Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra

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El Portal de Ciencias de la Tierra

La Tierra vista desde la Luna

Las ciencias de la Tierra o geociencias incluyen todos los campos de las ciencias naturales relacionados con el planeta Tierra . Esta es una rama de la ciencia que se ocupa de las complejas constituciones físicas, químicas y biológicas y los vínculos sinérgicos de las cuatro esferas de la Tierra: la biosfera , la hidrosfera / criosfera , la atmósfera y la geosfera (o litosfera ). Las ciencias de la Tierra pueden considerarse una rama de las ciencias planetarias pero con una historia mucho más antigua.

Existen enfoques reduccionistas y holísticos de las ciencias de la Tierra. También es el estudio de la Tierra y sus vecinos en el espacio. Algunos científicos de la Tierra utilizan su conocimiento del planeta para localizar y desarrollar recursos energéticos y minerales. Otros estudian el impacto de la actividad humana en el medio ambiente de la Tierra y diseñan métodos para proteger el planeta. Algunos utilizan su conocimiento sobre los procesos de la Tierra, como volcanes , terremotos y huracanes, para ayudar a proteger a las personas de estos peligrosos eventos. ( Articulo completo... )

Artículos seleccionados

Imagen 1

Gloria cerca de su máxima intensidad al norte de La Española el 24 de septiembre

El huracán Gloria fue un poderoso huracán que causó daños importantes a lo largo de la costa este de los Estados Unidos y en el Atlántico de Canadá durante la temporada de huracanes del Atlántico de 1985 . Fue el primer ciclón tropical importante que azotó el noreste de Estados Unidos desde el huracán Agnes en 1972 y la primera tormenta importante que afectó directamente a la ciudad de Nueva York y Long Island desde el huracán Donna en 1960 . Gloria fue un huracán de Cabo Verde que se originó a partir de una onda tropical el 16 de septiembre en el Océano Atlántico oriental. Después de permanecer como un ciclón tropical débil durante varios días, Gloria se intensificó hasta convertirse en huracán el 22 de septiembre al norte de las Antillas Menores . Durante ese tiempo, la tormenta se había desplazado generalmente hacia el oeste, aunque giró hacia el noroeste debido a un debilitamiento de la cresta . Gloria se intensificó rápidamente el 24 de septiembre y al día siguiente alcanzó vientos máximos de 145 mph (233 km/h). El huracán se debilitó antes de azotar los Outer Banks de Carolina del Norte el 27 de septiembre. Más tarde ese día, Gloria tocó tierra dos veces más en Long Island y a lo largo de la costa del oeste de Connecticut , antes de volverse extratropical el 28 de septiembre sobre Nueva Inglaterra. Los remanentes atravesaron el Atlántico canadiense y afectaron a Europa occidental, disipándose finalmente el 4 de octubre.

Antes de que Gloria tocara tierra, el Centro Nacional de Huracanes emitió advertencias de huracán en algún momento para la costa este de los Estados Unidos, desde Carolina del Sur hasta Maine. Cientos de miles de personas fueron evacuadas y el huracán fue descrito como la "tormenta del siglo". En general, los vientos más fuertes de Gloria permanecieron al este del centro, lo que afectó en gran medida a lugares desde Carolina del Norte hasta Nueva Jersey, y el paso durante la marea baja redujo las marejadas ciclónicas . Los vientos huracanados y las ráfagas afectaron gran parte del camino, lo que derribó árboles y líneas eléctricas. Esto dejó a más de 4 millones de personas sin electricidad, provocando el peor corte de energía en la historia de Connecticut relacionado con un desastre natural. Los árboles caídos causaron seis de las catorce muertes de la tormenta. ( Articulo completo... )
Image 2
The Paleocene (IPA: /ˈpæli.əsiːn, -i.oʊ-, ˈpeɪli-/ PAL-ee-ə-seen, -⁠ee-oh-, PAY-lee-), or Palaeocene, is a geological epoch that lasted from about 66 to 56 million years ago (mya). It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name is a combination of the Ancient Greek παλαιός palaiós meaning "old" and the Eocene Epoch (which succeeds the Paleocene), translating to "the old part of the Eocene".

