Filipinas está habitada por más de 182 grupos etnolingüísticos , [1] : 5 muchos de los cuales están clasificados como "pueblos indígenas" según la Ley de Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas del país de 1997. Los pueblos tradicionalmente musulmanes del grupo de islas más al sur de Mindanao generalmente se clasifican juntos como pueblos moro , ya sea que se clasifiquen como pueblos indígenas o no. Aproximadamente 142 están clasificados como grupos de pueblos indígenas no musulmanes, y alrededor de 19 grupos etnolingüísticos no están clasificados como indígenas ni moros. [1] : 6 Varios grupos migrantes también han tenido una presencia significativa a lo largo de la historia del país.
Los grupos étnicos de mayoría musulmana ( grupos etnolingüísticos) de Mindanao, Sulu y Palawan se conocen colectivamente como el pueblo moro , [2] una categoría amplia que incluye algunos grupos de pueblos indígenas y algunos grupos de pueblos no indígenas. [1] : 6 Con una población de más de 5 millones de personas, comprenden aproximadamente el 5% de la población total del país. [3] [4] Los españoles los llamaron moros en honor a los moros , a pesar de no tener ningún parecido o vínculo cultural con ellos aparte de su religión.
Alrededor de 142 de los grupos de personas indígenas de Filipinas no están clasificados como pueblos moro. [1] : 6 Algunos de estos grupos de personas se agrupan comúnmente debido a su fuerte asociación con un área geográfica compartida, aunque estas categorizaciones amplias no siempre son bien recibidas por los propios grupos étnicos. [5] [6] [7] Por ejemplo, a menudo se hace referencia a los pueblos indígenas de la Cordillera de las Montañas en el norte de Luzón utilizando el exónimo [5] "pueblo igorot", o más recientemente, como los pueblos cordilleranos . [5] Mientras tanto, a los pueblos no moro de Mindanao se los conoce colectivamente como los lumad , un autónimo colectivo concebido en 1986 como una forma de distinguirlos de sus vecinos indígenas moros y visayanos . [8] Las pequeñas comunidades étnicas indígenas siguen marginadas y, a menudo, más pobres que el resto de la sociedad. [9]
Entre el 86 y el 87 por ciento de la población filipina pertenece a los 19 grupos etnolingüísticos que no están clasificados como indígenas ni moros. [1] : 6 A estos grupos a veces se los denomina colectivamente " grupos cristianizados de las tierras bajas ", para distinguirlos de los demás grupos etnolingüísticos. [10] Los más numerosos de estos grupos, con poblaciones que superan el millón de individuos, son los ilocanos , los pangasinenses , los kapampanganes , los tagalos , los bicolanos y los visayos (incluidos los cebuanos , los boholanos , los hiligaynon/ilonggos y los waray ). [1] : 16 Muchos de estos grupos se convirtieron al cristianismo , [ cita requerida ] en particular los grupos nativos y migrantes de las tierras bajas y la costa, [11] y adoptaron elementos extranjeros de la cultura a lo largo de la historia del país. [ cita requerida ]
Debido a la historia pasada de Filipinas desde la era colonial española , también hay algunos grupos de herencia migrante histórica como los filipinos chinos y los filipinos españoles , ambos mezclados con los grupos étnicos de habla austronesia de las tierras bajas antes mencionados , que produjeron mestizos filipinos . Estos grupos también comprenden y contribuyen con una proporción considerable de la población del país, [12] especialmente su burguesía , [13] y economía [13] [14] [15] [16] y fueron parte integral del establecimiento del país, [11] desde el surgimiento del nacionalismo filipino por parte de la intelectualidad ilustrada hasta la Revolución filipina . [17] Otros pueblos de ascendencia migrante y/o mixta incluyen a los filipinos estadounidenses , filipinos indios , [18] y filipinos japoneses . [19]
Aparte de los grupos inmigrantes que hablan sus propios idiomas, la mayoría de los filipinos hablan idiomas clasificados dentro de la familia de lenguas austronesias , incluidos los diversos pueblos negritos del archipiélago, que son genéticamente y fenotípicamente distintos de los otros grupos étnicos de Filipinas. [20] Si bien estos grupos han mantenido una cultura e identidad distintas de los grupos étnicos vecinos, han adaptado desde hace mucho tiempo las lenguas austronesias de sus vecinos. [21] Tradicionalmente subcategorizados geográficamente como el pueblo ati de Visayas y Mindanao, y los aeta de Luzón, la población negrito se estimó en 31.000 en 2004. [22]
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Existen varias teorías opuestas sobre el origen de los antiguos filipinos, comenzando con la hipótesis de las " olas de migración " de H. Otley Beyer en 1948, que afirmaba que los filipinos eran "indonesios" y "malayos" que migraron a las islas. Esta hipótesis es rechazada por completo por los antropólogos modernos y no está respaldada por ninguna evidencia, pero la hipótesis todavía se enseña ampliamente en las escuelas primarias y públicas filipinas, lo que da lugar a la idea errónea generalizada entre los filipinos de que son " malayos ". [23] [24]
La teoría más aceptada, sin embargo, es el modelo "Fuera de Taiwán" que sigue la expansión austronesia durante el Neolítico en una serie de migraciones marítimas originadas en Taiwán que se extendieron a las islas del Indo-Pacífico ; llegando finalmente hasta Nueva Zelanda , Isla de Pascua y Madagascar . [25] [26] Los propios austronesios se originaron a partir de las civilizaciones preaustronesias neolíticas cultivadoras de arroz del delta del río Yangtze en la costa sureste de China anterior a la conquista de esas regiones por los chinos Han . Esto incluye civilizaciones como la cultura Liangzhu , la cultura Hemudu y la cultura Majiabang . [27] Conecta a los hablantes de las lenguas austronesias en un linaje lingüístico y genético común, incluidos los pueblos indígenas taiwaneses , los isleños del sudeste asiático , los chams , los melanesios isleños , los micronesios , los polinesios y el pueblo malgache . Además del lenguaje y la genética, también comparten marcadores culturales comunes como barcos multicasco y con estabilizadores , tatuajes , cultivo de arroz , agricultura en humedales , ennegrecimiento de dientes , tallado de jade , masticación de nueces de betel , culto a los antepasados y las mismas plantas y animales domesticados (incluidos perros, cerdos, pollos, ñames, plátanos, caña de azúcar y cocos). [25] [26] [28]
El hombre prehistórico de Tabon , hallado en Palawan en 1962, fue, hasta 2007, el resto humano más antiguo descubierto por antropólogos en Filipinas. La evidencia arqueológica indica similitudes con dos fósiles humanos tempranos encontrados en Indonesia y China, llamados el Hombre de Java y el Hombre de Pekín . En 2007, se descubrió un solo metatarsiano de un fósil anterior en la cueva de Callao , Peñablanca, Cagayán . Ese fósil anterior fue nombrado Hombre de Callao . [ cita requerida ]
Los negritos llegaron hace unos 30.000 años y ocuparon varias zonas dispersas por las islas. Evidencias arqueológicas recientes descritas por Peter Bellwood afirman que los antepasados de los filipinos, malayos e indonesios cruzaron por primera vez el estrecho de Taiwán durante el período prehistórico. Se cree que estos primeros marineros fueron los austronesios . Usaron barcos para cruzar los océanos y se asentaron en muchas regiones del sudeste asiático, las islas polinesias y Madagascar. [ cita requerida ]
Se detectaron dos oleadas tempranas del este de Asia ( austroasiática y posiblemente austríaca ), una más fuertemente evidenciada entre el pueblo manobo que vive en el interior de Mindanao, y la otra en los sama-bajau y pueblos relacionados del archipiélago de Sulu, la península de Zamboanga y Palawan. La mezcla encontrada en el pueblo sama indica una relación con los pueblos lua y mlabri del sudeste asiático continental, y refleja una señal genética similar encontrada en el oeste de Indonesia. Esto ocurrió en algún momento después de hace 15.000 años y 12.000 años respectivamente, alrededor del momento en que el último período glacial estaba llegando a su fin. [29]
Los primeros austronesios llegaron a Filipinas alrededor del 2200 a. C., estableciéndose en las islas Batanes y el norte de Luzón . Desde allí, se extendieron rápidamente hacia el resto de las islas de Filipinas y el sudeste asiático , además de viajar más al este para llegar a las Islas Marianas del Norte alrededor del 1500 a. C. [25] [30] [31] Asimilaron a los grupos negritos más antiguos que llegaron durante el Paleolítico , lo que dio lugar a los grupos étnicos filipinos modernos, que muestran diversas proporciones de mezcla genética entre los grupos austronesios y negritos. [32] En el siglo XIV, los grupos etnolingüísticos malayo-polinesios habían dominado y desplazado a la población negrita en la mayoría de las áreas. Los comerciantes del sur de China, Japón , India y Arabia también contribuyeron al desarrollo étnico y cultural de las islas. [33] También se detectó ascendencia papú entre los pueblos étnicos Blaan y Sangir de Mindanao, lo que sugiere que hubo una expansión hacia el oeste de pueblos de Papúa Nueva Guinea hacia las Filipinas. La integración del sudeste asiático en las redes comerciales del océano Índico hace unos 2000 años también muestra cierto impacto, con señales genéticas del sur de Asia presentes en algunas comunidades Sama-Bajau. [29]
En el siglo XVI, la colonización española trajo nuevos grupos de personas a Filipinas, principalmente españoles y mexicanos . Muchos se establecieron en Filipinas y se casaron con la población indígena. Esto dio lugar al mestizaje filipino o individuos de ascendencia mixta austronesia e hispana. Hubo migración de naturaleza militar desde América Latina (México y Perú) a Filipinas , compuesta por diversas razas (amerindia, mestiza y criolla) como lo describe Stephanie J. Mawson en su libro "Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific". [34] Además, en su tesis titulada 'Entre la lealtad y la desobediencia: los límites de la dominación española en el Pacífico del siglo XVII', registró un número acumulado de 15.600 soldados-colonos enviados a Filipinas desde América Latina durante el siglo XVII. [35] En contraste, solo hubo 600 españoles que inmigraron de Europa, [36] en cuyo período, la población total de Filipinas fue de solo 667.612 . [37] En el siglo XVII, España desplegó miles de soldados mexicanos y peruanos en las numerosas ciudades y presidios de Filipinas. [38]
Otros 35.000 inmigrantes mexicanos llegaron en el siglo XVIII [40] [39] y formaban parte de una población filipina de 1,2 millones, constituyendo aproximadamente el 2,9% de la población.
A finales del siglo XVIII y principios del siglo XIX, Joaquín Martínez de Zúñiga, un fraile agustino, en su libro de dos volúmenes: "Estadismo de las islas Filipinas" [41] [42] compiló un censo de las Filipinas españolas basado en los recuentos de tributos (que representan una familia promedio de siete a diez hijos [43] y dos padres por tributo) [44] y encontró las siguientes estadísticas:
La población hispano-filipina como proporción de las provincias variaba ampliamente; con un 19% de la población de la provincia de Tondo [41] : 539 (la provincia más poblada y antiguo nombre de Manila), a Pampanga 13,7%, [41] : 539 Cavite con un 13%, [41] : 539 Laguna 2,28%, [41] : 539 Batangas 3%, [41] : 539 Bulacan 10,79%, [41] : 539 Bataan 16,72%, [41] : 539 Ilocos 1,38%, [42] : 31 Pangasinan 3,49%, [42] : 31 Albay 1,16%, [42] : 54 Cebú 2,17%, [42] : 113 Samar 3,27%, [42] : 113 Iloilo 1%, [42] : 113 Capiz 1%, [42] : 113 Bicol 20%, [45] y Zamboanga 40%. [45] Según los datos, en la Arquidiócesis de Manila que administra gran parte de Luzón bajo su jurisdicción, alrededor del 10% de la población era hispanofilipina. [41] : 539 En general, en toda Filipinas, incluso incluidas las provincias sin asentamiento español, en resumen, el porcentaje promedio de tributos filipinos españoles asciende al 5% de la población total. [41] [42]
Los filipinos chinos modernos actuales son en su mayoría descendientes de inmigrantes del sur de Fujian en China del siglo XX y finales del siglo XIX, posiblemente alrededor de 2 millones, aunque se estima que un 27 por ciento de los filipinos tienen ascendencia china parcial, [46] [47] [48] provenientes de inmigrantes chinos precoloniales y coloniales ( Sangley ) de los siglos pasados, especialmente durante la era colonial española . [49] El matrimonio mixto entre los grupos es evidente en las principales ciudades y áreas urbanas, [50] y se remonta a la época colonial española , de donde desciende un grupo colonial de clase media conocido como los Mestizo de Sangley ( mestizos chinos ). [51] Sus descendientes durante finales del siglo XIX produjeron una parte importante de la intelectualidad ilustrada de las Filipinas coloniales españolas tardías , que fueron muy influyentes en la creación del nacionalismo filipino y el estallido de la Revolución filipina . [11]
También hay japoneses , entre los que se incluyen cristianos fugitivos (kirishitan) que huyeron de las persecuciones del shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu , a quien las autoridades españolas en Filipinas les habían ofrecido asilo para formar parte del asentamiento japonés en Filipinas . [52] En los siglos XVI y XVII, miles de comerciantes japoneses también emigraron a Filipinas y se asimilaron a la población local. [53]
Filipinas fue una antigua colonia estadounidense y durante la era colonial estadounidense, hubo más de 800.000 estadounidenses que nacieron en Filipinas. [54] En 2013 [update], había entre 220.000 y 600.000 ciudadanos estadounidenses viviendo en el país. [55] También hay 250.000 amerasiáticos dispersos en las ciudades de Ángeles , Manila y Olongapo . [56]
Al practicar la antropología forense , mientras exhumaba huesos craneales en varios cementerios filipinos, el investigador Matthew C. Go estimó que el 7% de la cantidad media, entre las muestras exhumadas, tienen atribución a la ascendencia europea. [57] El trabajo de investigación publicado en el Journal of Forensic Anthropology, que recopila datos antropológicos contemporáneos, muestra que el porcentaje de cuerpos filipinos que fueron muestreados de la Universidad de Filipinas , que se clasifica fenotípicamente como asiático ( este , sur y sudeste de Asia ) es del 72,7%, hispano (mestizo hispano-amerindio, latinoamericano y/o mestizo hispano-malayo ) es del 12,7%, indígena americano ( nativo americano ) del 7,3%, africano del 4,5% y europeo del 2,7%. [58]
En 2013, según el Senado de Filipinas , había aproximadamente 1,35 millones de chinos étnicos (o puros) dentro de la población filipina, mientras que los filipinos con cualquier ascendencia china comprendían 22,8 millones de la población. [12]
Los resultados de un estudio masivo de ADN realizado por el "Proyecto Genográfico" de National Geographic , basado en pruebas genéticas de 80.000 filipinos realizadas por National Geographic entre 2008 y 2009, encontraron que los genes del filipino promedio son alrededor de un 53% del sudeste asiático y de Oceanía, un 36% del este de Asia, un 5% del sur de Europa, un 3% del sur de Asia y un 2% de nativos americanos. [59]
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El término colectivo pueblo moro o pueblo bangsamoro se refiere a los al menos 13 grupos etnolingüísticos islamizados de Mindanao , Sulu y Palawan . Como grupos étnicos de mayoría musulmana, forman la mayor población mayoritaria no cristiana del país y comprenden alrededor del 5% de la población total de Filipinas, o 5 millones de personas. La mayoría de los moros son seguidores del Islam sunita del madh'hab shafi'i . Los moros musulmanes originalmente tenían algunos estados independientes como el Sultanato de Maguindanao y el Sultanato de Buayan para Maguindanaon , los Sultanatos de Lanao para Maranao y el Sultanato de Sulu para Tausug . El Sultanato de Sulu alguna vez ejerció soberanía sobre las actuales provincias de Basilan , Palawan , Sulu , Tawi-Tawi , la parte oriental del estado malasio de Sabah (anteriormente Borneo del Norte) y Kalimantan del Norte en Indonesia.
Los molbog (a los que la literatura hace referencia como molebugan o molebuganon) se concentran en el sur de Palawan , alrededor de Balabac , Bataraza , y también se encuentran en otras islas de la costa de Palawan hasta el norte de Panakan. Son el único pueblo indígena de Palawan, donde la mayoría de sus habitantes son musulmanes . La zona constituye la patria del pueblo molbog desde la era clásica anterior a la colonización española. Se sabe que los molbog tienen una fuerte conexión con el mundo natural, especialmente con el pilandok sagrado ( ciervo ratón filipino ), que solo se puede encontrar en las islas Balabac. El coco es especialmente importante en la cultura molbog, ya que es su cultivo agrícola más preciado. La palabra malubog significa "agua turbia o turbia". Es probable que los molbog sean un pueblo migrante de la cercana Sabah , en el norte de Borneo . Basándose en su dialecto y algunas prácticas socioculturales, parecen estar relacionados con los Orang Tidung o Tirum (Camucone en español), un grupo etnolingüístico islamizado nativo de la costa este inferior de Sabah y el este superior de Kalimantan . Hablan el idioma Molbog , que está relacionado con el Bonggi , hablado en Sabah, Malasia . Sin embargo, algunas palabras Sama (de la variante Jama Mapun) y palabras Tausug se encuentran en el dialecto Molbog después de un largo período de exposición con esas etnias. Esto más algunas características de su estilo de vida sociocultural los distinguen de los Orang Tidung . La vida de los Molbog incluye la agricultura de subsistencia, la pesca y el trueque ocasional con los Moros y los grupos etnolingüísticos vecinos en Sabah. En el pasado, tanto los Molbog como los Palawanon musulmanes fueron gobernados por Sulu datus , formando así la periferia política exterior del Sultanato de Sulu . Los matrimonios mixtos entre los tausug y los molbog aceleraron la islamización de los molbog. Los descendientes de estos matrimonios mixtos se conocen como kolibugan o "mestizos".
