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La persecución de los uigures en China

Desde 2014, el gobierno chino ha cometido una serie de abusos constantes de los derechos humanos contra los uigures y otras minorías musulmanas turcas en Xinjiang, que a menudo se han caracterizado como persecución o genocidio . Ha habido informes de arrestos y detenciones arbitrarias masivas , tortura , vigilancia masiva , persecución cultural y religiosa, separación familiar , trabajo forzado , violencia sexual y violaciones de los derechos reproductivos .

En 2014, la administración del secretario general del Partido Comunista Chino (PCCh), Xi Jinping, lanzó la Campaña de Mano Dura Contra el Terrorismo Violento , que implicó vigilancia y restricciones en Xinjiang. A partir de 2017, bajo el secretario del PCCh en Xinjiang, Chen Quanguo , [2] el gobierno encarceló a más de un millón de uigures sin proceso legal en campos de internamiento descritos oficialmente como "centros de educación y formación vocacional", en el internamiento masivo más grande de un grupo minoritario étnico-religioso desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial . [3] [4] China comenzó a reducir los campos en 2019, y Amnistía Internacional afirma que los detenidos han sido transferidos cada vez más al sistema penal . Además de las detenciones masivas, las políticas gubernamentales han incluido trabajos forzados y trabajo en fábricas, [5] [6] supresión de las prácticas religiosas uigures , [7] adoctrinamiento político , [8] esterilización forzada , [9] anticoncepción forzada , [10] [11] y aborto forzado . [12] [13] Se estima que 16.000 mezquitas han sido arrasadas o dañadas, [2] y cientos de miles de niños han sido separados por la fuerza de sus padres y enviados a internados . [14] [15] Las estadísticas del gobierno chino informaron que de 2015 a 2018, las tasas de natalidad en las regiones mayoritariamente uigures de Hotan y Kashgar cayeron más del 60%. [9] En el mismo período, la tasa de natalidad de todo el país disminuyó un 9,69%. [16] Las autoridades chinas según CNN reconocieron que las tasas de natalidad cayeron casi un tercio en 2018 en Xinjiang, pero negaron los informes de esterilización forzada. [17] Las tasas de natalidad en Xinjiang cayeron un 24% más en 2019, en comparación con una disminución a nivel nacional del 4,2%. [9]

El gobierno chino niega haber cometido abusos contra los derechos humanos en Xinjiang. [3] [18] Las reacciones internacionales han sido variadas, y sus acciones han sido descritas como una asimilación forzada de Xinjiang, como etnocidio o genocidio cultural , [19] [20] o como genocidio. Quienes acusan a China de genocidio señalan actos intencionales que, según ellos, violan el Artículo II de la Convención sobre el Genocidio , [21] [22] [23] que prohíbe "actos cometidos con la intención de destruir, total o parcialmente", a un "grupo racial o religioso", incluyendo "causar daño físico o mental grave a los miembros del grupo" y "medidas destinadas a prevenir los nacimientos dentro del grupo". [24]

En una evaluación de 2022 de la Oficina de Derechos Humanos de la ONU , las Naciones Unidas (ONU) afirmaron que las políticas y acciones de China en la región de Xinjiang pueden ser crímenes contra la humanidad , aunque no utilizaron el término genocidio. [25] [26] En 2020, 39 estados miembros de la ONU emitieron declaraciones al Consejo de Derechos Humanos de las Naciones Unidas criticando las políticas de China, mientras que 45 países apoyaron las "medidas de desradicalización de China en Xinjiang" y se opusieron a "la politización de las cuestiones de derechos humanos y los dobles raseros". [27]

En diciembre de 2020, un caso presentado ante la Corte Penal Internacional fue desestimado porque los crímenes alegados parecían haber sido "cometidos únicamente por nacionales de China dentro del territorio de China, un Estado que no es parte del Estatuto ", lo que significa que la CPI no podía investigarlos. [28] [29] [30] [31] En enero de 2021, el Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos declaró las acciones de China como genocidio, [30] [31] y las legislaturas de varios países han aprobado mociones no vinculantes que hacen lo mismo, incluida la Cámara de los Comunes de Canadá , [32] el parlamento holandés , [33] la Cámara de los Comunes del Reino Unido , [34] el Seimas de Lituania , [35] y la Asamblea Nacional Francesa . [36] Otros parlamentos, como los de Nueva Zelanda , [37] Bélgica , [38] y la República Checa condenaron el trato del gobierno chino a los uigures como "graves abusos de los derechos humanos" o crímenes contra la humanidad . [39]

Fondo

Fotografía de un hombre uigur de pie, con sombrero y perilla.
Un hombre uigur de Kashgar , una ciudad en Xinjiang , China.

Identidad uigur

Los uigures son un grupo étnico turco originario de Xinjiang . Son distintos de los chinos han , el grupo étnico predominante en China. [40] Los uigures son la segunda etnia predominantemente musulmana en China, después de los hui , y el Islam sunita es un aspecto importante de la identidad uigur. [40] El idioma uigur tiene alrededor de 10 millones de hablantes y se comparte con otros grupos minoritarios de la región. [41]

Conflicto en Xinjiang

Tanto los uigures como el gobierno predominantemente han reclaman Xinjiang. [42] Esto provocó un conflicto étnico caracterizado por la resistencia y la violencia esporádica, mientras los uigures buscaban una mayor autonomía. [43] Los sinólogos Anna Hayes y Michael Clarke han descrito a Xinjiang como un estado en proceso de transición, mientras el gobierno chino intentaba transformarla de una región fronteriza a una provincia "integral" de un estado chino unitario. [44]

China imperial

Históricamente, ciertas dinastías chinas ejercieron control sobre partes de la actual Xinjiang. [45] La región quedó completamente bajo el dominio chino como resultado de la expansión hacia el oeste de la dinastía Qing liderada por los manchúes durante el siglo XVIII, que también vio las conquistas del Tíbet y Mongolia . [46] Xinjiang era una parte periférica del imperio Qing y recuperó brevemente la independencia durante la Rebelión Dungan (1862-1877) . [47] La ​​población uigur participó en el genocidio de Dzungar , lo que resultó en que el emperador Qianlong les otorgara permiso para reasentarse en los antiguos territorios de Dzungaria . [48] [49]

Era republicana (1912-1949)

La región fue semiautónoma durante la Era de los Señores de la Guerra de la República de China (1916-1928), con partes controladas por el Kanato de Kumul , la Camarilla Ma y más tarde el señor de la guerra Jin Shuren . [50] [ página requerida ] En 1933, la separatista Primera República del Turquestán Oriental se estableció en la Rebelión de Kumul , [51] pero fue conquistada al año siguiente por el señor de la guerra Sheng Shicai con la ayuda de la ayuda soviética . [52] En 1944, la Rebelión de Ili condujo al establecimiento de la Segunda República del Turquestán Oriental , que dependía de la Unión Soviética hasta que fue absorbida por la República Popular China en 1949. [53]

República Popular China (1949-actualidad)

Mapa actual de Xinjiang y sus fronteras internas y externas

Desde la década de 1950 hasta la de 1970, el gobierno chino patrocinó una migración masiva de chinos han a Xinjiang e introdujo políticas diseñadas para suprimir la identidad cultural y la religión en la región. [54] Durante este período, surgieron organizaciones independentistas uigures con cierto apoyo de la Unión Soviética, siendo el Partido Popular del Turkestán Oriental el más grande en 1968. [55] Durante la década de 1970, los soviéticos apoyaron al Frente Revolucionario Unido del Turkestán Oriental (URFET) contra los chinos han. [56]

Durante la década de 1980 bajo Deng Xiaoping , la República Popular China siguió una nueva política de liberalización cultural en Xinjiang y adoptó una política lingüística flexible a nivel nacional. [57] A pesar de una respuesta positiva entre los funcionarios del partido y los grupos minoritarios, el gobierno chino consideró que esta política no tuvo éxito y desde mediados de la década de 1980 su política lingüística pluralista oficial se subordinó cada vez más a una política encubierta de asimilación de las minorías motivada por preocupaciones geopolíticas. [58] En consecuencia, y en Xinjiang en particular, el multilingüismo y el pluralismo cultural se restringieron para favorecer un "modelo monolingüe y monocultural", que a su vez ayudó a arraigar y fortalecer una identidad uigur opositora. [59] Los intentos del estado chino de alentar el desarrollo económico en la región mediante la explotación de los recursos naturales llevaron a tensiones étnicas y descontento dentro de Xinjiang por la falta de autonomía de la región. [60] En abril de 1990, un levantamiento violento en Barin , cerca de Kashgar, fue reprimido por el Ejército Popular de Liberación (EPL), lo que implicó un gran número de muertes. [60] [2] [61] En 1998, el politólogo Barry Sautman escribió que las políticas diseñadas para reducir la desigualdad entre los chinos han y las minorías étnicas en Xinjiang no lograron eliminar los conflictos porque estaban condicionadas por el "enfoque paternalista y jerárquico de las relaciones étnicas adoptado por el gobierno chino". [62]

En febrero de 1997, una redada policial y ejecución de presuntos "separatistas" durante el Ramadán condujo a grandes manifestaciones, que llevaron a una represión del EPL contra los manifestantes que resultó en al menos nueve muertes en lo que se conoció como el incidente de Ghulja . [63] [64] [65] Los atentados con bombas en los autobuses de Ürümqi más tarde ese mes mataron a nueve personas e hirieron a 68, y los grupos de exiliados uigures se atribuyeron la responsabilidad. [66] En marzo de 1997, una bomba en un autobús mató a dos personas, y los separatistas uigures y la "Organización para la Libertad del Turkestán Oriental" con sede en Turquía se atribuyeron la responsabilidad. [67]

Los disturbios de Ürümqi de julio de 2009 , que resultaron en más de cien muertes, estallaron en respuesta al incidente de Shaoguan , una violenta disputa entre trabajadores de fábricas uigures y chinos han. [68] Después de los disturbios, los terroristas uigures mataron a docenas de chinos han en ataques coordinados entre 2009 y 2016. [69] [70] Estos incluyeron los disturbios de Xinjiang de septiembre de 2009 , [71] el ataque de Hotan de 2011 , [72] el ataque de Kunming de 2014 , [73] el ataque de Ürümqi de abril de 2014 , [74] y el ataque de Ürümqi de mayo de 2014. [ 75] Los ataques fueron llevados a cabo por separatistas uigures, algunos de ellos orquestados por el Partido Islámico de Turkestán (una organización terrorista designada por la ONU, anteriormente llamada Movimiento Islámico de Turkestán Oriental). [76]

Tras los disturbios de Ürümqi, el primer ministro turco, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, denunció el “salvajismo” que se estaba infligiendo a la comunidad uigur y pidió que se pusiera fin a los intentos del gobierno chino de asimilar por la fuerza a la comunidad. Más tarde, en la cumbre del Grupo de los Ocho en Italia, Erdogan pidió a las autoridades chinas que intervinieran para proteger a la comunidad y afirmó que “los incidentes en China son, sencillamente, un genocidio. No tiene sentido interpretarlo de otra manera”. [77] [78] Como resultado de las declaraciones de Erdogan, las relaciones de China con Turquía se deterioraron temporalmente. [79] [80]

Políticas gubernamentales

Anuncios de empleo en la policía de Xinjiang por año
Gráfico del número de licitaciones de adquisiciones gubernamentales relacionadas con la reeducación en Xinjiang
Número de licitaciones de adquisiciones gubernamentales relacionadas con la "reeducación" en Xinjiang

Campaña inicial de “mano dura contra el terrorismo violento”

En vísperas de los Juegos Olímpicos de Pekín 2008 , el Estado chino empezó a hacer hincapié en el mantenimiento de la estabilidad, lo que condujo a una intensificación de la represión en todo el país. Algunos miembros del Partido advirtieron que una mayor acción para combatir una inestabilidad que tal vez ni siquiera exista podría conducir a una espiral de represión y disturbios. [2]

En abril de 2010, después de los disturbios de Ürümqi de julio de 2009, Zhang Chunxian reemplazó al ex secretario del PCCh Wang Lequan , quien había estado detrás de las políticas religiosas en Xinjiang durante 14 años. [81] Después de los disturbios, los teóricos del partido comenzaron a pedir la implementación de una sociedad más monocultural con una sola "raza estatal" que permitiría a China convertirse en "un nuevo tipo de superpotencia".

Las políticas para promover este objetivo fueron implementadas por primera vez por Zhang Chunxian. Después de un ataque en la provincia de Yunnan , Xi Jinping le dijo al politburó: “Debemos unir al pueblo para construir un muro de cobre y hierro contra el terrorismo” y “hacer que los terroristas sean como ratas que corren por la calle, mientras todo el mundo grita: ‘¡Golpéenlos! ”. En abril de 2014, Xi viajó a Xinjiang y le dijo a la policía en Kashgar que “debemos ser tan duros como ellos y no mostrar piedad en absoluto”. Un atentado suicida ocurrió en Ürümqi el último día de su visita. [2]

En 2014, se celebró una reunión secreta de la dirigencia del PCCh en Beijing para encontrar una solución al problema, que se conocería como la Campaña de Mano Dura Contra el Terrorismo Violento . [2] En mayo de 2014, China lanzó públicamente la campaña en Xinjiang en respuesta a las crecientes tensiones entre los chinos han y las poblaciones uigur de Xinjiang. [82] [83] Al anunciar la campaña, el secretario general del PCCh, Xi Jinping, declaró que "la práctica ha demostrado que la estrategia de gobierno de nuestro partido en Xinjiang es correcta y debe mantenerse a largo plazo". [84]

En 2016, los uigures con pasaporte tuvieron una breve oportunidad de abandonar China; muchos lo hicieron, pero tuvieron que dejar atrás a sus familiares y niños sin pasaporte. Muchas de esas familias no se han reunido. [85]

Siguiendo las instrucciones de Beijing, el liderazgo del PCCh en Xinjiang inició una “ Guerra Popular ” contra las “Tres Fuerzas del Mal”: el separatismo, el terrorismo y el extremismo. Desplegaron doscientos mil cuadros del partido en Xinjiang y lanzaron el programa de emparejamiento de funcionarios públicos y familias . Xi no estaba satisfecho con los resultados iniciales de la Guerra Popular y reemplazó a Zhang Chunxian por Chen Quanguo en 2016. Tras su nombramiento, Chen supervisó el reclutamiento de decenas de miles de oficiales de policía adicionales y la división de la sociedad en tres categorías: confiables, promedio y no confiables. Instruyó a sus subordinados a “tomar esta ofensiva como el proyecto principal” y “anticiparse al enemigo, atacar desde el principio”. [2]

Normativa desde 2017

Tras reunirse con Xi en Pekín, Chen Quanguo celebró un mitin en Ürümqi con diez mil soldados, helicópteros y vehículos blindados. Mientras desfilaban, anunció una "ofensiva aplastante y aniquiladora" y declaró que "enterrarían los cadáveres de los terroristas y las bandas terroristas en el vasto mar de la Guerra Popular". Les ordenó "acorralar a todos los que deban ser acorralados" y, en abril de 2017, habían comenzado las detenciones masivas. [2] El 1 de abril de 2017 se implementaron nuevas prohibiciones y regulaciones. Se prohibieron las barbas anormalmente largas y el uso del velo en público. Se prohibió no ver la televisión estatal o escuchar transmisiones de radio, negarse a cumplir con las políticas de planificación familiar o negarse a permitir que los hijos asistan a escuelas estatales. [86]