The epoch is bracketed by two major events in Earth's history. The K–Pg extinction event, brought on by an asteroid impact (Chicxulub impact) and possibly volcanism (Deccan Traps), marked the beginning of the Paleocene and killed off 75% of species, most famously the non-avian dinosaurs. The end of the epoch was marked by the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), which was a major climatic event wherein about 2,500–4,500 gigatons of carbon were released into the atmosphere and ocean systems, causing a spike in global temperatures and ocean acidification. (Full article...)
Image 3

The 2002 Bou'in-Zahra earthquake (also known as the 2002 Avaj earthquake or the 2002 Changureh earthquake) occurred on 22 June 2002. The epicenter was near the city of Bou'in-Zahra in Qazvin Province, a region of northwestern Iran which is crossed by several major faults that is known for destructive earthquakes. The shock measured 6.5 on the M_wc scale, had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), and was followed by more than 20 aftershocks. At least 230 people were killed and 1,500 more were injured.

According to the International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), the earthquake was felt as far away as the capital city of Tehran, approximately 290 kilometres (180 mi) east of the epicenter, although no damage was reported there. Most houses in the region were single-story masonry buildings, and virtually all of these collapsed. The public became angry due to the slow official response to victims who needed supplies. Residents of the town of Avaj resorted to throwing stones at the car of a government minister. (Full article...)
Image 4

Darwin, c. 1854, when he was preparing On the Origin of Species

Charles Robert Darwin FRS FRGS FLS FZS JP (/ˈdɑːrwɪn/ DAR-win; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended from a common ancestor is now generally accepted and considered a fundamental concept in science. In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.

Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. His studies at the University of Cambridge's Christ's College from 1828 to 1831 encouraged his passion for natural science. His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836 established Darwin as an eminent geologist, whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's concept of gradual geological change. Publication of his journal of the voyage made Darwin famous as a popular author. (Full article...)
Image 5
Eruptions in the Lassen volcanic area in the last 70,000 years. Circle shows base of Mount Tehama. See timeline image.

The Lassen volcanic area presents a geological record of sedimentation and volcanic activity in and around Lassen Volcanic National Park in Northern California, U.S. The park is located in the southernmost part of the Cascade Mountain Range in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Pacific Oceanic tectonic plates have plunged below the North American Plate in this part of North America for hundreds of millions of years. Heat and molten rock from these subducting plates has fed scores of volcanoes in California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia over at least the past 30 million years, including these in the Lassen volcanic areas.

Between 3 and 4 million years ago, volcanic-derived mud flows called lahars streamed down several major mountains that included nearby but now extinct Mount Yana and Mount Maidu to become the Tuscan Formation. Basaltic and later andesitic to dacitic flows of lava covered increasingly larger areas of this formation to eventually form the lava plateau upon which the park is situated. About 600,000 years ago, Mount Tehama started to rise as a stratovolcano in the southwestern corner of the park, eventually reaching an estimated 11,000 ft (3,400 m) in height. (Full article...)
Image 6
Radiocarbon dating helped verify the authenticity of the Dead Sea scrolls.

Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon.

The method was developed in the late 1940s at the University of Chicago by Willard Libby. It is based on the fact that radiocarbon (¹⁴
C) is constantly being created in the Earth's atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting ¹⁴
C combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide, which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis; animals then acquire ¹⁴
C by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and thereafter the amount of ¹⁴
C it contains begins to decrease as the ¹⁴
C undergoes radioactive decay. Measuring the proportion of ¹⁴
C in a sample from a dead plant or animal, such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone, provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The older a sample is, the less ¹⁴
C there is to be detected, and because the half-life of ¹⁴
C (the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed) is about 5,730 years, the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to approximately 50,000 years ago (in this interval about 99.8% of the ¹⁴
C will have decayed), although special preparation methods occasionally make an accurate analysis of older samples possible. In 1960, Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work. (Full article...)
Image 7

A map of the world as it appeared during the mid-Ediacaran, c. 600 Ma

The Ediacaran ( /ˌiːdiˈækərən, ˌɛdi-/ EE-dee-AK-ər-ən, ED-ee-) is a geological period of the Neoproterozoic era that spans 96 million years from the end of the Cryogenian period at 635 Mya to the beginning of the Cambrian period at 538.8 Mya. It is the last period of the Proterozoic eon as well as the last of the so-called "Precambrian supereon", before the beginning of the subsequent Cambrian period marks the start of the Phanerozoic eon, where recognizable fossil evidence of life becomes common.

