, sino la mejor gente de California. Desde la publicación del Informe Roberts, sienten que viven en medio de muchos enemigos. No confían en los japoneses, en ninguno de ellos. [27]

"Un japonés es un japonés"

DeWitt, quien administraba el programa de encarcelamiento, dijo repetidamente a los periódicos que "un japonés es un japonés" y testificó ante el Congreso:

No quiero a ninguno de ellos [personas de ascendencia japonesa] aquí. Son un elemento peligroso. No hay manera de determinar su lealtad... No importa si es ciudadano estadounidense, sigue siendo japonés. La ciudadanía estadounidense no determina necesariamente la lealtad... Pero debemos preocuparnos por los japoneses todo el tiempo hasta que los borre del mapa. [30] [31]

DeWitt también solicitó la aprobación para llevar a cabo operaciones de búsqueda y captura que tenían como objetivo evitar que los japoneses extranjeros hicieran transmisiones de radio a los barcos japoneses. [32] El Departamento de Justicia se negó, afirmando que no había causa probable para apoyar la afirmación de DeWitt, ya que el FBI concluyó que no había ninguna amenaza a la seguridad. [32] El 2 de enero, el Comité Conjunto de Inmigración de la Legislatura de California envió un manifiesto a los periódicos de California que atacaba a "los japoneses étnicos", que alegaba eran "totalmente inasimilables". [32] Este manifiesto argumentaba además que todas las personas de ascendencia japonesa eran súbditos leales del Emperador de Japón ; el manifiesto sostenía que las escuelas de lengua japonesa eran bastiones del racismo que promovían doctrinas de superioridad racial japonesa. [32]

El manifiesto fue respaldado por los Hijos e Hijas Nativos del Oeste Dorado y el Departamento de California de la Legión Americana , que en enero exigieron que todos los japoneses con doble ciudadanía fueran colocados en campos de concentración. [32] En febrero, Earl Warren , el Fiscal General de California (y futuro Presidente de la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos), había comenzado sus esfuerzos para persuadir al gobierno federal para que expulsara a todas las personas de etnia japonesa de la Costa Oeste. [32]

Aquellos que tenían tan sólo 1/16 de japonés fueron colocados en campos de encarcelamiento. [33] [34] Bendetsen, ascendido a coronel, dijo en 1942: "Estoy decidido a que si tienen una gota de sangre japonesa en ellos, deben ir al campo". [35]

Proclamaciones Presidenciales

Tras el bombardeo de Pearl Harbor y de conformidad con la Ley de Enemigos Extranjeros , se emitieron las Proclamaciones Presidenciales 2525, 2526 y 2527 que designaban a los ciudadanos japoneses, alemanes e italianos como extranjeros enemigos. [36] La información reunida por funcionarios estadounidenses durante la década anterior se utilizó para localizar y encarcelar a miles de líderes de la comunidad japonesa estadounidense en los días inmediatamente posteriores a Pearl Harbor (véase la sección en otra parte de este artículo "Otros campos de concentración"). En Hawái, bajo los auspicios de la ley marcial, tanto los "extranjeros enemigos" como los ciudadanos de ascendencia japonesa y "alemana" fueron arrestados e internados (encarcelados si eran ciudadanos estadounidenses). [37]

El 14 de enero de 1942 se emitió la Proclamación Presidencial 2537 (codificada en 7 Fed. Reg. 329), que exigía a los "enemigos extranjeros" obtener un certificado de identificación y llevarlo consigo "en todo momento". [38] A los extranjeros enemigos no se les permitía entrar en zonas restringidas. [38] Los infractores de estas normas estaban sujetos a "arresto, detención y encarcelamiento durante la duración de la guerra". [38]

El 13 de febrero, el subcomité del Congreso de la Costa del Pacífico sobre extranjeros y sabotaje recomendó al presidente la evacuación inmediata de "todas las personas de ascendencia japonesa y todas las demás, tanto extranjeros como ciudadanos" que se consideraran peligrosas de las "áreas estratégicas", especificando además que estas incluían toda la "zona estratégica" de California, Oregón, Washington y Alaska. El 16 de febrero, el presidente encargó al secretario de Guerra Henry L. Stimson que respondiera. Una conferencia celebrada el 17 de febrero entre el secretario Stimson y el secretario adjunto John J. McCloy , el preboste general Allen W. Gullion , el subdirector de las Fuerzas Terrestres del Ejército Mark W. Clark y el coronel Bendetsen decidió que se debía ordenar al general DeWitt que iniciara las evacuaciones "en la medida que considerara necesaria" para proteger las instalaciones vitales. [39] A lo largo de la guerra, los estadounidenses de origen japonés internados protestaron por el trato que recibían e insistieron en que se les reconociera como estadounidenses leales. Muchos intentaron demostrar su patriotismo intentando alistarse en las fuerzas armadas. Aunque al principio de la guerra a los estadounidenses de origen japonés se les prohibió el servicio militar, en 1943 el ejército había comenzado a reclutar activamente nisei para unirse a nuevas unidades totalmente japonesas estadounidenses.

Desarrollo

Orden ejecutiva 9066 y acciones relacionadas

La Orden Ejecutiva 9066, firmada por Franklin D. Roosevelt [40] el 19 de febrero de 1942, autorizó a los comandantes militares a designar "áreas militares" a su discreción, "de las cuales cualquiera o todas las personas pueden ser excluidas". Estas "zonas de exclusión", a diferencia de las redadas de "enemigos extranjeros", eran aplicables a cualquier persona que un comandante militar autorizado pudiera elegir, ya fuera ciudadano o no ciudadano. Con el tiempo, dichas zonas incluirían partes de las costas este y oeste, que totalizarían aproximadamente un tercio del país por área. A diferencia de los programas de deportación y encarcelamiento posteriores que se aplicarían a un gran número de estadounidenses de origen japonés, las detenciones y restricciones directamente bajo este Programa de Exclusión Individual se aplicaron principalmente a personas de ascendencia alemana o italiana , incluidos los ciudadanos estadounidenses. [41] La orden permitió a los comandantes militares regionales designar "áreas militares" de las cuales "cualquiera o todas las personas pueden ser excluidas". [42] Aunque la orden ejecutiva no mencionó a los estadounidenses de origen japonés, esta autoridad se utilizó para declarar que todas las personas de ascendencia japonesa debían abandonar Alaska [43] y las zonas de exclusión militar de toda California y partes de Oregón, Washington y Arizona, con la excepción de los reclusos que estaban retenidos en campos gubernamentales. [44] Los detenidos no solo eran personas de ascendencia japonesa, sino que también incluían un número relativamente pequeño (aunque aún así totalizaban más de diez mil) de personas de ascendencia alemana e italiana, así como alemanes que fueron expulsados ​​de América Latina y deportados a los EE. UU. [ 45] : 124  [46] Aproximadamente 5000 estadounidenses de origen japonés se reubicaron fuera de la zona de exclusión antes de marzo de 1942, [47] mientras que unos 5500 líderes comunitarios habían sido arrestados inmediatamente después del ataque a Pearl Harbor y, por lo tanto, ya estaban bajo custodia. [8]

El equipaje de los estadounidenses de origen japonés de la Costa Oeste, en un centro de recepción improvisado ubicado en una pista de carreras
Vestido con el uniforme que marca su servicio en la Primera Guerra Mundial, un veterano de la Marina de los EE. UU., Hikotaro Yamada, de Torrance , ingresa al Centro de Reuniones de Santa Anita (abril de 1942)
Los niños saludan desde la ventana de un tren especial que sale de Seattle con los internados de Bainbridge Island , el 30 de marzo de 1942

El 2 de marzo de 1942, el general John DeWitt, comandante general del Comando de Defensa Occidental, anunció públicamente la creación de dos zonas militares restringidas. [48] El Área Militar N.° 1 consistía en la mitad sur de Arizona y la mitad occidental de California, Oregón y Washington, así como toda California al sur de Los Ángeles. El Área Militar N.° 2 cubría el resto de esos estados. La proclamación de DeWitt informaba a los estadounidenses de origen japonés de que se les exigiría que abandonaran el Área Militar N.° 1, pero establecía que podían permanecer en la segunda zona restringida. [49] La salida del Área Militar N.° 1 se produjo inicialmente mediante "evacuación voluntaria". [47] Los estadounidenses de origen japonés tenían libertad para ir a cualquier lugar fuera de la zona de exclusión o dentro del Área 2, y los arreglos y los costos de la reubicación debían ser asumidos por los individuos. La política duró poco; El 27 de marzo, DeWitt emitió otra proclamación que prohibía a los estadounidenses de origen japonés abandonar el Área 1. [48] Un toque de queda nocturno, también iniciado el 27 de marzo de 1942, impuso más restricciones a los movimientos y la vida cotidiana de los estadounidenses de origen japonés. [45] [ página necesaria ]

En la expulsión forzada se incluyó a Alaska , que, como Hawái, era un territorio estadounidense incorporado ubicado en el extremo noroeste de los Estados Unidos continentales. A diferencia de la Costa Oeste contigua, Alaska no estaba sujeta a ninguna zona de exclusión debido a su pequeña población japonesa. Sin embargo, el Comando de Defensa Occidental anunció en abril de 1942 que todos los japoneses y estadounidenses de ascendencia japonesa debían abandonar el territorio para ser internados en campos de concentración en el interior. A fines de mes, más de 200 residentes japoneses, independientemente de su ciudadanía, fueron exiliados de Alaska, la mayoría de ellos terminaron en el Centro de Reubicación de Guerra de Minidoka en el sur de Idaho . [50]

El desalojo de la Costa Oeste comenzó el 24 de marzo de 1942, con la Orden de Exclusión Civil N° 1, que dio a los 227 residentes estadounidenses de origen japonés de la isla Bainbridge, Washington, seis días para prepararse para su "evacuación" directamente a Manzanar. [51] El gobernador de Colorado, Ralph Lawrence Carr, fue el único funcionario electo que denunció públicamente el encarcelamiento de ciudadanos estadounidenses (un acto que le costó la reelección, pero le valió la gratitud de la comunidad estadounidense de origen japonés, de modo que se erigió una estatua suya en la Sakura Square de Denver Japantown ). [52] Un total de 108 órdenes de exclusión emitidas por el Comando de Defensa Occidental durante los siguientes cinco meses completaron la remoción de los estadounidenses de origen japonés de la Costa Oeste en agosto de 1942. [53]

Además de encarcelar a personas de ascendencia japonesa en Estados Unidos, este país también recluyó a personas de ascendencia japonesa (y alemana e italiana) deportadas de América Latina. Trece países latinoamericanos (Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, República Dominicana, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haití, Honduras, México, Nicaragua, Panamá y Perú) cooperaron con Estados Unidos aprehendiendo, deteniendo y deportando a ese país a 2.264 ciudadanos latinoamericanos japoneses y residentes permanentes de ascendencia japonesa. [54] [55]

Apoyo y oposición

Defensores no militares de la exclusión, la deportación y la detención

Caricatura de propaganda editorial de 1942 en el periódico neoyorquino PM del Dr. Seuss que representa a estadounidenses de origen japonés en California, Oregón y Washington (estados con la mayor población de estadounidenses de origen japonés) preparados para llevar a cabo un sabotaje contra los EE. UU.