Los kolibugan son el resultado de la mezcla de las poblaciones indígenas subanon con las poblaciones musulmanas en las zonas costeras de Zamboanga . Los subanon conversos también crearon los kolibugan. La población se concentra a lo largo del lado occidental de las provincias del norte (6.495) y sur de Zamboanga (3.270), y un recuento nacional de más de 11.000. Las concentraciones están en Siocon (2.040), Sirawai (1.960) y Sibuco (1.520) (NSO 1980). El recuento total de la población se estima en 32.227 (NM 1994). La cultura generalizada es la de las tierras bajas centrales de Filipinas centrada en el cultivo de arroz húmedo y algunos cultivos itinerantes localizados. Se realiza una adaptación al entorno marino, pero principalmente en términos de pesca doméstica. [60]
El pueblo maranao ( Maranao: [ˈmҙranaw] ; filipino : Maranaw ), también escrito Meranao, Maranaw y Mëranaw, es el término utilizado por el gobierno filipino para referirse a la tribu del sur que son los "pueblos del lago", una región predominantemente musulmana de la provincia de Lanao de la isla filipina de Mindanao . Son conocidos por sus obras de arte, tejidos, artesanías de madera, plástico y metal y literatura épica, los Darengen . Viven alrededor del lago Lanao , la patria ancestral del pueblo maranao. Están relacionados con los modernos Maguindanao e Iranun . Hablan el maranao y viven en las provincias de Lanao del Norte y Lanao del Sur . Debido a la afluencia masiva de inmigrantes cebuanos a Mindanao, muchos maranaos también hablan cebuano con fluidez . También usan el árabe como lengua litúrgica del Islam . La mayoría de los maranaos, sin embargo, no saben árabe más allá de su uso religioso. Algunos también conocen el chabacano , que es un criollo español filipino que ganó popularidad como lengua principal durante la efímera República de Zamboanga . La mayoría de los maranaos con una parte de tausug o yakan de Zamboanga y basilan lo hablan, específicamente el dialecto de Zamboanga conocido como zamboangueño .
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Los iranun /ilanun son un grupo étnico moro originario de Mindanao , Filipinas , y la costa oeste de Sabah . Se cree que los iranun modernos son descendientes de los maranao que abandonaron el lago Lanao y se establecieron en otros lugares. Estas migraciones eran generalmente de clanes comerciantes de los maranao que establecieron rutas comerciales cerca de la costa. Sin embargo, algunos clanes iranun son descendientes de clanes marginados que abandonaron el lago Lanao después de que uno de los miembros de su clan cometiera un asesinato. Durante varios siglos, los iranun de Filipinas formaron parte del sultanato de Maguindanao . En el pasado, la sede del sultanato de Maguindanao estaba situada en Lamitan y Malabang . Ambos eran los bastiones de la sociedad iranun. Los iranun lucharon contra los invasores occidentales bajo la bandera del sultanato de Maguindanao. Formaron parte de la resistencia moro contra la ocupación estadounidense de Filipinas desde 1899 hasta 1913. Los iranun eran excelentes en la actividad marítima, ya que tradicionalmente son marineros y piratas . Solían recorrer la ruta que conectaba el mar de Sulu , el golfo de Moro y el mar de Célebes , y atacaban los territorios ocupados por los españoles a lo largo del camino.
El pueblo Maguindanao es el pueblo histórico del Sultanato de Maguindanao . La palabra Maguindanao o Magindanaw significa "pueblo de las llanuras de inundación", de la palabra Magi'inged , que significa "pueblo o ciudadano", y danaw , que significa "lago o pantano". Por lo tanto, Maguindanao o Magindanaw también se puede traducir como "pueblo del lago", idéntico a sus vecinos estrechamente relacionados, los Maranao y los Iranun . Estos tres grupos hablan idiomas relacionados que pertenecen a la familia de lenguas Danao . Viven principalmente en Maguindanao , Soccsksargen , la región de Davao y la península de Zamboanga y hablan Maguindanaon con segundas lenguas como Hiligaynon , Cebuano , Tagalo y Árabe y / o Inglés . Debido a la afluencia masiva de inmigrantes Cebuano e Hiligaynon a Mindanao, muchos de los Maguindanao tienden a estar expuestos a los idiomas Cebuano o Hiligaynon de Visayas con la suficiente facilidad como para poder hablarlo. El árabe es hablado por una minoría del pueblo moro, siendo la lengua litúrgica del Islam . Algunos también hablan chabacano, que es un criollo español filipino que ganó popularidad como lengua principal durante el dominio español y durante la efímera República de Zamboanga, más específicamente el dialecto cotabateño, hablado en la ciudad de Cotabato .
El pueblo Sangil (también llamado Sangir, Sangu, Marore, Sangirezen o Talaoerezen) es originario de las islas Sangihe y Talaud (ahora parte de Indonesia ) y partes de Davao Occidental (particularmente en las islas Sarangani ), Davao del Norte , Davao del Sur , Sultan Kudarat , Cotabato Sur y Cotabato Norte . Sus poblaciones (al igual que los Sama-Bajau ) se separaron cuando se trazaron las fronteras entre Filipinas e Indonesia durante la era colonial . El pueblo Sangil es tradicionalmente animista, al igual que otros pueblos Lumad . Durante la era colonial, los Sangil (que generalmente se llaman a sí mismos "Sangir") en las islas Sangihe se convirtieron principalmente al cristianismo protestante debido a la proximidad y el contacto con el pueblo cristiano Minahasa de Sulawesi . En Filipinas, la mayoría de los Sangil se convirtieron al Islam debido a la influencia del vecino Sultanato de Maguindanao . Sin embargo, aún permanecen elementos de rituales animistas. Los grupos indonesio y filipino aún mantienen vínculos y tanto el malayo manado como el cebuano se hablan tanto en el sangir indonesio como en el sangil filipino, además del idioma sangirés . Se desconoce la población exacta del pueblo sangil en Filipinas, pero se estima que es de alrededor de 10.000 personas. Los sangir indonesios viven en Filipinas, particularmente en la isla Balut, Davao del Sur , Davao del Norte , Davao Oriental , Sarangani , Sultan Kudarat , Cotabato del Norte , Cotabato del Sur , General Santos y Davao City , [61] [62] debido a su proximidad a Indonesia; hablan cebuano y tagalo como segundas lenguas y son cristianos protestantes por fe.
El pueblo yakan se encuentra entre los principales grupos etnolingüísticos indígenas filipinos en el archipiélago de Sulu . Con un número significativo de seguidores del Islam , los yakans están incluidos entre los 13 grupos moros de Filipinas . Los yakans residen principalmente en Basilan , pero también están en la ciudad de Zamboanga . Hablan un idioma conocido como Bissa Yakan , que tiene características tanto del Sama-Bajau Sinama como del Tausug . Está escrito en la escritura árabe malaya, con adaptaciones a sonidos que no están presentes en el árabe . Los yakans hablan chabacano , que es la lengua franca de Basilan, la razón de su adaptación más fácil a la sociedad de la ciudad de Zamboanga. Debido a la afluencia masiva de inmigrantes cebuanos a Mindanao, muchos de los yakans también tienden a estar expuestos al idioma cebuano de Visayas con la suficiente facilidad como para poder hablarlo. Los yakan tienen una cultura tradicional de los caballos . Son famosos por sus tradiciones de tejido.
El pueblo Tausūg (conocido como Suluk en Sabah ) es un grupo étnico de Filipinas , Malasia e Indonesia . Los Tausūg son un subgrupo de Visayas que en su mayoría se convirtieron al Islam a fines del siglo XIV d. C. y están estrechamente relacionados con los pueblos Surigaonon y Butuanon . Los Tausug musulmanes originalmente tenían un estado independiente conocido como el Sultanato de Sulu , que alguna vez ejerció soberanía sobre las actuales provincias de Sulu , las áreas costeras de Basilan , el sur de Palawan , Tawi-Tawi , algunas áreas costeras de la península de Zamboanga y la parte oriental del estado malasio de Sabah (anteriormente Borneo del Norte ) y Kalimantan del Norte en Indonesia. "Tausug" significa "la gente de la corriente", de la palabra tau que significa "hombre" o "pueblo" y sūg (escrito alternativamente sulug o suluk ) que significa "corrientes [marinas]". Esto se refiere a sus tierras natales en el archipiélago de Sulu . Los Tausūg en Sabah se refieren a sí mismos como Tausūg, pero se refieren a su grupo étnico como "Suluk", como está documentado en documentos oficiales como los certificados de nacimiento en Sabah , que están escritos en malayo . Debido a la llegada masiva de colonos cebuanos a Mindanao, muchos Tausug están expuestos al idioma cebuano con la suficiente facilidad como para poder hablarlo, ya que los idiomas Tausug y Cebuano pertenecen a las lenguas Visayas. Algunos Tausug en Sulu y Tawi-Tawi hablan Chabacano, específicamente el dialecto Zamboanga; la mayoría de los que hablan chabacano con fluidez son residentes de Basilan y la ciudad de Zamboanga. La mayoría de los Tausug en Sabah y Kalimantan del Norte y algunos Tausug en el archipiélago de Sulu y el sur de Palawan hablan malayo de Sabah .
Los Jama Mapun son conocidos a veces por los exónimos 'Sama Mapun', 'Sama Kagayan' o 'Bajau Kagayan'. Forman parte del pueblo Sama-Bajau . Son originarios de la isla de Mapun, Tawi-Tawi (antes conocida como Cagayan de Sulu). Su cultura está fuertemente influenciada por el Sultanato de Sulu . Son relativamente aislados y no suelen considerarse Sama.
Banguingui , también conocido como Sama Banguingui o Samal Banguingui (las grafías alternativas incluyen Bangingi', Bangingi, Banguingui, Balanguingui y Balangingi) es un grupo etnolingüístico distinto disperso por todo el archipiélago de Gran Sulu y las regiones costeras del sur y oeste de la península de Zamboanga en Mindanao , Filipinas . Son uno de los grupos étnicos generalmente conocidos colectivamente como los pueblos Sama-Bajau .
Los Sama Dea (Samal/Sama) son parte de los pueblos Sama-Bajau , más precisamente un subgrupo general de "Land Sama" nativo de las Filipinas. Son conocidos popularmente como Samal (también escrito "Siamal" o "Siyamal"), que es un término Tausūg y Cebuano que a veces se considera ofensivo. Su endónimo preferido es simplemente "Sama", pero también se les puede llamar Sama Deya o Sama Darat. Estos son los Sama-Bajau que tradicionalmente vivían en el interior de las islas. Algunos ejemplos son los Sama Sibutu y los Sama Sanga-Sanga. Por lo general, son agricultores que cultivan arroz , batata , mandioca y cocos para copra a través de la agricultura tradicional de tala y quema (en contraste con la tecnología de agricultura de arado traída por los Tausūg). Son originarios de las islas más grandes de Tawi-Tawi y Pangutaran . En Filipinas, los Sama Dea suelen diferenciarse por completo de los Sama Dilaut. Un gran número de ellos reside ahora en las costas del norte de Sabah , aunque muchos también han migrado al norte, a las Visayas y al sur de Luzón . Viven predominantemente en la tierra. Son el grupo más grande de Sama-Bajau . En Davao del Norte , la ciudad-jardín insular de Samal posiblemente recibió su nombre en su honor. Un estudio genético de 2021 muestra cómo los Sama tienen una ascendencia común con los pueblos austroasiáticos Mlabri y Htin del sudeste asiático continental. [63]
Los Sama Bihing o Sama Lipid también son conocidos como "Sama de la costa" o " Sama del litoral ". Son los Sama-Bajau que tradicionalmente vivían en casas sobre pilotes en aguas poco profundas y zonas costeras. Un ejemplo son los Sama Simunul. Son originarios de las islas más grandes de Tawi-Tawi . Tienen un estilo de vida más flexible que los Sama-Gimba (de origen Sama Dilaut) y cultivan cuando hay tierra disponible. Por lo general, actúan como intermediarios en el comercio entre los Sama Dilaut y otros pueblos que viven en la tierra.
Los Sama Dilaut (Bajau) son parte de los pueblos Sama-Bajau y son el grupo étnico dominante de las islas de Tawi-Tawi en Filipinas . Se les conoce como los "Sama del mar" o "Sama del océano". En Filipinas, se les conoce más popularmente como Bajau o Badjao / Bajaw, pero su etnónimo preferido es Sama Dilaut o Sama Mandilaut / Sama Pala'u; mientras que en Malasia, generalmente se identifican como Bajau Laut. Este subgrupo originalmente vivía exclusivamente en casas flotantes elaboradamente diseñadas llamadas lepa , pero casi todos han comenzado a vivir en la tierra en Filipinas. Sus islas de origen incluyen Sitangkai y Bongao . A veces se llaman a sí mismos "Sama To'ongan" (literalmente "Sama verdadero" o "Sama real"), para distinguirse de los subgrupos Sama-Bajau que viven en la tierra. También se encuentran en otras islas del archipiélago de Sulu , áreas costeras de Mindanao , el norte y este de Borneo , Sulawesi y en todas las islas del este de Indonesia . En los últimos cincuenta años, muchos de los filipinos Sama-Bajau han emigrado a la vecina Malasia y las islas del norte de Filipinas, debido al conflicto en Mindanao . Un estudio genético publicado en PNAS muestra que el pueblo Dilaut de Filipinas tiene ascendencia del sur de Asia o de la India. [63] A partir de 2010, eran el segundo grupo étnico más grande en el estado malasio de Sabah . A los Sama-Bajau a veces se les ha llamado "gitanos del mar" o "nómadas del mar". Por lo general, viven un estilo de vida marítimo y utilizan pequeñas embarcaciones de vela de madera como el perahu ( layag en Meranau ), el djenging , el balutu , el lepa , el pilang y el vinta (o lepa-lepa ).
En Filipinas hay más de 100 grupos indígenas de tierras altas, tierras bajas y costas, entre los que se incluyen:
Los igorrotes/cordilleranos viven en las tierras altas de Luzón . Se encuentran principalmente en la región administrativa de la Cordillera , las montañas de Caraballo y la Sierra Madre . [64]
El pueblo Isnag (también Isneg o Apayao) es nativo de la provincia de Apayao en la Región Administrativa de Cordillera . Su lengua nativa es el isneg (también llamado isnag), aunque la mayoría de los isnag también hablan ilokano . Se conocen dos subgrupos principales entre los Isnag: los Ymandaya, concentrados mayoritariamente en el municipio de Calanasan ; y el Imallod, con poblaciones distribuidas entre el resto de pueblos de la provincia. También se pueden encontrar poblaciones de Isnag en la parte oriental de las provincias adyacentes de Ilocos Norte y Cagayán .
Los itneg ( exónimo Tinguian / Tingguian / Tinggian) son un grupo étnico austronesio de la provincia montañosa de Abra , en el noroeste de Luzón , en Filipinas . La lengua nativa itneg es un dialecto de la cordillera centro-sur . Tienen una religión indígena itneg con su propio panteón.
Los kalinga , también conocidos como "iKalinga", habitan la cuenca hidrográfica del curso medio del río Chico en la provincia de Kalinga . Los kalinga se subdividen en grupos del sur y del norte; estos últimos se consideran el pueblo más ornamentado del norte de Filipinas. Los kalinga practican el cultivo del arroz tanto en seco como en húmedo. También desarrollaron una institución de pactos de paz llamada Bodong que ha minimizado la guerra tradicional y la caza de cabezas y sirve como mecanismo para la iniciación, el mantenimiento, la renovación y el refuerzo del parentesco y los lazos sociales. También hablan diferentes idiomas tribales kalinga , ilocano , tagalo e inglés .
La tribu Balangao habita un barangay en Natonin , provincia de Mountain , Filipinas . La tribu se centra principalmente en la agricultura; que se lleva a cabo ya sea en terrazas de arroz o en tierras que fueron despejadas por el fuego. En la actualidad, muchos de los miembros de la generación más joven de la tribu han obtenido educación y están expuestos a la modernización, cambiando así la sociedad que alguna vez fue tradicional de la tribu. La lengua balangao/farangao/balangao bontoc es utilizada por la tribu balangao y se limita a la tribu y otras tribus cercanas que tienen sus propias lenguas relacionadas con la lengua. Se habla en el área central de la provincia de Mountain y en el municipio de Tanudan de la provincia de Kalinga .
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Los bontoc viven en las orillas del río Chico , en la provincia montañosa central de la isla de Luzón . Hablan bontoc e ilocano . Antiguamente practicaban la caza de cabezas y tenían tatuajes corporales distintivos . Los bontoc actuales son un pueblo agrícola pacífico que, por elección propia, ha conservado la mayor parte de su cultura tradicional a pesar de los frecuentes contactos con otros grupos. La estructura social de los bontoc solía estar centrada en los barrios de las aldeas ( ato ), que contenían entre 14 y 50 casas. Tradicionalmente, los hombres y mujeres jóvenes vivían en dormitorios y comían con sus familias. Esto cambió gradualmente con la llegada del cristianismo . En general, sin embargo, se puede decir que todos los bontoc son muy conscientes de su propia forma de vida y no están demasiado ansiosos por cambiar.