The Ediacaran period is named after the Ediacara Hills of South Australia, where trace fossils of a diverse community of previously unrecognized lifeforms (later named the Ediacaran biota) were first discovered by geologist Reg Sprigg in 1946. Its status as an official geological period was ratified in 2004 by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), making it the first new geological period declared in 120 years. Although the period took namesake from the Ediacara Hills in the Nilpena Ediacara National Park, the type section is actually located in the bed of the Enorama Creek within the Brachina Gorge in the Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park, at , approximately 55 km (34 mi) southeast of the Ediacara Hills fossil site. (Full article...)
Image 8

Isabel at peak intensity, northeast of the Leeward Islands, on September 11

Hurricane Isabel was the strongest Atlantic hurricane since Mitch, and the deadliest, costliest, and most intense hurricane in the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season. Hurricane Isabel was also the strongest hurricane in the open waters of the Atlantic, both by wind speed and central pressure, before being surpassed by hurricanes Irma and Dorian in 2017 and 2019, respectively. The ninth named storm, fifth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the season, Isabel formed near the Cape Verde Islands from a tropical wave on September 6, in the tropical Atlantic Ocean. It moved northwestward, and within an environment of light wind shear and warm waters, it steadily strengthened to reach peak winds of 165 mph (266 km/h) on September 11. After fluctuating in intensity for four days, during which it displayed annular characteristics, Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) on September 18. Isabel quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over western Pennsylvania on the next day. On September 20, the extratropical remnants of Isabel were absorbed into another system over Eastern Canada.

In North Carolina, the storm surge from Isabel washed out a portion of Hatteras Island to form what was unofficially known as Isabel Inlet. Damage was greatest along the Outer Banks, where thousands of homes were damaged or even destroyed. The worst of the effects of Isabel occurred in Virginia, especially in the Hampton Roads area and along the shores of rivers as far west and north as Richmond and Baltimore. Virginia reported the most deaths and damage from the hurricane. About 64% of the damage and 69% of the deaths occurred in North Carolina and Virginia. Electric service was disrupted in areas of Virginia for several days, some more rural areas were without electricity for weeks, and local flooding caused thousands of dollars in damage. (Full article...)
Image 9

The Berlin Archaeopteryx specimen (A. siemensii)

Archaeopteryx (/ˌɑːrkiːˈɒptərɪks/; lit. 'old-wing'), sometimes referred to by its German name, "Urvogel" (lit. Primeval Bird) is a genus of bird-like dinosaurs. The name derives from the ancient Greek ἀρχαῖος (archaīos), meaning "ancient", and πτέρυξ (ptéryx), meaning "feather" or "wing". Between the late 19th century and the early 21st century, Archaeopteryx was generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest-known bird (member of the group Avialae). Older potential avialans have since been identified, including Anchiornis, Xiaotingia, and Aurornis.

Archaeopteryx lived in the Late Jurassic around 150 million years ago, in what is now southern Germany, during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now. Similar in size to a Eurasian magpie, with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven, the largest species of Archaeopteryx could grow to about 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) in length. Despite their small size, broad wings, and inferred ability to fly or glide, Archaeopteryx had more in common with other small Mesozoic dinosaurs than with modern birds. In particular, they shared the following features with the dromaeosaurids and troodontids: jaws with sharp teeth, three fingers with claws, a long bony tail, hyperextensible second toes ("killing claw"), feathers (which also suggest warm-bloodedness), and various features of the skeleton. (Full article...)
Image 10

Imaging from NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission STS-99 reveals part of the diameter ring of the crater in the form of a shallow circular trough. Numerous cenotes (sinkholes) cluster around the trough marking the inner crater rim.

The Chicxulub crater (IPA: [t͡ʃikʃuˈluɓ] ^ⓘ cheek-shoo-LOOB) is an impact crater buried underneath the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. Its center is offshore, but the crater is named after the onshore community of Chicxulub Pueblo (not the larger coastal town of Chicxulub Puerto). It was formed slightly over 66 million years ago when an asteroid, about ten kilometers (six miles) in diameter, struck Earth. The crater is estimated to be 200 kilometers (120 miles) in diameter and 20 kilometers (12 miles) in depth. It is the second largest confirmed impact structure on Earth, and the only one whose peak ring is intact and directly accessible for scientific research.