La deportación y el encarcelamiento de los estadounidenses de origen japonés era una práctica popular entre muchos agricultores blancos que estaban resentidos con ellos. "Los agricultores estadounidenses blancos admitieron que su propio interés exigía la expulsión de los japoneses". [32] Estas personas consideraban que el encarcelamiento era un medio conveniente para desarraigar a sus competidores estadounidenses de origen japonés. Austin E. Anson, secretario ejecutivo de la Asociación de Productores y Transportistas de Verduras de Salinas, dijo al Saturday Evening Post en 1942:

Se nos acusa de querer deshacernos de los japoneses por razones egoístas. Y lo hacemos. Es una cuestión de si el hombre blanco vive en la costa del Pacífico o los hombres morenos. Vinieron a este valle a trabajar y se quedaron para tomar el control... Si todos los japoneses fueran expulsados ​​mañana, nunca los extrañaríamos en dos semanas porque los granjeros blancos pueden tomar el control y producir todo lo que cultivan los japoneses. Y tampoco los queremos de vuelta cuando termine la guerra. [56]

La dirigencia de la Liga de Ciudadanos Japoneses Estadounidenses no cuestionó la constitucionalidad de la exclusión de los japoneses estadounidenses de la Costa Oeste . En cambio, argumentando que sería mejor para la comunidad acatar las órdenes del gobierno sin protestar, la organización aconsejó a los aproximadamente 120.000 afectados que se fueran pacíficamente. [57]

El Informe de la Comisión Roberts , preparado a petición del presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt, ha sido citado como un ejemplo del miedo y el prejuicio que informaban el pensamiento detrás del programa de encarcelamiento. [32] El Informe intentó vincular a los estadounidenses de origen japonés con la actividad de espionaje y asociarlos con el bombardeo de Pearl Harbor. [32] El columnista Henry McLemore , que escribía para los periódicos Hearst , reflejó el creciente sentimiento público que fue alimentado por este informe:

Estoy a favor de la retirada inmediata de todos los japoneses de la Costa Oeste a un punto profundo del interior. Y no me refiero a una parte agradable del interior. Hay que reunirlos, desalojarlos y darles espacio en el interior de las tierras baldías... Personalmente, odio a los japoneses. Y eso se aplica a todos ellos. [58]

Otros periódicos de California también adoptaron esta opinión. Según un editorial del diario Los Angeles Times :

Una víbora es, no obstante, una víbora dondequiera que nazca el huevo... Así, un japonés-americano nacido de padres japoneses, criado en tradiciones japonesas, viviendo en una atmósfera japonesa trasplantada... a pesar de su marca nominal de ciudadanía accidental, casi inevitablemente y con las más raras excepciones crece para ser un japonés, y no un americano... Así, aunque podría causar injusticia a unos pocos tratarlos a todos como enemigos potenciales, no puedo escapar de la conclusión... de que tal tratamiento... debería ser otorgado a todos y cada uno de ellos mientras estemos en guerra con su raza. [59]

El representante estadounidense Leland Ford ( republicano por California ) de Los Ángeles se unió a la campaña y exigió que "todos los japoneses, sean ciudadanos o no, sean colocados en campos de concentración [del interior]". [32]

El encarcelamiento de los estadounidenses de origen japonés, que proporcionaban una mano de obra fundamental en la agricultura de la Costa Oeste, creó una escasez de mano de obra que se vio exacerbada por el reclutamiento de muchos trabajadores estadounidenses blancos en las Fuerzas Armadas. Este vacío precipitó una inmigración masiva de trabajadores mexicanos a los Estados Unidos para cubrir estos puestos de trabajo, [60] bajo el estandarte de lo que se conoció como el Programa Bracero . Muchos detenidos japoneses fueron liberados temporalmente de sus campos (por ejemplo, para cosechar cultivos de remolacha occidentales) para hacer frente a esta escasez de mano de obra en tiempos de guerra. [61]

Defensores no militares que se opusieron a la exclusión, la deportación y la detención

Al igual que muchos granjeros estadounidenses blancos, los empresarios blancos de Hawái tenían sus propios motivos para decidir cómo tratar con los estadounidenses de origen japonés, pero se oponían a su encarcelamiento. En cambio, estos individuos lograron la aprobación de una legislación que les permitió conservar la libertad de los casi 150.000 estadounidenses de origen japonés que, de otro modo, habrían sido enviados a campos de concentración ubicados en Hawái. [62] Como resultado, sólo entre 1.200 [63] y 1.800 estadounidenses de origen japonés en Hawái fueron encarcelados. [63]

Los poderosos empresarios de Hawái concluyeron que el encarcelamiento de una proporción tan grande de la población de las islas afectaría negativamente la prosperidad económica del territorio. [64] Los japoneses representaban "más del 90 por ciento de los carpinteros, casi todos los trabajadores del transporte y una parte significativa de los trabajadores agrícolas" en las islas. [64] El general Delos Carleton Emmons , gobernador militar de Hawái, también argumentó que la mano de obra japonesa era "absolutamente esencial" para reconstruir las defensas destruidas en Pearl Harbor . [64] Reconociendo la contribución de la comunidad japonesa estadounidense a la riqueza de la economía hawaiana, el general Emmons luchó contra el encarcelamiento de los japoneses estadounidenses y tuvo el apoyo de la mayoría de los empresarios de Hawái. [64] En comparación, el gobernador de Idaho, Chase A. Clark , en un discurso del Club de Leones el 22 de mayo de 1942, dijo que "los japoneses viven como ratas, se reproducen como ratas y actúan como ratas. No los queremos... ubicados permanentemente en nuestro estado". [65]

Inicialmente, el gobernador de Oregón, Charles A. Sprague , se opuso al encarcelamiento y, como resultado, decidió no aplicarlo en el estado y también disuadió a los residentes de acosar a sus conciudadanos, los nisei . Se volvió contra los japoneses a mediados de febrero de 1942, días antes de que se emitiera la orden ejecutiva, pero más tarde se arrepintió de esta decisión e intentó expiarla durante el resto de su vida. [66]

Aunque el encarcelamiento era una política popular en California, no contaba con un apoyo universal. RC Hoiles , editor del Orange County Register , sostuvo durante la guerra que el encarcelamiento era poco ético e inconstitucional:

Parecería que condenar a personas por deslealtad a nuestro país sin tener pruebas específicas contra ellas es demasiado ajeno a nuestra forma de vida y demasiado parecido al tipo de gobierno contra el que luchamos... Debemos darnos cuenta de que, como dijo tan sabiamente Henry Emerson Fosdick , "la libertad siempre es peligrosa, pero es lo más seguro que tenemos". [67]

Entre los opositores a la política de encarcelamiento se encontraban miembros de algunos grupos religiosos cristianos (como los presbiterianos ), en particular aquellos que anteriormente habían enviado misioneros a Japón. [68] Algunas iglesias bautistas y metodistas, entre otras, también organizaron esfuerzos de socorro en los campos, suministrando a los reclusos suministros e información. [69] [70]

Declaración de necesidad militar como justificación del encarcelamiento

Incidente de Niihau

Un desafío a la democracia (1944), una película de 20 minutos producida por la Autoridad de Reubicación de Guerra

El incidente de Niihau ocurrió en diciembre de 1941, justo después del ataque de la Armada Imperial Japonesa a Pearl Harbor. La Armada Imperial Japonesa había designado la isla hawaiana de Niihau como una isla deshabitada para que los aviones dañados pudieran aterrizar y esperar el rescate. Tres estadounidenses de origen japonés en Niihau ayudaron a un piloto japonés, Shigenori Nishikaichi, que se estrelló allí. A pesar del incidente, el gobernador territorial de Hawái, Joseph Poindexter, rechazó los pedidos de encarcelamiento masivo de los estadounidenses de origen japonés que vivían allí. [71]

Criptografía

En Magic: The Untold Story of US Intelligence and the Evacuation of Japanese Residents From the West Coast During World War II , David Lowman , un ex agente de la Agencia de Seguridad Nacional , sostiene que las interceptaciones de Magic (el nombre en clave de los esfuerzos estadounidenses de descifrado de códigos) planteaban "un espectro aterrador de redes de espionaje masivo", lo que justificaba el encarcelamiento. [72] Lowman sostuvo que el encarcelamiento servía para garantizar el secreto de los esfuerzos estadounidenses de descifrado de códigos, porque el procesamiento efectivo de los estadounidenses de origen japonés podría requerir la divulgación de información secreta. Si la tecnología estadounidense de descifrado de códigos se revelara en el contexto de juicios a espías individuales, la Armada Imperial Japonesa cambiaría sus códigos, socavando así la ventaja estratégica de Estados Unidos en tiempos de guerra.

Algunos académicos han criticado o rechazado el razonamiento de Lowman de que la "deslealtad" entre algunos estadounidenses de origen japonés podría legitimar "el encarcelamiento de 120.000 personas, incluidos bebés, ancianos y enfermos mentales". [73] [74] [75] La interpretación de Lowman del contenido de los cables de Magic también ha sido cuestionada, ya que algunos académicos sostienen que los cables demuestran que los estadounidenses de origen japonés no estaban prestando atención a las propuestas del Japón imperial para espiar contra los Estados Unidos. [76] Según un crítico, el libro de Lowman ha sido "refutado y desacreditado" desde hace mucho tiempo. [77]

Las polémicas conclusiones extraídas por Lowman fueron defendidas por la comentarista conservadora Michelle Malkin en su libro In Defense of Internment: The Case for 'Racial Profiling' in World War II and the War on Terror (2004). [78] La defensa de Malkin del encarcelamiento de japoneses se debió en parte a la reacción a lo que ella describe como el "alarmismo constante de los detractores de Bush que sostienen que toda medida antiterrorista en Estados Unidos equivale al internamiento". [79] Criticó el tratamiento académico del tema y sugirió que los académicos críticos del encarcelamiento de japoneses tenían motivos ulteriores. Su libro fue ampliamente criticado, en particular con respecto a su lectura de los cables de Magic. [80] [81] [82] Daniel Pipes , también basándose en Lowman, ha defendido a Malkin y ha dicho que el encarcelamiento de japoneses estadounidenses era "una buena idea" que ofrece "lecciones para hoy". [83]

Reacciones de los negros y los judíos ante el encarcelamiento de los estadounidenses de origen japonés

El público estadounidense aprobó de manera abrumadora las medidas de encarcelamiento de los estadounidenses de origen japonés y, como resultado, rara vez se opusieron a ellas, en particular por parte de los miembros de grupos minoritarios que sentían que también estaban siendo castigados dentro de Estados Unidos. Morton Grodzins escribe que "el sentimiento contra los japoneses no estaba muy alejado de (y era intercambiable con) los sentimientos contra los negros y los judíos ". [84]

En ocasiones, la NAACP y la NCJW se manifestaron, pero pocos se manifestaron más abiertamente en contra del encarcelamiento que George S. Schuyler , editor asociado del Pittsburgh Courier , quizás el periódico negro más importante de los EE. UU., que se mostró cada vez más crítico con la política interna y externa de la administración Roosevelt. Desestimó las acusaciones de que los estadounidenses de origen japonés representaban una amenaza genuina para la seguridad nacional. Schuyler advirtió a los afroamericanos que “si el gobierno puede hacer esto a los ciudadanos estadounidenses de ascendencia japonesa, entonces puede hacerlo a los ciudadanos estadounidenses de CUALQUIER ascendencia... Su lucha es nuestra lucha”. [85]