En 2017, el Ministerio de Seguridad Pública de China comenzó a adquirir sistemas de vigilancia basados ​​en la raza que, según se informa, podían identificar si una persona era uigur o no. A pesar de su cuestionable precisión, esto permitió que se añadiera una "alarma uigur" a los sistemas de vigilancia. También se implementaron controles fronterizos reforzados, en los que se presumía la culpabilidad en ausencia de pruebas. Zhu Hailun, secretario del Partido Comunista de Kashgar, firmó un boletín en 2017 que presumía la culpabilidad de las personas de Xinjing que habían viajado al extranjero. Según Zhu, "si no se puede descartar la sospecha de terrorismo, entonces se debería implementar un control fronterizo para asegurar la detención de la persona". [2]

En 2017, el 73% de los periodistas extranjeros en China informaron que se les había restringido o prohibido informar en Xinjiang, frente al 42% en 2016. [87]

Los supuestos esfuerzos de "reeducación" comenzaron en 2014 y se ampliaron en 2017. [88] [89] Chen ordenó que los campos "se gestionaran como el ejército y se defendieran como una prisión". [2] En ese momento, se construyeron campos de internamiento para albergar a los estudiantes de los programas de "reeducación", la mayoría de los cuales eran uigures. El gobierno chino no reconoció su existencia hasta 2018 y los llamó "centros de educación y formación profesional". [88] [90] A partir de 2019, el gobierno comenzó a referirse a ellos como "centros de formación profesional". Los campos triplicaron su tamaño de 2018 a 2019 a pesar de que el gobierno chino afirmó que la mayoría de los detenidos habían sido liberados. [88]

El uso de estos centros parece haber terminado en 2019 tras la presión internacional. [91] El académico Kerry Brown atribuye su cierre a finales de 2019 al gasto necesario para su funcionamiento. [92] : 138  Aunque hasta octubre de 2022 no se han realizado encuestas independientes exhaustivas de dichos centros, las comprobaciones aleatorias realizadas por periodistas han descubierto que dichos sitios se han reconvertido o abandonado. [91] En 2022, un periodista del Washington Post revisó una docena de sitios previamente identificados como centros de reeducación y descubrió que "la mayoría de ellos parecían estar vacíos o reconvertidos, y varios sitios estaban etiquetados como instalaciones de cuarentena por coronavirus, escuelas de profesores y escuelas vocacionales". [91]

Campaña de propaganda

El gobierno chino ha emprendido una campaña de propaganda para defender sus acciones en Xinjiang. [93] [94] [95] [96] Inicialmente, China negó la existencia de los campos de internamiento de Xinjiang e intentó encubrir su existencia. [97] En 2018, después de que una amplia cobertura mediática lo obligara a admitir la existencia de los campos de internamiento de Xinjiang, el gobierno chino inició una campaña para retratar los campos como humanos y negar que se produjeran abusos de los derechos humanos en Xinjiang. [98] En 2020 y 2021, la campaña de propaganda se expandió debido a la creciente reacción internacional contra las políticas gubernamentales, [99] y el gobierno chino temía que ya no tuviera el control de la narrativa. [97]

Las autoridades chinas han respondido a las acusaciones de abusos por parte de mujeres uigures con ataques personales, como la divulgación de información médica y personal confidencial en un intento de calumniar a los testigos y socavar su testimonio. [100] El objetivo de estos ataques parecía ser silenciar más críticas, en lugar de refutar afirmaciones específicas hechas por los críticos. [101] Las presentaciones realizadas por el departamento de publicidad de Xinjiang y el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores para disipar las acusaciones de abuso están cerradas a los periodistas extranjeros y presentan preguntas pregrabadas, así como monólogos pregrabados de personas de Xinjiang, incluidos familiares de los testigos. [100]

Los ataques propagandísticos del gobierno chino también han tenido como objetivo a periodistas internacionales que cubren abusos de los derechos humanos en Xinjiang. [102] [103] [104] Después de proporcionar una cobertura crítica de los abusos del gobierno chino en Xinjiang, el reportero de BBC News John Sudworth fue sometido a una campaña de propaganda y acoso por parte de los medios de comunicación afiliados al estado chino y al PCCh. [102] [105] [106] Los ataques públicos dieron como resultado que Sudworth y su esposa Yvonne Murray , que informa para Raidió Teilifís Éireann , huyeran de China a Taiwán por temor a su seguridad. [105] [107]

El gobierno chino ha utilizado las redes sociales como parte de su campaña de propaganda. [94] [108] [109] [110] El gobierno compró anuncios en Facebook para difundir propaganda diseñada para incitar dudas sobre la existencia y el alcance de las violaciones de los derechos humanos que ocurren en Xinjiang. [94] [110] [111] Douyin presenta a sus usuarios propaganda estatal china relacionada con los abusos de los derechos humanos en Xinjiang. [108] [112] [113] Entre julio de 2019 y principios de agosto de 2019, el tabloide propiedad del PCCh , Global Times, pagó a Twitter para promover tuits que negaban que el gobierno chino estuviera cometiendo abusos de los derechos humanos en Xinjiang; Twitter luego prohibió la publicidad de los medios de comunicación controlados por el estado el 19 de agosto después de eliminar una gran cantidad de bots pro-Beijing de la red social. [114] [115]

En abril de 2021, el gobierno chino publicó cinco vídeos de propaganda titulados "Xinjiang es una tierra maravillosa" y lanzó un musical titulado "Las alas de las canciones" que retrataba a Xinjiang como armoniosa y pacífica. [93] [95] [116] Las alas de las canciones retrata "un idilio rural de cohesión étnica desprovisto de represión, vigilancia masiva" y sin Islam. [117]

En junio de 2021, ProPublica documentó una campaña de propaganda respaldada por el gobierno chino en Twitter y YouTube que incluía más de 5000 videos analizados. Los videos mostraban a uigures en Xinjiang negando abusos y regañando a funcionarios extranjeros y corporaciones multinacionales que habían cuestionado el historial de derechos humanos de China en la provincia. Algunas de las cuentas de los videos fueron eliminadas en YouTube como parte de los esfuerzos de YouTube para combatir el spam y las operaciones de influencia. [118]

En octubre de 2022, el Instituto Australiano de Política Estratégica documentó que varios influencers uigures respaldados por el PCCh en Xinjiang publicaban videos de propaganda en las redes sociales chinas y occidentales que respondían a las acusaciones de abuso. Algunas de las cuentas de los influencers fueron suspendidas en Twitter por supuesta falta de autenticidad. [119]

El 30 de octubre de 2023, la embajada de China en Francia publicó una foto en X comparando los edificios en Xinjiang, que estaban intactos, con los edificios en Gaza que habían sido destruidos en la guerra entre Israel y Hamás . [120] El líder del Gobierno en el exilio del Turkestán Oriental, Salih Hudayar , y el abogado uigur Rayhan Asat criticaron la foto como propaganda y argumentaron que la represión de China era más generalizada que la situación en Gaza. [120] [121]

Justificación de la lucha contra el terrorismo

China ha utilizado la " guerra contra el terrorismo " global de la década de 2000 para enmarcar los disturbios "separatistas" y étnicos como actos de terrorismo islamista para legitimar sus políticas en Xinjiang. [122] Académicos como Sean Roberts y David Tobin han descrito la islamofobia y el miedo al terrorismo como discursos que se han utilizado dentro de China para justificar políticas represivas dirigidas a los uigures, argumentando que la violencia contra los uigures debe verse en el contexto del colonialismo chino , en lugar de exclusivamente como parte de una campaña antiterrorista. [123] Según el académico David Tobin, desde 2012, "la educación china sobre los uigures tiende a enmarcar las identidades uigures como amenazas existenciales racializadas, culturalmente externas que deben ser derrotadas por la violencia estatal o enseñándoles a ser chinos". [124]

Arienne Dwyer ha escrito que la guerra de Estados Unidos contra el terrorismo dio a China la oportunidad de caracterizar y “combinar” el nacionalismo uigur con el terrorismo, en particular mediante el uso de los medios de comunicación estatales . Dwyer sostiene que China exagera la influencia de las formas fundamentalistas del Islam, como el salafismo, en Xinjiang, ya que está atenuada por el sufismo uigur . [57]

En diciembre de 2015, Associated Press informó que China había expulsado efectivamente a Ursula Gauthier , una periodista francesa, "por cuestionar la línea oficial que equipara la violencia étnica en la región musulmana occidental con el terrorismo global". [125] Gauthier, quien fue la primera periodista extranjera obligada a abandonar China desde 2012, fue objeto de lo que AP describió como una "campaña abusiva e intimidante" por parte de los medios estatales chinos que la acusaron de "haber herido los sentimientos del pueblo chino " y que un portavoz del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de China la acusó de envalentonar el terrorismo. [125]

En agosto de 2018, el Comité de las Naciones Unidas para la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial condenó la "amplia definición de terrorismo y las vagas referencias al extremismo" utilizadas por la legislación china, y señaló que había numerosos informes sobre la detención de un gran número de personas de etnia uigur y otras minorías musulmanas con el "pretexto de luchar contra el terrorismo". [126]

En 2019, el consejo editorial de The Wall Street Journal , Sam Brownback y Nathan Sales dijeron cada uno que el gobierno chino utilizó sistemáticamente el "contraterrorismo" como pretexto para la supresión cultural y los abusos de los derechos humanos. [127] [128]

En 2021, Shirzat Bawudun , exjefe del Departamento de Justicia de Xinjiang, y Sattar Sawut , exjefe del Departamento de Educación de Xinjiang, fueron condenados a muerte con dos años de indulto por cargos de terrorismo y separatismo. [129] [130] Otros tres educadores y dos editores de libros de texto recibieron sentencias menores. [131]

Violaciones de los derechos humanos

Dentro de los campos de internamiento

Detención masiva

Especialmente desde 2016, los campos de internamiento han sido parte de la estrategia del gobierno chino para gobernar Xinjiang [132] a través de la detención masiva de minorías étnicas . [133] Según Adrian Zenz , un investigador de los campos, los internamientos masivos alcanzaron su punto máximo en 2018 y han disminuido desde entonces, y los funcionarios han cambiado el enfoque hacia los programas de trabajo forzado. [134] En septiembre de 2023, Amnistía Internacional dijo que estaban "presenciando cada vez más detenciones arbitrarias", pero que las personas detenidas estaban siendo trasladadas de los campos a "prisiones formales" chinas . [135] En abril de 2024 , el Proyecto de Derechos Humanos Uigur estimó que China había encarcelado a 449.000 uigures o aproximadamente uno de cada 17. [136]

En 2021, la CNN publicó una entrevista con un ex oficial de policía de Xinjiang identificado como "Jiang", quien dijo que, cuando la policía planeaba hacer una redada en una aldea uigur, a veces organizaba una reunión de toda la aldea con su jefe para que la policía pudiera presentarse y arrestar a todos, mientras que en otras ocasiones la policía iba puerta por puerta con rifles y sacaba a todos los residentes de sus casas durante la noche. Una vez que la policía había arrestado a las personas, interrogaba y golpeaba a todos los hombres, mujeres y niños mayores de 14 años "hasta que se arrodillaban en el suelo llorando". [137]

Los investigadores y las organizaciones han realizado diversas estimaciones del número de detenidos en los campos de internamiento de Xinjiang. En 2018, la vicepresidenta del Comité de las Naciones Unidas para la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial, Gay McDougall, indicó que alrededor de 1 millón de uigures estaban recluidos en campos de internamiento. [138] Aunque McDougall no citó fuentes para su declaración, era coherente con un informe presentado al comité por la Red de Defensores de los Derechos Humanos de China . [138] Otras estimaciones presentadas al comité fueron más cuidadosas: Human Rights Watch estimó al menos decenas de miles y Amnistía Internacional estimó entre decenas de miles y cientos de miles de detenidos. [138] En septiembre de 2020, un libro blanco del gobierno chino afirmó que una media de 1,29 millones de trabajadores pasaron por "formación profesional" al año entre 2014 y 2019, aunque no especifica cuántas de las personas recibieron la formación en los campos ni cuántas veces la recibieron. Adrian Zenz afirmó que esto "nos da una idea del posible alcance del trabajo forzoso" que se lleva a cabo en Xinjiang. [139] Ha habido múltiples informes de que han ocurrido muertes en masa dentro de los campos. [140] [141] [142]

En marzo de 2019, Adrian Zenz dijo a las Naciones Unidas que 1,5 millones de uigures habían sido detenidos en campos, diciendo que la cifra explicaba el aumento del tamaño y el alcance de la detención en la región y la información pública sobre las historias de exiliados uigures con familiares en campos de internamiento. [143] En julio de 2019, Zenz escribió en un artículo publicado por el Journal of Political Risk que 1,5 millones de uigures habían sido detenidos extrajudicialmente, lo que describió como "un equivalente a poco menos de uno de cada seis miembros adultos de un grupo minoritario turco y predominantemente musulmán en Xinjiang". [144] En noviembre de 2019, Zenz estimó que el número de campos de internamiento en Xinjiang había superado los 1.000. [145] En julio de 2020, Zenz escribió en Foreign Policy que su estimación había aumentado desde noviembre de 2019, estimando que un total de 1,8 millones de uigures y otras minorías musulmanas habían sido detenidos extrajudicialmente en lo que describió como "el mayor encarcelamiento de una minoría etnoreligiosa desde el Holocausto", argumentando que el Gobierno chino estaba aplicando políticas que violaban la Convención de las Naciones Unidas para la Prevención y la Sanción del Delito de Genocidio. [146]

Según un estudio de 2020 de Joanne Smith Finley, “la reeducación política implica la sinización coercitiva, las muertes en los campos por desnutrición, condiciones insalubres, falta de atención médica y violencia (palizas); la violación de prisioneros hombres y mujeres; y, desde finales de 2018, el traslado de los prisioneros más recalcitrantes –por lo general, varones jóvenes y religiosos– a prisiones de alta seguridad en Xinjiang o en el interior de China. Otros “graduados” de los campos han sido enviados a trabajos forzados securitizados. A los que permanecen fuera de los campos se les ha aterrorizado hasta la autocensura religiosa y cultural mediante la amenaza del internamiento”. [3]

El investigador estadounidense Ethan Gutmann estimó en diciembre de 2020 que entre el 5 y el 10 por ciento de los detenidos habían muerto cada año en los campos. [147] El académico ruso-estadounidense Gene Bunin [148] creó la Base de Datos de Víctimas de Xinjiang que había documentado 12.050 víctimas en abril de 2021, [149] y 225 muertes de personas que cumplían sentencias oficiales de prisión hasta noviembre de 2023. [150] La base de datos fue objeto de burlas en línea después de que incluyera fotos de los actores de Hong Kong Andy Lau y Chow Yun-fat en una lista de agentes de policía supuestamente responsables de las medidas represivas. [151] [152] [153]

Tortura

Mihrigul Tursun , ex detenida de los campos de internamiento de Xinjiang

Grupos de derechos humanos y otros han informado que los uigures que viven en Xinjiang han sido sometidos a tortura por parte de las autoridades. [154] [155] [156] Un ex detective de la policía china, exiliado en Europa, reveló a CNN en 2021 detalles de la tortura sistemática de uigures en campos de detención en Xinjiang, actos en los que había participado y el temor a su propio arresto si hubiera disentido mientras estaba en China. [137] [157] : 24  [ verificación fallida ]