Los ifugao (también conocidos como amganad, ayangan, kiangan, gilipanes, quiangan, tuwali ifugao, mayoyao, mayaoyaw) son los habitantes de la provincia de ifugao . El país de los ifugao, en la parte sureste de la región de la cordillera , es más conocido por sus famosas terrazas de arroz de Banaue , que en los tiempos modernos se han convertido en una de las principales atracciones turísticas de Filipinas. Los ifugaos también hablan cuatro dialectos distintos y son conocidos por sus ricas tradiciones literarias orales de hudhud y alim, que fueron elegidas como una de las 11 obras maestras del patrimonio oral e inmaterial de la humanidad . Luego fue inscrito formalmente como patrimonio cultural inmaterial de la UNESCO en 2008.
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El dominio Kankanaey incluye la Provincia de las Montañas Occidentales , el norte de Benguet y el sureste de Ilocos Sur . Como la mayoría de los grupos étnicos Igorot, los Kankanaey construyeron terrazas inclinadas para maximizar el espacio agrícola en el terreno accidentado de las Cordilleras . Hablan el idioma Kankanaey . La única diferencia entre los Kankanaey es la forma en que hablan, como la entonación y el uso de las palabras. En la entonación, existe una distinción entre los que hablan Kankanaey Duro ( Applai ) y Kankanaey Suave. Los hablantes de Kankanaey Duro son de las ciudades de Sagada y Besao en la Provincia de las Montañas Occidentales, así como de sus alrededores. Hablan Kankanaey con una entonación dura donde difieren en algunas palabras de los Kankanaey de habla suave. Los Kankanaey de habla suave provienen del norte y otras partes de Benguet, y de los municipios de Sabangan , Tadian y Bauko en la Provincia de las Montañas. También difieren en sus formas de vida y, a veces, en su cultura.
Los Kalanguya (también llamados Ikalahan) viven en la Región Administrativa de Cordillera , pero también se pueden encontrar en Nueva Vizcaya , Nueva Ecija y Pangasinan . Hablan el idioma Kalanguya o "Kallahan", que alguna vez fue el idioma más hablado en la mayor parte de lo que hoy es Benguet , Nueva Vizcaya, Ifugao , la Provincia del Monte y algunas partes de Nueva Ecija, pero ya no se debe al etnocentrismo. La población Kalanguya en Nueva Vizcaya también ha sido identificada en la literatura antropológica como "Ikal-lahan". Los que residen en Tinoc y Buguias se llaman Kalangoya. Los que residen en Nueva Vizcaya y Quirino se llaman a sí mismos Ikalahans. En el pasado, este grupo etnolingüístico se conocía como Kalanggutan, Keley'I, Mandek'ey, Yatukka o Kalangoya. Los Kalanguya son considerados un subgrupo del pueblo Ifugao .
La tribu Karao vive en el municipio de Bokod , Benguet . Los antepasados de los Karao son los Panuy-puys (puypuys), que emigraron de Palileng, Bontoc a Diyang en Nueva Viscaya , y finalmente se establecieron en Karao en la última parte del siglo XIX. Hablan el idioma Karao (también escrito Karaw). Se habla en las áreas de Karao, Ekip y Bokod de la provincia occidental de Benguet , y en la esquina suroeste de la provincia de Ifugao . El idioma recibe su nombre del barangay de Karaw en el municipio de Bokod , Benguet . [65]
El pueblo Iwak (Oak, Iguat, Iwaak, etc.) es un pequeño grupo étnico, que tiene una población de aproximadamente 3.000 personas, dispersas en pequeñas aldeas cercadas que suelen ser enclaves en comunidades de grupos étnicos principales circundantes como los Ibaloy y los Ikalahan . Las cercas características que encierran las aldeas a veces están compuestas en parte por las casas con la entrada frontal orientada hacia el interior. Las porquerizas son parte de la arquitectura residencial. Los Iwak se encuentran principalmente en los municipios de Boyasyas y Kayapa , provincia de Nueva Vizcaya . Los subgrupos son: (1) Lallang ni I'Wak, (2) Ibomanggi, (3) Italiti, (4) Alagot, (5) Itangdalan, (6) Ialsas, (7) Iliaban, (8) Yumanggi, (9) Ayahas y (10) Idangatan. [66] Hablan el idioma Iwaak , que es una lengua Pangasínica lo que la hace estrechamente relacionada con el Pangasinense .
Los isinai /isinay son un pequeño grupo étnico que vive en el valle de Cagayán , específicamente en los municipios de Bambang , Dupax del Sur , Aritao en Nueva Vizcaya , así como alrededor de la provincia de Quirino , y en las áreas del norte de Nueva Ecija y Aurora. Sus comunidades étnicas muestran un declive en la población, con solo alrededor de 12.600 miembros registrados. Hablan el idioma isinai (también escrito isinay), que es un idioma del norte de Luzón hablado principalmente en la provincia de Nueva Vizcaya en el norte de Filipinas . Por clasificación lingüística , es más divergente de otras lenguas de la Cordillera Central-Sur , como el kalinga , el itneg o ifugao y el kankanaey . [67]
Los Ibaloi ( Ibaloi : ivadoy , /ivaˈdoj/) son un grupo étnico indígena que se encuentra en la provincia de Benguet, en el norte de Filipinas . El idioma nativo es el Ibaloi , también conocido como Inibaloi o Nabaloi. Ibaloi se deriva de i- , un prefijo que significa "perteneciente a" y badoy o casa, que juntos significan "gente que vive en casas". Los Ibaloi (también Ibaloy y Nabaloi) y los Kalanguya (también Kallahan e Ikalahan) son uno de los pueblos indígenas de Filipinas que viven principalmente en la parte sur de Benguet , ubicada en la Cordillera del norte de Luzón , y Nueva Vizcaya en la región del Valle de Cagayán . Tradicionalmente eran una sociedad agraria. Muchos de los Ibaloi y Kalanguya continúan con su agricultura y cultivo de arroz. El idioma Ibaloi está estrechamente relacionado con el idioma Pangasinan , hablado principalmente en la provincia de Pangasinan , ubicada al suroeste de Benguet.
Los ilongot (o ibilao) son una tribu que habita la Sierra Madre meridional y las montañas Caraballo , en el lado este de Luzón en Filipinas , principalmente en las provincias de Nueva Vizcaya y Nueva Ecija y a lo largo de la frontera montañosa entre las provincias de Quirino y Aurora . [68] Un nombre alternativo de esta tribu y su idioma es "Bugkalot". Se les conoce como una tribu de cazadores de cabezas. Actualmente, hay alrededor de 87.000 ilongots. Los ilongots tienden a habitar áreas cercanas a los ríos, ya que proporcionan una fuente de alimento y un medio de transporte. Su lengua materna es el idioma ilongot , hablado actualmente por unas 50.000 personas. También hablan los idiomas ilocano y tagalo , este último se habla en Nueva Ecija y Aurora tanto como ilocano.
Mangyan es el nombre genérico de los ocho grupos indígenas que habitan la isla de Mindoro , al suroeste de la isla de Luzón en Filipinas, cada uno con su propio nombre tribal, idioma y costumbres. Ocupan casi todo el interior de la isla de Mindoro. La población total puede rondar los 280.000 habitantes, pero las estadísticas oficiales son difíciles de determinar en las condiciones de las zonas remotas, los grupos tribales solitarios y algunos con poco o ningún contacto con el mundo exterior. También hablan tagalo como segunda lengua debido a la llegada de colonos tagalos procedentes de Batangas. [69]
Los iraya son mangyans que viven en municipios del norte de Mindoro , como Paluan , Abra de Ilog , el norte de Mamburao y los municipios de Santa Cruz en Mindoro Occidental , y los municipios de Puerto Galera y San Teodoro en Mindoro Oriental . También se han encontrado en Calamintao, en el límite noreste del municipio de Santa Cruz (7 km río arriba del río Pagbahan desde la carretera provincial). Hablan el idioma iraya , que forma parte del grupo de lenguas malayo-polinesias mangyan del norte , aunque muestra diferencias considerables con el tadyawan y el alanga, los otros idiomas de este grupo. Hay entre 6.000 y 8.000 hablantes de iraya, y ese número está creciendo. El estatus lingüístico del iraya está en desarrollo, lo que significa que sus hablantes lo están utilizando de manera sólida y saludable, y también tiene su propio sistema de escritura (aunque todavía no es completamente común ni sostenible).
Los Alangan son mangyans que viven principalmente en los municipios de Naujan y Victoria en Mindoro Oriental , y Sablayan en Mindoro Occidental . Hablan el idioma Alangan y suman unas 2.150 personas en el centro-norte de Mindoro. Los hablantes de Alangan de toda la zona entienden el dialecto Ayan Bekeg que se habla en las laderas noreste del monte Halcón . También se pueden encontrar alrededor de Casague, Santa Cruz, Mindoro Occidental y Kulasisi (afluente del río Mompong), cerca de Barrio Arellano, Sablayan, Mindoro Occidental .
Los tadyawan son mangyans que viven principalmente en el sur del lago Naujan en Mindoro Oriental . Se pueden encontrar en Barrio Talapaan, Socorro, Mindoro Oriental ; Valle Feliz, Socorro, Mindoro Oriental ; y Pahilaan, Calatagan, Pola, Mindoro Oriental . Hablan el idioma Tadyawan , que tiene 4 dialectos, a saber, Nauhan, East Aglubang, West Aglubang y Pola. Nauhan y East Aglubang están cerca uno del otro. El West Aglubang es el que se habla más lejos y tiene una fuerte influencia alanga .
Los mangyans tau-build (o tawbuid ) viven en Mindoro central . Hablan el idioma tawbuid , que se divide en dialectos oriental y occidental. Los mangyans bangon también hablan el dialecto occidental del tawbuid. En Mindoro oriental , 1.130 personas hablan tawbuid oriental (también conocido como bangon) en los municipios de Socorro , Pinamalayan y Gloria .
En Mindoro Occidental , el tawbuid occidental (también conocido como batangan) lo hablan 6.810 personas en los municipios de Sablayan y Calintaan .
El grupo mangyan conocido al este de Mindoro como bangon puede ser un subgrupo de tawbuid , ya que hablan el dialecto "occidental" de esa lengua. También tienen un tipo de poesía que se llama ambahan .
Los Buhid son mangyans que viven principalmente en Malfalon, Calintaan , Mindoro Occidental ; Bato Eli, Barrio Monte Claro, San José Pandurucan (en la margen sur del río Bugsanga (Bisanga)) en Mindoro Occidental; Barrio Rambida, Socorro, Mindoro Oriental ; y Barrio Batangan, Panaytayan, Mansalay, Mindoro Oriental . Hablan el idioma buhid en la isla de Mindoro, Filipinas . Está dividido en dialectos orientales y occidentales y utiliza su propia escritura buhid única , que está codificada en Unicode-Block Buhid (Buid) (1740-175F) .
Hanunuo , o Hanunó'o, son mangyans que viven en Barrio Tugtugin, San José, Mindoro Occidental ; Naluak, Magsaysay, Mindoro Occidental (en la parte superior del río Caguray); Bamban, Magsaysay, Occidental Mindoro (también con residentes en Ratagnon y Bisayan); y Barrio Panaytayan, Mansalay, Mindoro Oriental (a unos 5 km de la carretera en las montañas al suroeste de Mansalay). Hablan el idioma Hanunó'o y utilizan su propia escritura Hanunuo , que está codificada en el bloque Unicode Hanunoo (1720-173F) .
Ratagnon (también transliterado Datagnon o Latagnon) son mangyans del extremo sur de Mindoro Occidental en las Islas Mindoro a lo largo del Mar de Sulu . Viven en la parte más al sur del municipio de Magsaysay en Mindoro Occidental . El idioma Ratagnon es similar al idioma Visayan Cuyunon , hablado por los habitantes de la Isla Cuyo en el norte de Palawan . Las mujeres Ratagnon visten una tela de algodón envolvente desde la cintura hasta las rodillas y algunos de los hombres todavía usan la tanga tradicional. La cubierta del pecho de las mujeres está hecha de nito (vid) tejida. También usan accesorios hechos de cuentas y alambre de cobre. Los hombres usan una chaqueta con bordados simples durante las festividades de gala y llevan pedernal, yesca y otros elementos para hacer fuego. Ambos sexos usan bobinas de ratán teñido de rojo en la cintura. Al igual que otras tribus Mangyan, también llevan masticable de betel y sus ingredientes en recipientes de bambú. En la actualidad , de una población étnica de 2.000 personas, sólo entre 2 y 5 hablan el idioma ratagnon , que está casi extinto , ya que los hablantes están pasando al tagalo . Parece que también se han casado con habitantes de las tierras bajas.
Los pueblos indígenas de Palawan son un grupo diverso de tribus indígenas y grupos de las tierras bajas que históricamente migraron a la isla de Palawan y sus islas periféricas. Estos grupos etnolingüísticos están ampliamente distribuidos en la larga franja de isla continental que literalmente atraviesa Luzón , Visayas y Mindanao . A continuación se enumeran específicamente los grupos tribales de Palawan, a diferencia de sus grupos de tierras bajas urbanas que históricamente se asentaron en sus ciudades y pueblos. Palawan es el hogar de muchos pueblos indígenas cuyos orígenes se remontan a miles de siglos. Los descubrimientos prehistóricos revelan cómo sobrevivió la abundante vida cultural en Palawan antes de que los ocupantes y colonizadores extranjeros llegaran al archipiélago filipino. Hoy, Palawan está haciendo todo lo posible para preservar y conservar la riqueza de sus grupos culturales. El gobierno provincial se esfuerza por apoyar a los grupos de pueblos indígenas de Palawan.
El pueblo Tagbanwa/Tagbanua ( Tagbanwa : ᝦᝪᝯ), o "gente del mundo", es uno de los grupos étnicos más antiguos de Filipinas , y se puede encontrar principalmente en el centro y norte de Palawan . Las investigaciones han demostrado que los Tagbanwa son posibles descendientes del Hombre Tabon , lo que los convierte en uno de los habitantes originales de Filipinas. Son un grupo étnico de piel morena, delgado y cabello lacio. Hablan las lenguas Tagbanwa, que tienen su propia escritura Tagbanwa única con Unicode-Block Tagbanwa (1760–177F) , y se pueden clasificar en dos clasificaciones principales según la ubicación geográfica donde se pueden encontrar. Los Tagbanwa centrales se encuentran en las áreas costeras occidental y oriental del centro de Palawan. Se concentran en los municipios de Aborlan , Quezón y Puerto Princesa . Los tagbanwa calamianos , por otra parte, se encuentran en la costa de Baras, la isla de Busuanga , la isla de Coron , Linipacan Calibangbangan y en algunas partes de El Nido . Estos dos subgrupos tagbanwa hablan diferentes idiomas y no tienen exactamente las mismas costumbres. Los tagbanwa viven en aldeas compactas de 45 a 500 individuos. En 1987, había 129.691 tagbanwas viviendo en Palawan. En la actualidad, la tribu tagbanwa tiene una población estimada de más de 10.000. 1.800 de ellos se encuentran en los calamianes . El cultivo migratorio de arroz de las tierras altas es parte de sus prácticas culturales y económicas. El arroz se considera un regalo divino y se fermenta para hacer vino de arroz , que utilizan en Pagdiwata , o ritual del vino de arroz. El culto a los muertos es la clave del sistema religioso de los tagbanwa. Creen en varias deidades que se encuentran en el entorno natural. Su lengua y alfabeto, la práctica del kaingin y la creencia común en parientes del alma forman parte de su cultura. Este grupo es excelente en cestería y tallado de madera. También son famosos por sus accesorios corporales bellamente elaborados. Sus peines, pulseras, collares y tobilleras suelen estar hechos de madera, cuentas, latón y cobre. La lengua tagbanwa central está desapareciendo a medida que las generaciones más jóvenes aprenden el cuyanón y el tagalo.
El pueblo tribal Palawan , también conocido como Palawano (solo por los forasteros) o Palaw'an (o Palawan , según el subdialecto), es un grupo étnico indígena del grupo de islas Palawan en Filipinas. Tradicionalmente cazan usando soars y cerbatanas de bambú. Hablan el idioma palawano , que se divide en cuatro subgrupos etnolingüísticos: el Quezon Palawano, que también se conoce como el Central Palawano; el Bugsuk Palawano o South Palawano; el Brooke's Point Palawano; y el Southwest Palawano. Los palawanos son más conocidos popularmente como Palawans, que se pronuncia más rápido que el nombre de la provincia. El subgrupo Quezon Palawano se encuentra en el sur de Palawan, particularmente en la sección occidental del municipio de Quezón , incluida la parte oriental de Abo-abo del municipio de Sofronio Espanola , yendo hacia el sur hasta la sección norte del municipio de Rizal . También se puede encontrar un gran grupo de palawanes en Sitios Gugnan, Kambing, Tugpa y Kalatabog de Barangay Panitian . Los Taw't Bato del municipio de Rizal, al pie del monte Matalingahan, también pertenecen a este mismo grupo tribal palawan, aunque su idioma es un 15 por ciento diferente al de los palawanos de Quezón. Los palawano se parecen mucho a los tagbanwa y, en el pasado, sin duda eran el mismo pueblo. Algunos residentes de Tausug en Palawan llaman a los palawano Traan , que significa "gente en lugares dispersos". Al igual que los yakan de Basilan , los palawano viven en casas fuera de la vista de los demás, esparcidas entre sus parcelas de tierras de cultivo. Su principal ocupación es la agricultura de subsistencia, cultivando principalmente arroz de secano. Su religión es una antigua creencia prehispánica que mezcla el animismo tradicional con elementos del hinduismo y la creencia islámica . Algunos han abrazado el Islam de sus vecinos del sur de Molbog y Palawani. Un pequeño número de ellos son protestantes debido a las recientes campañas misioneras .