La experiencia compartida de discriminación racial ha llevado a algunos líderes estadounidenses de origen japonés a manifestarse en apoyo de la HR 40 , un proyecto de ley que exige el pago de reparaciones a los afroamericanos por ser afectados por la esclavitud y la posterior discriminación. [86] Cheryl Greenberg añade: "No todos los estadounidenses apoyaron ese racismo. Dos grupos igualmente oprimidos, los afroamericanos y los judíos estadounidenses , ya se habían organizado para luchar contra la discriminación y la intolerancia". Sin embargo, debido a la justificación de los campos de concentración por parte del gobierno de Estados Unidos, "pocos parecían dispuestos a respaldar la evacuación; la mayoría ni siquiera lo discutió". Greenberg sostiene que en ese momento, el encarcelamiento no se discutió porque la retórica del gobierno ocultaba las motivaciones detrás de un disfraz de necesidad militar, y el miedo a parecer "antiamericano" llevó al silenciamiento de la mayoría de los grupos de derechos civiles hasta años después de la política. [87]

Opiniones del Tribunal de Distrito de los Estados Unidos

Aviso oficial de exclusión y remoción

En 1943-1944 circuló una carta del general DeWitt y el coronel Bendetsen en la que expresaban prejuicios racistas contra los estadounidenses de origen japonés, que luego fue redactada apresuradamente. [88] [89] [90] El informe final de DeWitt afirmaba que, debido a su raza, era imposible determinar la lealtad de los estadounidenses de origen japonés, por lo que era necesario encarcelarlos. [91] La versión original era tan ofensiva, incluso en la atmósfera de la década de 1940 en tiempos de guerra, que Bendetsen ordenó que se destruyeran todas las copias. [92]

Fred Korematsu (izquierda), Minoru Yasui (centro) y Gordon Hirabayashi (derecha) en 1986

En 1980, se encontró una copia del Informe Final original: Evacuación japonesa de la Costa Oeste - 1942 en los Archivos Nacionales , junto con notas que muestran las numerosas diferencias que existen entre la versión original y la versión redactada. [93] Esta versión anterior, racista e incendiaria, así como los informes del FBI y la Oficina de Inteligencia Naval (ONI), llevaron a los nuevos juicios coram nobis que anularon las condenas de Fred Korematsu , Gordon Hirabayashi y Minoru Yasui por todos los cargos relacionados con su negativa a someterse a la exclusión y el encarcelamiento. [94] Los tribunales encontraron que el gobierno había ocultado intencionalmente estos informes y otras pruebas críticas, en juicios hasta la Corte Suprema , que demostró que no había necesidad militar para la exclusión y el encarcelamiento de los estadounidenses de origen japonés. En palabras de los funcionarios del Departamento de Justicia que escribieron durante la guerra, las justificaciones se basaron en "inexactitudes históricas deliberadas y falsedades intencionales".

El informe Ringle

En mayo de 2011, el Procurador General de los Estados Unidos, Neal Katyal , después de un año de investigación, encontró que Charles Fahy había ocultado intencionalmente el Informe Ringle elaborado por la Oficina de Inteligencia Naval, con el fin de justificar las acciones de la administración Roosevelt en los casos de Hirabayashi v. Estados Unidos y Korematsu v. Estados Unidos . El informe habría socavado la posición de la administración sobre la necesidad militar de tal acción, ya que concluyó que la mayoría de los estadounidenses de origen japonés no eran una amenaza para la seguridad nacional, y que el FBI y la Comisión Federal de Comunicaciones habían considerado que las acusaciones de espionaje de las comunicaciones carecían de fundamento . [95]

Editoriales de periódicos

Los editoriales de los principales periódicos de la época, en general, apoyaban el encarcelamiento de los japoneses por parte de Estados Unidos.

Un editorial del diario Los Angeles Times del 19 de febrero de 1942 afirmaba que:

Desde el 7 de diciembre existe una amenaza evidente para la seguridad de esta región por la presencia de potenciales saboteadores y quintacolumnistas cerca de refinerías de petróleo y tanques de almacenamiento, fábricas de aviones, puestos del ejército, instalaciones de la marina, puertos y sistemas de comunicaciones. Si se hubiera seguido un procedimiento normal y sensato, no habría pasado ni un día desde Pearl Harbor sin que el gobierno hubiera procedido a reunir y enviar a puntos del interior a todos los extranjeros japoneses y a sus descendientes inmediatos para clasificarlos y posiblemente encarcelarlos. [96]

En él se trataba de los extranjeros y de los no asimilados. Yendo aún más lejos, un editorial del Atlanta Constitution del 20 de febrero de 1942 afirmaba que:

Ha llegado el momento de dejar de correr riesgos con los extranjeros japoneses y los estadounidenses de origen japonés... Si bien los estadounidenses tienen un desagrado innato [ sic ] por las medidas estrictas, todos deben darse cuenta de que se trata de una guerra total, que no hay estadounidenses sueltos en Japón, Alemania o Italia y que no tiene ningún sentido que este país corra el más mínimo riesgo de un desastre mayor por parte de grupos enemigos dentro de la nación. [97]

Un editorial del Washington Post del 22 de febrero de 1942 afirmaba que:

Sólo hay una manera de considerar la orden presidencial que faculta al ejército para establecer "áreas militares" de las que se puede excluir a ciudadanos y extranjeros: aceptar la orden como un complemento necesario de la defensa total. [98]

Un editorial del diario Los Angeles Times del 28 de febrero de 1942 afirmaba que:

En cuanto a un número considerable de japoneses, sin importar dónde hayan nacido, lamentablemente no hay duda alguna. Están a favor de Japón; ayudarán a Japón en todo lo posible mediante el espionaje, el sabotaje y otras actividades; y es necesario contenerlos por la seguridad de California y de los Estados Unidos. Y como no hay una prueba segura de lealtad a los Estados Unidos, todos deben ser contenidos. Aquellos verdaderamente leales comprenderán y no pondrán objeción. [99]

Un editorial del diario Los Angeles Times del 8 de diciembre de 1942 afirmaba que:

Los japoneses que se encuentran en estos centros de Estados Unidos han recibido el mejor trato, además de comida y alojamiento mucho mejores que los que muchos de ellos han conocido antes, y un mínimo de restricciones. Han sido alimentados tan bien como el ejército y alojados igual o mejor que ellos... El pueblo estadounidense puede prescindir de leche y mantequilla, pero los japoneses recibirán lo que necesitan. [100]

Un editorial del diario Los Angeles Times del 22 de abril de 1943 afirmaba que:

Como raza, los japoneses han logrado un récord de traición sin escrúpulos sin igual en la historia. Cualquier pequeña ventaja teórica que pudiera haber en liberar a quienes se encuentran bajo arresto en este país se vería enormemente superada por los riesgos que implica. [101]

Instalaciones

Instituciones de la Administración de Control Civil en Tiempo de Guerra y la Autoridad de Reubicación de Guerra en el Medio Oeste , el Sur y el Oeste de los Estados Unidos
Hayward, California . "Miembros de la familia Mochida esperan el autobús de evacuación. Se utilizan etiquetas de identificación para ayudar a mantener intacta la unidad familiar durante todas las fases de la evacuación. Mochida operaba un vivero y cinco invernaderos en un terreno de dos acres en Eden Township . Cultivaba bocas de dragón y guisantes de olor". [102]

La Administración de Proyectos de Obras (WPA) desempeñó un papel fundamental en la construcción y dotación de personal de los campos en el período inicial. Desde marzo hasta finales de noviembre de 1942, esa agencia gastó 4,47 millones de dólares en deportaciones y encarcelamientos, una cantidad incluso superior a la que el Ejército dedicó a ese fin durante ese período. La WPA contribuyó decisivamente a la creación de elementos como torres de vigilancia y cercas de alambre de púas en los campos. [103]

El gobierno operaba varios tipos diferentes de campos para albergar a estadounidenses de origen japonés. Las instalaciones más conocidas eran los Centros de Reunion de la Administración de Control Civil en Tiempo de Guerra (WCCA), gestionados por los militares, y la Autoridad de Reubicación de Guerra (WRA), gestionada por civiles . Muchos empleados de la WRA habían trabajado anteriormente para la WPA durante el periodo inicial de desalojos y construcción. [103] Centros de Reubicación, a los que generalmente (pero de manera extraoficial) se hace referencia como "campos de internamiento". Los académicos han instado a dejar de usar esos eufemismos y referirse a ellos como campos de concentración y a las personas como encarceladas. [104] Otro argumento para utilizar la etiqueta "campos de concentración" es que el propio presidente Roosevelt les aplicó esa terminología, incluso en una conferencia de prensa en noviembre de 1944. [105]

El Departamento de Justicia (DOJ) operaba campos oficialmente llamados Campos de Internamiento , que se usaban para detener a aquellos sospechosos de crímenes o de "simpatías con el enemigo". El gobierno también operaba campos para varios estadounidenses de origen alemán e italiano , [106] [107] que a veces eran asignados a compartir instalaciones con los estadounidenses de origen japonés. Las instalaciones de WCCA y WRA eran las más grandes y las más públicas. Los Centros de Reunión de WCCA eran instalaciones temporales que se instalaron primero en pistas de carreras de caballos, recintos feriales y otros grandes lugares de reunión públicos para reunir y organizar a los reclusos antes de que fueran transportados a los Centros de Reubicación de WRA en camión, autobús o tren. Los Centros de Reubicación de WRA eran campos semipermanentes que albergaban a personas expulsadas de la zona de exclusión después de marzo de 1942, o hasta que pudieran reubicarse en otro lugar de los Estados Unidos fuera de la zona de exclusión. [ cita requerida ]

Campos de encarcelamiento del Departamento de Justicia y del Ejército

Ocho campamentos del Departamento de Justicia de Estados Unidos (en Texas, Idaho, Dakota del Norte, Nuevo México y Montana) albergaban a estadounidenses de origen japonés, principalmente no ciudadanos, y a sus familias. [108] Los campamentos estaban a cargo del Servicio de Inmigración y Naturalización , bajo el paraguas del Departamento de Justicia, y estaban custodiados por agentes de la Patrulla Fronteriza en lugar de la policía militar. La población de estos campamentos incluía aproximadamente a 3.800 de los 5.500 ministros budistas y cristianos, instructores escolares, trabajadores de periódicos, pescadores y líderes comunitarios que habían sido acusados ​​de actividades de quinta columna y arrestados por el FBI después de Pearl Harbor. (Los 1.700 restantes fueron liberados a centros de reubicación de la WRA). [8] Los inmigrantes y nacionales de ascendencia alemana e italiana también fueron retenidos en estas instalaciones, a menudo en los mismos campamentos que los estadounidenses de origen japonés. Aproximadamente 7000 estadounidenses de origen alemán y 3000 estadounidenses de origen italiano de Hawái y el territorio continental de Estados Unidos fueron internados en campos del Departamento de Justicia, junto con 500 marineros alemanes que ya estaban bajo custodia después de ser rescatados del SS Columbus en 1939. [109] Además, 2264 japoneses étnicos, [110] 4058 alemanes étnicos y 288 italianos étnicos [109] fueron deportados de 19 países latinoamericanos para un programa de intercambio de rehenes con países del Eje, posteriormente abandonado , o para su confinamiento en campos del Departamento de Justicia. [111] : 145–48 

Varios campos de reclusión del ejército de Estados Unidos albergaron a hombres estadounidenses de origen japonés, italiano y alemán considerados "potencialmente peligrosos". El campamento Lordsburg, en Nuevo México, fue el único sitio construido específicamente para confinar a estadounidenses de origen japonés. En mayo de 1943, el ejército recibió la responsabilidad de la detención de prisioneros de guerra y todos los internados civiles fueron transferidos a campos del Departamento de Justicia. [108]

Centros de reunión civil de WCCA

Esta fotografía de Dorothea Lange (8 de mayo de 1942) tenía el título: "Hayward, California. Amigos se despiden mientras una familia de ascendencia japonesa espera el autobús de evacuación".