Mihrigul Tursun , una joven madre uigur, dijo que fue "torturada y sometida a otras condiciones brutales". [158] En 2018, Tursun dio una entrevista [159] [160] durante la cual describió su experiencia mientras estaba en los campos; fue drogada, interrogada durante días sin dormir, sometida a exámenes médicos intrusivos y atada a una silla y recibió descargas eléctricas . Era la tercera vez que la enviaban a un campo desde 2015. Tursun dijo a los periodistas que recordaba que los interrogadores le dijeron "Ser uigur es un crimen". [158] La portavoz del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de China, Hua Chunying, declaró que Tursun fue detenida por la policía bajo "sospecha de incitar al odio étnico y la discriminación" durante un período de 20 días y negó que Tursun haya sido detenida alguna vez en un campo de internamiento. [160] [161] [162]

Otro ex detenido, Kayrat Samarkand, describió que llevaba "lo que llamaban 'ropa de hierro', un traje hecho de metal que pesaba más de 50 libras [23 kg]... Me obligaba a tener los brazos y las piernas en una posición estirada. No podía moverme en absoluto y me dolía muchísimo la espalda... Obligaban a la gente a llevar esta cosa para quebrantarles el espíritu. Después de 12 horas, me volví tan blanda, tranquila y legal". [163]

Se dice que el ahogamiento es una de las formas de tortura que se han utilizado como parte del proceso de adoctrinamiento. [164]

Esterilizaciones obligatorias y anticoncepción

En 2019, comenzaron a aparecer informes sobre esterilizaciones forzadas en Xinjiang. [165] [166] [167] Zumrat Dwut, una mujer uigur, dice que fue esterilizada a la fuerza mediante ligadura de trompas durante su estancia en un campo antes de que su marido pudiera sacarla mediante solicitudes a diplomáticos paquistaníes. [17] [168] El gobierno regional de Xinjiang niega que haya sido esterilizada a la fuerza. [17] Sayragul Sauytbay, una maestra de etnia kazaja que más tarde huyó de China, dijo que la violación y la tortura eran algo habitual y que las autoridades obligaban a los detenidos a tomar un medicamento que dejaba a algunas personas estériles o con deterioro cognitivo. [169]

En 2020, Associated Press entrevistó a siete ex detenidas de campos de internamiento que dijeron que las habían obligado a tomar píldoras anticonceptivas o les habían inyectado líquidos sin explicación, lo que hizo que las mujeres dejaran de tener períodos. AP sugirió que el líquido podría haber sido el medicamento hormonal Depo-Provera , que se usa comúnmente en los hospitales de Xinjiang para el control de la natalidad. [9]

En abril de 2021, la doctora uigur exiliada Gülgine informó de que la esterilización forzada de personas de etnia uigur persistía desde la década de 1980. [170] Desde 2014, ha habido indicios de un fuerte aumento de la esterilización de mujeres uigures para garantizar que los uigures siguieran siendo una minoría en la región. [170] Gülgine dijo que "algunos días se realizaban unas 80 cirugías para llevar a cabo esterilizaciones forzadas". Presentó dispositivos intrauterinos (DIU) y comentó que "estos dispositivos se insertaban en el útero de las mujeres" para provocar infertilidad a la fuerza. [170]

Lavado del cerebro

Kayrat Samarkand, un ex detenido, describió su rutina en el campo en un artículo para la NPR en 2018: “Además de vivir en espacios reducidos, dice que los reclusos tenían que cantar canciones que alababan al líder chino Xi Jinping antes de que se les permitiera comer. Dice que los detenidos eran obligados a memorizar una lista de lo que él llama '126 mentiras' sobre la religión: 'La religión es opio , la religión es mala, no debes creer en ninguna religión, debes creer en el Partido Comunista', recuerda. 'Solo [el] Partido Comunista podría llevarte a un futuro brillante ' ” . [163]

Un funcionario chino anónimo filtró documentos al New York Times y advirtió que “si los estudiantes preguntan si sus padres desaparecidos cometieron un delito, se les debe decir que no, que es sólo que su pensamiento ha sido infectado por pensamientos malsanos. La libertad sólo es posible cuando este ‘virus’ en su pensamiento se ha erradicado y ellos gozan de buena salud”. [171]

La Heritage Foundation, una organización de extrema derecha estadounidense , afirmó que “los niños cuyos padres están detenidos en los campos suelen ser enviados a orfanatos estatales y se les lava el cerebro para que olviden sus raíces étnicas. Incluso si sus padres no están detenidos, los niños uigures necesitan trasladarse al interior de China y sumergirse en la cultura han en virtud de la política de “aulas en Xinjiang” del gobierno chino”. [172]

En 2021, Gulbahar Haitiwaji denunció que la obligaron a denunciar a su familia después de que fotografiaran a su hija en una protesta en París. [173]

Trabajo forzado

Según Quartz , el Proyecto de Derechos Humanos Uigur describe la región de Xinjiang como un " gulag del algodón " donde el trabajo penitenciario está presente en todos los pasos de la cadena de suministro del algodón... [174]

Tahir Hamut, un uigur, trabajó en un campo de trabajo durante la escuela primaria cuando era niño, y más tarde trabajó en un campo de trabajo cuando era adulto, realizando tareas como recoger algodón, palear grava y fabricar ladrillos. “Todos están obligados a realizar todo tipo de trabajos forzados o se enfrentan a un castigo”, dijo. “Cualquiera que no pueda cumplir con sus deberes será golpeado”. [175]

En diciembre de 2020, BuzzFeed News informó que "es casi seguro que se está llevando a cabo trabajo forzoso a gran escala" dentro de los campos de internamiento de Xinjiang, con 135 instalaciones fabriles identificadas dentro de los campos que cubren más de 21 millones de pies cuadrados (2,0 km2 ) de tierra. [176] El informe señaló que "solo en 2018 se construyeron "catorce millones de pies cuadrados de nuevas fábricas" dentro de los campos y que "los ex detenidos dijeron que nunca se les dio la opción de trabajar y que ganaban una miseria o ningún salario en absoluto". [176]

Un sitio web chino alojado por Baidu ha publicado listados de trabajos para transferir trabajadores uigures en grupos de 50 a 100 personas. [177] El Plan Quinquenal de 2019 del gobierno de Xinjiang tiene un "programa de transferencia de mano de obra" oficial "para proporcionar más oportunidades de empleo para la fuerza laboral rural excedente". [177] Estos grupos de uigures están bajo una gestión de estilo "semimilitar" y una supervisión directa. El propietario de una planta procesadora de mariscos dijo que la fuerza laboral uigur de su fábrica se había ido a Xinjiang debido a la pandemia de COVID-19 y que se les pagaba y alojaba adecuadamente. [177] Se descubrió que al menos 83 empresas se habían beneficiado de la mano de obra uigur. Las respuestas de las empresas incluyeron promesas de garantizar que no volviera a suceder verificando las líneas de suministro, como Marks & Spencer . Samsung dijo que se aseguraría de que los controles anteriores aseguraran buenas condiciones de trabajo según su código de conducta. Apple , Esprit y Fila no ofrecieron respuestas a las consultas relacionadas. [178]

Se informa que el gobierno chino ha presionado a las empresas extranjeras para que rechacen las denuncias de abusos. [179] El gobierno chino le pidió a Apple que censurara las aplicaciones de noticias relacionadas con los uigures, entre otras, en sus dispositivos vendidos en China. [180] Empresas como Nike y Adidas fueron boicoteadas en China después de que criticaran el trato a los uigures, lo que resultó en una caída significativa de las ventas. [181]

Experimentos médicos

Los ex reclusos han declarado que fueron sometidos a experimentos médicos. [182] [183]

Violaciones masivas organizadas y tortura sexual

Entre 2019 y 2021, BBC News y otras fuentes informaron sobre casos de violaciones masivas organizadas y torturas sexuales llevadas a cabo por las autoridades chinas en los campos de internamiento. [184] [185] [186] [187] [188] [189]

Varias mujeres que estuvieron detenidas en los campos de internamiento de Xinjiang han hecho acusaciones públicas de abuso sexual sistemático, incluyendo violación, violación en grupo y tortura sexual, como penetraciones vaginales y anales forzadas con bastones eléctricos , [190] y frotamiento de pasta de chile en los genitales . [191] [192] Sayragul Sauytbay, una maestra que fue obligada a trabajar en los campos, dijo a la BBC que los empleados del campo de internamiento en el que estaba detenida llevaron a cabo violaciones en masa , diciendo que los guardias del campo "escogían a las niñas y mujeres jóvenes que querían y se las llevaban". [186] También le contó a la BBC sobre una violación en grupo organizada, en la que una mujer de unos 21 años fue obligada a hacer una confesión frente a una multitud de otras 100 mujeres detenidas en los campos, antes de ser violada por varios policías frente a la multitud reunida. [186] En 2018, una entrevista de Globe and Mail con Sauytbay indicó que ella no vio personalmente la violencia en el campo, pero sí fue testigo de la desnutrición y una completa falta de libertad. [193] Tursunay Ziawudun, una mujer que estuvo detenida en los campos de internamiento durante un período de nueve meses, dijo a la BBC que las mujeres eran sacadas de sus celdas todas las noches para ser violadas por hombres chinos con máscaras y que ella fue sometida a tres casos separados de violación en grupo mientras estaba detenida. [186] En una entrevista anterior, Ziawudun informó que si bien "no fue golpeada ni abusada" mientras estaba en los campos, en cambio fue sometida a largos interrogatorios, obligada a ver propaganda, le cortaron el pelo, estuvo bajo vigilancia constante y la mantuvieron en condiciones de frío con mala alimentación, lo que la llevó a desarrollar anemia . [194] Qelbinur Sedik, una mujer uzbeka de Xinjiang, ha declarado que la policía china abusó sexualmente de los detenidos durante las torturas con descargas eléctricas, diciendo que "había cuatro tipos de descargas eléctricas... la silla, el guante, el casco y la violación anal con un palo". [186]

Los funcionarios del gobierno chino niegan todas las acusaciones de que se han producido abusos de los derechos humanos en los campos de internamiento. [186] Reuters informó en marzo de 2021 que los funcionarios del gobierno chino también revelaron información médica personal de las mujeres testigos en un esfuerzo por desacreditarlas. [195]

En febrero de 2021, la BBC publicó un extenso informe en el que se denunciaba que se estaban produciendo abusos sexuales sistemáticos en los campos. [196] Se alegaba que las violaciones en grupo y la tortura sexual formaban parte de una cultura sistémica de violación que incluía tanto a policías como a personas de fuera de los campos que pagan por pasar tiempo con las chicas más bonitas. [185] La CNN informó en febrero de 2021 sobre una trabajadora y varias ex reclusas que sobrevivieron a los campos; proporcionaron detalles sobre asesinatos, torturas y violaciones en los campos, que describieron como algo que ocurría de forma rutinaria. [197]

Fuera de los campos de internamiento

Los DIU y los métodos anticonceptivos

China realiza controles regulares de embarazo a mujeres pertenecientes a minorías en Xinjiang. [9] Algunos funcionarios del PCCh han hablado sobre el "desequilibrio demográfico" en el sur de Xinjiang; Liu Yilei, subsecretario general del Comité del PCCh del Cuerpo de Producción y Construcción de Xinjiang, dijo que "la proporción de la población han en el sur de Xinjiang es demasiado baja, menos del 15 por ciento. El problema del desequilibrio demográfico es el problema central del sur de Xinjiang". [198]

Zenz informó que el 80% de las "nuevas" colocaciones de DIU en China (definidas en su estudio como las colocaciones totales de DIU menos las extracciones de DIU) en 2018 ocurrieron en Xinjiang, a pesar de que la región constituye solo el 1,8% de la población del país. [199] [200] [201] Al evaluar el análisis de Zenz, el profesor de la Universidad de Xinjiang , Lin Fangfei, argumentó que la medida apropiada es que el 8,7% de las operaciones de DIU se realizaron en Xinjiang, y agregó que el crecimiento de la población uigur fue mayor que el crecimiento de la población han en la región. [202] [203]

Zenz informó que las tasas de natalidad en los condados cuya población mayoritaria consiste en minorías étnicas comenzaron a caer en 2015, "el mismo año en que el gobierno comenzó a señalar el vínculo entre el crecimiento de la población y el 'extremismo religioso ' ". [199] : 8  Antes de las recientes caídas en las tasas de natalidad, la población uigur había tenido una tasa de crecimiento 2,6 veces mayor que la de los han entre 2005 y 2015. [199] : 5  Según el análisis de Zenz de los documentos del gobierno chino, el gobierno chino había planeado esterilizar entre el 14% y el 34% de las mujeres casadas en edad fértil en dos condados predominantemente uigures en 2019, mientras buscaba esterilizar al 80% de las mujeres en edad fértil en cuatro prefecturas rurales en el sur de Xinjiang que están habitadas principalmente por minorías étnicas. [204]

Según un fax proporcionado a CNN por el gobierno regional de Xinjiang, las tasas de natalidad en Xinjiang cayeron un 32,68% de 2017 a 2018. [17] En 2019, las tasas de natalidad cayeron un 24% año tras año, una caída significativamente mayor que la disminución del 4,2% en los nacimientos experimentados en toda la República Popular China. [9] [17] [205] Según Zenz, las tasas de crecimiento de la población en las dos prefecturas uigures más grandes de Xinjiang, Kashgar y Hotan, cayeron un 84% entre 2015 y 2018. [11] [206]

Según Adrian Zenz, los documentos del gobierno chino establecen que las violaciones de las normas de control de la natalidad de los uigures se castigan con internamiento extrajudicial. [207] Los registros oficiales del condado de Karakax entre 2017 y 2019 filtrados al Financial Times mostraron que la razón más común para detener a los uigures en campos era la violación de las políticas de planificación familiar, y la segunda razón más común era la práctica del Islam. Un informe del gobierno de Karakax de 2018 decía que había implementado "políticas de planificación familiar extremadamente estrictas". [208]

La Heritage Foundation informó en 2019 que los funcionarios obligaron a las mujeres uigures a tomar drogas y líquidos desconocidos que les hacían perder el conocimiento y, a veces, les hacían dejar de menstruar. [172] En 2020, una investigación de Associated Press informó que el control de la natalidad forzado en Xinjiang estaba "mucho más extendido y sistemático de lo que se sabía anteriormente", y que las autoridades chinas habían obligado a la inserción de DIU, la esterilización y los abortos a "cientos de miles" de mujeres uigures y de otras minorías. [9] Muchas mujeres afirmaron que las obligaron a recibir implantes anticonceptivos . [13] [191] Se desconoce la escala total de la esterilización forzada en Xinjiang, en parte debido a la incapacidad del gobierno chino para recopilar o compartir datos, así como a la renuencia de las víctimas a presentarse debido al estigma. [209] Las medidas se han comparado con la política anterior de hijo único de China dirigida a su población Han. [210] [211]

Según CNN, las autoridades regionales no discuten la disminución de las tasas de natalidad, pero niegan que se esté produciendo genocidio y esterilización forzada; las autoridades de Xinjiang sostienen que la disminución de las tasas de natalidad se debe a "la implementación integral de la política de planificación familiar ". [17] La ​​Embajada de China en los Estados Unidos dijo que la política era positiva y empoderadora para las mujeres uigures, escribiendo que, "en el proceso de erradicación del extremismo, las mentes de las mujeres uigures se emanciparon y se promovió la igualdad de género y la salud reproductiva , haciendo que ya no sean máquinas de hacer bebés. Son más seguras e independientes". Twitter eliminó el tuit por violar sus políticas. [100] [212]