El nombre de Taaw't Bato significa "gente de la roca". Hablan el idioma Taaw't Bato , que es 80% inteligible con el palawano . En realidad no son una lengua separada ni una nación etnolingüística, sino más bien una pequeña comunidad de palawanos tradicionales del suroeste que residen en el cráter de un volcán extinto durante ciertas estaciones del año, en casas construidas sobre pisos elevados dentro de cuevas, aunque otros han establecido sus hogares en las laderas abiertas. Se encuentran en la cuenca de Singnapan, un valle delimitado por el monte Mantalingajan al este y la costa al oeste. Al norte de ellos se encuentra el municipio de Quezón, Palawan y al sur se encuentran las regiones aún inexploradas de Palawan. Siguen siendo primitivos en su estilo de vida, incluso en la forma de vestir. Los hombres todavía usan tangas hechas de corteza y tela y las mujeres usan un trozo de tela hecho en faldas para cubrir la parte inferior del cuerpo. Ambos están medio desnudos, pero a veces las mujeres usan una blusa que no es indígena sino que se obtiene a través de mercados comerciales. Principalmente producen y consumen mandioca , pero también producen batata , caña de azúcar , malunggay , ajo , pimienta , judías verdes , calabaza , tomate , piña , etc. Durante todo el año, la caza y la búsqueda de alimentos se realizan para complementar la dieta de carbohidratos de la gente. La mayoría de los cerdos salvajes se capturan mediante trampas de resorte. También se dedican al sambi ( trueque ) y al dagang (intercambio monetario). El comercio es específicamente de peces marinos que la gente de Candawaga proporciona a cambio de productos hortícolas de los Taaw't-Bato. El dagang involucra productos forestales como la almaciga , el ratán , etc. Esta tribu subsiste de la caza, la recolección de frutas y la plantación de cultivos y arroz cerca del bosque. Debido a su singularidad, el gobierno filipino declaró su área fuera de los límites para los extraños para protegerlos de la explotación irrazonable.
Los Suludnon son pueblos de las tierras altas de Visayas , relacionados con las tierras bajas de Kinaray-a , Aklanon e Hiligaynon de la isla de Panay , Visayas .
Los suludnon , también conocidos como tumandok, sulod, panay-bukidnon o panayanon sulud, son un grupo indígena visayano que reside en la zona montañosa de Capiz - Lampunao y la zona montañosa de Antique - Iloilo en el centro de Panay en las islas Visayas de Filipinas . Son uno de los dos únicos grupos culturalmente indígenas de hablantes de lengua visaya en las Visayas occidentales , junto con los iraynon-bukidnon de Antique . Aunque alguna vez estuvieron relacionados culturalmente con los hablantes de las lenguas kinaray-a , aklanon e hiligaynon , todos los cuales habitan las tierras bajas de Panay, su aislamiento del dominio español resultó en la continuación de una cultura y creencias prehispánicas . Hablan el idioma igbok (también conocido como ligbok o idioma sulod), un miembro de la subdivisión visaya occidental de las lenguas visayas bajo la familia de lenguas austronesias . Son el grupo indígena más numeroso de Panay, con una población de unos 94.000 habitantes en 2011. En su mayoría son agricultores de tala y quema cuyo cultivo principal es el arroz bisaya. Los tumandok también se dedican a la caza, la pesca y la recolección de frutas y tubérculos. [70]
Los negritos son varios grupos australo-melanesios que habitan partes aisladas del sudeste asiático . [71] Todos ellos viven en áreas remotas a lo largo de las islas de Filipinas.
Los aeta son varios pueblos indígenas negritos diferentes que viven en partes montañosas dispersas y aisladas de la isla de Luzón . Como negritos, tienen una piel que varía de marrón oscuro a muy oscuro, y poseen características como una estatura y un cuerpo pequeños; cabello de textura rizada a crespa y una mayor frecuencia de color naturalmente más claro ( rubio ) en relación con la población general, nariz pequeña y ojos de color marrón oscuro. Se cree que están entre los primeros habitantes de Filipinas, antes de las migraciones austronesias . Los aeta fueron incluidos en el grupo de personas llamadas " negritos " durante la era española . Varios grupos aeta en el norte de Luzón se llaman pugut o pugot , un término ilocano que también significa "duende" o "espíritu del bosque", y es el término coloquial para las personas de tez más oscura. Estos nombres son considerados en su mayoría inapropiados o despectivos por los compañeros aeta del norte de Luzón. Los aeta hablan lenguas sambalicas , que son parte de la familia de Luzón central .
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Los batak son un grupo de indígenas filipinos que residen en la parte noreste de Palawan . Según un censo de 1990, solo quedan unos 450 batak. También llamados tinitianes , los antropólogos consideran que los batak están estrechamente relacionados con los aeta de Luzón central . Suelen ser de baja estatura, de piel oscura y pelo corto y rizado , rasgos que originalmente dieron a los grupos " negritos " su nombre. Hablan el idioma batak , que es un idioma negrito hablado en Palawan . A veces se desambigua de los idiomas batak de Indonesia como palawan batak . Se pueden encontrar en las comunidades de Babuyan, Maoyon, Tanabag, Langogan, Tagnipa, Caramay y Buayan en Palawan. También hablan los idiomas circundantes, incluidos el tagbanwa meridional , el tagbanwa central , el kuyonon y el agutaynen .
Los ati son un grupo étnico negrito de las Visayas , la parte central del archipiélago filipino . Sus pequeños números se concentran principalmente en las islas de Boracay , Panay y Negros . Están genéticamente relacionados con otros grupos étnicos negritos de Filipinas, como los aeta de Luzón , los batak de Palawan y los mamanwa de Mindanao . Los ati hablan una lengua visaya conocida como inati . En 1980, los hablantes de inati eran unos 1.500. También se utilizan comúnmente el hiligaynon y el kinaray-a .
Los mamanwa son una tribu negrito que a menudo se agrupa con los lumad . Provienen de las provincias de Leyte , Agusan del Norte y Surigao en Mindanao ; principalmente en Kitcharao y Santiago , Agusan del Norte, aunque son menos numerosos y más dispersos y nómadas que las tribus manobos y mandaya que también habitan la región. Como todos los negritos, los mamanwas son fenotípicamente distintos de los habitantes de las tierras bajas y de los manobos que viven en las tierras altas, exhibiendo cabello rizado y tonos de piel mucho más oscuros. Estos pueblos son tradicionalmente cazadores-recolectores y consumen una amplia variedad de plantas silvestres, hierbas, insectos y animales de la selva tropical. Actualmente, las poblaciones mamanwa viven en asentamientos sedentarios (" barangays ") que están cerca de pueblos agrícolas y centros de mercado. Como resultado, una proporción sustancial de su dieta incluye alimentos domesticados ricos en almidón. Los mamanwa han estado expuestos a muchas de las modernidades que poseen y utilizan las poblaciones agrícolas dominantes, como teléfonos celulares, televisores, radios, alimentos procesados, etc. Su contacto con comunidades/poblaciones monoteístas ha tenido un impacto considerable en las prácticas religiosas de los mamanwa. La tribu produce excelentes canastas para aventar, hamacas de ratán y otros recipientes domésticos. Mamanwa (también escrito Mamanoa ) significa 'primeros habitantes del bosque', de las palabras man (primero) y banwa (bosque). Hablan el idioma mamanwa (o Minamanwa). Están genéticamente relacionados con los denisovanos .
Los lumad son los pueblos indígenas austronesios no islamizados ni cristianizados (o cristianizados recientemente) de Mindanao . Incluyen varios grupos etnolingüísticos como los manobo, los tasaday , los mamanwa, los mandaya, los b'laan , los t'boli y los kalagan . Habitan principalmente en las partes orientales de Mindanao, como las regiones de caraga y davao .
Subanon o Subanu (también llamado Subanen o Subanun) es una palabra Subanon que significa "del río". El término se deriva de la raíz soba o suba (que significa "río") y el sufijo -nun o -non que indica localidad o lugar de origen. Los subanon también se conocen como "subanen" porque algunas lenguas subanen usan una vocal pepet mientras que otras usan o. El pueblo subanon es el grupo lumad (comunidad cultural indígena no musulmana o no cristiana) más grande de la isla de Mindanao . [72] Este grupo étnico eran los aborígenes del oeste de Mindanao, particularmente en las áreas de la península de Zamboanga que se dividen en diferentes provincias como Zamboanga del Sur , Zamboanga del Norte , Zamboanga Sibugay , Basilan , Misamis Occidental y se extienden hasta la provincia de Misamis Oriental . El pueblo subanon habla el idioma subanon . Algunos también hablan chavacano zamboangueño y cebuano .
Como su nombre lo indica, estas personas vivían originalmente a lo largo de las riberas de los ríos en las tierras bajas, sin embargo, debido a los disturbios y las competencias de grupos relacionados como los musulmanes Maguindanaon y los cristianos Bisaya , estas personas amantes de la paz ahora residen en las montañas. [73] Los subanon se mudan regularmente de un lugar a otro para limpiar más bosques para los campos. Cultivan cosechas, siendo el arroz el cultivo más importante, pero también se sabe que crían ganado, incluidos cerdos, pollos, ganado vacuno y búfalos de agua. Las casas subanon se construyen a lo largo de las laderas y crestas con vistas a los campos familiares. Las casas suelen ser rectangulares y elevadas sobre pilotes con techos de paja.
Los mamanwa son una tribu negrito que a menudo se agrupa con los lumad . Provienen de las provincias de Leyte , Agusan del Norte y Surigao en Mindanao ; principalmente en Kitcharao y Santiago , Agusan del Norte, aunque son menos numerosos y más dispersos y nómadas que las tribus manobos y mandaya que también habitan la región. Como todos los negritos, los mamanwas son fenotípicamente distintos de los habitantes de las tierras bajas y de los manobos que viven en las tierras altas, exhibiendo cabello rizado y tonos de piel mucho más oscuros. Estos pueblos son tradicionalmente cazadores-recolectores y consumen una amplia variedad de plantas silvestres, hierbas, insectos y animales de la selva tropical. Actualmente, las poblaciones mamanwa viven en asentamientos sedentarios ("barangays") que están cerca de pueblos agrícolas y centros de mercado. Como resultado, una proporción sustancial de su dieta incluye alimentos domesticados ricos en almidón. Los mamanwa han estado expuestos a muchas de las modernidades que poseen y utilizan las poblaciones agrícolas dominantes, como teléfonos celulares, televisores, radios, alimentos procesados, etc. Su contacto con comunidades/poblaciones monoteístas ha tenido un impacto considerable en las prácticas religiosas de los mamanwa. La tribu produce excelentes canastas para aventar, hamacas de ratán y otros recipientes domésticos. Mamanwa (también escrito Mamanoa ) significa "primeros habitantes del bosque", de las palabras man (primero) y banwa (bosque). Hablan el idioma mamanwa (o minamanwa). Están genéticamente relacionados con los denisovanos.
The Manobo are an Austronesian, indigenous agriculturalist population who neighbor the Mamanwa group in Surigao del Norte and Surigao del Sur. They live in barangays like the Mamanwa; however, they are more numerous. The two groups interact frequently although the amount of interaction varies between settlements and intermarriage is common between them. The total Manobo population is not known, although they occupy core areas from Sarangani island into the Mindanao mainland in the provinces of Agusan del Sur, Davao provinces, Bukidnon, and North and South Cotabato. The groups occupy such a wide area of distribution that localized groups have assumed the character of distinctiveness as a separate ethnic grouping such as the Bagobo or the Higaonon, and the Atta. The Manobo are genetically related to the Denisovans, much like the Mamanwa. They speak the Manobo languages. A 2021 genetic study show that Manobos have ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic Mlabri and Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia.[63]
The Higaonon is located on the provinces of Bukidnon, Agusan del Sur, Misamis Oriental, Camiguin (used to be Kamiguing), Rogongon in Iligan City, and Lanao del Norte. The Higaonons have a rather traditional way of living. Farming is the most important economic activity. The word Higaonon is derived from the word "Higad" in the Higaonon dialect which means coastal plains and "Gaon" meaning ascend to the mountains. Taken together, Higaonon, means the people of the coastal plains that ascended to the mountains. Higaonons were formerly coastal people of the provinces as mentioned who resisted the Spanish occupation and later avoided contact with influx of seafaring settlers from Luzon and Visayas, whom they refer as Dumagats. Driven to the hills and mountains these people continued to exist and fought for the preservation of the people, heritage and culture. They speak the Higaonon language, which is partially intelligible with Binukid. However, because of the mass influx of Cebuano migrants to Mindanao, many of the Higaonons people tend to be exposed to the Cebuano language from Visayas easily enough to be able to speak it.
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The Bukidnon Lumad people are one of the seven tribes in the Bukidnon plateau of Mindanao. Bukidnon means 'that of the mountains or highlands' (i.e., 'people of the mountains or highlands'), despite the fact that most Bukidnon tribes settle in the lowlands. They speak the Bukid language, also called Binukid or Bukidnon. It is a de facto co-official language in Bukidnon province, where it is referred to as Higaonon. There are many dialects but there is mutual intelligibility. The dialect of Malaybalay, in the Pulangi area, is considered to be the prestige and standard variety. The Bukidnon people believe in one god, Magbabaya (Ruler of All), though there are several minor gods and goddesses that they worship as well. Religious rites are presided by a baylan whose ordination is voluntary and may come from any sex. The Bukidnons have rich musical and oral traditions which are celebrated annually in Malaybalay city's Kaamulan Festival, with other tribes in Bukidnon (the Manobo tribes, the Higaonon, Matigsalug, Talaandig, Umayamnom, and the Tigwahanon).
The Bukidnon Lumad is distinct and should not be confused with a few indigenous peoples scattered in the Visayas area who are also alternatively called Bukidnon.
Talaandig are originally from the foothills of Mount Kitanglad in Bukidnon, specifically in the municipalities of Talakag and Lantapan. They speak the Talaandig language, which is a dialect of Bukid language.
The Umayamnon are originally from the Umayam River watershed and the headwaters of the Pulangi River. They reside in Bukidnon and are a subgroup of the Manobo.
The Tigwahonon are a subgroup of Manobo originally from the Tigwa River basin near San Fernando, Bukidnon. They speak Tigwa, which is a dialect of Matigsalug.
The Matigsalug are the Bukidnon groups who are found in the Tigwa-Salug Valley in San Fernando in Bukidnon province, Philippines. "Matigsalug" is a term, which means "people along the Salug River (a tributary of the Davao River)". Although often classified under the Manobo ethnolinguistic group, the Matigsalug is a distinct sub-group of indigenous peoples from the Manobos. The Matigsalug of Bukidnon have an approximate population of 146,500. They speak the Matigsalug language, which is a Manobo language.
The Manguwangan/Manguangan/Mangguangan are found in the Cordillera Sugut mountains in Mindanao, scattering up to the great lakes of Buayan or Maguindanao and in the territory between what is occupied by the Manobo and the Mandaya in Davao and South Cotabato.[74] They speak Mangguangan language, which is an Agusan Manobo language.
The Kamayo are concentrated in Bislig, Lianga, Marihatag, and San Agustin in Surigao del Sur, Mindanao. A scattered population is also found in Cateel and Baganga, Davao Oriental. They speak the Kamayo language, which is also called as Kinamayo, Camayo, Kadi, Kinadi, or Mandaya. It is a language widely used by the Mandayas in the Davao Oriental areas. It is closely related to Tandaganon and Surigaonon. Dialect variations are caused by mixed dialect communications such as the Cebuano language in barangays Mangagoy & Pob. Bislig. The towns of Barobo, Hinatuan, and Lingig has a distinct version spoken.[75]
The Kalagans are the Islamized-indigenous people in the Western Davao gulf area. They became Muslim in the middle of the 19th century due to a combination of following factors namely, the political pressure and/or influence of the Tausug migrants of Davao, extensive exposure and/or contact with the communities of their Maguindanaon neighbors, inter-marriages of Kalagan and Maguindanaon and/or Tausug. They are predominantly found in Davao City, district of Sirawan, around Tagum, Davao del Norte, Mati in Davao Oriental, some places in Davao del Sur and two other Davao provinces. The Kalagan language is similar to the Tagakaolo language but have increasingly incorporated some Tausug and Maguindanaon words. They are renowned as agriculturalists, cultivating rice, corn, abaca, and coconut for cash crops, whereas their counterparts living along the coast, practice fishing. Some also know Cebuano, Filipino(Tagalog), English, and Arabic.[76]
The term "Mansaka" derives from "man" with literal meaning "first" and "saka" meaning "to ascend," and means "the first people to ascend mountains/upstream." The term most likely describes the origin of these people who are found today in Davao del Norte and Davao del Sur. Specifically in the Batoto River, the Manat Valley, Caragan, Maragusan, the Hijo River Valley, and the seacoasts of Kingking, Maco, Kwambog, Hijo, Tagum, Libuganon, Tuganay, Ising, and Panabo. They speak the Mansaka language, which may be intelligible with Mandaya.