La Orden Ejecutiva 9066 autorizó la remoción de todas las personas de ascendencia japonesa de la Costa Oeste; sin embargo, se firmó antes de que se completaran las instalaciones para albergar a los estadounidenses de origen japonés desplazados. Después de que el programa de evacuación voluntaria no logró que muchas familias abandonaran la zona de exclusión, los militares se hicieron cargo de la evacuación, que ahora era obligatoria. El 9 de abril de 1942, el Comando de Defensa Occidental estableció la Administración de Control Civil en Tiempo de Guerra (WCCA, por sus siglas en inglés) [112] para coordinar el traslado forzoso de los estadounidenses de origen japonés a los campos de concentración del interior.

Los centros de reubicación se enfrentaron a la oposición de las comunidades del interior cercanas a los emplazamientos propuestos, a quienes no les gustaba la idea de sus nuevos vecinos "japoneses". Además, las fuerzas gubernamentales estaban teniendo dificultades para construir lo que en esencia serían ciudades autosuficientes en regiones muy aisladas, subdesarrolladas y duras del país; no estaban preparadas para albergar a la afluencia de más de 110.000 reclusos. [113] Dado que los estadounidenses de origen japonés que vivían en la zona restringida eran considerados demasiado peligrosos para llevar a cabo sus actividades diarias, el ejército decidió que tenía que alojarlos en centros temporales hasta que se completaran los centros de reubicación. [114]

Bajo la dirección del coronel Karl Bendetsen, [35] las instalaciones existentes habían sido designadas para su conversión al uso de WCCA en marzo de 1942, y el Cuerpo de Ingenieros del Ejército terminó la construcción en estos sitios el 21 de abril de 1942. [115] Todos menos cuatro de los 15 sitios de confinamiento (12 en California y uno en Washington, Oregón y Arizona) habían sido anteriormente pistas de carreras o recintos feriales. Los establos y las áreas de ganado fueron limpiados y rápidamente convertidos en viviendas para familias de hasta seis personas, [116] mientras que se construyeron barracones de madera y papel alquitranado para viviendas adicionales, así como letrinas comunales, instalaciones de lavandería y comedores. [112] [115] Un total de 92.193 [115] estadounidenses de origen japonés fueron transferidos a estos centros de detención temporal desde marzo a agosto de 1942. (18.026 [115] más habían sido llevados directamente a dos "centros de recepción" que se desarrollaron como los campos de la WRA de Manzanar y Poston ). La WCCA se disolvió el 15 de marzo de 1943, cuando se convirtió en la Autoridad de Reubicación de Guerra y dirigió su atención a los centros de reubicación más permanentes. [112]

Centros de reubicación de WRA

La Autoridad de Reubicación de Guerra (WRA, por sus siglas en inglés) fue la agencia civil estadounidense responsable de la reubicación y detención. La WRA fue creada por el presidente Roosevelt el 18 de marzo de 1942, con la Orden Ejecutiva 9102 y dejó de existir oficialmente el 30 de junio de 1946. Milton S. Eisenhower , entonces funcionario del Departamento de Agricultura, fue elegido para dirigir la WRA. En la película del gobierno estadounidense de 1943, Japanese Relocation , dijo: "Esta imagen cuenta cómo se logró la migración masiva. Ni al ejército ni a la Autoridad de Reubicación de Guerra les agrada la idea de sacar a hombres, mujeres y niños de sus hogares, sus tiendas y sus granjas. Por lo tanto, las agencias militares y civiles por igual, decidieron hacer el trabajo como debe hacerlo una democracia, con verdadera consideración por las personas involucradas". [118] Dillon S. Myer reemplazó a Eisenhower tres meses después, el 17 de junio de 1942. Myer se desempeñó como director de la WRA hasta que se cerraron los centros. [119] En nueve meses, la WRA había abierto diez instalaciones en siete estados y transferido a más de 100.000 personas desde las instalaciones de la WCCA.

El campamento de la WRA en Tule Lake era fundamental para la producción de alimentos en su propio campamento, así como en otros campamentos. Los trabajadores agrícolas cosechaban casi 30 cultivos en este sitio. [120] A pesar de esto, el campamento de Tule Lake terminó siendo utilizado como centro de detención para personas que se creía que representaban un riesgo para la seguridad. Tule Lake también sirvió como un "centro de segregación" para individuos y familias que eran considerados "desleales", y para aquellos que iban a ser deportados a Japón.

Lista de campamentos

Dillon S. Myer con la primera dama Eleanor Roosevelt visitando el Centro de Reubicación del Río Gila el 23 de abril de 1943
Clase de música en el Centro de Reubicación de Rohwer
El ex artista californiano Allen Hagio prepara un cartel en el Centro de Reubicación de Rohwer

Había tres tipos de campos. Los centros de concentración de civiles eran campos temporales, frecuentemente ubicados en pistas de carreras de caballos, a donde se enviaba a los estadounidenses de origen japonés después de que los expulsaran de sus comunidades. Finalmente, la mayoría de los estadounidenses de origen japonés fueron enviados a centros de reubicación, también conocidos como campos de internamiento . Los campos de detención albergaban a los nikkei que el gobierno consideraba disruptivos, así como a los nikkei que el gobierno creía que eran de especial interés. Cuando la mayoría de los centros de concentración cerraron, se convirtieron en campos de entrenamiento para las tropas estadounidenses.

Centros de reunión de civiles

Centros de reubicación

Ruinas de los edificios del Centro de Reubicación de Guerra del Río Gila de Camp Butte
Cosecha de espinacas, centro de reubicación de Tule Lake, 8 de septiembre de 1942
Enfermera atiende a cuatro bebés huérfanos en la Aldea Infantil de Manzanar
El superintendente de la Villa Infantil de Manzanar, Harry Matsumoto, con varios niños huérfanos

Campos de detención del Departamento de Justicia

En estos campos solían alojarse detenidos germano-estadounidenses e italo-estadounidenses, además de japoneses-estadounidenses: [121]

Centros de aislamiento ciudadano

Los Centros de Aislamiento Ciudadano estaban destinados a aquellos considerados reclusos problemáticos. [121]

Algunos consideran que estos campamentos son ilegales porque no fueron autorizados por la Orden Ejecutiva 9066. [ 123]

Oficina Federal de Prisiones

Los detenidos condenados por delitos, generalmente de resistencia al reclutamiento, eran enviados a estos sitios, en su mayoría prisiones federales: [121]

Instalaciones del ejército de EE.UU.

En estos campos solían estar detenidos alemanes e italianos, además de estadounidenses de origen japonés: [121]

Instalaciones del Servicio de Inmigración y Naturalización

Estas estaciones de detención de inmigrantes albergaban a los aproximadamente 5.500 hombres arrestados inmediatamente después de Pearl Harbor, además de varios miles de detenidos alemanes e italianos, y sirvieron como centros de procesamiento desde los cuales los hombres eran transferidos a campamentos del Departamento de Justicia o del Ejército: [124]

Exclusión, expulsión y detención

Estadounidenses de origen japonés frente a carteles con órdenes de internamiento

Somewhere between 110,000 and 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry were subject to this mass exclusion program, of whom about 80,000 Nisei (second generation) and Sansei (third generation) were U.S. citizens.[125] The rest were Issei (first generation) who were subject to internment under the Alien Enemies Act; many of these "resident aliens" had been inhabitants of the United States for decades, but had been deprived by law of being able to become naturalized citizens. Also part of the West Coast removal were 101 orphaned children of Japanese descent taken from orphanages and foster homes within the exclusion zone.[126]

Detainees of Japanese descent were first sent to one of 17 temporary "Civilian Assembly Centers", where most awaited transfer to more permanent relocation centers being constructed by the newly formed War Relocation Authority (WRA). Some of those who reported to the civilian assembly centers were not sent to relocation centers, but were released under the condition that they remain outside the prohibited zone until the military orders were modified or lifted. Almost 120,000[125] Japanese Americans and resident Japanese aliens were eventually removed from their homes on the West Coast and Southern Arizona as part of the single largest forced relocation in U.S. history. [citation needed]

Most of these camps/residences, gardens, and stock areas were placed on Native American reservations, for which the Native Americans were formally compensated. The Native American councils disputed the amounts negotiated in absentia by US government authorities. They later sued to gain relief and additional compensation for some items of dispute.[127]

Under the National Student Council Relocation Program (supported primarily by the American Friends Service Committee), students of college age were permitted to leave the camps to attend institutions willing to accept students of Japanese ancestry. Although the program initially granted leave permits to a very small number of students, this eventually included 2,263 students by December 31, 1943.[128]

Conditions in the camps

In 1943, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes wrote "the situation in at least some of the Japanese internment camps is bad and is becoming worse rapidly."[129] The quality of life in the camps was heavily influenced by which government entity was responsible for them. INS Camps were regulated by international treaty. The legal difference between "interned" and relocated had significant effects on those who were imprisoned.

Trudging through the mud during rainy weather at the Jerome Relocation Center

According to a 1943 War Relocation Authority report, inmates were housed in "tar paper-covered barracks of simple frame construction without plumbing or cooking facilities of any kind". The spartan facilities met international laws, but left much to be desired. Many camps were built quickly by civilian contractors during the summer of 1942 based on designs for military barracks, making the buildings poorly equipped for cramped family living.[130][failed verification][original research?] Throughout many camps, twenty-five people were forced to live in space built to contain four, leaving no room for privacy.[131][page needed]

The Heart Mountain War Relocation Center in northwestern Wyoming was a barbed-wire-surrounded enclave with unpartitioned toilets, cots for beds, and a budget of 45 cents daily per capita for food rations.[clarification needed][132][133]

Dust storm at the Manzanar War Relocation Center

Armed guards were posted at the camps, which were all in remote, desolate areas far from population centers. Inmates were typically allowed to stay with their families. There are documented instances of guards shooting inmates who reportedly attempted to walk outside the fences. One such shooting, that of James Wakasa at Topaz, led to a re-evaluation of the security measures in the camps. Some camp administrations eventually allowed relatively free movement outside the marked boundaries of the camps. Nearly a quarter of the inmates left the camps to live and work elsewhere in the United States, outside the exclusion zone. Eventually, some were authorized to return to their hometowns in the exclusion zone under supervision of a sponsoring American family or agency whose loyalty had been assured.[134][page needed]

The phrase "shikata ga nai" (loosely translated as "it cannot be helped") was commonly used to summarize the incarcerated families' resignation to their helplessness throughout these conditions. This was noticed by their children, as mentioned in the well-known memoir Farewell to Manzanar by Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston and James D. Houston. Further, it is noted that parents may have internalized these emotions to withhold their disappointment and anguish from affecting their children. Nevertheless, children still were cognizant of this emotional repression.[135][page needed]