Cohabitación forzada, colecho, violación y aborto

A partir de 2018, [213] más de un millón de empleados del gobierno chino comenzaron a vivir a la fuerza en los hogares de familias uigures para monitorear y evaluar la resistencia a la asimilación, así como para vigilar las prácticas religiosas y culturales mal vistas. [214]

El programa " Emparejense y formen una familia " asignó a hombres chinos Han para que vigilaran los hogares de los uigures y durmieran en las mismas camas que las mujeres uigures. [215] Según Radio Free Asia, estos trabajadores gubernamentales chinos Han fueron entrenados para llamarse a sí mismos "parientes" y obligados a cohabitar hogares uigures con el propósito de promover la "unidad étnica". [214] Radio Free Asia informa que estos hombres "duermen regularmente en las mismas camas que las esposas de los hombres detenidos en los campos de internamiento de la región". [216] Los funcionarios chinos sostuvieron que dormir juntos es aceptable, siempre que se mantenga una distancia de un metro entre las mujeres y el "pariente" asignado al hogar uigur. [216] Los activistas uigures afirman que no se lleva a cabo tal restricción, citando cifras de embarazos y matrimonios forzados, y califican el programa de campaña de "violaciones masivas disfrazadas de 'matrimonio'". [ cita requerida ] Human Rights Watch ha condenado el programa como una " práctica de asimilación forzada profundamente invasiva ", mientras que el Congreso Mundial Uigur afirma que representa la "aniquilación total de la seguridad y el bienestar de los miembros de la familia". [216]

Una mujer embarazada de 37 años de la región de Xinjiang dijo que había intentado renunciar a su ciudadanía china para vivir en Kazajstán, pero que el gobierno chino le había dicho que tenía que regresar a China para completar el proceso. Afirma que los funcionarios le confiscaron los pasaportes a ella y a sus dos hijos antes de obligarla a abortar para evitar que su hermano fuera detenido en un campo de internamiento. [217]

Un libro de Chandos Publishing escrito por Guo Rongxing afirma que el levantamiento de Barin de 1990 fue el resultado de 250 abortos forzados impuestos a mujeres uigures locales por el gobierno chino. [218]

Acusaciones y preocupaciones sobre la sustracción de órganos

Ethan Gutmann [219] afirma que la sustracción de órganos a prisioneros de conciencia se volvió común cuando los miembros del grupo étnico uigur fueron el blanco de las medidas de seguridad y las "campañas de mano dura" durante los años 1990. Según Gutmann, la sustracción de órganos a prisioneros uigures disminuyó en 1999, cuando los miembros del grupo religioso Falun Gong superaron a los uigures como fuente de órganos. [220] [221] [222]

En la década de 2010, resurgieron las preocupaciones sobre la sustracción de órganos a los uigures. [223] [224] Según una determinación unánime del Tribunal de China en mayo de 2020, China ha perseguido y sometido a pruebas médicas a los uigures. Su informe expresó preocupaciones de que los uigures eran vulnerables a ser sometidos a la sustracción de órganos , pero aún no tenía evidencia de que esto ocurriera. [225] [226] [227] [228] En noviembre de 2020, Gutmann dijo a RFA que un antiguo hospital en Aksu, China, que se había convertido en un campo de internamiento de Xinjiang, permitiría a los funcionarios locales agilizar el proceso de sustracción de órganos y proporcionar un flujo constante de órganos sustraídos a los uigures. [229] En un artículo de Haaretz de diciembre de 2020 , Gutmann afirmó que creía que al menos 25.000 personas estaban siendo asesinadas en Xinjiang por sus órganos cada año, afirmando que se habían creado "carriles rápidos" para el movimiento de órganos en los aeropuertos locales y que recientemente se habían construido crematorios en la provincia para poder disponer más fácilmente de los cuerpos de las víctimas. [219] [230]

En 2020, una mujer china denunció que se había asesinado a uigures para proporcionar órganos halal a clientes principalmente saudíes. También denunció que en uno de esos casos, ocurrido en 2006, 37 clientes saudíes recibieron órganos de uigures asesinados en el Departamento de Trasplante de Hígado del Hospital Taida de Tianjin. El Dr. Enver Tohti, ex cirujano oncólogo de Xinjiang, consideró que la acusación era creíble. [231] [232] [233]

En junio de 2021, los Procedimientos Especiales del Consejo de Derechos Humanos de las Naciones Unidas expresaron su preocupación por haber "recibido información fidedigna de que los detenidos pertenecientes a minorías étnicas, lingüísticas o religiosas pueden ser sometidos por la fuerza a análisis de sangre y exámenes de órganos, como ecografías y radiografías, sin su consentimiento informado; mientras que a otros presos no se les exige que se sometan a esos exámenes". El comunicado de prensa afirmaba que los expertos en derechos humanos de la ONU "estaban extremadamente alarmados por los informes sobre supuestas 'sustracciones forzadas de órganos' dirigidas a minorías, incluidos practicantes de Falun Gong, uigures, tibetanos, musulmanes y cristianos, detenidos en China". [234]

Trabajo forzado

A lo largo de la pandemia de COVID-19 , el gobierno chino ha impuesto condiciones de trabajo forzado a los uigures. [235] [236]

En enero de 2020, comenzaron a aparecer videos en Douyin que mostraban a un gran número de uigures siendo colocados en aviones, trenes y autobuses para ser transportados a programas de trabajo forzado en fábricas. [237] En marzo de 2020, se descubrió que el gobierno chino estaba utilizando a la minoría uigur como mano de obra forzada en talleres clandestinos . Según un informe publicado por el Instituto Australiano de Política Estratégica (ASPI), no menos de 80.000 uigures fueron sacados a la fuerza de Xinjiang para realizar trabajos forzados en al menos veintisiete fábricas en toda China. [238] Según el Centro de Recursos para Empresas y Derechos Humanos, una organización benéfica con sede en el Reino Unido, corporaciones como Abercrombie & Fitch , Adidas , Amazon , Apple , BMW , Fila , Gap , H&M , Inditex , Marks & Spencer , Nike , North Face , Puma , PVH , Samsung y Uniqlo se abastecían de estas fábricas. [11] [239] Más de 570.000 uigures se ven obligados a recoger algodón a mano en Xinjiang. [240] [241] Según un informe archivado de la Universidad de Nankai , el sistema de trabajo forzado chino está diseñado para reducir la densidad de población uigur. [242]

En total, en 2021, el gobierno chino había reubicado a más de 600.000 uigures en lugares de trabajo industriales como parte de sus programas de trabajo forzoso. [237] [236]

Fuera de China

Se ha acusado a China de coordinar esfuerzos para obligar a los uigures que viven en el extranjero a regresar a China, utilizando a familiares que aún se encuentran en China para presionar a los miembros de la diáspora. Los funcionarios chinos rechazan las acusaciones como invenciones. [243]

El sólido sistema de vigilancia de China se extiende al extranjero, con especial énfasis en el seguimiento de la diáspora uigur. [244] Según MIT Technology Review, "la piratería informática de China contra los uigures es tan agresiva que es efectivamente global y se extiende mucho más allá de las fronteras del país. Tiene como blanco a periodistas, disidentes y cualquiera que levante sospechas de que Beijing no es leal a su gobierno". [245]

En marzo de 2021, Facebook informó que piratas informáticos con sede en China habían estado realizando ciberespionaje contra miembros de la diáspora uigur. [246] [247]

Los uigures en los Emiratos Árabes Unidos, Egipto, Arabia Saudita y Turquía han sido detenidos y deportados a China, a veces separando a las familias. [248] [249] La CNN informó en junio de 2021 que "los activistas de derechos humanos temen que, incluso cuando las naciones occidentales reprenden a China por su trato a los uigures, los países de Oriente Medio y más allá estén cada vez más dispuestos a aceptar su represión de los miembros del grupo étnico en el país y en el extranjero". [248] Según Associated Press, "Dubái también tiene una historia como lugar donde los uigures son interrogados y deportados a China". [250]

Un informe conjunto del Proyecto de Derechos Humanos Uigur y la Sociedad Oxus para Asuntos de Asia Central encontró 1.546 casos de uigures detenidos y deportados a instancias de las autoridades chinas en 28 países entre 1997 y marzo de 2021. [251]

Uso de tecnología biométrica y de vigilancia

Las autoridades chinas utilizan tecnología biométrica para rastrear a las personas. [213] Según Yahir Imin, las autoridades chinas le extrajeron sangre, escanearon su rostro, registraron sus huellas dactilares y documentaron su voz. [213] China recopila material genético de millones de uigures. China utiliza tecnología de reconocimiento facial para clasificar a las personas por etnia y utiliza el ADN para determinar si un individuo es uigur. Se ha acusado a China de crear "tecnologías utilizadas para cazar personas". [252]

En 2017, la construcción relacionada con la seguridad se triplicó en Xinjiang. Charles Rollet afirmó que "los proyectos incluyen no solo cámaras de seguridad, sino también centros de análisis de video, sistemas de monitoreo inteligente, grandes centros de datos, puestos de control policial e incluso drones". [253] [254] El fabricante de drones DJI comenzó a proporcionar drones de vigilancia a la policía local en 2017. [255] Según ASPI , el Ministerio de Seguridad Pública invirtió miles de millones de dólares en dos planes gubernamentales: el proyecto Skynet (天网工程) y el proyecto Sharp Eyes (雪亮工程). [254] Estos dos proyectos intentaron utilizar el reconocimiento facial para "lograr resueltamente que no haya puntos ciegos, ni huecos, ni espacios en blanco" para 2020. [2] Un informe de ASPI destacó la afirmación de Morgan Stanley de que, para 2020, estarían en funcionamiento 400 millones de cámaras de vigilancia. [254] Las empresas chinas, incluidas SenseTime , CloudWalk , Yitu , Megvii y Hikvision , crearon algoritmos para permitir al gobierno chino rastrear al grupo minoritario musulmán. [256]

En julio de 2020, el Departamento de Comercio de los Estados Unidos sancionó a 11 empresas chinas, incluidas dos subsidiarias de BGI Group , por violar los derechos humanos de los musulmanes uigures al explotar su ADN. [257] BGI Group, junto con la empresa de inteligencia artificial y computación en la nube Group 42 , con sede en Abu Dhabi (acusada de espionaje en 2019), fueron nombradas por los departamentos de Seguridad Nacional y Estado de EE. UU. en una advertencia de octubre de 2020 emitida a Nevada contra el uso de los 200.000 kits de prueba de COVID-19 donados por los Emiratos Árabes Unidos bajo la asociación de G42 y BGI Group. Las agencias de inteligencia estadounidenses advirtieron a las potencias extranjeras que estaban explotando las muestras médicas de los pacientes para indagar en su historial médico, rasgos genéticos y enfermedades. [258]

Datos biométricos

Mientras era secretario del Partido de Xinjiang, Chen Quanguo lanzó "Exámenes físicos para todos", supuestamente un programa de atención médica. "Todos los residentes de Xinjiang entre las edades de doce y 65" debían proporcionar muestras de ADN. También se recogieron datos sobre "tipos de sangre, huellas dactilares, huellas de voz, patrones de iris". [2] Los funcionarios de Tumxuk recogieron cientos de muestras de sangre. [252] Los medios de comunicación estatales calificaron a Tumxuk de "campo de batalla importante para el trabajo de seguridad de Xinjiang". [252] En enero de 2018, se construyó allí un laboratorio forense de ADN supervisado por el Instituto de Ciencias Forenses de China. [252] Los documentos del laboratorio mostraron que utilizaba un software creado por Thermo Fisher Scientific , una empresa de Massachusetts. [252] Este software se utilizó en la correspondencia para crear secuenciadores genéticos, útiles para analizar el ADN. En respuesta, Thermo Fisher declaró en febrero que dejaría de vender a la región de Xinjiang como resultado de "evaluaciones específicas de los hechos". [252]

Seguimiento GPS de vehículos

Los funcionarios de seguridad ordenaron a los residentes de la región noroeste de China que instalaran dispositivos de rastreo GPS en sus vehículos, lo que permitiría a las autoridades rastrear sus movimientos. Las autoridades dijeron que "es necesario contrarrestar las actividades de los extremistas islámicos y separatistas". Un comunicado de los funcionarios de la prefectura autónoma mongol de Bayingolin proclamó que "existe una grave amenaza de terrorismo internacional, y los automóviles han sido utilizados como un medio clave de transporte para los terroristas, además de servir constantemente como armas. Por lo tanto, es necesario monitorear y rastrear todos los vehículos en la prefectura". [259]

Efectos culturales

Mezquitas

Mezquita en Tuyoq , Xinjiang (2005)

Las mezquitas, los santuarios musulmanes y los cementerios de Xinjiang han sido objeto de una destrucción sistemática. [2] [260] Se calcula que unas 16.000 mezquitas han sido destruidas o dañadas, se han derribado minaretes y se han "eliminado o pintado elementos decorativos". [2]

En 2005, Human Rights Watch informó que “la información difundida en fuentes oficiales sugiere que las represalias” contra las mezquitas no patrocinadas por el Estado chino eran frecuentes y que el Secretario del Partido de Xinjiang expresó que los uigures “no deberían tener que construir nuevos lugares para actividades religiosas”. [261] El gobierno chino prohibió a los menores participar en actividades religiosas en Xinjiang de una manera que, según Human Rights Watch, “no tiene base en la ley china”. [261]

Según un análisis de The Guardian , más de un tercio de las mezquitas y lugares religiosos en China sufrieron "daños estructurales significativos" entre 2016 y 2018, y casi una sexta parte de todas las mezquitas y santuarios fueron completamente arrasados. [262] Esto incluyó la tumba del imán Asim, una tumba de barro en el desierto de Taklamakan , y el santuario de Ordam en el mazar de Ali Arslan Khan . [263] Según The Guardian , los musulmanes uigures creen que las peregrinaciones repetidas a estas tumbas cumplen con la obligación del musulmán de completar el Hajj . [262] En 2019, Bellingcat informó que "hay una represión sistemática y encarcelamiento de la minoría musulmana uigur en Xinjiang, y la destrucción de edificios islámicos cultural y religiosamente significativos en esta provincia puede ser una parte más de esta represión en curso". [260] Ese mismo año, el erudito indonesio Said Aqil Siradj cuestionó que los uigures enfrentaran persecución, diciendo que había un número cada vez mayor de mezquitas construidas y reparadas en Xinjiang. [264] [265]

La mezquita Id Kah en Xinjiang es la más grande de China. [266] Radio Free Asia , una emisora ​​financiada por el gobierno de los Estados Unidos, informó que en 2018, las autoridades habían retirado una placa que contenía escrituras coránicas , que había estado colgada durante mucho tiempo fuera de la entrada principal de la mezquita. Turghunjan Alawudun, director del Congreso Mundial Uigur , dijo que la placa fue retirada como "un aspecto de las políticas malvadas del régimen chino destinadas a eliminar la fe islámica entre los uigures... y los propios uigures". [267] Anna Fifield de The Independent escribió en 2020 que Kashgar ya no tenía mezquitas en funcionamiento. [268] The Globe and Mail informó que los únicos servicios en la mezquita Id Kah, que se había convertido en una atracción turística, se organizaron para dar a los visitantes extranjeros la impresión de que la religión se practicaba libremente y que la asistencia a la mezquita solo se contaba en docenas. [269] [270] El medio indonesio Antara publicó un video en 2021 que documenta que 800 fieles estaban en la mezquita durante el Ramadán, pero también que no hubo ritual iftar debido a las restricciones de la pandemia. [271]

Radio Free Asia informó que, a principios de 2020, en respuesta a las críticas internacionales, las autoridades chinas comenzaron a aliviar de forma limitada las restricciones religiosas en Xinjiang, reabriendo algunas mezquitas que habían sido cerradas. [272] Sin embargo, la emisora ​​dijo que la mayoría de los uigures no han regresado a las mezquitas, temerosos de sus experiencias en las represiones anteriores, y que a los musulmanes hui se les dio mayor margen de maniobra que a los musulmanes uigures. [272]

Educación

Entrada a una escuela en Turpan , una ciudad de mayoría uigur en Xinjiang, en 2018. El cartel en la puerta, escrito en chino, dice: "[Está] entrando al recinto escolar. Por favor, hable guoyu ["el idioma nacional", es decir, chino mandarín ]".