"Mandaya" derives from "man" meaning "first," and "daya" meaning "upstream" or "upper portion of a river," and therefore means "the first people upstream". It refers to a number of groups found along the mountain ranges of Davao Oriental, as well as to their customs, language, and beliefs. The Mandaya are also found in Compostela and New Bataan in Compostela Valley (formerly a part of Davao del Norte Province). They speak the Mandaya language, which may be intelligible with Mansaka.
The Giangan people (also known as Bagobo, Clata, Atto, Eto, Guanga, Gulanga, Jangan) live on the eastern slopes of Mount Apo in Davao del Sur Province, as well as in Davao City. They occupy a very small territory stretching from Catalunan to Calinan within Davao City. They speak the Giangan languages of the South Mindanao or Bilic languages. The Lipadas River separated the traditional Tagabawa and Clata territories, while the Talomo River (Ikawayanlinan) was the boundary separating the Tagabawas, Clatas, and Obos. The Davao River separated the traditional Bagobo and Clata territories.
Tagabawa or Bagobo-Tagabawa are an indigenous tribe in Mindanao. They speak the Tagabawa language, which is a Manobo language, and live in Cotabato, Davao del Sur, and in the surrounding areas of Mt. Apo by Davao City. They have a culture of high respect towards Philippine eagles, known in their language as banog.
The Teduray/Tiruray people live in the municipalities of Datu Blah T. Sinsuat, Upi, and South Upi in southwestern Maguindanao Province; and in Lebak municipality, northwestern Sultan Kudarat Province. They speak the Tiruray language, which is related to Bagobo, B'laan, and T'boli. Coastal Tirurays are mostly farmers, hunters, fishermen, and basket weavers; those living in the mountains engage in dry field agriculture, supplemented by hunting and the gathering of forest products. Tirurays are famous for their craftsmanship in weaving baskets with two-toned geometric designs. While many have adopted the cultures of neighboring Muslims and Christians people, a high percentage of their population still believe and practice their indigenous customs and rituals.[77]
Tagakaulo is one of the Lumad tribes in Mindanao. Their traditional territories is in Davao del Sur and Sarangani particularly in the localities of Malalag, Lais, Talaguton Rivers, Sta. Maria, and Malita of Davao Occidental, and Malungon of the Sarangani Province. Tagakaulo means living in mountain. The Tagakaulo tribe originally came from the western shores of the gulf of Davao and south of Mt. Apo. a long time ago. They speak the Tagakaulo language, which is a part of the Kalagan languages.
The Tasaday ([tɑˈsɑdɑj]) are an indigenous Lumad people of Mindanao. They attracted widespread media attention in 1971, when a journalist of the Manila Associated Press bureau chief reported their discovery, amid apparent "Stone Age" technology and in complete isolation from the rest of Philippine society. They again attracted attention in the 1980s when some accused the Tasaday living in the jungle and speaking in their dialect as being part of an elaborate hoax, and doubt was raised about their isolation and even about being a separate ethnic group. Further research has tended to support their being a tribe that was isolated until 1971 and that lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers. The Tasaday language is distinct from that of neighbouring tribes, and linguists believe it probably split from the adjacent Manobo languages 200 years ago. Some also know Cebuano and Tagalog.
The Blaan people, alternatively spelled as "B'laan", are one of the indigenous peoples of Southern Mindanao in the Philippines. Their name could have derived from "bla" meaning "opponent" and the suffix "an" meaning "people". Other terms used to refer to this group are Blaan, Bira-an, Baraan, Vilanes, and Bilanes. Some Blaan natives were displaced when General Santos was founded in 1939. Others settled in the city. They speak the Blaan language which is said to be the source of the name for Koronadal City, from two Blaan words – kalon meaning cogon grass and nadal or datal meaning plain, which aptly described the place to the natives. On the other hand, Marbel, which is another name for the poblacion, is a Blaan term Malb-el which means "murky waters" referring to a river, now called Marbel River.
The tribe practices indigenous rituals while adapting to the way of life of modern Filipinos. Some also speak Cebuano, Filipino, and English. A 2021 genetic study by Maxmilian Larena shows that the Blaan people have Papuan admixture.[63]
The T'boli are one of the indigenous peoples of South Mindanao around Soccsksargen and Davao Region. They are variously known as Tboli, Teboli, Tau Bilil, Tau Bulul or Tagabilil. They term themselves Tboli. Their whereabouts and identity are to some extent confused in the literature; some publications present the Teboli and the Tagabilil as distinct peoples; some locate the Tbolis to the vicinity of the Buluan Lake in the Cotabato Basin or in Agusan del Norte. The Tbolis, then, reside on the mountain slopes on either side of the upper Alah Valley and the coastal area of Maitum, Maasim and Kiamba. In former times, the Tbolis also inhabited the upper Alah Valley floor. They speak the Tboli language, some also know Cebuano, Hiligaynon, and Tagalog.
The Sangil people (also called Sangir, Sangu, Marore, Sangirezen, or Talaoerezen) are originally from the Sangihe and Talaud Islands (now part of Indonesia) and parts of Davao Occidental (particularly in the Sarangani Islands), Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Sultan Kudarat, South Cotabato, and North Cotabato. Their populations (much like the Sama-Bajau) were separated when borders were drawn between the Philippines and Indonesia during the colonial era. The Sangil people are traditionally animistic, much like other Lumad peoples. During the colonial era, the Sangil (who usually call themselves "Sangir") in the Sangihe Islands mostly converted to Protestant Christianity due to proximity and contact with the Christian Minahasa people of Sulawesi. In the Philippines, most Sangil converted to Islam due to the influence of the neighboring Sultanate of Maguindanao. However, elements of animistic rituals still remain. The Indonesian and Filipino groups still maintain ties and both Manado Malay and Cebuano are spoken in both Indonesian Sangir and Filipino Sangil, in addition to the Sangirese language. Indonesian Sangir even live in the Philippines, particularly Balut Island, Davao del Sur, Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental, Sarangani, Sultan Kudarat, North Cotabato, South Cotabato, General Santos and Davao City,[61][62] because of its proximity to Indonesia; they speak Cebuano & Tagalog as second languages & are Protestant Christians by faith. The exact population of Sangil people in the Philippines is unknown, but is estimated to be around 10,000 people. A study by Larena puyblished in PNAS show that the Sangirese people also possess Papuan admixture.[63]
About 86 to 87 percent of the Philippine population belong to the ethnolinguistic groups are classified as neither indigenous nor Moro.[1]: 6 These groups are sometimes collectively referred to as "Lowland Christianized groups", to distinguish them from indigenous ("upland") groups and Moro peoples.[10]
The Ivatan (also spelled as Ibatan) are the predominant ethnolinguistic group in the Batanes islands of the Philippines. They have close cultural links with the Taiwanese aborigines, especially the Yami/Tao people of Orchid Island under jurisdiction of Taiwan. They speak Ivatan language, & also Ilocano as second language. Aside from their regional homeland, Ivatans are also found in mainland Luzon and even Mindanao due to migrations, where they even speak the other languages within the environment of other ethnic groups in areas they settled and grew up in, especially Cebuano and Hiligaynon (both in Mindanao).
The Ilocano people are a predominantly Christian group who reside within the lowlands and coastal areas of northwestern Luzon.[78] Other Ilocanos are also found in Cordillera Administrative Region and Cagayan Valley, as well as in west and east Pangasinan. Minor pockets of Ilocanos are also found in scattered parts of Central Luzon, such as Zambales, Tarlac, Bataan,[79] Nueva Ecija, and Aurora,[69][80] in Metro Manila and in some municipalities in Mindanao, mainly in Sultan Kudarat.[78][81] They speak Ilocano and they form the third largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines at about 8.1 million.[82] Ilocanos even speak other languages within the environment of other ethnic groups in areas they settled and grew up in, like Ibanag, Pangasinan, Ivatan, Kapampangan and Tagalog in Central Luzon, Chavacano, Hiligaynon, Cebuano, Butuanon, Surigaonon as well as Lumad and Moro languages in Mindanao. Their foremost folk literature is Biag ni Lam-ang (The Life of Lam-ang), an epic poem with similarities with the Ramayana.
The Bago (Bago Igorot) were identified first in the municipality of Pugo in the southeastern side of La Union. This is a highly acculturated group whose villages are along major transportation routes between the lowlands and the Abatan, Benguet markets in the highland. The major ritual practices and beliefs are somewhat related to the northern Kankanay, thus the idea that the people were migrants because of trade from western Mountain Province. The Kankanay regard them as such and not as a specific ethnic group. The language is a mixture of northern Kankanay with an infusion of lowland dialects. Most of the individuals are bilingual with Ilocano as the trade language. Their agricultural activities revolve around a mixture of highland root crops like sweet potatoes, yams, and taro, and lowland vegetables and fruits.[83]
The Ibanags are a predominantly Christian lowland ethnic group numbering around half a million people and who primarily inhabit the provinces of Cagayan and Isabela in the Cagayan Valley of northern Luzon. They speak the Ibanag language, which is distantly related to Ilocano, which they speak as second language.
The Itawes/Itawis/Itawit are among the earliest inhabitants of the Cagayan Valley in northern Luzon. Their name is derived from the Itawes prefix i- meaning "people of" and tawid or "across the river". As well as their own Itawis language, they speak Ibanag and Ilocano. The contemporary Itawes are charming, friendly, and sociable. They are not very different from other lowland Christianized Filipino ethnic groups in terms of livelihood, housing, and traditions. Their traditional dresses are colorful with red being the dominant color. Farming is a leading source of livelihood. The average families are education-conscious.
The Malaweg are located in sections of Cagayan Valley and Kalinga-Apayao provinces and in the town of Rizal. Their main crops are lowland rice and corn. Tobacco was raised as a cash crop on a foothill west of Piat on the Matalag river near the southeast border of Kalinga-Apayao province, drawing Ibanags from the east. Culturally, they are similar to the neighbor groups: Ibanag and Itawis. Linguistically, they speak a dialect of Itawis.[84]
The Gaddang number about 25,000. They are known to have inhabited the upper Cagayan Valley and the Magat valley below Aritao in Nueva Vizcaya and in Isabela since before the Spanish arrived. Main centers of their language are found in Ilagan, Santiago, Cauayan, Solano, Bagabag, and Bayombong, as well as surrounding towns. Speakers from each municipality have significantly characteristic vocabulary, usage, and pronunciation, although they understand each other well. Their language is related to Ibanag and Itawis; it is also spoken by ethnically related highland Ga'dang in the provinces of Ifugao Province, Kalinga Province, and Mountain Province.
The Ga'dang are a highlands people mostly found in Paracelis, Mountain Province; Potia, Ifugao Province; and Tabuk, Kalinga Province. They speak the Ga'dang language, which is closely related to the nearby Gaddang language as part of the Cagayan-Baliwon Gaddang family, and is usually included as a dialect of Gaddang. The language is also spoken in Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, and Aurora. While they exhibit many cultural traits of their Cordilleran neighbors, their farming practices tie them to the historic peoples of the lowlands.
The Yogad are one of the smallest minority groups in the region of the Cagayan Valley. They once occupied Diffun, Quirino in Cagayan Valley. Today, they are concentrated in Echague, Camarag, Angadanan, Santiago, and Jones, Isabela. Yogads speak the Yogad language, which is one of the five recognized dialects of Gaddang, and are identified as part of the Christianized Kalingas in western Isabela.[85]
The Bolinao people live in Bolinao and Anda, Pangasinan. They speak the Bolinao language or Binubolinao, which is the second most widely spoken Sambalic language in Pangasinan (after Sambal), & is related to Kapampangan. The language, which has more than 50,000 speakers, has been influenced by Pangasinense, Tagalog, Spanish, and English. The residents can also speak Tagalog, Pangasinense, Ilocano, and often, English as well.[86]
The Pangasinense people are the eighth-largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines. They predominate in the northwestern portion of Central Luzon (central and east Pangasinan, northern Tarlac, northern Nueva Ecija and northern Zambales, and selected areas of Aurora,[87] Bataan, and Bulacan), as well as southern parts of La Union, Benguet and scattered parts of Mindanao. They are predominantly Christian (mainly Roman Catholic). They primarily use the Pangasinan language, which is spoken by more than 1.2 million individuals, & mostly speak Ilocano as second language.
The Sambals are the inhabitants of the province of Zambales, including the independent city of Olongapo. They are also found in the neighboring municipalities of Bolinao and Anda in northwestern Pangasinan, which were under jurisdiction of Zambales and as far as Palawan, especially in Barangay Panitian in Quezon and Barangay Mandaragat in Puerto Princesa. Sambals currently make up a large proportion of the population in the Zambales municipalities of north of Iba, the provincial capital. Their language, Sambal, is related to Kapampangan. They even speak Tagalog, Ilocano, Pangasinan, & Kapampangan as second languages.
The Kapampangan people are the seventh-largest ethnic group in the Philippines. They predominate in the southwestern portion of Central Luzon (entire Pampanga, southern Tarlac, southwestern Nueva Ecija, southeastern Zambales, western Bulacan and northeastern Bataan, and in selected areas of Aurora[88]) and have diasporas in Metro Manila and Mindanao. They are predominantly Christian (mainly Roman Catholic). They primarily use the Kapampangan language, which is spoken by more than 1.4 million individuals. Kapampangans even speak other languages within the environment of other ethnic groups in areas they settled and grew up in, like Sambal, Pangasinan, Ilocano, and Tagalog (all in Central Luzon) as well as Hiligaynon and Cebuano (both in Mindanao, where Kapampangans also settled). In the Spanish colonial era, Pampanga was known to be a source of valiant soldiers. There was a Kapampangan contingent in the colonial army who helped defend Manila against the Chinese Pirate Limahon. They also helped in battles against the Dutch, the English and Muslim raiders.[89]: 3 Kapampangans, along with the Tagalogs, played a major role in the Philippine Revolution.[90]
The Kasiguranin live in Casiguran in Aurora Province. The Kasiguranin language descends from an early Tagalog dialect that had borrowed heavily from Northeastern Luzon Agta languages such as Paranan Agta, and Filipino migrant languages like Ilocano, Visayan languages, Bikol languages, Kapampangan, and Paranan. It is 82% mutually intelligible with Paranan, a language in eastern Isabela, since Aurora and Isabela lie in close proximity. Kasiguranin speak Ilocano & Tagalog as additional languages. They rely mainly on fishing and farming, as do other groups in Casiguran.[91]
The Paranan or Palanan are a group that is largely concentrated on the Pacific side of the province of Isabela about Palanan Bay. The population areas are in Palanan (9,933) with a total population of some 10,925 (NSO 1980). This is probably the northeasternmost extension of the Tagalog language. There is, however, a considerable mixture with the culture of the Negrito from the Paranan Agta language.[92] Paranan speak Ibanag, Ilocano & Tagalog as additional languages.
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The Tagalogs are the most widespread ethnic group in the Philippines. They predominate the entirety of the Manila, mainland southern Luzon regions and the entirety of Marinduque, with a plurality in Central Luzon (mainly in its southeastern portion [Nueva Ecija, Aurora, and Bulacan], as well as parts of Zambales and Bataan provinces except Pampanga and Tarlac), coastal parts of Mindoro, major parts of Palawan and even many parts of Mindanao.[93][94][69] The Tagalog language was chosen as an official language of the Philippines in 1935. Today, Filipino, a de facto version of Tagalog, is taught throughout the archipelago.[95] As of the 2019 census[update], there were about 22.5 million speakers of Tagalog in the Philippines, 23.8 million worldwide.[96] Tagalogs even speak other languages within the environment of other ethnic groups in areas they settled and grew up in, like Ilocano, Pangasinan, Kapampangan (all in Central Luzon) and Bicolano (in Bicol Region), as well as Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Zamboanga Chavacano, Butuanon, Surigaonon and indigenous lumad as well as Moro languages in Mindanao where they also made a significant diaspora. They speak Tagalog as a second language already outside of their native regional homeland due to assimilation to the other ethnolinguistic groups who form majority to these areas they settled and grew up in.