The crater was discovered by Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield, geophysicists who had been looking for petroleum in the Yucatán Peninsula during the late 1970s. Penfield was initially unable to obtain evidence that the geological feature was a crater and gave up his search. Later, through contact with Alan R. Hildebrand in 1990, Penfield obtained samples that suggested it was an impact feature. Evidence for the crater's impact origin includes shocked quartz, a gravity anomaly, and tektites in surrounding areas. (Full article...)
Image 11

Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral that is a hydrous phosphate of copper and aluminium, with the chemical formula CuAl₆(PO4)₄(OH)₈·4H2O. It is rare and valuable in finer grades and has been prized as a gemstone for millennia due to its hue.

Like most other opaque gems, turquoise has been devalued by the introduction of treatments, imitations, and synthetics into the market. The robin egg blue or sky blue color of the Persian turquoise mined near the modern city of Nishapur, Iran, has been used as a guiding reference for evaluating turquoise quality. (Full article...)
Image 12
Geologic time shown in a diagram called a geological clock, showing the relative lengths of the eons of Earth's history and noting major events

The geological history of the Earth follows the major geological events in Earth's past based on the geological time scale, a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet's rock layers (stratigraphy). Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the Solar System.

Initially, Earth was molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans. However, in 2020, researchers reported that sufficient water to fill the oceans may have always been on the Earth since the beginning of the planet's formation. (Full article...)
Image 13

Panoramic winter view of Crater Lake from Rim Village

Crater Lake (Klamath: Giiwas) is a volcanic crater lake in south-central Oregon in the Western United States. It is the main feature of Crater Lake National Park and is famous for its deep blue color and water clarity. The lake partly fills a 2,148-foot-deep (655 m) caldera that was formed around 7,700 (± 150) years ago
by the collapse of the volcano Mount Mazama. No rivers flow into or out of the lake; the evaporation is compensated for by rain and snowfall at a rate such that the total amount of water is replaced every 250 years. With a depth of 1,949 feet (594 m), the lake is the deepest in the United States. In the world, it ranks tenth for maximum depth, as well as third for mean (average) depth.

Crater Lake features two small islands. Wizard Island, located near the western shore of the lake, is a cinder cone about 316 acres (128 hectares) in size. Phantom Ship, a natural rock pillar, is located near the southern shore. (Full article...)
Image 14
Changes in surface air temperature over the past 50 years. The Arctic has warmed the most, and temperatures on land have generally increased more than sea surface temperatures.

In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global average temperature is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices add to greenhouse gases. These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary greenhouse gas driving global warming, has grown by about 50% and is at levels unseen for millions of years.

Climate change has an increasingly large impact on the environment. Deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Amplified warming in the Arctic has contributed to thawing permafrost, retreat of glaciers and sea ice decline. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise. (Full article...)
Image 15

The 1867 Manhattan earthquake struck Riley County, Kansas, in the United States on April 24, 1867, at 20:22 UTC, or about 14:30 local time. The strongest earthquake to originate in the state, it measured 5.1 on a seismic scale that is based on an isoseismal map or the event's felt area. The earthquake's epicenter was near the town of Manhattan.

The earthquake had a maximum perceived intensity of VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused minor damage, reports of which were confined to Kansas, Iowa, and Missouri, according to the United States Geological Survey. Felt over an area of 200,000 square miles (520,000 km²), the earthquake reached the states of Indiana, Illinois, and possibly Ohio, though the latter reports have been questioned. (Full article...)
Image 16
Ice core sample taken from drill

An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet or a high mountain glacier. Since the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow, lower layers are older than upper ones, and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years. Cores are drilled with hand augers (for shallow holes) or powered drills; they can reach depths of over two miles (3.2 km), and contain ice up to 800,000 years old.

The physical properties of the ice and of material trapped in it can be used to reconstruct the climate over the age range of the core. The proportions of different oxygen and hydrogen isotopes provide information about ancient temperatures, and the air trapped in tiny bubbles can be analysed to determine the level of atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide. Since heat flow in a large ice sheet is very slow, the borehole temperature is another indicator of temperature in the past. These data can be combined to find the climate model that best fits all the available data. (Full article...)
Image 17

The Blue Marble, Apollo 17, December 1972

Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all of Earth's water is contained in its global ocean, covering 70.8% of Earth's crust. The remaining 29.2% of Earth's crust is land, most of which is located in the form of continental landmasses within Earth's land hemisphere. Most of Earth's land is somewhat humid and covered by vegetation, while large sheets of ice at Earth's polar deserts retain more water than Earth's groundwater, lakes, rivers and atmospheric water combined. Earth's crust consists of slowly moving tectonic plates, which interact to produce mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Earth has a liquid outer core that generates a magnetosphere capable of deflecting most of the destructive solar winds and cosmic radiation.