Medical care

Before the war, 87 physicians and surgeons, 137 nurses, 105 dentists, 132 pharmacists, 35 optometrists, and 92 lab technicians provided healthcare to the Japanese American population, with most practicing in urban centers like Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle. As the eviction from the West Coast was carried out, the Wartime Civilian Control Administration worked with the United States Public Health Service (USPHS) and many of these professionals to establish infirmaries within the temporary assembly centers. An Issei doctor was appointed to manage each facility, and additional healthcare staff worked under his supervision, although the USPHS recommendation of one physician for every 1,000 inmates and one nurse to 200 inmates was not met. Overcrowded and unsanitary conditions forced assembly center infirmaries to prioritize inoculations over general care, obstetrics, and surgeries; at Manzanar, for example, hospital staff performed over 40,000 immunizations against typhoid and smallpox.[4][clarification needed] Food poisoning was common and also demanded significant attention. Those who were detained in Topaz, Minidoka, and Jerome experienced outbreaks of dysentery.[131]

Facilities in the more permanent "relocation centers" eventually surpassed the makeshift assembly center infirmaries, but in many cases, these hospitals were incomplete when inmates began to arrive and were not fully functional for several months. Additionally, vital medical supplies such as medications and surgical and sterilization equipment were limited. The staff shortages suffered in the assembly centers continued in the WRA camps. The administration's decision to invert the management structure and demote Japanese American medical workers to positions below white employees, while capping their pay rate at $20/month, further exacerbated this problem. (At Heart Mountain, for example, Japanese American doctors received $19/month compared to white nurses' $150/month.)[136][137] The war had caused a shortage of healthcare professionals across the country, and the camps often lost potential recruits to outside hospitals that offered better pay and living conditions. When the WRA began to allow some Japanese Americans to leave camp, many Nikkei medical professionals resettled outside the camp. Those who remained had little authority in the administration of the hospitals. Combined with the inequitable payment of salaries between white and Japanese American employees, conflicts arose at several hospitals, and there were two Japanese American walk-outs at Heart Mountain in 1943.[4]

Despite a shortage of healthcare workers, limited access to equipment, and tension between white administrators and Japanese American staff, these hospitals provided much-needed medical care in camp. The extreme climates of the remote incarceration sites were hard on infants and elderly prisoners. The frequent dust storms of the high desert locations led to increased cases of asthma and coccidioidomycosis, while the swampy, mosquito-infested Arkansas camps exposed residents to malaria, all of which were treated in camp. Almost 6,000 live deliveries were performed in these hospitals, and all mothers received pre- and postnatal care. The WRA recorded 1,862 deaths across the ten camps, with cancer, heart disease, tuberculosis, and vascular disease accounting for the majority.[4]

Education

Of the 110,000 Japanese Americans detained by the United States government during World War II, 30,000 were children.[138] Most were school-age children, so educational facilities were set up in the camps.[139] The government had not adequately planned for the camps, and no real budget or plan was set aside for the new camp educational facilities.[140] Camp schoolhouses were crowded and had insufficient materials, books, notebooks, and desks for students. Books were only issued a month after the opening.[141] In the Southwest, the schoolhouses were extremely hot in summertime.[140] Class sizes were very large. At the height of its attendance, the Rohwer Camp of Arkansas reached 2,339, with only 45 certified teachers.[142] The student to teacher ratio in the camps was 48:1 in elementary schools and 35:1 for secondary schools, compared to the national average of 28:1.[143] There was a general teacher shortage in the US at the time, and the teachers were required to live in the camps themselves.[141] Although the salary in the camps was triple that for regular teaching jobs, authorities were still unable to fill all the teaching positions with certified personnel, and so some non-certified teacher detainees were hired as assistants.[141]

Sports

Although life in the camps was very difficult, Japanese Americans formed many different sports teams, including baseball and football teams.[144] In January 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued what came to be known as the "Green Light Letter" to MLB Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis, which urged him to continue playing Major League Baseball games despite the ongoing war. In it Roosevelt said that "baseball provides a recreation", and this was true for Japanese American incarcerees as well. Over 100 baseball teams were formed in the Manzanar camp so that Japanese Americans could have some recreation, and some of the team names were carry-overs from teams formed before the incarceration.[145]

Both men and women participated in the sports. In some cases, the Japanese American baseball teams from the camps traveled to outside communities to play other teams. Incarcerees from Idaho competed in the state tournament in 1943, and there were games between the prison guards and the Japanese American teams.[146] Branch Rickey, who would be responsible for bringing Jackie Robinson into Major League Baseball in 1947, sent a letter to all of the WRA camps expressing interest in scouting some of the Nisei players. In the fall of 1943, three players tried out for the Brooklyn Dodgers in front of MLB scout George Sisler, but none of them made the team.[146]

Tule Lake Agricultural Program

The Tule Lake agricultural program was constructed with the purpose of growing crops in order to feed both detainees in their camp and in the other camps. It is said that any extras would be sold on the open market.[147] The agricultural program was a way for inmates to be employed while at the center, as well as a way for some to learn farming skills. A 4-H program was established to pave a way for children to help the agricultural process at the center.[147] From 1942 through 1945, Tule Lake produced 29 different crops, including Japanese vegetables like daikon, gobo, and nappa.[147]

Student leave to attend Eastern colleges

Japanese American students were no longer allowed to attend college in the West during the incarceration, and many found ways to transfer or attend schools in the Midwest and East in order to continue their education.[148]

Most Nisei college students followed their families into camp, but a small number arranged for transfers to schools outside the exclusion zone. Their initial efforts expanded as sympathetic college administrators and the American Friends Service Committee began to coordinate a larger student relocation program. The Friends petitioned WRA Director Milton Eisenhower to place college students in Eastern and Midwestern academic institutions.[149]

The National Japanese American Student Relocation Council was formed on May 29, 1942, and the AFSC administered the program.[149] The acceptance process vetted college students and graduating high school students through academic achievement and a questionnaire centering on their relationship with American culture.[148] Some high school students were also able to leave the incarceration camps through boarding schools.[150] 39 percent of the Nisei students were women.[148] The student's tuition, book costs, and living expenses were absorbed by the U.S. government, private foundations (such as the Columbia Foundation and the Carnegie Corporation) and church scholarships, in addition to significant fundraising efforts led by Issei parents in camp.[149]

Outside camp, the students took on the role of "ambassadors of good will", and the NJASRC and WRA promoted this image to soften anti-Japanese prejudice and prepare the public for the resettlement of Japanese Americans in their communities. Some students worked as domestic workers in nearby communities during the school year.[148]

At Earlham College, President William Dennis helped institute a program that enrolled several dozen Japanese American students in order to spare them from incarceration. While this action was controversial in Richmond, Indiana, it helped strengthen the college's ties to Japan and the Japanese American community.[151] At Park College in Missouri, Dr. William Lindsay Young attempted to get Nisei students enrolled despite backlash from the greater Parkville city.[152]

At Oberlin College, about 40 evacuated Nisei students were enrolled. One of them, Kenji Okuda, was elected as student council president.[153] Three Nisei students were enrolled at Mount Holyoke College during World War 2.[154]

In total, over 500 institutions east of the exclusion zone opened their doors to more than 3,000 college-age youth who had been placed behind barbed wire, many of whom were enrolled in West Coast schools prior to their removal. These included a variety of schools, from small liberal arts colleges to large public universities.[150][154]

The NJASRC ceased operations on June 7, 1946.[149] After the incarceration camps had been shut down, releasing many Issei parents with little belongings, many families followed the college students to the eastern cities where they attended school.[150] In 1980, former Nisei students formed the NSRC Nisei Student Relocation Commemorative Fund.[154] In 2021, The University of Southern California apologized for discriminating against Nisei students.[155] It issued posthumous degrees to the students whose educations were cut short or illegitimated, having already issued degrees to those surviving.[155]

Loyalty questions and segregation

Lt. Eugene Bogard, commanding officer of the Army Registration team, explains the purpose of registration to a group of Japanese Americans at Manzanar (February 11, 1943). All inmates between the ages of 18 and 38 were compelled to register.[156]

In early 1943, War Relocation Authority officials, working with the War Department and the Office of Naval Intelligence,[157] circulated a questionnaire in an attempt to determine the loyalty of incarcerated Nisei men they hoped to recruit into military service. The "Statement of United States Citizen of Japanese Ancestry" was initially given only to Nisei who were eligible for service (or would have been, but for the 4-C classification imposed on them at the start of the war). Authorities soon revised the questionnaire and required all adults in camp to complete the form. Most of the 28 questions were designed to assess the "Americanness" of the respondent — had they been educated in Japan or the U.S.? were they Buddhist or Christian? did they practice judo or play on a baseball team?[157] The final two questions on the form, which soon came to be known as the "loyalty questionnaire", were more direct:

Question 27: Are you willing to serve in the armed forces of the United States on combat duty, wherever ordered? Question 28: Will you swear unqualified allegiances to the United States of America and faithfully defend the United States from any and all attack by foreign or domestic forces, and forswear any form of allegiance or obedience to the Japanese emperor, or other foreign government, power or organization?

Across the camps, people who answered No to both questions became known as "No Nos".

While most camp inmates simply answered "yes" to both questions, several thousand — 17 percent of the total respondents, 20 percent of the Nisei[158] — gave negative or qualified replies out of confusion, fear or anger at the wording and implications of the questionnaire. In regard to Question 27, many worried that expressing a willingness to serve would be equated with volunteering for combat, while others felt insulted at being asked to risk their lives for a country that had imprisoned them and their families. An affirmative answer to Question 28 brought up other issues. Some believed that renouncing their loyalty to Japan would suggest that they had at some point been loyal to Japan and disloyal to the United States. Many believed they were to be deported to Japan no matter how they answered, they feared an explicit disavowal of the Emperor would become known and make such resettlement extremely difficult.[159][160]

On July 15, 1943, Tule Lake, the site with the highest number of "no" responses to the questionnaire, was designated to house inmates whose answers suggested they were "disloyal".[158] During the remainder of 1943 and into early 1944, more than 12,000 men, women and children were transferred from other camps to the maximum-security Tule Lake Segregation Center.

Afterward, the government passed the Renunciation Act of 1944, a law that made it possible for Nisei and Kibei to renounce their American citizenship.[157][161][162] A total of 5,589 detainees opted to do so; 5,461 of these were sent to Tule Lake.[163] Of those who renounced US citizenship, 1,327 were repatriated to Japan.[163] Those persons who stayed in the US faced discrimination from the Japanese American community, both during and after the war, for having made that choice of renunciation. At the time, they feared what their futures held were they to remain American and remain incarcerated.[163]

These renunciations of American citizenship have been highly controversial, for a number of reasons. Some apologists for incarceration have cited the renunciations as evidence that "disloyalty" or anti-Americanism was well represented among the incarcerated peoples, thereby justifying the incarceration.[164] Many historians have dismissed the latter argument, for its failure to consider that the small number of individuals in question had been mistreated and persecuted by their own government at the time of the "renunciation":[165][166]

[T]he renunciations had little to do with "loyalty" or "disloyalty" to the United States, but were instead the result of a series of complex conditions and factors that were beyond the control of those involved. Prior to discarding citizenship, most or all of the renunciants had experienced the following misfortunes: forced removal from homes; loss of jobs; government and public assumption of disloyalty to the land of their birth based on race alone; and incarceration in a "segregation center" for "disloyal" ISSEI or NISEI...[166]

Minoru Kiyota, who was among those who renounced his citizenship and soon came to regret the decision, has said that he wanted only "to express my fury toward the government of the United States", for his incarceration and for the mental and physical duress, as well as the intimidation, he was made to face.[167]

[M]y renunciation had been an expression of momentary emotional defiance in reaction to years of persecution suffered by myself and other Japanese Americans and, in particular, to the degrading interrogation by the FBI agent at Topaz and being terrorized by the guards and gangs at Tule Lake.[168]

Civil rights attorney Wayne M. Collins successfully challenged most of these renunciations as invalid, owing to the conditions of duress and intimidation under which the government obtained them.[167][169] Many of the deportees were Issei (first generation) or Kibei, who often had difficulty with English and often did not understand the questions they were asked. Even among those Issei who had a clear understanding, Question 28 posed an awkward dilemma: Japanese immigrants were denied U.S. citizenship at the time, so when asked to renounce their Japanese citizenship, answering "Yes" would have made them stateless persons.[170]

When the government began seeking army volunteers from among the camps, only 6% of military-aged male inmates volunteered to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces.[citation needed] Most of those who refused tempered that refusal with statements of willingness to fight if they were restored their rights as American citizens. Eventually 33,000 Japanese American men and many Japanese American women served in the U.S. military during World War II, of which 20,000 served in the U.S. Army.[171][172]

The 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team, which was composed primarily of Japanese Americans, served with uncommon distinction in the European Theatre of World War II. Many of the soldiers from the continental U.S. serving in the units had families who were held in concentration camps in the United States while they fought abroad.