Caviteños live primarily in Cavite City and coastal Ternate, Cavite. They speak the Caviteño dialect of Chavacano, which enjoyed its widest diffusion and greatest splendor in Spanish and American period of Filipino history, when newspapers and literary outputs flourished. Residents of Paco, Ermita, Quiapo and Malate shared this common tongue with those of San Nicolas, Santa Cruz and Trozo. During the Spanish regime, it was prevalent for Spaniards, both peninsulares and insulares, to use the creole in their negotiations with the townfolk. Cavite Chabacano was spoken with relative ease because it was essentially a simplification of Castillan morphology patterned after Tagalog syntax. Gradually and naturally, it acquired the sounds present in the Spanish phonological system, which had the authocthonous phonetics as core. After World War II, creole Spanish speakers within the capital and surrounding regions went in decline or vanished entirely, leaving Caviteño and Ternateño as the remaining Tagalog-based Chavacano dialects in Luzon.[97] A great number of Mexican men had settled at Cavite, spread throughout Luzon, and integrated with the local Philippine population. Some of these Mexicans became Tulisanes (Bandits) that led peasant revolts against Spain.[98]
The Ternateño Chavacanos are found in the municipality of Ternate in Cavite. They speak a dialect of Chavacano with Tagalog as its substrate, just like Caviteño and the extinct Ermiteño. There are an estimated 3,000 speakers of the language at present.[99] The Merdicas (also spelled Mardicas or Mardikas) were Catholic natives of the islands of Ternate and Tidore of the Moluccas, converted during the Portuguese occupation of the islands by Jesuit missionaries. The islands were later captured by the Spanish who vied for their control with the Dutch. In 1663, the Spanish garrison in Ternate were forced to pull out to defend Manila against an impending invasion by the Chinese ruler, Koxinga, from the Kingdom of Tungning in Formosa (Taiwan) (sacrificing the Moluccas to the Dutch in doing so). A number of Merdicas volunteered to help, eventually being resettled in a sandbar near the mouth of the Maragondon river (known as the Bahra de Maragondon) and Tanza, Cavite.[100] The Merdicas community eventually integrated into the local population. Today, the place is called Ternate after the island of Ternate in the Moluccas, and the descendants of the Merdicas continue to use their Spanish creole (with Portuguese and Papuan influence) which came to be known as Ternateño Chabacano.[100]
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The Bicolanos are a predominantly Roman Catholic ethnic group that originates from the Bicol Region in Southern Luzon. They are the fifth-largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines. There are several Bikol languages of which there is a total of about 3.5 million speakers. The most widespread Bikol language is Central Bikol comprising Naga, Legazpi, Daet and Partido dialects (Virac is sometimes considered as a separate language). They are known for their cuisine heavily using chili peppers and coconut milk. Bicolanos have a high percentage of Spanish introgression with a government sponsored study showing 2 out of 10 Bicolanos being of Spanish descent.[63]
Masbateños live in Masbate province of the Philippines. Masbate is part of the Bicol Region. They number about more than 623,000. Masbateños may be considered Visayans by language but are Bicolanos by region. They speak the Masbateño language and almost all practice Roman Catholicism. The Masbateño language is closely related to Hiligaynon and Capiznon. However, in various municipalities of the island, various other languages are spoken. In the vicinity of the towns of Cataingan, Palanas and Dimasalang, most residents speak Waray-Waray. In Pio Corpuz the people speak Cebuano, while in Placer and in the west coast along coast of Mandaon, Hiligaynon (Ilonggo) and Capiznon are spoken. Bicolano is also spoken by the residents.
Lowland Christianized groups of the region of Mimaropa, consisting of the islands or provinces of Mindoro, Marinduque, Romblon, Palawan, and other surrounding islands. They also speak Tagalog as their second language because of arrival of Tagalog settlers from South Luzon.[69]
The Bantoanon or “people from Banton (Island)” actually reside mostly in Odiongan, Corcuera, Calatrava, and Concepcion in Romblon, an archipelagic province in the Mimaropa region. They speak Asi, also known as Bantoanon, a Visayan language that is lexically similar to the language of Romblomanon. Asi is spoken along with the Romblomanon and Inonhan languages and is classified under the same level as Cebuano. One way to identify a Bantoanon is through his or her family name, which usually starts with the letter "f". Bantoanons value education, as most of them consider it a way to improve their lives. Their usual means of livelihood are trade, business, fishing, and agriculture.
The Inonhan people are found in southern Tablas Island of the Romblon archipelago in the Mimaropa Region, particularly in the municipalities of Santa Fe, Looc, Alcantara, Santa Maria, and San Andres. There are around 85,000 Inonhans, and they speak the Onhan language, a Western Visayan language. It is one of the three distinct languages spoken by the natives of Romblon.
The Romblomanon people are the indigenous inhabitants of Romblon province. However, due to population increase, which the island province's small area could not sustain, there are also significant numbers of Romblomanons in Occidental Mindoro, Oriental Mindoro, Masbate, Aklan, Palawan, Capiz, and possible parts of Luzon and Mindanao. They speak one of three languages, the Romblomanon language, Asi language, and the Onhan language. Most are Roman Catholics. Due to its distance from Capiz and Aklan, most Romblomanons can speak Hiligaynon.
Mangyan is the generic name for the eight indigenous groups found on the island of Mindoro, southwest of the island of Luzon in the Philippines, each with its own tribal name, language, and customs. They occupy nearly the whole of the interior of the island of Mindoro. The total population may be around 280,000, but official statistics are difficult to determine under the conditions of remote areas, reclusive tribal groups and some having little if any outside world contact. They also speak Tagalog as their second language because of arrival of Tagalog settlers from Batangas.[69]
The Iraya are Mangyans that live in municipalities in northern Mindoro, such as Paluan, Abra de Ilog, northern Mamburao, and Santa Cruz municipalities in Occidental Mindoro, and Puerto Galera and San Teodoro municipalities in Oriental Mindoro. They have also been found in Calamintao, on the northeastern boundary of Santa Cruz municipality (7 km up the Pagbahan River from the provincial highway). They speak the Iraya language which is part of the North Mangyan group of Malayo-Polynesian languages, though it shows considerable differences to Tadyawan and Alangan, the other languages in this group. There are 6,000 to 8,000 Iraya speakers, and that number is growing. The language status of Iraya is developing, meaning that this language is being put to use in a strong and healthy manner by its speakers, and it also has its own writing system (though not yet completely common nor maintainable).
The Alangan are mangyans that primarily live in the municipalities of Naujan and Victoria in Oriental Mindoro, and Sablayan in Occidental Mindoro. They speak the Alangan language and number about 2,150 people around north-central Mindoro. The Ayan Bekeg dialect spoken on the northeast slopes of Mount Halcon is understood by Alangan speakers throughout the area. They may also be found around Casague, Santa Cruz, Occidental Mindoro and Kulasisi (tributary of the Mompong River), near Barrio Arellano, Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro.
Tadyawan are mangyans that primarily live in southern Lake Naujan in Oriental Mindoro. They can be found in Barrio Talapaan, Socorro, Oriental Mindoro; Happy Valley, Socorro, Oriental Mindoro; and Pahilaan, Calatagan, Pola, Oriental Mindoro. They speak the Tadyawan language, which has 4 dialects, namely Nauhan, East Aglubang, West Aglubang, and Pola. Nauhan and East Aglubang are close to each other. The West Aglubang is spoken farthest out and has strong Alangan influence.
The Tau-build (or Tawbuid) Mangyans live in central Mindoro. They speak the Tawbuid language, which is divided into eastern and western dialects. The Bangon Mangyans also speak the western dialect of Tawbuid. In Oriental Mindoro, Eastern Tawbuid (also known as Bangon) is spoken by 1,130 people in the municipalities of Socorro, Pinamalayan, and Gloria.
In Occidental Mindoro, Western Tawbuid (also known as Batangan) is spoken by 6,810 people in the municipalities of Sablayan and Calintaan.
The Mangyan group known on the east of Mindoro as Bangon may be a subgroup of Tawbuid, as they speak the 'western' dialect of that language. They also have a kind of poetry which is called the Ambahan.
The Buhid are mangyans that primarily live in Malfalon, Calintaan, Occidental Mindoro; Bato Eli, Barrio Monte Claro, San José Pandurucan (on the southern bank of the Bugsanga (Bisanga) River) in Occidental Mindoro; Barrio Rambida, Socorro, Oriental Mindoro; and Barrio Batangan, Panaytayan, Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro. They speak the Buhid language in the island of Mindoro, Philippines. It is divided into eastern and western dialects and uses its own unique Buhid script, which is encoded in the Unicode-Block Buhid (Buid) (1740–175F).
Hanunuo, or Hanunó'o, are mangyans that live in Barrio Tugtugin, San Jose, Occidental Mindoro; Naluak, Magsaysay, Occidental Mindoro (on the upper Caguray River); Bamban, Magsaysay, Occidental Mindoro (also with Ratagnon and Bisayan residents); and Barrio Panaytayan, Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro (about 5 km from the highway in the mountains southwest of Mansalay). They speak the Hanunó'o language and use their own unique Hanunuo script, which is encoded in the Unicode-Block Hanunoo (1720–173F).
Ratagnon (also transliterated Datagnon or Latagnon) are mangyans of the southernmost tip of Occidental Mindoro in the Mindoro Islands along the Sulu Sea. They live in the southernmost part of the municipality of Magsaysay in Occidental Mindoro. The Ratagnon language is similar to the Visayan Cuyunon language, spoken by the inhabitants of Cuyo Island in Northern Palawan. The Ratagnon women wear a wrap-around cotton cloth from the waistline to the knees and some of the males still wear the traditional g-string. The women's breast covering is made of woven nito (vine). They also wear accessories made of beads and copper wire. The males wear a jacket with simple embroidery during gala festivities and carry flint, tinder, and other paraphernalia for making fire. Both sexes wear coils of red-dyed rattan at the waistline. Like other Mangyan tribes, they also carry betel chew and its ingredients in bamboo containers. Today only around 2 to 5 people speak the Ratagnon language, which is nearly extinct, out of an ethnic population of 2,000 people, since speakers are shifting to Tagalog. They appear to also have intermarried with lowlanders.
The indigenous peoples of Palawan are a diverse group of both indigenous tribes and lowland groups that historically migrated to the island of Palawan and its outlying islands. These ethnolinguistic groups are widely distributed to the long strip of mainland island literally traversing Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Listed below are specifically the tribal groups of Palawan, as opposed to its urban lowland groups that historically settled its cities and towns. Palawan is home to many indigenous peoples whose origins date back thousands of centuries. Pre-historic discoveries reveal how abundant cultural life in Palawan survived before foreign occupiers and colonizers reached the Philippine archipelago. Today, Palawan is making its best to preserve and conserve the richness of its cultural groups. The provincial government strives to support the groups of indigenous peoples of Palawan.
Agutaynon are lowland dwellers of Agutaya Island, Palawan that also call themselves as Palaweños, like the Cuyunons, much to the amusement and distress of the original tribal groups, such as the Palawan, who are called Palawano by outsiders. The Agutayanons practice a simpler island lifestyle, with fishing and farming as their main source of livelihood. They speak the Agutaynen language which is spoken by about 15,000 people on Agutaya Island and six of the smaller Cuyo Islands, namely Diit, Maracañao, Matarawis, Algeciras, Concepcion, and Quiniluban. After World War II, Agutaynen speakers were also moved to San Vicente, Roxas, Brooke's Point, Balabac, Linapacan, and Puerto Princesa City on Palawan Island.
The Kagayanen are from the municipality of Cagayancillo, Palawan province. There are about 36,000 Kagayanen in the Philippines. They speak the Kagayanen language, which belongs to the Manobo languages found mostly in Mindanao. They can also be found in coastal communities across Palawan, and around Balabac, Busuanga, Coron, and other areas around the Philippines, such as Iloilo Province; Silay, Negros Occidental; Manila; Quezon and Rizal areas. Some can also speak in Hiligaynon, Filipino (Tagalog), Cuyonon, Kinaray-a, Cebuano, or English.
Cuyunon are lowland dwellers hailing originally from the island town of Cuyo and other surrounding islands. They claim descent from the Kadatuan of Taytay and have historically spread to northern and central Palawan. They also call themselves as Palaweños, like the Agutaynon, much to the amusement and distress of the original tribal groups, such as the Palawan, who are called Palawano by outsiders. They are considered an elite class among the hierarchy of native Palaweños. Their conversion to Christianity has led to the merger of the animistic beliefs of the Cuyunon with the Christian elements to produce a folk Christianity which is the prevailing belief of the Cuyunon. They speak the Cuyonon language, which is a Visayan language, but have recently also adopted Tagalog and Hiligaynon due to an increase of Tagalog-speaking migrants from Luzon and ethnic Hiligaynons from Panay
The Tagbanwa/Tagbanua people (Tagbanwa: ᝦᝪᝯ), or "people of the world," are one of the oldest ethnic groups in the Philippines, and can be mainly found in the central and northern Palawan. Research has shown that the Tagbanwa are possible descendants of the Tabon Man, thus making them one of the original inhabitants of the Philippines. They are a brown-skinned, slim, and straight-haired ethnic group. They speak the Tagbanwa languages, which have their own unique Tagbanwa script with Unicode-Block Tagbanwa (1760–177F), and can be classified into two major classifications based on the geographical location where they can be found. Central Tagbanwas are found in the western and eastern coastal areas of central Palawan. They are concentrated in the municipalities of Aborlan, Quezon, and Puerto Princesa. Calamian Tagbanwa, on the other hand, are found in Baras coast, Busuanga Island, Coron Island, Linipacan Calibangbangan, and in some parts of El Nido. These two Tagbanwa sub-groups speak different languages and do not exactly have the same customs. Tagbanwa live in compact villages of 45 to 500 individuals. In 1987, there were 129,691 Tagbanwas living in Palawan. At present, Tagbanwa tribe has an estimated population of over 10,000. 1,800 of these are in the Calamianes. Shifting cultivation of upland rice is part of their cultural and economic practices. Rice is considered a divine gift and is fermented to make rice wine, which they use in Pagdiwata, or rice wine ritual. The cult of the dead is the key to the religious system of the Tagbanwa. They believe in several deities found in the natural environment. Their language and alphabet, practice of kaingin and common belief in soul-relatives are part of their culture. This group are excellent in basketry and wood carving. They are also famous for their beautifully crafted body accessories. Their combs, bracelets, necklaces and anklets are usually made of wood, beads, brass and copper. The Central Tagbanwa language is dying out as the younger generations are learning Cuyonon and Tagalog.
The Palawan tribal people, also known as the Palawano (only by outsiders) or Palaw'an (or Palawan, depending on sub-dialect), are an indigenous ethnic group of the Palawan group of islands in the Philippines. They traditionally hunt using soars and bamboo blowguns. They speak the Palawano language, which is divided into four ethno-linguistic subgroupings: the Quezon Palawano which is also known as the Central Palawano; the Bugsuk Palawano or South Palawano; Brooke's Point Palawano; and Southwest Palawano. Palawanos are more popularly known as Palawans, which is pronounced faster than the name of the province. The Quezon Palawano subgroup are found in Southern Palawan, particularly on the western section of the municipality of Quezon including the eastern part of Abo-abo of the municipality of Sofronio Española, going southward down to the northern section of the municipality of Rizal. A large group of Palawans can also be found in Sitios Gugnan, Kambing, Tugpa, and Kalatabog of Barangay Panitian. The Taw't Bato of the municipality of Rizal at the foot of Mt. Matalingahan also belongs to this same Palawan tribal group although their language is 15 percent different from the Quezon Palawanos. The Palawano closely resemble the Tagbanwa, and in the past, they were doubtless the same people. Some Tausug residents in Palawan call the Palawano Traan, which means "people in scattered places". Like the Yakan of Basilan, the Palawano live in houses out of sight of each other, scattered among their plots of farm lands. Their main occupation is subsistence farming, cultivating mainly upland rice. Their religion is an old prehispanic belief that mixes traditional animism with elements of Hinduism and Islamic belief. Some have embraced Islam from their southern Molbog and Palawani neighbors. A small number of them are Protestant due to recent missionary campaigns.
The Taaw't Bato's name means "people of the rock". They speak the Taaw't Bato language, which is 80% intelligible with Palawano. They are not actually a separate language or ethnolinguistic nation, but rather a small community of traditional S.W. Palawanos who happen to reside in the crater of an extinct volcano during certain seasons of the year, in houses built on raised floors inside caves though others have set their homes on the open slopes. They are found in the Singnapan Basin, a valley bounded by Mount Mantalingajan on the east and the coast on the west. North of them is the municipality of Quezon, Palawan and to the South are the still unexplored regions of Palawan. They are still primitive in their lifestyle, even in the way of dressing. The men still wear g-strings made of bark and cloth and the women wear a piece of cloth made into skirts to cover the lower body. Both of them are half naked but sometimes women wear a blouse that is not indigenous but obtained through commercial markets. They mainly produce and consume cassava, but also produce sweet potato, sugarcane, malunggay, garlic, pepper, string beans, squash, tomato, pineapple, etc. Throughout the year, hunting and foraging is pursued to complement the carbohydrate diet of the people. Most of the wild pigs are caught through spring traps. They also indulge the sambi (barter) and dagang (monetary exchange). The trade is specifically for marine fish which the people of Candawaga provide in exchange for horticultural products of the Taaw't-Bato. Dagang involves forest products like the almaciga, rattan, etc. This tribe subsists on hunting, gathering fruits and planting crops and rice near the forest. Because of their uniqueness, the Philippine government declared their area off limits to strangers to protect them from unreasonable exploitation.
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Lowland Christianized groups of the Visayas archipelago. The Visayans are a metaethnicity race native to the whole Visayas, to the southernmost islands of Luzon and the northern and eastern coastal parts of Mindanao. They are speakers of one or more Visayan languages, the most widely spoken being Cebuano, Hiligaynon and Waray-Waray.[101] Other groups speak smaller languages such as Aklanon, Boholano, Butuanon, Capiznon, Eskaya, Kinaray-a, Masbateño, Porohanon, Romblomanon, and Surigaonon. If speakers of the Visayan languages are to be grouped together, they would comprise the largest ethnic group in the nation, numbering at around 33 million as of 2010.