En 2011, las escuelas de Xinjiang adoptaron una política de educación bilingüe, que se caracterizó por la enseñanza del chino estándar , y en la que sólo se dedican unas pocas horas semanales a la literatura uigur . A pesar de esta política, a pocos niños han se les enseña a hablar uigur. [273]

Cada vez más estudiantes uigures asisten a escuelas residenciales alejadas de sus comunidades de origen, donde no pueden hablar uigur. [274] Según un informe de 2020 de Radio Free Asia (RFA), se ha introducido la educación monolingüe en chino en una influyente escuela secundaria de Kashgar que antes ofrecía educación bilingüe. [275]

Sayragul Sauytbay describió cómo la obligaron a dar clases en un campo de internamiento, y dijo que el campo era "apenas habitable y antihigiénico" y que sus estudiantes detenidos sólo recibían lo básico para subsistir. Sauytbay añadió que las autoridades obligaban a los detenidos a aprender chino, asistir a clases de adoctrinamiento y hacer confesiones públicas. [169]

En 2021, los libros de texto estándar en idioma uigur utilizados en Xinjiang desde principios de la década de 2000 fueron prohibidos y sus autores y editores fueron condenados a muerte o cadena perpetua por cargos de separatismo. Los libros de texto habían sido creados y aprobados por funcionarios gubernamentales pertinentes; sin embargo, según AP en 2021, el gobierno chino dijo que "las ediciones de 2003 y 2009 de los libros de texto contenían 84 pasajes que predicaban el separatismo étnico, la violencia, el terrorismo y el extremismo religioso y que varias personas se inspiraron en los libros para participar en un sangriento motín antigubernamental en la capital regional, Urumqi, en 2009". [131]

Académicos y figuras religiosas detenidos

El economista uigur Ilham Tohti

En 2019, el Proyecto de Derechos Humanos Uigur identificó a 386 intelectuales uigures que habían sido encarcelados, detenidos o desaparecidos desde principios de 2017. [276]

El economista uigur Ilham Tohti fue condenado a cadena perpetua en 2014. Amnistía Internacional calificó su sentencia de injustificada y deplorable. [277] Rahile Dawut , un destacado antropólogo uigur que estudió y preservó santuarios islámicos, canciones tradicionales y folclore, desapareció . [278]

RFA informó que el gobierno chino encarceló al imán uigur Abduheber Ahmet después de que llevó a su hijo a una escuela religiosa no autorizada por el estado. [279] Informaron que Ahmet había sido elogiado anteriormente por China como un imán "cinco estrellas", pero fue sentenciado en 2018 a más de cinco años de prisión por su acción. [279]

Cementerios

En septiembre de 2019, la Agence France-Presse (AFP) visitó 13 cementerios destruidos en cuatro ciudades y fue testigo de la presencia de huesos expuestos en cuatro de ellos. A través de un examen de imágenes satelitales, la agencia de prensa determinó que la campaña de destrucción de tumbas había estado en curso durante más de una década. [280] Según un informe anterior de la AFP, tres cementerios en el condado de Xayar estaban entre las docenas de cementerios uigures destruidos en Xinjiang entre 2017 y 2019. Los huesos humanos desenterrados de los cementerios del condado de Xayar fueron descartados. [281] [282] En enero de 2020, un informe de CNN basado en un análisis de imágenes satelitales de Google Maps dijo que las autoridades chinas habían destruido más de 100 cementerios en Xinjiang, principalmente uigures. CNN vinculó la destrucción de los cementerios a la campaña del gobierno para controlar a los uigures y musulmanes en general. El gobierno chino afirmó que la destrucción del cementerio y de la tumba se debió a reubicaciones debido a la falta de mantenimiento y que los muertos fueron enterrados nuevamente en nuevos cementerios estandarizados. [283] [284]

Todo esto es parte de la campaña de China para erradicar efectivamente cualquier evidencia de quiénes somos, para hacernos como los chinos Han. ... Es por eso que están destruyendo todos estos sitios históricos, estos cementerios, para desconectarnos de nuestra historia, de nuestros padres y nuestros antepasados.

—  Salih Hudayar, cuyo cementerio de bisabuelos fue demolido [281] [282]

Entre los cementerios destruidos se encuentra el cementerio Sultanim ( 37°07′02″N 79°56′04″E / 37.11722, -79.93444 ), el cementerio histórico uigur central con generaciones de entierros, y el santuario más sagrado de la ciudad de Hotan , que fue demolido y convertido en un estacionamiento entre 2018 y 2019. [285] [286] [287] [288] [289] China Global Television Network (CGTN), un canal internacional estatal chino afiliado al Partido Comunista Chino, dijo que las tumbas fueron reubicadas. [290]

Casamiento

Según la periodista estadounidense Leta Hong Fincher , el gobierno chino ofreció incentivos a las parejas uigures para que tuvieran menos hijos y para que las mujeres se casaran con no uigures. [291] Según la coordinadora de divulgación del Proyecto de Derechos Humanos Uigur con sede en Estados Unidos, [292] Zubayra Shamseden, el gobierno chino "quiere borrar la cultura y la identidad uigures rehaciendo a sus mujeres". [293]

Los matrimonios entre uigures y han se fomentan con subsidios gubernamentales. En agosto de 2014, las autoridades locales del condado de Cherchen ( condado de Qiemo ) anunciaron "Medidas de incentivo para fomentar los matrimonios mixtos entre uigures y chinos", que incluyen una recompensa en efectivo de 10.000 yuanes (1.450 dólares estadounidenses) por año durante los primeros cinco años para esas parejas casadas, así como un trato preferencial en el empleo y la vivienda, además de educación gratuita para las parejas, sus padres y sus hijos. El secretario del PCCh del condado, Zhu Xin, señaló: [294]

Nuestra defensa de los matrimonios mixtos está promoviendo una energía positiva... Sólo promoviendo el establecimiento de una estructura social y un entorno comunitario en el que todos los grupos étnicos estén integrados entre sí... podemos impulsar la gran unidad, la fusión étnica y el desarrollo de todos los grupos étnicos en Xinjiang, y finalmente hacer realidad nuestro sueño chino del gran rejuvenecimiento de nuestra nación china.

En octubre de 2017, se celebró en la página de redes sociales del condado el matrimonio de un hombre han de la provincia de Henan con una mujer uigur del condado de Lop : [295]

Dejarán que la unidad étnica florezca para siempre en sus corazones,
dejarán que la unidad étnica se convierta en su propia carne y sangre.

Darren Byler, antropólogo de la Universidad de Washington y experto en China, dijo que una campaña en las redes sociales en 2020 para casar a 100 mujeres uigures con hombres han indicó que "una cierta dinámica de poder racializada es parte de este proceso", y comentó: "Parece como si este fuera un esfuerzo por producir una mayor asimilación y disminuir la diferencia étnica al arrastrar a los uigures a relaciones dominadas por los han". [294]

Según informes de RFA, en marzo de 2017, Salamet Memetimin, una mujer de etnia uigur y secretaria del Partido Comunista para la aldea Bekchan del municipio de Chaka en el condado de Qira , prefectura de Hotan , fue relevada de sus funciones por tomar sus votos matrimoniales nikah en su casa. [296] En entrevistas con RFA en 2020, los residentes y funcionarios del condado de Shufu (Kona Sheher), prefectura de Kashgar (Kashi) declararon que ya no era posible realizar los ritos tradicionales de matrimonio nikah uigures en el condado. [297]

Ropa

Una mujer uigur con hiyab en Xinjiang

Las autoridades chinas desaconsejan el uso de pañuelos, velos y otras prendas islámicas tradicionales. El 20 de mayo de 2014, estalló una protesta en Alakaga (Alaqagha, Alahage), Kuqa (Kuchar, Kuche), prefectura de Aksu , cuando 25 mujeres y colegialas fueron detenidas por llevar pañuelos. Según un funcionario local, dos murieron y cinco resultaron heridas cuando la policía disparó contra las manifestantes. Posteriormente, un equipo del Washington Post fue detenido en Alakaga y finalmente deportado de la región. [298] [299] [300] [301]

Documentos filtrados de los campos de internamiento de Xinjiang señalan que algunos reclusos han sido detenidos por llevar ropa tradicional. [302]

Nombramiento

Nombres de niños

RFA informó que en 2015 se promulgó en Hotan una lista de nombres prohibidos para niños llamada "Reglas de nombres para minorías étnicas", que prohibía nombres potenciales como "Islam", "Corán", "La Meca", "Yihad", "Imán", "Saddam", "Hajj" y "Medina". El uso de la lista se extendió posteriormente por toda Xinjiang. [303] [304] La legislación de 2017 declaró ilegal dar a los niños nombres que el gobierno chino considerara que "exageraban el fervor religioso". [86] [303] Esta prohibición incluía la prohibición de nombrar a los niños " Mahoma ". [303]

Nombres de pueblos

Un informe de las ONG Human Rights Watch y Uyghur Hjelp concluyó que 630 aldeas de Xinjiang fueron rebautizadas para reflejar la ideología del Partido Comunista y eliminar referencias religiosas y culturales. Entre los ejemplos se incluyen la aldea Aq Meschit ("mezquita blanca"), que pasó a llamarse aldea Unity, y la aldea Dutar, que pasó a llamarse aldea Bandera Roja. [305] [306]

Al comentar sobre el cambio de nombre, el fundador de Uyghur Hjelp, Abduweli Ayup, dijo que el gobierno chino quiere "borrar la memoria histórica de la gente, porque esos nombres le recuerdan a la gente quiénes son". [307]

Maya Wang, directora interina de Human Rights Watch en China, dijo que “las autoridades chinas han estado cambiando cientos de nombres de aldeas en Xinjiang, de aquellos que tienen un gran significado para los uigures a otros que reflejan la propaganda del gobierno [...] Estos cambios de nombre parecen parte de los esfuerzos del gobierno chino por borrar las expresiones culturales y religiosas de los uigures”. [305]

Clasificación de los abusos

Páginas de los cables de China

Tribunales especiales, académicos, comentaristas, periodistas, gobiernos, políticos y diplomáticos de muchos países han calificado las acciones de China de diversas formas: genocidio, genocidio cultural, etnocidio, colonialismo de asentamiento y/o crímenes contra la humanidad.

Etnocidio o genocidio cultural

En 2008, Michael Clarke, un experto australiano en terrorismo, señaló que "ha surgido dentro de la comunidad uigur emigrada una tendencia a retratar a los uigures como si estuvieran experimentando una forma de 'genocidio cultural ' ", citando como ejemplo un discurso de 2004 del presidente del Congreso Uigur Mundial, Erkin Alptekin . [308] En un artículo de opinión del Wall Street Journal de 2012, la activista uigur Rebiya Kadeer describió al PCCh siguiendo "políticas de genocidio cultural uigur". [309] [310] En 2018, la experta en derechos humanos de la UCL Kate Cronin-Furman argumentó en 2018 que las políticas estatales chinas constituían un genocidio cultural. [311] [312]

En julio de 2019, el académico alemán Adrian Zenz escribió en el Journal of Political Risk que la situación en Xinjiang constituía un genocidio cultural; [313] su investigación fue citada posteriormente por BBC News y otras organizaciones de noticias. [314] James Leibold, profesor de la Universidad La Trobe de Australia , calificó ese mismo mes el trato a los uigures por parte del gobierno chino como un "genocidio cultural", y afirmó que "en sus propias palabras, los funcionarios del partido están 'lavando cerebros' y 'limpiando corazones' para 'curar' a aquellos hechizados por pensamientos extremistas". [315] [316] [317] El término se utilizó en editoriales, como en The Washington Post , en este punto. [318]

Desde la publicación de los Documentos de Xinjiang y los Cables de China en noviembre de 2019, varios periodistas e investigadores han calificado el trato que el gobierno chino da a los uigures de etnocidio o genocidio cultural . En noviembre de 2019, Zenz describió los documentos clasificados como una confirmación de "que se trata de una forma de genocidio cultural". [319] Foreign Policy publicó un artículo de Azeem Ibrahim en el que calificó el trato que da China a los uigures como una "campaña deliberada y calculada de genocidio cultural" tras la publicación de los Documentos de Xinjiang y los Cables de China. [320]

En 2020, la académica Joanne Smith Finley escribió que los académicos, comentaristas y abogados se habían referido cada vez más a la situación de los derechos humanos en Xinjiang como un genocidio, en lugar de un genocidio cultural. [3]

Genocidio

En abril de 2019, el antropólogo de la Universidad de Cornell, Magnus Fiskesjö, escribió en Inside Higher Ed que las detenciones masivas de académicos e intelectuales de minorías étnicas en Xinjiang indicaban que "la actual campaña del régimen chino contra los pueblos nativos uigures, kazajos y otros ya es un genocidio". [321] Más tarde, en 2020, Fiskejö escribió en la revista académica Monde Chinois que "[l]a evidencia de genocidio ya es masiva y debe, como mínimo, considerarse suficiente para el procesamiento bajo el derecho internacional... el número de autoridades competentes en todo el mundo que coinciden en que esto es, de hecho, un genocidio está aumentando". [322]

En junio de 2020, después de que una investigación de Associated Press descubriera que los uigures estaban siendo sometidos a esterilizaciones forzadas masivas y abortos forzados en Xinjiang, los académicos se han referido cada vez más a los abusos en Xinjiang como un genocidio. [3]

En julio de 2020, Zenz dijo en una entrevista con la Radio Pública Nacional (NPR) que había argumentado anteriormente que las acciones del gobierno chino son un genocidio cultural, no un "genocidio literal", pero que uno de los cinco criterios de la Convención sobre el Genocidio se satisfacía con los acontecimientos más recientes relacionados con la supresión de las tasas de natalidad, por lo que "probablemente debamos llamarlo genocidio". [323] El mismo mes, el último gobernador colonial del Hong Kong británico , Chris Patten , dijo que la "campaña de control de la natalidad" era "posiblemente algo que entra dentro de los términos de las opiniones de la ONU sobre los tipos de genocidio". [324]