The 100th Infantry Battalion, which was formed in June 1942 with 1,432 men of Japanese descent from the Hawaii National Guard, was sent to Camps McCoy and Shelby for advanced training.[173] Because of the 100th's superior training record, the War Department authorized the formation of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. When the call was made, 10,000 young men from Hawaii volunteered with eventually 2,686 being chosen along with 1,500 from the continental U.S.[174] The 100th Infantry Battalion landed in Salerno, Italy in September 1943 and became known as the Purple Heart Battalion. This legendary outfit was joined by the 442nd RCT in June 1944, and this combined unit became the most highly decorated U.S. military unit of its size and duration in U.S. military history.[175] The 442nd's Nisei segregated field artillery battalion, then on detached service within the U.S. Army in Bavaria, liberated at least one of the satellite labor camps of the Nazis' original Dachau concentration camp on April 29, 1945,[176] and only days later, on May 2, halted a death march in southern Bavaria.[177][178]

Proving commitment to the United States

Many Nisei worked to prove themselves as loyal American citizens. Of the 20,000 Japanese Americans who served in the Army during World War II,[171] "many Japanese American soldiers had gone to war to fight racism at home"[179] and they were "proving with their blood, their limbs, and their bodies that they were truly American".[180] Some one hundred Nisei women volunteered for the WAC (Women's Army Corps), where, after undergoing rigorous basic training, they had assignments as typists, clerks, and drivers.[131] A smaller number of women also volunteered to serve as nurses for the ANC (Army Nurse Corps).[181] Satoshi Ito, an incarceration camp inmate, reinforces the idea of the immigrants' children striving to demonstrate their patriotism to the United States. He notes that his mother would tell him, "'you're here in the United States, you need to do well in school, you need to prepare yourself to get a good job when you get out into the larger society'".[182] He said she would tell him, "'don't be a dumb farmer like me, like us'"[183] to encourage Ito to successfully assimilate into American society. As a result, he worked exceptionally hard to excel in school and later became a professor at the College of William & Mary. His story, along with the countless Japanese Americans willing to risk their lives in war, demonstrate the lengths many in their community went to prove their American patriotism.

Other concentration camps

As early as September 1931, after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, US officials began to compile lists of individuals, lists which were particularly focused on the Issei.[45]: 16  This data was eventually included in the Custodial Detention index (CDI). Agents in the Department of Justice's Special Defense Unit classified the subjects into three groups: A, B, and C, with A being the "most dangerous", and C being "possibly dangerous".[184]

After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt authorized his attorney general to put a plan for the arrest of thousands of individuals whose names were on the potential enemy alien lists into motion, most of these individuals were Japanese American community leaders. Armed with a blanket arrest warrant, the FBI seized these men on the eve of December 8, 1941. These men were held in municipal jails and prisons until they were moved to Department of Justice detention camps, these camps were separate from the camps which were operated by the Wartime Relocation Authority (WRA). These camps were operated under far more stringent conditions and they were also patrolled by heightened criminal-style guards, despite the absence of criminal proceedings.[45]: 43–66  Memoirs about the camps include those by Keiho Soga[185] and Toru Matsumoto.[186]

Crystal City, Texas, was one such camp where Japanese Americans, German Americans, and Italian Americans were interned along with a large number of Axis-descended nationals who were seized from several Latin-American countries by the U.S.[122][187]

The Canadian government also confined its citizens with Japanese ancestry during World War II (see Internment of Japanese Canadians), for many reasons which were also based on fear and prejudice. Some Latin American countries on the Pacific Coast, such as Peru, interned ethnic Japanese or sent them to the United States for incarceration.[187] Brazil also imposed restrictions on its ethnic Japanese population.[188]

Hawaii

Although Japanese Americans in Hawaii comprised more than one-third of Hawaii's entire population, businessmen[who?] prevented their incarceration or deportation to the concentration camps which were located on the mainland because they recognized their contributions to Hawaii's economy.[189] In the hysteria of the time, some mainland Congressmen (Hawaii was only an incorporated U.S. territory at the time, and despite being fully part of the U.S., did not have a voting representative or senator in Congress) promoted that all Japanese Americans and Japanese immigrants should be removed from Hawaii but were unsuccessful. An estimated 1,200 to 1,800 Japanese nationals and American-born Japanese from Hawaii were interned or incarcerated, either in five camps on the islands or in one of the mainland concentration camps, but this represented well-under two percent of the total Japanese American residents in the islands.[190] "No serious explanations were offered as to why ... the internment of individuals of Japanese descent was necessary on the mainland, but not in Hawaii, where the large Japanese-Hawaiian population went largely unmolested."[191]

The vast majority of Japanese Americans and their immigrant parents in Hawaii were not incarcerated because the government had already declared martial law in Hawaii, a legal measure which allowed it to significantly reduce the supposed risks of espionage and sabotage by residents of Hawaii who had Japanese ancestry.[192] Also, Japanese Americans comprised over 35% of the territory's entire population: they numbered 157,905 out of a total population of 423,330 at the time of the 1940 census,[193] making them the largest ethnic group at that time; detaining so many people would have been enormously challenging in terms of logistics. Additionally, the whole of Hawaiian society was dependent on their productivity. According to intelligence reports which were published at the time, "the Japanese, through a concentration of effort in select industries, had achieved a virtual stranglehold on several key sectors of the economy in Hawaii,"[194] and they "had access to virtually all jobs in the economy, including high-status, high-paying jobs (e.g., professional and managerial jobs)".[195] To imprison such a large percentage of the islands' work force would have crippled the Hawaiian economy. Thus, the unfounded fear of Japanese Americans turning against the United States was overcome by the reality-based fear of massive economic loss.

Despite the financial and logistical obstacles, President Roosevelt persisted for quite some time in urging incarceration of Japanese Americans in Hawaii. As late as February 26, 1942, he informed Secretary of the Navy Knox that he had “long felt that most of the Japanese should be removed from Oahu to one of the other Islands.” While Roosevelt conceded that such an undertaking involved “much planning, much temporary construction, and careful supervision of them when they get to the new location,” he did not “worry about the constitutional question—first, because of my recent order and, second, because Hawaii is under martial law.” He called for Knox to work with Stimson and “go ahead and do it as a military project.” Eventually, he too gave up the project.[196]

Lieutenant General Delos C. Emmons, the commander of the Hawaii Department, promised that the local Japanese American community would be treated fairly as long as it remained loyal to the United States. He succeeded in blocking efforts to relocate it to the outer islands or the mainland by pointing out the logistical difficulties of such a move.[197] Among the small number incarcerated were community leaders and prominent politicians, including territorial legislators Thomas Sakakihara and Sanji Abe.[198]

Five concentration camps were operated in the territory of Hawaii, referred to as the "Hawaiian Island Detention Camps".[199][200] One camp was located on Sand Island, at the mouth of Honolulu Harbor. This camp was constructed before the outbreak of the war. All of the prisoners who were held there were "detained under military custody... because of the imposition of martial law throughout the Islands". It was replaced by the Honouliuli Internment Camp, near Ewa, on the southwestern shore of Oahu in 1943. Another was located in Haiku, Maui,[201] in addition to the Kilauea Detention Center on Hawaii and Camp Kalaheo on Kauai.[202]

Japanese Latin Americans

During World War II, over 2,200 Japanese from Latin America were held in concentration camps run by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, part of the Department of Justice. Beginning in 1942, Latin Americans of Japanese ancestry were rounded up and transported to American concentration camps run by the INS and the U.S. Justice Department.[110][111][203][204] Most of these internees, approximately 1,800, came from Peru. An additional 250 were from Panama, Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, Nicaragua, and Venezuela.[205]

The first group of Japanese Latin Americans arrived in San Francisco on April 20, 1942, on board the Etolin along with 360 ethnic Germans and 14 ethnic Italians from Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia.[206] The 151 men — ten from Ecuador, the rest from Peru — had volunteered for deportation believing they were to be repatriated to Japan. They were denied visas by U.S. Immigration authorities and then detained on the grounds they had tried to enter the country illegally, without a visa or passport.[206] Subsequent transports brought additional "volunteers", including the wives and children of men who had been deported earlier. A total of 2,264 Japanese Latin Americans, about two-thirds of them from Peru, were interned in facilities on the U.S. mainland during the war.[110][205][207]

The United States originally intended to trade these Latin American internees as part of a hostage exchange program with Japan and other Axis nations;[208] at least one trade occurred.[111] Over 1,300 persons of Japanese ancestry were exchanged for a like number of non-official Americans in October 1943, at the port of Marmagao, India. Over half were Japanese Latin Americans (the rest being ethnic Germans and Italians) and of that number one-third were Japanese Peruvians.

On September 2, 1943, the Swedish ship MS Gripsholm departed the U.S. with just over 1,300 Japanese nationals (including nearly a hundred from Canada and Mexico) en route for the exchange location, Marmagao, the main port of the Portuguese colony of Goa on the west coast of India.[111]: Table 13-1 [209] After two more stops in South America to take on additional Japanese nationals, the passenger manifest reached 1,340.[111] Of that number, Latin American Japanese numbered 55 percent of the Gripsholm's travelers, 30 percent of whom were Japanese Peruvian.[111] Arriving in Marmagao on October 16, 1943, the Gripsholm's passengers disembarked and then boarded the Japanese ship Teia Maru. In return, "non-official" Americans (secretaries, butlers, cooks, embassy staff workers, etc.) previously held by the Japanese Army boarded the Gripsholm while the Teia Maru headed for Tokyo.[111] Because this exchange was done with those of Japanese ancestry officially described as "volunteering" to return to Japan, no legal challenges were encountered. The U.S. Department of State was pleased with the first trade and immediately began to arrange a second exchange of non-officials for February 1944. This exchange would involve 1,500 non-volunteer Japanese who were to be exchanged for 1,500 Americans.[111] The US was busy with Pacific Naval activity and future trading plans stalled. Further slowing the program were legal and political "turf" battles between the State Department, the Roosevelt administration, and the DOJ, whose officials were not convinced of the legality of the program.