The Abaknon (Capul Samal, Capuleño) live on the island of Capul on the northern tip of Samar in the San Bernardino Straits, south of the province of Sorsogon. Although set across Central Philippines from the Sulu and Tawi-Tawi archipelagoes where the Sama groups live, the Abaknon speak the Inabaknon language, also known as Abaknon, Abaknon Sama, Capuleño, Kapul, or Capul Sinama, that is related to the Sama language, and not to the languages of the peoples around them like the Bikol and Waray languages, the latter is the Abaknon speak as second language. The largest concentrations of this population are in northern Samar (8,840), and in Capul (8,735) with a total population of some 9,870 (NSO 1980). The orientation of the people is marine with the basic industry focused on fishing, with set rice farming toward the interior. The communities are highly acculturated and practically indistinguishable from the surrounding communities of mainstream ethnic groups.[102]
The Waray people refers to the group of people whose primary language is the Waray language (also called Lineyte-Samarnon). They are native to the islands of Samar, Leyte and Biliran, which together comprise the Eastern Visayas Region of the Philippines. Waray people inhabit the whole island of Samar where they are called Samarnons, the northern part of the island of Leyte where they are called Leytenyos, and the island of Biliran. On Leyte island, the Waray people occupy the northern part of the island, separated from the Cebuano language-speaking Leyteños by a mountain range in the middle of the island. On the island of Biliran, Waray-Waray-speaking people live on the eastern part of the island facing the island of Samar; their Waray-Waray dialect is commonly referred to as Biliranon. On the island of Ticao, which belongs to the province of Masbate in the Bicol Region, Waray-Waray-speaking people live on most parts of the island; they are commonly referred to as Ticaonon. However, the Ticaonon have more affinity with the Masbateño-speaking people of Masbate, being their province-mates. The Bicolano language has more common vocabulary with the Waray-Waray language than with other Visayan languages (i.e. Cebuano or Ilonggo). They are historically known to be part of the Pintados people of the Visayas encountered by the Spanish and were regarded to have an established pre-Hispanic maritime militia. They are known to have cuisine with coconut milk and meat and have a slightly sweeter palette than Visayan neighbors. Animism is still a noticeable culture among the Warays and are usually practice based and alongside dominant religions.
The Caluyanon people are found on the Caluya Islands of Antique Province in the Western Visayas Region. They speak the Caluyanon language, but many speakers use either Kiniray-a or Hiligaynon as their second language. According to a recent survey, around 30,000 people speak Caluyanon.[103]
Aklanon form the majority in the province of Aklan in Panay. They are also found in other Panay provinces such as Iloilo, Antique, and Capiz, as well as Romblon. Like the other Visayans, Aklanons have also found their way to Metro Manila, Mindanao, and even the United States. Aklanons number about 500,000. They are culturally close to the Karay-a and Hiligaynons. This similarity has been shown by customs, traditions, and language. Aklanons speak the Aklan languages, which includes Aklanon and Malaynon. Ati and Kinaray-a are also spoken to some extent. Meanwhile, Hiligaynon is used as a regional language. Aklanon and Hiligaynon are spoken by Aklanons in Metro Manila, while the official languages of the Philippines, Filipino and English are taught at school.
The Capiznons or Capizeños refer to the people who are native to or have roots in Roxas City and the province of Capiz, located in the region of Western Visayas in the central section of the Philippines. located in the region of Western Visayas in the central section of the Philippines. It is located at the northeastern portion of Panay Island. They speak the Capiznon language, which is often confused with Hiligaynon due to dialectological comprehension similarities and as high as 91% mutual intelligibility, but it has its certain unique accent and vocabulary that integrates Aklanon and Waray lexicon.
The Karay-a people speak the Karay-a language, also known as Kinaray-a. The name of this group was derived from the word iraya, which means "upstream". The Karay-a number about 363,000. Meanwhile, Hiligaynon, Tagalog, and English are used as second languages. Most are Christians. About half are Roman Catholics, and the remaining half are Protestants. Some people belonging to the Suludnon tribe, are animists. As of 2015, there are about 1,300,000 Karay-a speakers all over the country. About 45% from Antique, 38% from Iloilo and 7% in Mindanao specifically Sultan Kudarat and North Cotabato.
The Hiligaynon people, often referred to as Ilonggo people (Hiligaynon: Mga Hiligaynon/Mga Ilonggo), refers to the ethnic race whose primary language is the Hiligaynon language, an Austronesian language native to Panay, Guimaras, and Negros Occidental. Other Hiligaynons lived in Romblon, southern Mindoro, Palawan, Masbate and Soccsksargen. Over the years, inter-migrations and intra-migrations have contributed to the diaspora of the Hiligaynons to different parts of the Philippines. Now, the Hiligaynon form the majority in the provinces of Iloilo, Negros Occidental, Guimaras, Capiz, South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, and North Cotabato. Hiligaynons also tend to speak and understand other languages within the environment they settled and grew up such as Cebuano (a related Visayan language spoken within the borders of Cebuano-speaking provinces of Negros Oriental, Bukidnon, Davao del Sur and Davao Occidental in Visayas and Mindanao respectively that has 80% mutual intelligibility with Hiligaynon), Ilocano, Maguindanaon and other languages native in Soccsksargen such as T'boli, Blaan and Teduray.
The Magahat are also known as the Ati-Man and Bukidnon. There are concentrations of Magahat found in southwestern Negros, Santa Catalina, Bayawan, and Siaton in Negros Oriental; and in Negros Occidental. They speak the Magahat language (also called Southern Binukidnon), which is a mixture of Hiligaynon and Cebuano. The Magahat practice swidden agriculture, because their settlements are in mountainous areas. They are food gatherers and good hunters as well.
Porohanon are the people of Poro Island in the Camotes Islands, Cebu in the Philippines. They are part of the Visayan metaethnicity. They speak the Porohanon language, and Cebuano as their second language. Interestingly, though, the Porohanon language has few similarities with Cebuano. It is closer to Masbateño and the Hiligaynon languages.[104]
The Cebuano people (Cebuano: Mga Sugbuanon) are the second most widespread ethnic group in the Philippines after the Tagalog people. They are originally native to the province of Cebu in the region of Central Visayas whose primary language is the Cebuano language and later spread out to other places in the Philippines, such as Siquijor, Bohol, Negros Oriental, southwestern Leyte, western Samar, Masbate, and large parts of Mindanao. The majority of Cebuanos are Roman Catholic. Despite being one of the majority ethnicities in Mindanao as well as southwestern Leyte, western Samar and Masbate, Cebuanos also tend to speak and understand other languages within the environment they settled and grew up such as Waray, Masbateño, Hiligaynon (a related Visayan language spoken within the borders of Hiligaynon-speaking areas of Negros Occidental and Soccsksargen in Visayas and Mindanao respectively that has 80% mutual intelligibility with Cebuano), and other languages native in Mindanao such as various Lumad languages, Zamboanga Chavacano, Maranao, Maguindanaon, Iranun, Tausug, Butuanon and Surigaonon with the latter three being related to Visayan languages.
The Boholano people, also called Bol-anon, refers to the people who live in the island province of Bohol. They speak the Boholano dialect of Cebuano Bisaya, which is a Visayan speech variety, although it is sometimes described as a separate language by some linguists and native speakers. The population of Bohol is 1,137,268 according to the 2000 census. Some also live in Southern Leyte and Mindanao (mainly in the northeastern portion). The majority of the population is Roman Catholic adherents or other Christian denominations. Others practices traditional indigenous religions.
The Eskaya, less commonly known as the Visayan-Eskaya, are the members of a cultural minority found in Bohol, Philippines, which is distinguished by its cultural heritage, particularly its literature, language, dress and religious observances. The unique Eskayan language and writing system in particular has been a source of fascination and controversy. Today, the Eskaya are officially classified as an Indigenous Cultural Community under The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997 (Republic Act No. 8371).
Lowland Christianized groups of the island of Mindanao.
Surigaonons populate the eastern coastal plain of Mindanao, particularly the provinces of Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur and Dinagat Islands. They are also present in the provinces of Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, and in Davao Oriental. They speak the Surigaonon language which closely resembles Cebuano, albeit with some local words and phrases. Because of the mass influx of Cebuano settlers to Mindanao, they also speak Cebuano as second language since Surigaonon is a Visayan language, other languages are Tagalog, and English as third languages. The vast majority of Surigaonons are Roman Catholics, very few are Muslims in contrast to its very closely related Tausug brothers which are predominantly Muslims.
The Kamiguin/Kamigin people inhabit the oldest town of the island of Camiguin—Guinsiliban—just off the northern coast of Mindanao. They spoke the Kamigin/Kinamigin language (Quinamiguin, Camiguinon) that is derived from Manobo with an admixture of Boholano. Sagay is the only other municipality where this is spoken. The total population is 531 (NSO 1990). Boholano predominates in the rest of the island. The culture of the Kamiguin has been subsumed within the context of Boholano or Visayan culture. The people were Christianized as early as 1596. The major agricultural products are abaca, cacao, coffee, banana, rice, corn, and coconut. The production of hemp is the major industry of the people since abaca thrives very well in the volcanic soil of the island. The plant was introduced in Bagacay, a northern town of Mindanao, but it is no longer planted there. Small-scale trade carried out with adjoining islands like Cebu, Bohol, and Mindanao.[105] Nowadays, the language is declining as most inhabitants have shifted to Cebuano.
The Butuanon are an ethnic group descended from Visayans. As with the Surigaonons, the Butuanons are also previously considered as Cebuanos. They live in the provinces of Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur. Some live in Misamis Oriental or in Surigao del Norte, all of which are in the northeastern corner of Mindanao. They number about 1,420,000 and speak the Butuanon language, but most Butuanon nowadays primarily speak the Cebuano language, because of the mass influx of Cebuano settlers to Mindanao, and Filipino, English as second languages. Most are Roman Catholics, while some are Protestants.
The Zamboangueño people (Chavacano/Spanish: Pueblo Zamboangueño) are a creole ethnic group of mixed Hispanic and native Austronesian descent that mostly speak Chavacano, a Spanish-based creole. They originate from the Zamboanga Peninsula, especially in Zamboanga City. Spanish censuses record that as much as one third of the inhabitants of the city of Zamboanga possess varying degrees of Spanish and Hispano-American admixture.[106] The Zamboangueño constitute an authentic and distinct ethnic identity because of their coherent cultural and historical heritage, most notably the Old Castilian-based creole language "Chavacano" language, that distinguishes them from neighbouring ethnic groups. The region historically received immigrants from Mexico and Peru.[107] Chavacanos are the Philippine native ethnic group which holds the most Spanish descent, a government sponsored genetic study discovered that 4 out of 10 Chavacanos or 40% of the population, are in fact Spanish in descent.[63]: Appendix page 35
Cotabateños live in Cotabato, Mindanao. They speak the Cotabateño dialect of Chavacano, just like Zamboangueño and Chavacano Davaoeño, which are recognized as the Mindanao-based Spanish creoles, with Cebuano as their substrate language. Cotabateño is a derivative of the extinct Zamboangueño dialect of Chavacano due to the large shared vocabulary derived from Hiligaynon, a Central Visayan language. The ancestors of the present Zamboangueño-speaking population were in contact with the Hiligaynons at the time of the creole's formation. Cotabateño has also borrowed words from the Maguindanao and Tiruray languages.[108]
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Davaoeños live around the Davao region and speak the Davaoeño (Dabawenyo) language, which is the dialect of the Cebuano Language spoken in Davao City and the surrounding areas. It can also refer to the dialect of Chavacano Davaoeño historically spoken around the Davao region.
The Philippines consists of a wide number of settlers that form part of the national population. They historically immigrated or descended from various countries or lands throughout the history of the Philippines, from as early as the precolonial period, the Spanish colonial period, the American colonial period, Japanese occupation, and modern era. Historically in the context of modern countries, they most notably came from Spain, Mexico, China, the United States, Japan, and India. Much of these immigrant peoples throughout the centuries eventually integrated or assimilated into the country's population, producing new groups of intermixed people that many identify as part of their Filipino identity.
Across the Philippines for the past centuries especially since the Spanish Colonial Era, the main historical migrant heritage groups are also the Chinese Filipinos and Spanish Filipinos who in Spanish Colonial Times later intermixed with the above lowland native Filipino ethnic groups, which produced the Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese Mestizo) and Mestizo de Español (Spanish Mestizo) respectively. There was also the rarer mix of Tornatrás during the Spanish Colonial Era, who were either the mix of both the Spanish and Chinese (Sangley) in Spanish Colonial Philippines or the mix of the Chinese mestizo and Spanish mestizo, resulting in carrying all three ancestries from Spanish, Chinese, and native Filipino ancestry. Historically though, it was the Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese Mestizo) that numbered the most among mestizos,[109] though the Mestizos de Español (Spanish Mestizos) carried more social prestige due to the colonial caste system hierarchy that usually elevated Spanish blood and christianization to the peak, hence many Filipinos today associate the term "mestizo" with Spanish mestizos, while most descendants of the Mestizo de Sangley (Chinese Mestizo), despite assuming many of the important roles in the economic, social, and political life of the nation, also later readily assimilated into the fabric of Philippine society or sometimes falsely claim Spanish descent due to this situation.[11]
These groups are the historical foreign migrant peoples and the intermixed peoples they produced with native groups, especially the native urban lowland peoples of the Philippines. Those listed below are those groups in modern times that still have some number of Filipinos claiming identity with such background.
Spanish Filipinos (Español/Espanyol/Kastila/Tisoy/Conyo) are any citizen or resident of the Philippines who is of pure or mostly Spanish or Hispanic origin. While there are Spanish Filipinos of Andalusian and Catalan descent, majority of the Filipinos of Spanish descent are of Basque descent.[110] Historically, they first settled in the Philippines, as soon as, Spanish colonization commenced in the disunited archipelago of the time. They have historically composed the ruling upper class of the Spanish colonial era and their legacy includes the Mestizos de Español and Tornatrás, which combined with them, are represented in all levels of Philippine society and are integrated politically and economically, in the private and government sector. In the Spanish colonial era, they used to also be classified as either Peninsulares (pure Spanish descent born in Spain or the Iberian Peninsula), Americano (Criollo, Castizo, or Mestizo descent born in Spanish America), or Filipino/Insulares (pure Spanish descent born in the Philippines). Currently, they mostly speak and can code-switch between English and Filipino (Tagalog) or other Philippine languages, just like other Filipinos, but some families can still speak Philippine Spanish, the historical Spanish dialect of the Philippines, mostly as second or third language. They historically brought Philippine Spanish into the Philippines, which is very similar to Mexican Spanish, because of Mexican and Latin American emigration to the Spanish East Indies (Philippines) over the years. It is spoken mostly among Spanish Filipinos and was the prestige language during the Spanish colonial period. This Spanish dialect went into decline and has largely been taken out of the mainstream languages of the Philippines during the American colonial era, but it has left a large linguistic imprint into most if not all Philippine languages. Some parts of the country with a larger Spanish Filipino influence produced a Spanish-based creole called Chavacano, that is still spoken in Zamboanga, Cavite city, and Ternate. Some of the richest Spanish Filipino families are families that have inherited the fortunes of their family owned companies or conglomerates. According to an 1818 study by the renowned German ethnologist Fëdor Jagor entitled The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes, not less than one third of the inhabitants of the island of Luzon were descendants of Spaniards, mixed with varying degrees of South American, Chinese, and Indian ancestry and the vast majority of military personnel then had Latin American origins.[111]
Chinese Filipinos (Intsik/Tsinoy/Chinito/Chinita/Pilipinong Tsino/Lannang) are Filipinos of Chinese descent, mostly born and raised in the Philippines. Most migrations of Chinese to the Philippines started even before the Spanish colonial period, when foreign trade with other countries were opened to the Philippines.[112][113][114] Ethnic Chinese sailed around the Philippine Islands from the 9th century onward and frequently interacted with the local Filipinos. Some datus, rajahs, and lakans (indigenous rulers) in the Philippines were themselves a product of the intermarriage between the Chinese merchant-settlers and the local Filipinos.[112][113][114] Chinese Filipinos are one of the largest overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. There are approximately at least 1.35 million Filipinos or more with Chinese ancestry, which is at least 1.3% of the population. In addition, Mestizos de Sangley—Filipinos with at least some Chinese ancestry—comprise a substantial proportion of the Philippine population, although the actual figures are not known. The majority of the Filipinos of Chinese descent are of Hokkien origin, while a small minority are Cantonese or Teochew descents. Chinese Filipinos of Hokkien descent mostly trace roots from Fujian province, specifically mostly from Quanzhou and Xiamen and to a lesser extent from Zhangzhou, thus the Philippine Hokkien dialect mostly takes from the Quanzhou dialect with influences from the Xiamen (Amoy) dialect and the Zhangzhou dialect. Some Hokkien Chinese Filipinos before moving to the Philippines also initially moved from Hong Kong, despite originally being from Fujian province, thus many carry family names spelled in the Cantonese style despite being Hokkien themselves. Meanwhile, the Chinese Filipinos of Cantonese descent mostly trace roots from Guangdong province, specifically Taishan, Guangzhou, and Macau, thus many speak the Taishanese or mainstream Cantonese. Lastly, Chinese Filipinos of Teochew descent are a rare minority, where not much is known about them except that they are frequently confused with those of Hokkien ancestry but may instead have Teochew as heritage language. Historically, the Chinese have been trading and settling with the peoples of the Philippines even during the precolonial era, ever since the Tang dynasty era in China, but it was during the first few centuries of the early Spanish colonial period, when they settled in larger numbers. In Spanish colonial times, Chinese immigrants used to be called "Sangley" which in Hokkien means "business", but centuries later, they eventually intermixed with natives and Spanish Filipinos, producing Mestizo de Sangley and Tornatrás Filipinos. Over the centuries, generations have both been gradually assimilated and replenished from occasional fresh immigration from family or village contacts in their Hokkien home province of Fujian in China or Taiwan, so they are still well represented in all levels of Filipino society, while leaving many historical contributions to Philippine society. Many Chinese Filipinos also play an important role in the Philippine business sector. Many of the richest families in the country are from Chinese Filipino families that run big conglomerate companies. Currently, they mostly speak and can code-switch between English and Filipino (Tagalog) or other Philippine languages, just like other Filipinos, but some families can still speak Philippine Hokkien, the historical Hokkien dialect of the Philippines. Some have also studied Mandarin, but currently, the youth are usually not fluent due to lack of practical exposure. Philippine Hokkien has vocabulary with that shares similarities with other Southeast Asian Hokkien dialects to its south, like Singaporean Hokkien, Penang Hokkien, and Medan Hokkien, and to its north, like Taiwanese Hokkien. Philippine Hokkien has preserved vocabulary that most Hokkien speakers in China would regard as old-fashioned.