Aunque China no es miembro de la Corte Penal Internacional , el 6 de julio de 2020 el autoproclamado Gobierno en el exilio del Turkestán Oriental y el Movimiento del Despertar Nacional del Turkestán Oriental presentaron una denuncia ante la CPI pidiendo que se investigue a los funcionarios de la República Popular China por crímenes contra los uigures, incluidas las acusaciones de genocidio. [325] [326] [327] La ​​CPI respondió en diciembre de 2020 y "solicitó más pruebas antes de estar dispuesta a abrir una investigación sobre las denuncias de genocidio contra el pueblo uigur por parte de China, pero ha dicho que mantendrá abierto el expediente para que se presenten más pruebas". [328]

An August 2020 Quartz article reported that some scholars hesitate to label the human rights abuses in Xinjiang as a "full-blown genocide", preferring the term "cultural genocide", but that increasingly many experts were calling them "crimes against humanity" or "genocide".[325] In August 2020 the spokesperson for Joe Biden's presidential campaign described China's actions as genocide.[329]

In October 2020, the U.S. Senate introduced a bipartisan resolution designating the human rights abuses perpetrated by the Chinese government against the Uyghur people and other ethnic minorities in Xinjiang as genocide.[330] Around the same time, the House of Commons of Canada issued a statement that its Subcommittee on International Human Rights of the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development was persuaded that the Chinese Communist Party's actions in Xinjiang constitute genocide as laid out in the Genocide Convention.[184] The 2020 annual report by the Congressional-Executive Commission on China referred to the Chinese government's treatment of Uyghurs as "crimes against humanity and possibly genocide."[331][332]

In January 2021, U.S. secretary of state Mike Pompeo officially declared that China was committing genocide against the Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities living in Xinjiang.[333] This declaration, which came in the final hours of the Trump administration, had not been made earlier due to a worry that it could disrupt trade talks between the US and China. On the allegations of crimes against humanity Pompeo asserted that "These crimes are ongoing and include: the arbitrary imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty of more than one million civilians, forced sterilization, torture of a large number of those arbitrarily detained, forced labor and the imposition of draconian restrictions on freedom of religion or belief, freedom of expression and freedom of movement."[334]

On January 19, 2021, incoming U.S. president Joe Biden's secretary of state nominee Antony Blinken was asked during his confirmation hearings whether he agreed with Pompeo's conclusion that the CCP had committed genocide against the Uyghurs, he contended "That would be my judgment as well."[335] During her confirmation hearings Joe Biden's nominee to be the US ambassador to the United Nations Linda Thomas-Greenfield stated that she believed what was currently happening in Xinjiang was a genocide, adding "I lived through and experienced and witnessed a genocide in Rwanda."[336]

The US designation was followed by Canada's House of Commons and the Dutch parliament, each passing a non-binding motion in February 2021 to recognize China's actions as genocide.[32][33]

In January 2021, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum initially stated that, "[t]here is a reasonable basis to believe that the government of China is committing crimes against humanity."[164][337] In November 2021, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum revised its stance to state that the "Chinese government may be committing genocide against the Uyghurs."[338]

In February 2021, a report released by the Essex Court Chambers concluded that "there is a very credible case that acts carried out by the Chinese government against the Uighur people in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region amount to crimes against humanity and the crime of genocide, and describes how the minority group has been subject to "enslavement, torture, rape, enforced sterilisation and persecution." "Victims have been "forced to remain in stress positions for an extended period of time, beaten, deprived of food, shackled and blindfolded", it said. The legal team stated that they had seen "prolific credible evidence" of sterilisation procedures carried out on women, including forced abortions, saying the human rights abuses "clearly constitute a form of genocidal conduct".[339]

On February 13, 2021, The Economist wrote that while China's treatment and persecution of Uyghurs is "horrific" and a crime against humanity, "genocide" is the wrong word for China's actions due to China not engaging in mass murder.[340]

According to a March 2021 Newlines Institute report that was written by over 50 global China, genocide, and international law experts,[341][342] the Chinese government breached every article in the Genocide Convention, writing, "China's long-established, publicly and repeatedly declared, specifically targeted, systematically implemented, and fully resourced policy and practice toward the Uyghur group is inseparable from 'the intent to destroy in whole or in part' the Uyghur group as such."[343][344][345] The report cited credible reports of mass deaths under the mass internment drive, while Uighur leaders were selectively sentenced to death or sentenced to long-term imprisonment. "Uyghurs are suffering from systematic torture and cruel, inhumane, and degrading treatment, including rape, sexual abuse, and public humiliation, both inside and outside the camps", the report stated. The report argued that these policies are directly orchestrated by the highest levels of state, including Xi and the top officials of the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang.[140] It also reported that the Chinese government gave explicit orders to "eradicate tumours", "wipe them out completely", "destroy them root and branch", "round up everyone", and "show absolutely no mercy", in regards to Uyghurs,[140][342] and that camp guards reportedly follow orders to uphold the system in place until "Kazakhs, Uyghurs, and other Muslim nationalities, would disappear...until all Muslim nationalities would be extinct".[346] According to the report "Internment camps contain designated "interrogation rooms" where Uyghur detainees are subjected to consistent and brutal torture methods, including beatings with metal prods, electric shocks, and whips."[347]

In June 2021, the Canadian Anthropology Society issued a statement on Xinjiang in which the organization stated, "expert testimony and witnessing, and irrefutable evidence from the Chinese Government's own satellite imagery, documents, and eyewitness reports, overwhelmingly confirms the scale of the genocide."[348]

In June 2021, The New York Times and ProPublica published their analysis of over 3,000 videos, concluding that after the January 2021 U.S. declaration that China was committing genocide in Xinjiang, the Chinese government started an influence campaign featuring thousands of videos of Chinese citizens denying genocide and abuses in Xinjiang on Twitter and YouTube.[349] In August 2022, the U.S. State Department published a report PRC Efforts to Manipulate Global Public Opinion on Xinjiang on the Chinese government's global efforts "to discredit independent sources that report ongoing genocide and crimes against humanity" in Xinjiang.[350][351]

A 2023 academic book by political theorists Alain Brossat and Juan Alberto Ruiz Casado labeled the accusation of genocide as unsubstantiated.[352] They described the information used to apply the label as misleading and coming "exclusively from a few sources, for the most part overwhelmingly and openly partisan in their anti-China crusade"; they especially criticize Adrian Zenz's 2018 detainee study and 2019 sterilization study as "academically flimsy" and containing misleading or directly false claims, respectively.[352]

Academics Steve Tsang and Olivia Cheung write that their research has found no evidence that Xi Jinping advocates genocide against Uyghurs.[353]: 203  Tsang and Cheung conclude that China's policies subordinate identity based on culture, religion, or minority language in an effort to establish a national identity based on Han heritage, language, and Xi Jinping Thought.[353]: 203 

Crimes against humanity

In June 2019, the China Tribunal, an independent judicial investigation into forced organ transplantation in China concluded that crimes against humanity had been committed beyond reasonable doubt against China's Uyghur Muslim and Falun Gong populations.[354][355]

The Asia-Pacific Centre for the Responsibility to Protect at the University of Queensland concluded in November that evidence of atrocities in Xinjiang "likely meets the requirements of the following crimes against humanity: persecution, imprisonment, enforced disappearance, torture, forced sterilisation, and enslavement" and that "It is arguable that genocidal acts have occurred in Xinjiang, in particular acts of imposing measures to prevent births and forcible transfers."[356] In December, lawyers David Matas and Sarah Teich wrote in Toronto Star that "One distressing present day example [of genocide] is the atrocities faced by the Uighur population in Xinjiang, China."[357]

In 2021 the U.S. State Department's Office of the Legal Advisor concluded that although the situation in Xinjiang amounted to crimes against humanity, there was insufficient evidence to prove genocide.[358]

Settler colonialism

In addition to other classifications, some academics and researchers have also termed the abuses as part of an ongoing project of Han settler colonialism.[359][360][361][362][363]

View of discourse

Writing in 2023, academic and former UK diplomat Kerry Brown observes that the clash of labels between western and Chinese discourse on the issue of Xinjiang makes it nearly impossible to reach an empirical or neutral description of China's actions in Xinjiang.[92]: 136 

According to American academic Darren Byler, discourses about Uyghurs in Xinjiang typically revolve around Uyghurs as either potential terrorists and resisters (from the view of the Chinese state) or objects of pity to be rescue (in western discourses), with little focus on Uyghurs as autonomous actors.[92]: 136 

International responses

Reactions by supranational organizations

United Nations

Protesters at the United Nations with the flag of East Turkestan

In July 2019, 22 countries[note 1] issued a joint letter to the 41st session of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC), condemning China's mass detention of Uyghurs and other minorities, calling upon China to "refrain from the arbitrary detention and restrictions on freedom of movement of Uyghurs, and other Muslim and minority communities in Xinjiang".[364][365][366] In the same session, 50 countries[note 2] issued a joint letter supporting China's Xinjiang policies,[364][367] criticizing the practice of "politicizing human rights issues". The letter stated, "China has invited a number of diplomats, international organizations officials and journalist to Xinjiang" and that "what they saw and heard in Xinjiang completely contradicted what was reported in the media."[367]

In October 2019, 23 countries[note 3] issued a joint statement to the UN urging China to "uphold its national and international obligations and commitments to respect human rights".[368] In response, 54 countries[note 4] (including China itself) issued a joint statement supporting China's Xinjiang policies. The statement "spoke positively of the results of counter-terrorism and de-radicalization measures in Xinjiang and noted that these measures have effectively safeguarded the basic human rights of people of all ethnic groups."[369]

In February 2020, the UN demanded unobstructed access in advance of a proposed fact-finding visit to the region.[370]

In October 2020, more countries at the UN joined the condemnation of China over human rights abuses in Xinjiang with German Ambassador Christoph Heusgen speaking on behalf of the group.[27][371][372] The total number of countries that condemned China increased to 39,[note 5] while the total number of countries that defended China decreased to 45.[note 6] Sixteen countries[note 7] that defended China in 2019 did not do so in 2020.[27]

The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (HCHR) began to discuss the possibility of a visit to Xinjiang with China in order to examine "the impact on human rights of its policies" in September 2020.[373] Since then, the HCHR's office has since been negotiating terms of access to China, but the High Commissioner has not visited the country.[374] In a February 2021 speech to the UNHRC, the Chinese Foreign Minister stated that Xinjiang is "always open" and the country "welcomes the High Commissioner for Human Rights (HCHR) to visit Xinjiang".[374] At a March 2021 meeting of the UNHRC, the United States ambassador condemned China's human rights abuses in Xinjiang as "crimes against humanity and genocide".[375][376]

China has turned down multiple requests from the UN HCHR to investigate the region.[377] In January 2022, unidentified sources told the South China Morning Post that UN rights chief Michelle Bachelet had secured a visit to Xinjiang, not to be framed as an investigation, some time during the first half of the year, as long as her office doesn't agree to the U.S. request of publishing its Xinjiang report ahead of the Beijing Winter Olympics.[378] The visit occurred in May 2022.[379] In a statement released by the UN, Bachelet said that she raised concerns in Xinjiang about the broad application of counter-terrorism and de-radicalisation measures (including their impacts on Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities) and encouraged the government to review such policies to ensure they fully comply with international human rights standards.[379] Bachelet stated that while she was unable to investigate the full scale of the vocational educational and training centres (VETC), she raised with the Chinese government concerns about the lack of independent judicial oversight for the program, and said that the government provided assurances that the VETC system had been dismantled.[379] U.S. rights advocates criticized Bachelet's visit as a propaganda victory for Beijing.[380] The World Uyghur Congress and the Washington D.C.-based Campaign for Uyghurs called for her to resign,[381] and Bachelet announced in June 2022 that she would step down from her role as UN human rights chief.[382]

On August 31, 2022, Bachelet released a report on China's treatment of Uyghur Muslims and other Muslim minority groups in Xinjiang, the OHCHR Assessment of human rights concerns in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China. The report found that China's treatment of these groups may amount to crimes against humanity. The report concludes that "serious human rights violations have been committed" in the province, which the report attributes to China's "application of counter-terrorism and counter-'extremism' strategies" targeting Uyghur Muslims and other Muslim minority groups. The report also said that "Allegations of patterns of torture or ill-treatment, including forced medical treatment and adverse conditions of detention, are credible, as are allegations of individual incidents of sexual and gender-based violence". China opposed the release of the report and claimed that it is based on "disinformation and lies". China also claimed that "All ethnic groups, including the Uygur, are equal members of the Chinese nation. Xinjiang has taken actions to fight terrorism and extremism in accordance with the law, effectively curbing the frequent occurrences of terrorist activities".[383][384] On October 6, 2022, the UNHCR voted down a proposal to debate the alleged human rights abuses in Xinjiang.[385]

At its 108th session in November 2022, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) adopted a decision under its early warning and urgent action procedure - urging the Chinese government to release all individuals arbitrarily detained in Xinjiang, to provide relatives of detained or disappeared individuals with detailed information about their status and well-being, and to cease all intimidation and reprisals against Uyghur and other Muslim ethnic minority communities from China as well as those who speak out in their defence.[386]

In March 2024, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Volker Türk, called on China to implement the recommendations in the 2022 UN Human Rights Office report on Xinjiang.[387]

European Union

The daughter of Ilham Tohti accepted the 2019 Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought on behalf of her imprisoned father.