The completed October 1943 trade took place at the height of the Enemy Alien Deportation Program. Japanese Peruvians were still being "rounded up" for shipment to the U.S. in previously unseen numbers. Despite logistical challenges facing the floundering prisoner exchange program, deportation plans were moving ahead. This is partly explained by an early-in-the-war revelation of the overall goal for Latin Americans of Japanese ancestry under the Enemy Alien Deportation Program. Secretary of State Cordell Hull wrote an agreeing President Roosevelt, "[that the US must] continue our efforts to remove all the Japanese from these American Republics for internment in the United States."[111][210]

"Native" Peruvians expressed extreme animosity toward their Japanese citizens and expatriates, and Peru refused to accept the post-war return of Japanese Peruvians from the US. Although a small number asserting special circumstances, such as marriage to a non-Japanese Peruvian,[110] did return, the majority were trapped. Their home country refused to take them back (a political stance Peru maintained until 1950[205]), they were generally Spanish speakers in the Anglo US, and in the postwar U.S., the Department of State started expatriating them to Japan. Civil rights attorney Wayne Collins filed injunctions on behalf of the remaining internees,[187][211] helping them obtain "parole" relocation to the labor-starved Seabrook Farms in New Jersey.[212] He started a legal battle that was not resolved until 1953, when, after working as undocumented immigrants for almost ten years, those Japanese Peruvians remaining in the U.S. were finally offered citizenship.[111][205]

Incarceration ends

On December 18, 1944, the Supreme Court handed down two decisions on the legality of the incarceration under Executive Order 9066. Korematsu v. United States, a 6–3 decision upholding a Nisei's conviction for violating the military exclusion order, stated that, in general, the removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast was constitutional. However, Ex parte Endo unanimously declared on that same day that loyal citizens of the United States, regardless of cultural descent, could not be detained without cause.[213][214] In effect, the two rulings held that, while the eviction of American citizens in the name of military necessity was legal, the subsequent incarceration was not—thus paving the way for their release.

Having been alerted to the Court's decision, the Roosevelt administration issued Public Proclamation No. 21 the day before the Korematsu and Endo rulings were made public, on December 17, 1944, rescinding the exclusion orders and declaring that Japanese Americans could return to the West Coast the next month.[215]

Although War Relocation Authority (WRA) Director Dillon Myer and others had pushed for an earlier end to the incarceration, the Japanese Americans were not allowed to return to the West Coast until January 2, 1945, after the November 1944 election, so as not to impede Roosevelt's reelection campaign.[216] Many younger detainees had already been sent to Midwest or Eastern cities to pursue work or educational opportunities. For example, 20,000 were sent to Lake View, Chicago.[217] The remaining population began to leave the camps to try to rebuild their lives at home. Former inmates were given $25 and a train ticket to wherever they wanted to go, but many had little or nothing to return to, having lost their homes and businesses. When Japanese Americans were sent to the camps they could only take a few items with them and while incarcerated could only work for menial jobs with a small monthly salary of $12–$19. When incarceration ended, they therefore had few savings to survive on.[218] Some emigrated to Japan, although many of these were repatriated against their will.[219][220] The camps remained open for residents who were not ready to return (mostly elderly Issei and families with young children), but the WRA pressured stragglers to leave by gradually eliminating services in camp. Those who had not left by each camp's close date were forcibly removed and sent back to the West Coast.[221]

Nine of the ten WRA camps were shut down by the end of 1945, although Tule Lake, which held "renunciants" slated for deportation to Japan, was not closed until March 20, 1946.[222][223][224][225] Japanese Latin Americans brought to the U.S. from Peru and other countries, who were still being held in the DOJ camps at Santa Fe and Crystal City, took legal action in April 1946 in an attempt to avoid deportation to Japan.[111]: 223 

Aftermath

Hardship and material loss

Graveyard at the Granada Relocation Center in Amache, Colorado
A monument at Manzanar, "to console the souls of the dead"
Boy Scouts at the Granada War Relocation Center raise the flag to half-staff during a memorial service for the first six Nisei soldiers from this Center who were killed in action in Italy. The service was attended by 1,500 Amache internees. August 5, 1944.

Many detainees lost irreplaceable personal property due to restrictions that prohibited them from taking more than they could carry into the camps. These losses were compounded by theft and destruction of items placed in governmental storage. Leading up to their incarceration, Nikkei were prohibited from leaving the Military Zones or traveling more than 5 miles (8.0 km) from home, forcing those who had to travel for work, like truck farmers and residents of rural towns, to quit their jobs.[226] Many others were simply fired for their Japanese heritage.[227][228][229]

Many Japanese Americans encountered continued housing injustice after the war.[230] Alien land laws in California, Oregon, and Washington barred the Issei from owning their pre-war homes and farms. Many had cultivated land for decades as tenant farmers, but they lost their rights to farm those lands when they were forced to leave. Other Issei (and Nisei who were renting or had not completed payments on their property) had found families willing to occupy their homes or tend their farms during their incarceration. However, those unable to strike a deal with caretakers had to sell their property, often in a matter of days and at great financial loss to predatory land speculators, who made huge profits.

In addition to these monetary and property losses, there were seven who were shot and killed by sentries: Kanesaburo Oshima, 58, during an escape attempt from Fort Sill, Oklahoma; Toshio Kobata, 58, and Hirota Isomura, 59, during transfer to Lordsburg, New Mexico; James Ito, 17, and Katsuji James Kanegawa, 21, during the December 1942 Manzanar Riot; James Hatsuaki Wakasa, 65, while walking near the perimeter wire of Topaz; and Shoichi James Okamoto, 30, during a verbal altercation with a sentry at the Tule Lake Segregation Center.[5]

Psychological injury was observed by Dillon S. Myer, director of the WRA camps. In June 1945, Myer described how the Japanese Americans had grown increasingly depressed and overcome with feelings of helplessness and personal insecurity.[231] Author Betty Furuta explains that the Japanese used gaman, loosely meaning "perseverance", to overcome hardships; this was mistaken by non-Japanese as being introverted and lacking initiative.[232]

Japanese Americans also encountered hostility and even violence when they returned to the West Coast. Concentrated largely in rural areas of Central California, there were dozens of reports of gunshots, fires, and explosions aimed at Japanese American homes, businesses, and places of worship, in addition to non-violent crimes like vandalism and the defacing of Japanese graves. In one of the few cases that went to trial, four men were accused of attacking the Doi family of Placer County, California, setting off an explosion, and starting a fire on the family's farm in January 1945. Despite a confession from one of the men that implicated the others, the jury accepted their defense attorney's framing of the attack as a justifiable attempt to keep California "a white man's country" and acquitted all four defendants.[233]

To compensate former detainees for their property losses, Congress passed the Japanese-American Claims Act on July 2, 1948, allowing Japanese Americans to apply for compensation for property losses which occurred as "a reasonable and natural consequence of the evacuation or exclusion". By the time the Act was passed, the IRS had already destroyed most of the detainees' 1939–42 tax records. Due to the time pressure and strict limits on how much they could take to the camps, few were able to preserve detailed tax and financial records during the evacuation process. Therefore, it was extremely difficult for claimants to establish that their claims were valid. Under the Act, Japanese American families filed 26,568 claims totaling $148 million in requests; about $37 million was approved and disbursed.[234]

The different placement for the detainees had significant consequences for their lifetime outcomes.[235] A 2016 study finds, using the random dispersal of detainees into camps in seven different states, that the people assigned to richer locations did better in terms of income, education, socioeconomic status, house prices, and housing quality roughly fifty years later.[235]

Reparations and redress

Beginning in the 1960s, a younger generation of Japanese Americans, inspired by the civil rights movement, began what is known as the "Redress Movement", an effort to obtain an official apology and reparations from the federal government for incarcerating their parents and grandparents during the war. They focused not on documented property losses but on the broader injustice and mental suffering caused by the incarceration. The movement's first success was in 1976, when President Gerald Ford proclaimed that the incarceration was "wrong", and a "national mistake" which "shall never again be repeated".[236] President Ford signed a proclamation formally terminating Executive Order 9066 and apologized for the incarceration, stating: "We now know what we should have known then—not only was that evacuation wrong but Japanese-Americans were and are loyal Americans. On the battlefield and at home the names of Japanese-Americans have been and continue to be written in history for the sacrifices and the contributions they have made to the well-being and to the security of this, our common Nation."[237][238]

The campaign for redress was launched by Japanese Americans in 1978. The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL), which had cooperated with the administration during the war, became part of the movement. It asked for three measures: $25,000 to be awarded to each person who was detained, an apology from Congress acknowledging publicly that the U.S. government had been wrong, and the release of funds to set up an educational foundation for the children of Japanese American families.

In 1980, under the Carter administration, Congress established the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) to study the matter. On February 24, 1983, the commission issued a report entitled Personal Justice Denied, condemning the incarceration as unjust and motivated by racism and xenophobic ideas rather than factual military necessity.[239] Concentration camp survivors sued the federal government for $24 million in property loss, but lost the case. However, the Commission recommended that $20,000 in reparations be paid to those Japanese Americans who had suffered incarceration.[240]

The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 exemplified the Japanese American redress movement that impacted the large debate about the reparation bill. There was question over whether the bill would pass during the 1980s due to the poor state of the federal budget and the low support of Japanese Americans covering 1% of the United States. However, four powerful Japanese American Democrats and Republicans who had war experience, with the support of Democratic congressmen Barney Frank, sponsored the bill and pushed for its passage as their top priority.[241]

U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 in August 1988, which granted reparations for the incarceration of Japanese Americans

On August 10, 1988, U.S. President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which had been sponsored by several representatives including Barney Frank, Norman Mineta, and Bob Matsui in the House and by Spark Matsunaga who got 75 co-sponsors in the Senate, provided financial redress of $20,000 for each former detainee who was still alive when the act was passed, totaling $1.2 billion. The question of to whom reparations should be given, how much, and even whether monetary reparations were appropriate were subjects of sometimes contentious debate within the Japanese American community and Congress.[242]

On September 27, 1992, the Civil Liberties Act Amendments of 1992, appropriating an additional $400 million to ensure all remaining detainees received their $20,000 redress payments, was signed into law by President George H. W. Bush. He issued another formal apology from the U.S. government on December 7, 1991, on the 50th anniversary of the Pearl Harbor attack, saying:

In remembering, it is important to come to grips with the past. No nation can fully understand itself or find its place in the world if it does not look with clear eyes at all the glories and disgraces of its past. We in the United States acknowledge such an injustice in our history. The internment of Americans of Japanese ancestry was a great injustice, and it will never be repeated.