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These are the mixed descendants of the native peoples of the Philippines with the Spanish and Hispanic settlers who settled in the Spanish East Indies (Philippines) during the Spanish Era. Most were of either Spanish ancestry or Amerindian-Spanish ancestry (The term 'Mestizo' originated in Latin America). The first groups of Hispanics sailed in 1565 with Miguel López de Legazpi from New Spain, in what is now Jalisco state, Mexico to colonize the Philippines. In addition to this, select cities such as Manila, Vigan, Bauang, Naga, Iriga, Iloílo, Bacólod, Cebú and Zamboanga, which were home to military fortifications or commercial ports during the Spanish era, also hold sizable mestizo communities.[115]
Mestizo de sangley are the mixed descendants of the native peoples of the Philippines with the Sangley (Chinese) and sometimes Japanese migrants who settled in the Spanish East Indies (Philippines) during the Spanish Era. Most were of Hokkien ancestry, with a few being of Cantonese, Taishanese or Japanese ancestry. Sangley is a Hokkien word from sng-lí (生理) meaning "business",
Torna atrás are the mixed descendants of the above Spanish Filipinos and Mestizos de Español with Chinese Filipinos and Mestizos de Sangley, who settled in the Spanish East Indies (Philippines) during the Spanish Era. Most now have native ancestry along with Hokkien or other Han Chinese/Japanese ancestry as well as Spanish or other Hispanic ancestry.
Americans (Amerikano/Kano) usually consist of various ethnicities such as whites (mostly descendants of European immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland), native Americans (aboriginal Americans who existed prior to European colonization) and black Americans (who descended from African slaves brought to America during 1700s). American settlement in the Philippines began during the Spanish colonial period, when Americans came to the islands primarily to conduct business and trade. They owned many businesses in the sugar industry. There was not much American inflow to the Philippines until after the Philippine–American War. After the USA won the war and colonized the Philippines, thousands of Americans settled there temporarily or permanently. Most were either members of the U.S. military or Christian missionaries. After independence in 1946, many Americans chose to remain in the Philippines while maintaining relations with relatives in the US. Most of them were professionals, but missionaries continued to settle the country. In 2015, the U.S. State Department estimated that there were more than 220,000 U.S. citizens living in the Philippines, with a significant mixed population of Amerasians and descendants from the colonial era as well. Since 1898, when the United States annexed the Philippines from Spain, there were as many as 21 U.S. bases and 100,000 U.S. military personnel stationed there. The bases closed in 1992 leaving behind thousands of Amerasian children. There are an estimated 52,000 Amerasians in the Philippines, but an academic research paper presented in the U.S. (in 2012) by an Angeles, Pampanga, Philippines Amerasian college research study unit suggests that the number could be a lot more, possibly reaching 250,000.[116] This is also partially due to the fact that almost all Amerasian intermarried with other Amerasian and Filipino natives. This group also includes Filipino American (Fil-Am), and sometimes Filipino Canadian, returnee migrants from the United States and Canada.
Arab (Arabo) traders first visited the Philippines during the precolonial era. They sailed through Southeast Asia, including the Philippines, for trade and commerce on their way to trade with China, just like Persian and Indian traders. These early Arab traders followed the pre-Islamic religions of Arabian Christianity, Paganism and Sabeanism. After the advent of Islam, in 1380, Karim ul’ Makhdum, the first Islamic missionary to reach the Sulu Archipelago, brought Islam to what is now the Philippines, first arriving in Jolo. Subsequent visits of Arab Muslim missionaries strengthened the Islamic faith in the Philippines, concentrating in the south and reaching as far north as Manila. Starting with the conquest of Malaysia by the Portuguese and Indonesia by the Dutch, the Philippines began to receive a number of Malaysian-Arab refugees including several Malaysian princes and displaced court advisors. Soon, vast sultanates were established overlapping the existing indigenous Filipino barangay (village) governing system and Indianized royalty. The two largest were the Sultanate of Maguindanao, which loosely governed most of southern Mindanao and the Sultanate of Sulu, which included Basilan, Jolo, and parts of Borneo. Several other smaller but famous sultanates were also established such as the sultanates of Lanao in Mindanao, which was later conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century. The ties between the sultanates in Mindanao remained economically and culturally close to Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia until the end of the 19th century when the sultanates were weakened by the Spanish and later the American military during the Spanish and American colonial period. Today, there are numerous Arab-descended Filipino families, especially royal or noble Muslim families in Mindanao. In modern times, there has also been immigration from Arab countries in the Middle East, especially those recently devastated by war in the recent decades like Lebanon and Syria.
The Philippines has had historical connections with Indianized kingdoms, most notably with Srivijaya from the 7th century, but also in earlier eras. Indian culture, language, scripture, food, belief, arts, martial arts, and epics have had a profound impact on the pre-Spanish Philippines which is still visible today. They have contributed to the unique blend of cultures in the Philippines. One source has estimated the size of the Indian community in the Philippines at 150,000 persons in 2008 .[117] Most Indians in the Philippines belong to either Sindhi or Punjabi ethnic groups, and are largely businessmen and traders. A smaller population of Indians belonging to the Marathi ethnic group form part of the clergy of Roman Catholic dioceses in the country.[118][119] Besides age old indianized influences from indianized history of precolonial states inherited from neighboring Indonesia and Malaysia, Indian Filipinos (Bombay or Turko [Cebuano-speaking reference to Indian residents of Cebuano-speaking areas, probably mistaken for Turkic people especially from Turkey]) or Mestizo de Bombay are the mixed colonial descendants of the native peoples of the Philippines with the Indian or Bumbay migrants from Bombay (now Mumbai, Maharashtra) or Sepoy soldiers from Madras (now Chennai, Tamil Nadu) who settled in the Spanish East Indies (Philippines) during the Spanish Era, especially during the British occupation of Manila in the Seven Years' War. Many settled in what is Cainta, in what was then the Province of Manila (currently part of Rizal Province). As of 2006, between 70 and 75 percent of Indians in the Philippines lived in Metro Manila, with the largest community outside of Manila being in Isabela province. The region in and around Cainta still has many Sepoy descendants. However, Indian business people started to arrive in larger numbers in The Philippines during the American colonial period (1898–1930s) – especially during the 1930s and 1940s, when many Indians and Indian Filipinos lived in Filipino provinces, including Davao. The longest serving Mayor of Manila, Ramon Bagatsing, was of Indian-Punjabi descent, having moved to Manila from Fabrica, Negros Occidental before the second world war. A second surge of Indian businessmen, especially Sindhis arrived in the Philippines during the 1947 India-Pakistan partition. In the present day, most of the Indians and Indian Filipinos in the Philippines are Sindhi and Punjabi with a large Tamil population also existing. Many are fluent in Filipino (Tagalog) and English as well as other local languages of the provinces and islands. Many are prosperous middle-class citizens, with their main occupations being in clothing sales and marketing. Sikhs are involved largely in finance, money lending (locally called five-six), sales and marketing.
Japanese people have been settling in the Philippines for centuries even before World War II, therefore there has been much cultural and genetic blending. The Ryukyu Kingdom (located in modern-day Okinawa Prefecture) also had heavy trade and mixing in the Philippines, particularly in Northern Luzon, as depicted in the Boxer Codex.[120][unreliable source][121][failed verification]
Japanese Filipinos (Nikkei / Nikkeijin / Hapones / Haponesa / Japino) have an extensive history in the Philippines, such as trading during precolonial times like the extensive Rusun jar trade, the Japanese settlements found in Northern Luzon, and the Catholic Christian kirishitan exiles during the Edo period, but throughout the centuries, their numbers have dwindled as generations assimilated without much replenishment from Japan. In Spanish colonial times, they were called Iapon/Japon/Hapon or Xaponese/Japonés/Hapones[122] or were sometimes also confused with Sangleys (Chinese mestizos), so their children too would sometimes be regarded as Mestizos de Sangley or Tornatrás. During the American colonial era, Japanese laborers were brought in to build the Benguet Road (Kennon Road) to Baguio, but eventually after the project, many moved to work in abaca plantations in Davao, where Davao soon became dubbed as Davaokuo (in Philippine and American media) or (in Japanese: 小日本國「こにっぽんこく」, romanized: Ko Nippon Koku, lit. 'Little Japan') with a Japanese school, a Shinto shrine and a diplomatic mission from Japan. The place that used to be "Little Tokyo" in Davao was Mintal.[123] Many have roots from either Okinawa (Ryukyu) or Mainland Japan. When World War II broke out, many were killed or expelled because of their unwilling or willing fifth column collaboration with the Japanese Imperial Army (mostly as translators). This led to many Japanese mestizos who tended to deny their Japanese heritage and changed their family names in order to avoid discrimination. Eventually, many either intermarried and assimilated into the Filipino populace, such as those in Davao who intermarried with the Bagobo, and those in Baguio with the Igorot.[124] Many eventually completely lost their Japanese identity while others have immigrated to the US or "returned" to Japan, the homeland of their forebears. Most Japanese Filipinos in the modern times (colloquially called Japino) are now fresh new immigrants from Japanese businessmen who went with female OFW entertainers in Japan. The Filipina mothers usually return to the Philippines with their children along with them. Other Japanese who stayed in the country initially came to the Philippines to learn English or set up businesses. These days, most Japanese Filipinos can be found around Davao, Baguio, Iloilo or Cebu, as well other cities and towns, with only a few around Metro Manila, though historically there were many around Manila, such as Plaza Dilao in Paco, Manila.[125][126]
The Sangil people (also called Sangir, Sangu, Marore, Sangirezen, or Talaoerezen) are originally from the Sangihe and Talaud Islands (now part of Indonesia) and parts of Davao Occidental (particularly in the Sarangani Islands), Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Sultan Kudarat, South Cotabato, and North Cotabato. Their populations (much like the Sama-Bajau) were separated when borders were drawn between the Philippines and Indonesia during the colonial era. The Sangil people are traditionally animistic, much like other Lumad peoples. During the colonial era, the Sangil (who usually call themselves "Sangir") in the Sangihe Islands mostly converted to Protestant Christianity due to proximity and contact with the Christian Minahasa people of Sulawesi. In the Philippines, most Sangil converted to Islam due to the influence of the neighboring Sultanate of Maguindanao. However, elements of animistic rituals still remain. The Indonesian and Filipino groups still maintain ties and both Manado Malay and Cebuano are spoken in both Indonesian Sangir and Filipino Sangil, in addition to the Sangirese language. Indonesian Sangir even live in the Philippines, particularly Balut Island, Davao del Sur, Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental, Sarangani, Sultan Kudarat, North Cotabato, South Cotabato, General Santos and Davao City,[61][62] because of its proximity to Indonesia; they speak Cebuano & Tagalog as second languages & are Protestant Christians by faith. The exact population of Sangil people in the Philippines is unknown, but is estimated to be around 10,000 people.
As of 2005[update], Filipino Jews numbered at the most 500 people.[127] Other estimates[citation needed] range between 100 and 18,500 people (0.000001% and 0.005% of the country's total population). As of 2011[update], Metro Manila has the largest Jewish community in the Philippines, which consists of roughly seventy families. The country's only synagogue, Beth Yaacov, is located in Makati, as is the Chabad House.[citation needed] There are, of course, other Jews elsewhere in the country, like the Bagelboys of Subic and Angeles City[127] but these are obviously fewer and almost all transients,[128] either diplomats or business envoys, and their existence is almost totally unknown in mainstream society. There are a few Israelis in Manila working at call centers and a few other executives. There are also a number of converts to Judaism.[citation needed]
These migrant groups are relatively recent immigrants and expatriate groups that mostly immigrated in the modern era, specifically around the 20th century especially from post-WW2 Philippine independence to the present era. Recent modern immigrants, expatriates, foreign students, foreign citizens with work permits and resident aliens are all included. Common reasons for modern immigration into the Philippines include employment, education, tourism, marriage migration counter flow from returning overseas Filipino workers and emigrants, etc. According to a 2013 country migration report, the recent most notable nationalities of foreign aliens with work permits include Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Americans, Germans and British (either British citizen or British National (Overseas) – from British Hong Kong). Most of these foreign aliens with work permits are based in the National Capital Region (Metro Manila), followed by Calabarzon (Southern Tagalog), and Central Visayas, representing the more developed regions of the country. Most of them are employed in the manufacturing sector, although they tend to be involved in other sectors as well. The majority work in administrative, executive and managerial positions. The top three nationalities of registered aliens are Chinese (59,000), Koreans (39,000) and Americans (26,000).[129] According to the 2010 Census of Population and Housing, the top five countries of origin of foreign citizens were: the United States of America (29,959), China, (28,750), Japan (11,583), and India (8,963) (NSO, 2012).[130] Europeans, Africans, or those from Latin America are often confused with Americans in the Philippines, leading to many being referred to as Kano (short for Amerikano).
The 2000 survey states that Islam is the largest minority religion, constituting approximately 5 percent of the population. A 2012 estimate by the National Commission on Muslim Filipinos (NCMF), however, states that there are 10.7 million Muslims, which is approximately 11 percent of the total population.
c. At the same time, person-to-person contacts are widespread: Some 600,000 Americans live in the Philippines and there are 3 million Filipino-Americans, many of whom are devoting themselves to typhoon relief.
Filipinos appear considerably admixed with respect to the other Asian population samples, carrying on average less Asian ancestry (71%) than our Korean (99%), Japanese (96%), Thai (93%), and Vietnamese (84%) reference samples. We also revealed substructure in our Filipino sample, showing that the patterns of ancestry vary within the Philippines—that is, between the four differently sourced Filipino samples. Mean estimates of Asian (76%) and European (7%) ancestry are greatest for the cemetery sample of forensic signifijicance from Manila.
[Page 1] ABSTRACT: Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally, yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature. Given the complex population history of the Philippines, it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples. Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample (n = 110) when using the Fordisc 3.1 (FD3) software. We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools, such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture, in quantities from small to large. Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups (72.7%), followed by Hispanic (12.7%), Indigenous American (7.3%), African (4.5%), and European (2.7%) groups included in FD3. This general pattern did not change between males and females. Moreover, replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed. These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice. Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary, population historical, and statistical reasons for FD3-generated classifications. The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population-focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture.
The galleon activities also attracted a great number of Mexican men that arrived from the Mexican Pacific coast as ships' crewmembers (Grant 2009: 230). Mexicans were administrators, priests and soldiers (guachinangos or hombres de pueblo) (Bernal 1964: 188) many though, integrated into the peasant society, even becoming tulisanes 'bandits' who in the late 18th century "infested" Cavite and led peasant revolts (Medina 2002: 66). Meanwhile, in the Spanish garrisons, Spanish was used among administrators and priests. Nonetheless, there is not enough historical information on the social role of these men. In fact some of the few references point to a quick integration into the local society: "los hombres del pueblo, los soldados y marinos, anónimos, olvidados, absorbidos en su totalidad por la población Filipina." (Bernal 1964: 188). In addition to the Manila-Acapulco galleon, a complex commercial maritime system circulated European and Asian commodities including slaves. During the 17th century, Portuguese vessels traded with the ports of Manila and Cavite, even after the prohibition of 1644 (Seijas 2008: 21). Crucially, the commercial activities included the smuggling and trade of slaves: "from the Moluccas, and Malacca, and India… with the monsoon winds" carrying "clove spice, cinnamon, and pepper and black slaves, and Kafir [slaves]" (Antonio de Morga cf Seijas 2008: 21)." Though there is no data on the numbers of slaves in Cavite, the numbers in Manila suggest a significant fraction of the population had been brought in as slaves by the Portuguese vessels. By 1621, slaves in Manila numbered 1,970 out of a population of 6,110. This influx of slaves continued until late in the 17th century; according to contemporary cargo records in 1690, 200 slaves departed from Malacca to Manila (Seijas 2008: 21). Different ethnicities were favored for different labor; Africans were brought to work on the agricultural production, and skilled slaves from India served as caulkers and carpenters.
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