In 2019, the European Parliament awarded its Sakharov Prize for Freedom and Thought to Ilham Tohti, a Uyghur intellectual and activist who had been sentenced to life in prison on charges pertaining to Uyghur separatism.[388][389][390] As of March 2021, China has prohibited European Union diplomats from visiting Tohti.[391][392] The European Union has called upon China to release Tohti from his detention in prison.[393]

In March 2021, European Union ambassadors agreed on sanctions, including travel bans and asset freezes, against four Chinese officials and one Chinese entity for human rights abuses against Uyghurs.[393] Among those sanctioned by the EU was Zhu Hailun who was described as the architect of the indoctrination program.[394] In the same month, negotiations for a group of ambassadors from European Union countries to visit Xinjiang stalled due to the Chinese government's denial of their request to visit Ilham Tohti, an imprisoned Uyghur scholar.[395]

On June 9, 2022, the European Parliament adopted a motion condemning measures taken against the Uyghur community in China, stating that "credible evidence about birth prevention measures and the separation of Uyghur children from their families amount to crimes against humanity and represent a serious risk of genocide" and calling on authorities "to cease all government-sponsored programmes of forced labour and mass forced sterilisation and to put an immediate end to any measures aimed at preventing births in the Uyghur population, including forced abortions or sanctions for birth control violations".[396]

Reactions by country

Africa

Several African countries, including Algeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Nigeria, and Somalia, signed a July 2019 letter that publicly praised China's human rights record and dismissed reported abuses in Xinjiang.[397][398] Other African countries, including Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Madagascar, Morocco, Mozambique and Sudan, signed an October 2019 letter that publicly expressed support for China's treatment of Uyghurs.[399] Algeria, Burkina Faso, Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Nigeria, Somalia, and Zambia were among the 16 countries that defended China's policies in Xinjiang in 2019 but did not do so in 2020.[400]

In 2021, ambassadors from Burkina Faso, Republic of Congo, and Sudan made statements in support of China's Xinjiang policies.[401]: 39  Burkina Faso's ambassador stated that Western allegations of forced labor and genocide are groundless.[401]: 39–40  Sudan's ambassador stated that the Xinjiang issue is not about human rights, but rather is a political weapon used by Western countries against China.[401]: 40  African countries which are members of the UNHRC had a significant impact in narrowly defeating a proposal in October 2022 by that body to debate human rights in Xinjiang.[402] Somalia was the only African UNHRC member voting in favor of debate.[402]

Americas

Canada

In July 2020, The Globe and Mail reported that human rights activists, including retired politician Irwin Cotler, were urging the Parliament of Canada to recognize the abuses against Uyghurs in China as genocide and to impose sanctions on the officials responsible.[403]

On 21 October 2020, the Subcommittee on International Human Rights (SDIR) of the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development condemned the persecution of Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang by the Government of China and concluded that the Chinese Communist Party's actions amount to the genocide of the Uyghurs per the Genocide Convention.[404][405][406][407]

On 22 February 2021, the Canadian House of Commons voted 266–0 to approve a motion that formally recognizes China as committing genocide against its Muslim minorities. Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and his cabinet did not vote.[408][409][410] China's Ambassador to Canada responded to the motion by calling the allegations of genocide and forced labor the "lie of the century."[411] In June 2021, Canada's Senate voted 29–33 against a motion to recognize the treatment of Uyghurs as genocide and to call for the 2022 Winter Olympics to be moved out of China should such treatment continue.[412]

On 11 April 2021, Global Affairs Canada issued a travel advisory stating that individuals with "familial or ethnic ties" could be "at risk of arbitrary detention" by Chinese authorities when traveling in the Xinjiang region.[413][414] Radio Canada International reported that the announcement described that China had been "increasingly detaining ethnic and Muslim minorities in the region without due process."[413]

In 2023, the House of Commons unanimously voted in favour of a non-binding motion to accept 10,000 Uyghur refugees fleeing persecution in China over the course of two years. The idea was to resettle them from countries such as Turkey rather than directly from China since Parliament member Sameer Zuberi, who proposed the motion, argued there was no safe way to do the latter.[415]

United States

UN counter-terrorism chief Vladimir Voronkov visited Xinjiang in June 2019.[416][417][418] The visit prompted anger from the U.S. State Department.[419] The U.S. has called these visits "highly choreographed" and characterized them as having "propagated false narratives."[420]

In 2020, the United States Congress passed the Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act in reaction to the internment camps.[421][422] Lawmakers also proposed the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act requiring the assumption that all Xinjiang goods are made with forced labor and therefore banned.[423] In September 2020, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security blocked imports of products from five entities in Xinjiang to combat the use of forced labor, while shelving broader proposed bans.[424][425] A senior US diplomat called upon other countries to join the United States denunciations against the Chinese government's policies in Xinjiang.[426] Senators Cornyn, Merkley, Cardin, and Rubio signed a letter to request Mike Pompeo, the United States Secretary of State, to issue a determination of genocide. The National Review reports that "U.S. government genocide determinations are an incredibly tricky thing. They require solid evidence to meet the criteria set out under the 1948 Genocide Convention." When determinations are issued there isn't much change or an effect that they will bring in the short run. Although, "there's a strong, well-documented case for a determination in this case."[427] As of November 2020, US Senators Menendez and Cornyn are leading a bipartisan group to recognize the CCP's actions in Xinjiang as a genocide by way of a Senate resolution, which would make the United States Senate the first government to "officially recognize the situation as a genocide."[427]

On 19 January 2021, Pompeo announced that the United States Department of State had determined that "genocide and crimes against humanity" had been perpetrated by China against the Uyghurs,[30] with Pompeo stating: "the People's Republic of China, under the direction and control of the Chinese Communist Party, has committed genocide and crimes against humanity against the predominantly Muslim Uighurs and other ethnic and religious minority groups, including ethnic Kazakhs and Kyrgyz... [i]n the anguished cries from Xinjiang, the U.S. hears the echoes of Nazi Germany, Rwanda, Bosnia and Darfur."[428] The announcement was made on the last full day of the Donald Trump presidency.[30][428]

At the end of the Trump presidency, the incoming Biden administration had already declared as the Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign that such a determination should be made, and that America would continue to recognize the Xinjiang activity as a genocide.[30] On 16 February 2021, U.S. President Joe Biden commented in a CNN town hall meeting in Wisconsin that Xi Jinping's rationale for justifying his policies, the idea that there "must be a united, tightly controlled China", derives from the fact that "Culturally, there are different norms that each country and their leaders are expected to follow."[429] He also promised in the same meeting that "there will be repercussions for China" for its human rights violations.[430] Some sources interpreted Biden's statements as excusing Chinese policy towards Uyghurs on cultural relativist grounds,[citation needed] whereas an opposite view deemed it a misrepresentation.[430]

In July 2021 while speaking at the Singaporean branch of the International Institute for Strategic Studies American Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin remarked on "genocide and crimes against humanity against Uighur Muslims in Xinjiang."[431]

In March 2023, the House of Representatives Select Committee on the Chinese Communist Party held hearings on what Washington says is an ongoing genocide against Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities in China's Xinjiang region.[432]

In April 2024, US Secretary of State Antony Blinken accused China of continuing to commit genocide against the Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities in Xinjiang.[433]

Asia

China

Chinese government officials and many Chinese people state that foreign discourses cast in terms of genocide, human rights abuses, and concentration camps show foreign political bias and ignorance of the facts.[92]: 136  A book by academics Steve Tsang and Olivia Cheung claimed that "the overwhelming majority of people in China reject the Western criticisms and buy into the Xi narrative and consider China’s policy toward the minorities, including the Uyghurs, positive and beneficial".[353]: 206  China has granted scholarships for Indonesian santri to study in the country and promote Beijing's narrative on Xinjiang.[434]

Middle East

Many countries in the Middle East signed a UN document defending China's human rights record.[397][435][399] Iraq and Iran have also signed the document[436] while Saudi Arabia and Egypt have been accused of deporting Uyghurs to China.[437][438][439][440][441] Saudi Arabia supports China's approach in Xinjiang, and on a visit to China in 2019, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman stated, "China has the right to carry out anti-terrorism and de-extremization work for its national security."[442] The United Arab Emirates has formally defended China's human rights records.[443] These countries have appreciated China's respect for the principle of non-interference in other countries' affairs and have therefore placed significance on their economic and political relations.[426]

At the 2020 ministerial meeting of the China–Arab States Cooperation Forum, the Arab countries stated that they supported China's position on Xinjiang.[401]: 57 

In an April 2021 group interview with CGTN anchor Liu Xin following their visit to Xinjiang, Syrian and Palestinian ambassadors to China Imad Moustapha and Fariz Mehdawi [ar] respectively accused Western media of intentionally overlooking "the economic, social and cultural rights that Muslim Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities enjoy in the region."[444] RFA journalist Shohret Hoshur criticised their responses and cited a past interview with Uyghur mother Patigul Ghulam as she was looking for her son killed in the 2009 Ürümqi riots, who said the Uyghurs were in a worse situation than the Palestinians and Syrians.[445]

Qatar

Qatar supported China's policies in Xinjiang until August 21, 2019; Qatar was the first Middle Eastern country to withdraw its defense of the Xinjiang camps.[446][447][448]

Israel

In 2021, Israel voted to condemn China's actions in the UNHRC; a sudden break in China–Israel relations.[449][450]

Post-Soviet states

Russia, Belarus, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan have expressed support for China's policies in Xinjiang.[398][399] Russia signed both statements at the UN (in July and October 2019) that supported China's Xinjiang policies.[365][367][399] NPR reported that Kazakhstan and "its neighbors in the mostly Muslim region of Central Asia that have benefited from Chinese investment aren't speaking up for the Muslims inside internment camps in China".[451]

South Asia

Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka have signed a UN document supporting China's policies in Xinjiang.[399][452]

Pakistan

In July 2021, Prime Minister Imran Khan said in an interview that he believes "the Chinese version" of the facts pertaining to abuses in Xinjiang and argued that undue attention was being given to Xinjiang relative to human rights violations in other regions of the world, such as in Kashmir.[453][454]

Southeast Asia

Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and the Philippines have issued statements of support for China's policies.[397] According to The Moscow Times, Thailand, Malaysia, and Cambodia have all deported Uyghur people at China's request.[455] In 2020, Malaysia minister Mohd Redzuan Md Yusof said that Malaysia would not entertain requests from Beijing to extradite Uyghurs if they felt their safety was at risk.[456]

Turkey

In February 2019, the Turkish Foreign Ministry spokesperson issued a statement calling China's repression of its Uighur minority a "great shame for humanity".[457][458] In response to a question on the reported death of Uyghur musician Abdurehim Heyit within the Xinjiang internment camps, the spokesperson stated "more than one million Uyghur Turks incurring arbitrary arrests are subjected to torture and political brainwashing in internment camps and prisons".[457] In July 2019, Turkish journalists from Milliyet and Aydınlık interviewed Heyit in Ürümqi who denied that he was tortured.[459][460]

In February 2021, authorities arrested Uyghur protesters in Ankara following a complaint by the embassy of China in Turkey.[461][462] In March 2021, the Turkish parliament rejected a motion to call the Chinese government's treatment of Uyghurs a genocide.[463][464]

On July 13, 2021, President Erdogan told Chinese President Xi Jinping in a phone call that it was important to Turkey that "Uyghur Turks live in prosperity and peace as equal citizens of China" but that Turkey respected China's territorial integrity and sovereignty.[465]

In 2022, Turkey issued a joint statement with 49 UN member states condemning the Chinese government's persecution of Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang.[466]

Europe

Belgium

In May 2021, testimony about the situation in Xinjiang to the foreign affairs committee of the Belgian chamber of representatives had to be postponed after a massive DDOS attack on the .be domain.[467][468] In June 2021, the Belgian Parliament's foreign relations committee passed a motion condemning the abuses as crimes against humanity and stating that there was a "serious risk of genocide" in Xinjiang.[39][38]

Czech Republic

In June 2021, the Czech Senate unanimously passed a motion condemning the abuses against the Uyghurs as both genocide and crimes against humanity.[39][38]

France

In December 2020, France said that it would oppose the proposed Comprehensive Agreement on Investment between China and the European Union over the use of forced labour of Uyghurs.[469][citation needed] In February 2021, the French Foreign Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian denounced "institutionalised repression" of Uyghurs at the UNHRC.[470]French parliament in January 2022 denounced a "genocide" by China against its Uyghur Muslim population in a resolution.[36]

In 2023, French President Emmanuel Macron was criticized for his reluctance to criticize the persecution of Uyghurs in China.[471]

Finland

In March 2021 Finland's Prime Minister Sanna Marin tweeted a condemnation of the human rights situation in Xinjiang.[472]

Lithuania

In May 2021, the Lithuanian Parliament passed a resolution recognizing that the Chinese government's human rights abuses against the Uyghurs constitute genocide.[35]

Netherlands
Pro-Uyghur protest in Amsterdam, The Netherlands on 5 February 2011

On February 25, 2021, the Netherlands parliament passed a non-binding resolution declaring the Chinese government's actions against the Uyghurs as a genocide.[33][473][474]

Ukraine

Ukraine had originally signed onto a 22 June 2021 statement to the UNHRC which called for independent observers to be provided immediate access to Xinjiang, but withdrew its signature two days later. Ukrainian lawmakers later stated that China had forced the policy pivot by threatening to limit trade and block a scheduled shipment of at least 500,000 COVID-19 vaccine doses.[475]

United Kingdom

On 10 October 2020, Britain's Shadow Foreign Secretary, Lisa Nandy suggested that Britain must oppose giving China a seat on the UNHRC in protest against its abuse of Uyghur Muslims. She added that the UN must be allowed to conduct an inquiry into possible crimes against humanity in Xinjiang.[476]

A letter was signed in September 2020 by more than 120 MPs and peers, including senior Tories and Liberal Democrat leader Sir Ed Davey, which accused China of a "systematic and calculated programme of ethnic cleansing" against the country's Uyghur minority, and compared China to Nazi Germany.[477]

In January 2021, the British parliament rejected a resolution which would have banned the UK from trading with countries engaged in genocides. Prime Minister Boris Johnson opposed the resolution.[478][479]

In January 2021, foreign secretary Dominic Raab made a statement over China's human rights violations against Uyghurs, accusing China of "extensive and invasive surveillance targeting minorities, systematic restrictions on Uyghur culture, education, and the practice of Islam, and the widespread use of forced labour."[480]

In January 2021, The Guardian reported that the UK government "fended off an all-party effort to give the courts a chance to designate China guilty of genocide on the day that Blinken said China was intent on genocide in Xinjiang province."[481]

In March 2021, the UK and the EU sanctioned four Chinese officials, including Zhu Hailun and Wang Junzheng, for their involvement in violating the human rights of Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang.[482] In response, China imposed sanctions on nine UK citizens for spreading "lies and disinformation" about human rights abuses in Xinjiang.[483]

On 22 April 2021, the House of Commons unanimously passed a non-binding parliamentary motion declaring China's human rights abuses in Xinjiang as a genocide.[34][484]

Oceania

Australia

In September 2019, Australian Foreign Minister Marise Payne stated, "I have previously raised Australia's concerns about reports of mass detentions of Uyghurs and other Muslim peoples in Xinjiang. We have consistently called for China to cease the arbitrary detention of Uyghurs and other Muslim groups. We have raised these concerns—and we will continue to raise them—both bilaterally and in relevant international meetings."[485] In March 2021, the federal government blocked a motion by Rex Patrick to recognize China's treatment of the Uyghurs as a genocide.[486][487]

New Zealand

In 2018, New Zealand prime minister Jacinda Ardern raised the issue of Xinjiang while visiting Guangdong Party Secretary Leader Li Xi. Ardern also raised such concerns during China's periodic review at the UN in November 2018, to immediate pushback from China.[488]

Ardern discussed Xinjiang privately with Xi Jinping during a 2019 visit to Beijing after the Christchurch mosque shootings. The New York Times accused New Zealand of tiptoeing around the issue for economic reasons as the country exports many products to China, including milk, meat, and wine.[489]

On 5 May 2021, the New Zealand Parliament adopted a motion declaring that "severe human rights abuses" were occurring against the Uyghur people in Xinjiang. An earlier version of the motion proposed by the opposition ACT Party had accused the Chinese Government of committing genocide against the Uyghurs. The ruling Labour Party had opposed including the word "genocide" in the motion, leading to an amended version criticising "severe human rights abuses."[37]

Multinational corporations

Xinjiang boycott advert on NYU's campus in New York, NY
"Boycott Xinjiang Genocide Products!"