Over 81,800 people qualified by 1998 and $1.6 billion was distributed among them.[243]

Under the 2001 budget of the United States, Congress authorized the preservation of ten detention sites as historical landmarks: "places like Manzanar, Tule Lake, Heart Mountain, Topaz, Amache, Jerome, and Rohwer will forever stand as reminders that this nation failed in its most sacred duty to protect its citizens against prejudice, greed, and political expediency".[244]

President Bill Clinton awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States, to Korematsu in 1998, saying, "In the long history of our country's constant search for justice, some names of ordinary citizens stand for millions of souls: Plessy, Brown, Parks ... to that distinguished list, today we add the name of Fred Korematsu." That year, Korematsu served as the Grand Marshal of San Francisco's annual Cherry Blossom Festival parade.[245] On January 30, 2011, California first observed an annual "Fred Korematsu Day of Civil Liberties and the Constitution", the first such ceremony ever to be held in commemoration of an Asian American in the United States.[246] On June 14, 2011, Peruvian President Alan García apologized for his country's internment of Japanese immigrants during World War II, most of whom were transferred to the U.S.[188]

Social impact and legacy

After the war, and once the process of internment came to its conclusion, Japanese Americans became socially affected by the war and their experiences of United States government policy. Japanese Americans rejected their racial identity as a prerequisite to various organizations that had existed prior to their internment, in order to assimilate back into American society, with both the Japanese Association and the Japanese Chamber of Commerce slipping into non-existence in the post-war years.[247] The distancing of Japanese Americans from any collective, racially labelled establishments was something they saw necessary in order to preserve their status in the United States in the wake of their experiences.[247]

In addition, Japanese Americans were also impacted socially by a changing religious structure in which ethnic churches were terminated, with Church membership dropping from 25% of the Japanese American population in 1942, to 6% in 1962.[247]

Terminology debate

Misuse of the term "internment"

The legal term "internment" has been used in regards to the mass incarceration of Japanese Americans. This term, however, derives from international conventions regarding the treatment of enemy nationals during wartime and specifically limits internment to those (noncitizen) enemy nationals who threaten the security of the detaining power. The internment of selected enemy alien belligerents, as opposed to mass incarceration, is legal both under US and international law.[248] UCLA Asian American studies professor Lane Hirabayashi pointed out that the history of the term internment, to mean the arrest and holding of non-citizens, could only be correctly applied to Issei, Japanese people who were not legal citizens. These people were a minority during Japanese incarceration and thus Roger Daniels, emeritus professor of history at the University of Cincinnati, has concluded that this terminology is wrongfully used by any government that wishes to include groups other than the Issei.[249]

On April 22, 2022, The Associated Press edited its entry for Japanese internment,[250] changing the entry heading to Japanese internment, incarceration, and adding the following wording:[251]

Though internment has been applied historically to all detainments of Japanese Americans and Japanese nationals during World War II, the broader use of the term is inaccurate—about two-thirds of those who were relocated US citizens and thus could not be considered interns—and many Japanese-Americans find it objectionable. It is better to say that they were incarcerated or detained and to define the larger event as the incarceration of Japanese Americans.

Which term to use

During World War II, the camps were referred to both as relocation centers and concentration camps by government officials and in the press.[252] Roosevelt himself referred to the camps as concentration camps on different occasions, including at a press conference held on October 20, 1942.[253][252] In 1943, his attorney general Francis Biddle lamented that "The present practice of keeping loyal American citizens in concentration camps for longer than is necessary is dangerous and repugnant to the principles of our government."[254]

Following World War II, other government officials made statements suggesting that the use of the term "relocation center" had been largely euphemistic. In 1946, former Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes wrote "We gave the fancy name of 'relocation centers' to these dust bowls, but they were concentration camps nonetheless."[255] In a 1961 interview, Harry S. Truman stated "They were concentration camps. They called it relocation but they put them in concentration camps, and I was against it. We were in a period of emergency, but it was still the wrong thing to do."[256]

In subsequent decades, debate has arisen over the terminology used to refer to camps in which Americans of Japanese ancestry and their immigrant parents, were incarcerated by the US government during the war.[257][258][259] These camps have been referred to as "war relocation centers", "relocation camps", "relocation centers", "internment camps", and "concentration camps", and the controversy over which term is the most accurate and appropriate continues.[104][260][261][262][263]

Towards a consensus

In 1998, the use of the term "concentration camps" gained greater credibility prior to the opening of an exhibit about the American camps at Ellis Island. Initially, the American Jewish Committee (AJC) and the National Park Service, which manages Ellis Island, objected to the use of the term in the exhibit.[264] However, during a subsequent meeting held at the offices of the AJC in New York City, leaders representing Japanese Americans and Jewish Americans reached an understanding about the use of the term.[265]

After the meeting, the Japanese American National Museum and the AJC issued a joint statement (which was included in the exhibit) that read in part:

A concentration camp is a place where people are imprisoned not because of any crimes they have committed, but simply because of who they are. Although many groups have been singled out for such persecution throughout history, the term 'concentration camp' was first used at the turn of the [20th] century in the Spanish American and Boer Wars. During World War II, America's concentration camps were clearly distinguishable from Nazi Germany's. Nazi camps were places of torture, barbarous medical experiments and summary executions; some were extermination centers with gas chambers. Six million Jews were slaughtered in the Holocaust. Many others, including Gypsies, Poles, homosexuals and political dissidents were also victims of the Nazi concentration camps. In recent years, concentration camps have existed in the former Soviet Union, Cambodia and Bosnia. Despite differences, all had one thing in common: the people in power removed a minority group from the general population and the rest of society let it happen.[266][267]

The New York Times published an unsigned editorial supporting the use of "concentration camp" in the exhibit.[268] An article quoted Jonathan Mark, a columnist for The Jewish Week, who wrote, "Can no one else speak of slavery, gas, trains, camps? It's Jewish malpractice to monopolize pain and minimize victims."[269] AJC Executive Director David A. Harris stated during the controversy, "We have not claimed Jewish exclusivity for the term 'concentration camps.'",[270] while also stating "Since the Second World War, these terms have taken on a specificity and a new level of meaning that deserves protection. A certain care needs to be exercised."[271]

Deborah Schiffrin has written that, at the opening of the exhibition, entitled "America's Concentration Camps: Remembering the Japanese-American Experience", "some Jewish groups" had been offended by the use of the term. However, Schiffrin also notes that a compromise was reached when an appropriate footnote was added to the exhibit brochure.[272]

On the rejection of euphemisms

On July 7, 2012, at its annual convention, the National Council of the Japanese American Citizens League unanimously ratified the Power of Words Handbook, calling for the use of "...truthful and accurate terms, and retiring the misleading euphemisms created by the government to cover up the denial of Constitutional and human rights, the force, oppressive conditions, and racism against 120,000 innocent people of Japanese ancestry locked up in America's World War II concentration camps."[273] Moreover, Roosevelt himself publicly used the term "concentration camps" without any qualifiers to describe Japanese American incarceration in a press conference in November 1944.[274]

Comparisons

The incarceration of Japanese Americans has been compared to Canada's incarceration of Japanese Canadians, the internal deportation of Ethnically Volga German Soviet citizens from the western USSR to Soviet Central Asia, and the persecutions, expulsions, and dislocations of other ethnic minority groups which also occurred during World War II, both in Europe and Asia.[275][276][277][278][279][280][281][282][3][283][4][171][152]

Notable individuals who were incarcerated

Aftermath and legacy

Cultural legacy

Exhibitions and collections

Japanese American Memorial (Eugene, Oregon)
The cedar "story wall" at the Bainbridge Island Japanese American Exclusion Memorial
Rohwer Memorial Cemetery, declared a National Historic Landmark in 1992
Monument to the men of the 100th Infantry Battalion/442nd Regimental Combat Team, Rohwer Memorial Cemetery
In foreground group of Japanese-American soldiers climb over a ridge and begin to fire upon a German tank in the background which is accompanied by a German half-track in a wooded area.
Painting by Don Troiani depicting soldiers of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team fighting in the Vosges
Two color guards and color bearers of the Japanese American 442nd Combat Team stand at attention while their citations are read. They are standing on the ground of Bruyeres, France, where many of their comrades fell.
Remains of Dalton Wells, a National Register of Historic Places listing in Utah
Sculpture

Nina Akamu, a Sansei, created the sculpture entitled Golden Cranes of two red-crowned cranes, which became the center feature of the Japanese American Memorial to Patriotism During World War II. The U.S. Department of Defense described the November 9, 2000, dedication of the Memorial: "Drizzling rain was mixed with tears streaming down the faces of Japanese American World War II heroes and those who spent the war years imprisoned in isolated internment camps." Akamu's family's connection to the concentration camps based on the experience of her maternal grandfather, who was interned and later died in a concentration camp in Hawaii—combined with the fact that she grew up in Hawaii for a time, where she fished with her father at Pearl Harbor—and the erection of a Japanese American war memorial near her home in Massa, Italy, inspired a strong connection to the Memorial and its creation.

United States Attorney General Janet Reno also spoke at the dedication of the Memorial, where she shared a letter from President Clinton stating: "We are diminished when any American is targeted unfairly because of his or her heritage. This Memorial and the internment sites are powerful reminders that stereotyping, discrimination, hatred and racism have no place in this country."[296]

According to the National Japanese American Memorial Foundation, the memorial:

...is symbolic not only of the Japanese American experience, but of the extrication of anyone from deeply painful and restrictive circumstances. It reminds us of the battles we've fought to overcome our ignorance and prejudice and the meaning of an integrated culture, once pained and torn, now healed and unified. Finally, the monument presents the Japanese American experience as a symbol for all peoples.[297]

Films

Dozens of movies were filmed about and in the concentration camps; these relate the experiences of inmates or were made by former camp inmates. Examples follow.

Literature

Many books and novels were written by and about Japanese Americans' experience during and after their residence in concentration camps among them can be mentioned the followed:

Music

Spoken word

Television

Theater

Legal legacy

Grandfather and grandson at Manzanar, July 2, 1942
Gordon Hirabayashi's Medal of Freedom and certificate

Several significant legal decisions arose out of Japanese American incarceration, relating to the powers of the government to detain citizens in wartime. Among the cases which reached the US Supreme Court were Ozawa v. United States (1922), Yasui v. United States (1943), Hirabayashi v. United States (1943), ex parte Endo (1944), and Korematsu v. United States (1944). In Ozawa, the court established that peoples defined as 'white' were specifically of Caucasian descent; In Yasui and Hirabayashi, the court upheld the constitutionality of curfews based on Japanese ancestry; in Korematsu, the court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion order. In Endo, the court accepted a petition for a writ of habeas corpus and ruled that the WRA had no authority to subject a loyal citizen to its procedures.

Korematsu's and Hirabayashi's convictions were vacated in a series of coram nobis cases in the early 1980s.[337] In the coram nobis cases, federal district and appellate courts ruled that newly uncovered evidence revealed an unfairness which, had it been known at the time, would likely have changed the Supreme Court's decisions in the Yasui, Hirabayashi, and Korematsu cases.[338][339]

These new court decisions rested on a series of documents recovered from the National Archives showing that the government had altered, suppressed, and withheld important and relevant information from the Supreme Court, including the Final Report by General DeWitt justifying the incarceration program.[337] The Army had destroyed documents in an effort to hide alterations that had been made to the report to reduce their racist content.[339] The coram nobis cases vacated the convictions of Korematsu and Hirabayashi (Yasui died before his case was heard, rendering it moot), and are regarded as part of the impetus to gain passage of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988.[337]

The rulings of the US Supreme Court in the Korematsu and Hirabayashi cases were criticized in Dictum in the 2018 majority opinion of Trump v. Hawaii upholding a ban on immigration of nationals from several Muslim majority countries but not overruled as it fell outside the case-law applicable to the lawsuit.[340] Regarding the Korematsu case, Chief Justice Roberts wrote: "The forcible relocation of U.S. citizens to concentration camps, solely and explicitly on the basis of race, is objectively unlawful and outside the scope of Presidential authority."[341]: 38 [342][343]

Former Supreme Court Justice Tom C. Clark, who represented the US Department of Justice in the "relocation", writes in the epilogue to the book Executive Order 9066: The Internment of 110,000 Japanese Americans (1992):[344][338]

The truth is—as this deplorable experience proves—that constitutions and laws are not sufficient of themselves...Despite the unequivocal language of the Constitution of the United States that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, and despite the Fifth Amendment's command that no person shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law, both of these constitutional safeguards were denied by military action under Executive Order 9066.[345]

See also

References

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Further reading

External links

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