In reaction to the proposed Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act in 2020 to impose sanctions on "any foreign person who 'knowingly engages'" and require firms to disclose their dealings with Xinjiang,[423] the president of the American Apparel & Footwear Association said that blanket import bans on cotton or other products from Xinjiang from such legislation would "wreak havoc" on legitimate supply chains in the apparel industry because Xinjiang cotton exports are often intermingled with cotton from other countries and there is no available origin-tracing technology for cotton fibers.[490] On September 22, 2020, the US Chamber of Commerce issued a letter stating that the act "would prove ineffective and may hinder efforts to prevent human rights abuses."[491] Major companies with supply chain ties to Xinjiang, including Apple Inc., Nike, Inc. and The Coca-Cola Company, have lobbied Congress to weaken the legislation and amend its provisions.[492]

In February 2021, a policy was established by 12 Japanese companies to cease business deals with some of the Chinese firms involved in or benefitting from forced labor of Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[493]

Both Nike and Adidas have criticized human rights abuses in Xinjiang and pledged not to do business in the region; their sales in China subsequently declined.[494] After a December 2022 report stated that nearly every global automaker had ties to Uyghur forced labor, United Auto Workers called for all automakers to cut off any supply chain links to Xinjiang.[495]

Religious groups

In July 2020, Marie van der Zyl, the President of the Board of Deputies of British Jews, pointed to similarities between the mass detention of Uyghur Muslims and concentration camps in the Holocaust.[496][497] On International Holocaust Remembrance Day in January 2021, van der Zyl urged the Chinese government to step back from committing atrocities.[498]

In December 2020, the Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth Ephraim Mirvis published an op-ed in The Guardian on the occasion of Hanukkah in which he condemned the persecution of the Uyghurs and called for international action to address the "unfathomable mass atrocity" taking place in China.[499][500] The Chief Rabbi generally refrains from making comments on non-Jewish political issues.[497] Mirvis is part of a wider Jewish protest movement which has sprung up in opposition to the human rights abuses in Xinjiang, protesters are largely motivated by memories of the Holocaust and a desire to prevent a repeat of that horror.[501] In addition to liberal British Jews who have long been involved in international human rights issue the plight of the Uyghur also draws significant interest and support from Britain's Orthodox community. According to Orthodox Rabbi Herschel Gluck "This is something that is felt very deeply by the community. They feel that if 'Never again' is a term that needs to be used, this is certainly one of the situations where it applies."[497]

In December 2020, a coalition of American Muslim groups criticized the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation for failing to speak up to prevent the abuse of the Uyghurs and accused member states of being "cowed by China's power". The groups included the Council on American–Islamic Relations (CAIR).[502]

In August 2020, a group of 70 British faith leaders including imams, rabbis, bishops, cardinals, and an archbishop publicly declared that the Uyghurs faced "one of the most egregious human tragedies since the Holocaust" and called for those responsible to be held accountable. The group included the representative of the Dalai Lama in Europe and Rowan Williams, former Archbishop of Canterbury.[503]

In March 2021, a group of sixteen Rabbis and a Cantor from across California's Jewish religious spectrum sent a letter to Representative Ted Lieu urging him to take action in support of the Uyghurs.[504] The grassroots organization Jewish Movement for Uyghur Freedom works to bridge the gap between the Uyghur and Jewish communities as well as advocate on their behalf.[505] In contrast to the earlier Save Darfur campaign major Jewish donors and organizations have tread softly due to a fear of reprisals against themselves and associated businesses by the Chinese government. Major Jewish groups which have spoken out on the Uyghur genocide or taken policy positions on it include the Union for Reform Judaism, the American Jewish Committee, the Rabbinical Assembly, the Anti-Defamation League, and the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations.[506]

In April 2021, the Jewish Council for Public Affairs, a U.S-based public policy group composed of organizations representing Reconstructionist, Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox Jews, urged the Jewish community to "call upon the [Chinese Communist Party] to end the genocide and exploitation of the Uyghurs, as well as halt the oppression of other ethnic and religious minorities living within its borders."[507]

In 2021, a number of Jewish organizations and leaders in the United Kingdom including rabbi Jonathan Wittenberg incorporated the situation in Xinjiang into their Holocaust Memorial Day remembrances and commemorations.[508]

In December 2021, the Council on American–Islamic Relations (CAIR) welcomed Biden's decision to sign the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act.[509]

In December 2021, a coalition of Jewish organizations, including the American Jewish Committee and the Rabbinical Assembly, issued an open letter titled "Open Letter from the Jewish Community to President Biden on the Uyghur Genocide" to President Joe Biden urging additional action in response to abuses against Uyghurs including countering propaganda, strengthening sanctions, and increasing the amount of Uyghur refugees admitted to the US.[510][511]

In January 2022, Jewish American activist Elisha Wiesel[512] criticised China and expressed support for Uyghur dissidents in a speech at a UN-held ceremony to mark International Holocaust Remembrance Day.[513] His speech drew praise from Uyghur Human Rights Project director Omer Kanat.[514]

On 8 January 2023, World Bosniak Congress President[515] and former Grand Mufti of Bosnia Mustafa Ceric toured Xinjiang along with a delegation of more than 30 Islamic scholars from 14 countries as part of a Chinese government-organized visit, where he praised "the Chinese policy of fighting terrorism and de-radicalization for achieving peace and harmony" in the region, adding he was glad to see that Muslims there live in happiness.[516] Mustafa Prljaca, adviser to Bosnia's current Grand Mufti Husein Kavazovic, told Radio Free Europe that his office did not agree with Ceric's statements, saying: "We have different views, based on the information that we have."[517]

In April 2023, the California chapter of the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR-CA) expressed strong support for the California Assembly resolution introduced by Jesse Gabriel condemning the human rights abuses in Xinjiang and supporting the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act.[518]

Other organizations

In January 2020, President Ghulam Osman Yaghma of the East Turkistan Government-in-Exile wrote that "the world is silently witnessing another Holocaust like genocide in East Turkistan....as the President of East Turkistan Government-in-Exile, on behalf of East Turkistan and its people, we again call on the international community including world governments to acknowledge and recognize China's brutal Holocaust like the oppression of East Turkistan's people as a genocide."[519]

The Uyghur American Association previously expressed concern at the deportation of 20 Uyghur refugees from Cambodia to China in 2009,[520] and has said that Beijing's military approach to terrorism in Xinjiang is state terrorism.[521] The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum has issued statements describing the conditions in Xinjiang as crimes against humanity.[522][523][524] According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, "the Chinese government's campaign against the Uyghurs in Xinjiang is multi-faceted and systematic. It is characterized by mass detention, forced labor, and discriminatory laws, and supported through high-tech manners of surveillance."[525]

As of July 2020, Amnesty International had not taken a position on whether the Chinese government's treatment of Uyghurs constituted a genocide.[403] In June 2021, Amnesty released a report saying that China's treatment of Uyghurs constituted crimes against humanity.[526] Genocide Watch "considers the forced sterilizations and forcible transfer of children of Uyghurs and other Turkic minorities in Xinjiang to be acts of genocide" and subsequently issued a Genocide Emergency Alert in November 2020.[527]

In September 2020, nearly two dozen activist groups, including the Uyghur Human Rights Project, Genocide Watch, and the European Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, signed an open letter urging the UNHRC to investigate whether crimes against humanity or genocide were taking place in Xinjiang.[528]

In March 2021, the Newlines Institute for Strategy and Policy, a think tank at the Fairfax University of America, released a report stating that the "People's Republic of China bears State responsibility for committing genocide against the Uyghurs in breach of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide."[529][192] According to the report, the determination of the "intent to destroy the Uyghurs as a group is derived from objective proof, consisting of comprehensive state policy and practice, which President Xi Jinping, the highest authority in China, set in motion." The legal analysis of the Newlines Institute concludes that the People's Republic of China is responsible for breaches of each provision of Article II of the Genocide Convention.[192][343][530]

Human Rights Watch followed in April 2021 with a report outlining "that the Chinese government has committed—and continues to commit—crimes against humanity against the Turkic Muslim population."[531] The report stated that Human Rights Watch had "not documented the existence of the necessary genocidal intent at [the] time", but that "nothing in this report precludes such a finding and, if such evidence were to emerge, the acts being committed against Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang—a group protected by the 1948 Genocide Convention—could also support a finding of genocide". The report made in collaboration with the Stanford Human Rights & Conflict Resolution Clinic also sets out recommendations for concerned governments and the UN.

The Uyghur Tribunal, a "people's tribunal" based in the United Kingdom, began to hold hearings in June 2021 to examine evidence in order to evaluate whether China's abuses against Uyghurs constitute genocide under the Genocide Convention.[532][533][534][535][536] The tribunal was chaired by Geoffrey Nice, the lead prosecutor in the trial of Slobodan Milošević, who announced the creation of the tribunal in September 2020.[532][533][537]

On 9 December 2021, the tribunal concluded that China has committed genocide against the Uyghurs via birth control and sterilization measures.[538] The tribunal also found evidence of crimes against humanity, torture and sexual abuse.[538] The tribunal's final determination does not legally bind any government to take action.[536][539][540][541][542]

Protests

Uyghur human rights demonstration protest near the White House, on September 25, 2015

The Chinese Consulate in Almaty, Kazakhstan has been the site of a daily protest demonstration, primarily made up of old women whose relatives are believed to be detained in China.[543] In 2020 Uyghur protesters outside the Consulate General of China, Los Angeles were joined by activists representing Tibet, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.[544]

Regular protests from local Uyghurs have been held at Chinese diplomatic sites in Istanbul, Turkey, where several hundred Uyghur women protested on International Women's Day in March 2021.[545] In London regular protests outside an outpost of the Chinese embassy have been organized by an Orthodox Jewish man from the local neighborhood. He has held protests at least twice a week since February 2019.[546][547]

In March 2021, hundreds of Uyghurs living in Turkey protested the visit of Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi to Istanbul by gathering both in Beyazit Square and near China's Consulate-General in Istanbul.[548] Over two-dozen NGOs that focus on the rights of Uyghurs were involved in organizing the protests.[548]

In October 2021, basketball player Enes Kanter protested against abuses against the Uyghurs by the Chinese state by wearing sneakers on court which said "Modern Day Slavery" and "No More Excuses." He also criticized Nike for being silent on injustices in China.[549] Kanter tweeted "It is so disappointing that the governments and leaders of Muslim-majority countries are staying silent while my Muslim brothers and sisters are getting killed, raped, and tortured."[550]

2022 Winter Olympics Boycott

In the aftermath of the 2019 leak of the Xinjiang papers which made public Chinese policies towards the Uyghurs, calls were made for a boycott of the 2022 Winter Olympics.[551][552][553][554] In a 30 July 2020 letter, the World Uyghur Congress urged the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to reconsider the decision to hold the Olympics in Beijing.[555][556] In a non-binding motion in February 2021, the Canadian House of Commons called for the IOC to move the Olympics to a new location.[557] The IOC met with activists in late 2020 about their request to move the Olympics.[558] In March 2021, the President of the International Olympic Committee Thomas Bach opposed a boycott, which would also damage the IOC image and finances, and said that the IOC must stay out of politics.[558] On 6 April 2021, a senior U.S. State Department official stated that the department's position "on the 2022 Olympics has not changed" and that it has not "discussed and [is] not discussing any joint boycott with allies and partners."[559] Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, India, Kosovo, Lithuania, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, and the United States announced diplomatic boycotts of the 2022 Winter Olympics.[560][561][562][563][564][565]

On 4 January 2022, nineteen Uyghurs, with the help of lawyer Gulden Sonmez, filed a criminal case for torture, rape, crimes against humanity and genocide in the Istanbul Prosecutor's Office against Chinese officials. Sonmez stated that Turkish legislation recognises universal jurisdiction for the offences alleged in the case.[566]

Publications

Nury Turkel published the book No Escape: The True Story of China's Genocide of the Uyghurs in 2022, which documented his personal story on the repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang.[567][568] The book was long-listed for the 2022 Moore Prize for Human Rights Writing.[569]

Denial of abuses

The abuses against the Uyghurs and related ethnic groups have been denied by the Chinese government. These denials have been both internal and external.[570] The Chinese government has conducted propaganda campaigns on social media to further denial of the abuses. In 2021, the Chinese government posted thousands of videos to social media showing residents of Xinjiang denying claims of abuse made by Mike Pompeo; a joint investigation by ProPublica and The New York Times found the videos were part of an influence campaign coordinated by the CCP's Central Propaganda Department.[118] They have also used their existing disinformation networks, including social media trolls, to deny genocide and other human rights abuses against Uyghurs.[571]

In 2020, during an interview with Andrew Marr of the BBC, the Chinese ambassador to the UK Liu Xiaoming denied any abuse against Uyghurs despite being shown drone footage of what appeared to be shackled Uyghur, and other minority ethnic, prisoners being herded on to trains during a prison transfer. The ambassador also blamed reports of forced sterilisations on "some small group of anti-China elements".[572] In January 2021, Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Zhao Lijian responded to questions about the Uyghur genocide during a press briefing by stating, "China has no genocide; China has no genocide; China has no genocide, period."[573][574] In February 2021, Wang Wenbin called the Uyghur genocide the "lie of the century".[575][576]

The abuses, and the existence of the camp network, have also been denied by a small minority of American left-wing media outlets. These include a left-wing blog called LA Progressive which began publishing denial articles in April 2020, while The Grayzone has been the most influential outlet to publish articles denying "China's ongoing repression of the Uyghur people".[577] The Grayzone has been featured by Chinese state media, including CGTN and the Global Times. In 2020, Chinese government spokesperson Hua Chunying retweeted a story published by The Grayzone which claimed to have debunked research into the internment camps in Xinjiang.[578]

In February 2021, a Press Gazette investigation found that Facebook had accepted content from Chinese state media outlets such as China Daily and China Global Television Network that denied the mistreatment of Uyghurs.[579]

According to anthropologist and China expert Gerald Roche, writing in The Nation, Xinjiang denialism only aids Chinese and American imperialism.[580] He cited Donald Trump, who, according to former National Security Advisor John Bolton, believed that building internment camps was "exactly the right thing to do."[581]

According to reports by the Newlines Institute, a think tank at the Fairfax University of America, AmaBhungane, and The New York Times, Neville Roy Singham funds a network of nonprofits and groups, including Code Pink, that deny or downplay human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslim minorities in Xinjiang.[582][583][584]

In Taiwan, former KMT chairwoman Hung Hsiu-chu received criticism for claiming that Western nations had "fabricated lies about the so-called 'forced labor' and 'genocide' in Xinjiang to undermine China's internal unity" while on a Chinese government-sponsored trip to Xinjiang in 2022.[585]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ July 2019 signatories opposing China's actions in Xinjiang:
    Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK.
  2. ^ July 2019 signatories supporting China's actions in Xinjiang:
    • original signatories: Algeria, Angola, Bahrain, Belarus, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Comoros, The Congo, Cuba, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Gabon, Kuwait, Laos, Myanmar, Nigeria, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, The Philippines, Qatar (see below), Russia, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Syria, Tajikistan, Togo, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe;
    • subsequently added signatories: Bangladesh, Djibuti, Equatorial Guinea, Iran, Iraq, Mozambique, Nepal, Palestine (the Palestinian Authority), Serbia, South Sudan, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Yemen, Zambia.
    Note that Qatar quickly retracted their support after originally signing.[364]
  3. ^ Including the US, Canada, Japan and Australia.
  4. ^ Including Belarus, Pakistan, Russia, Egypt, Bolivia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Serbia.
  5. ^ October 2020 signatories opposing China's actions in Xinjiang:
    Albania, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Haiti, Honduras, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Marshall Islands, Monaco, Nauru, Netherlands, New Zealand, North Macedonia, Norway, Palau, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the U.K., and the U.S.A.[27]
  6. ^ October 2020 signatories supporting China's actions in Xinjiang:
    Angola, Bahrain, Belarus, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Central African Republic, China, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cuba, Dominica, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Gabon, Grenada, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Iran, Iraq, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nicaragua, North Korea, Pakistan, State of Palestine, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, the U.A.E., Venezuela, Yemen, and Zimbabwe.[27]
  7. ^ October 2020 non-signatories to the statement supporting China's actions in Xinjiang who had expressed support in 2019:
    Algeria, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Kuwait, Nigeria, Oman, the Philippines, Serbia, Somalia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Zambia.[27]

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General and cited sources

External links