Earth has a dynamic atmosphere, which sustains Earth's surface conditions and protects it from most meteoroids and UV-light at entry. It has a composition of primarily nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere, forming clouds that cover most of the planet. The water vapor acts as a greenhouse gas and, together with other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO₂), creates the conditions for both liquid surface water and water vapor to persist via the capturing of energy from the Sun's light. This process maintains the current average surface temperature of 14.76 °C (58.57 °F), at which water is liquid under normal atmospheric pressure. Differences in the amount of captured energy between geographic regions (as with the equatorial region receiving more sunlight than the polar regions) drive atmospheric and ocean currents, producing a global climate system with different climate regions, and a range of weather phenomena such as precipitation, allowing components such as nitrogen to cycle. (Full article...)
Image 18
The inner planets. From left to right: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars and terrestrial dwarf planet, Ceres (sizes to scale)

The geology of solar terrestrial planets mainly deals with the geological aspects of the four terrestrial planets of the Solar System – Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars – and one terrestrial dwarf planet: Ceres. Earth is the only terrestrial planet known to have an active hydrosphere.

Terrestrial planets are substantially different from the giant planets, which might not have solid surfaces and are composed mostly of some combination of hydrogen, helium, and water existing in various physical states. Terrestrial planets have a compact, rocky surfaces, and Venus, Earth, and Mars each also has an atmosphere. Their size, radius, and density are all similar. (Full article...)
Image 19
The ACFEL ice auger showing an ice core pushed up into the core remover barrel.

Ice drilling allows scientists studying glaciers and ice sheets to gain access to what is beneath the ice, to take measurements along the interior of the ice, and to retrieve samples. Instruments can be placed in the drilled holes to record temperature, pressure, speed, direction of movement, and for other scientific research, such as neutrino detection.

Many different methods have been used since 1840, when the first scientific ice drilling expedition attempted to drill through the Unteraargletscher in the Alps. Two early methods were percussion, in which the ice is fractured and pulverized, and rotary drilling, a method often used in mineral exploration for rock drilling. In the 1940s, thermal drills began to be used; these drills melt the ice by heating the drill. Drills that use jets of hot water or steam to bore through ice soon followed. A growing interest in ice cores, used for palaeoclimatological research, led to ice coring drills being developed in the 1950s and 1960s, and there are now many different coring drills in use. For obtaining ice cores from deep holes, most investigators use cable-suspended electromechanical drills, which use an armoured cable to carry electrical power to a mechanical drill at the bottom of the borehole. (Full article...)
Image 20

Cannikin warhead being lowered into test shaft

Amchitka (/æmˈtʃɪtkə/; Aleut: Amchixtax̂;^{[page needed]}) is a volcanic, tectonically unstable and uninhabited
island in the Rat Islands group of the Aleutian Islands in southwest Alaska. It is part of the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge. The island, with a land area of roughly 116 square miles (300 km²), is about 42 miles (68 km) long and 1 to 4 miles (1.6 to 6.4 km) wide. The area has a maritime climate, with many storms, and mostly overcast skies.

Amchitka was populated for more than 2,500 years by the Aleut people, but has had no permanent population since 1832. The island has been part of the United States since the Alaska Purchase of 1867. During World War II, it was used as an airfield by US forces in the Aleutian Islands Campaign. (Full article...)
Image 21
Map of Earth's 16 principal tectonic plates

Divergent:
  Extension zone
Convergent:
  Collision zone
Transform:
  Sinistral transform

Plate tectonics (from Latin tectonicus, from Ancient Greek τεκτονικός (tektonikós) 'pertaining to building') is the scientific theory that Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since about 3.4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid-to-late 1960s.

Earth's lithosphere, the rigid outer shell of the planet including the crust and upper mantle, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates or "platelets". Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary (or fault): convergent, divergent, or transform. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually. Faults tend to be geologically active, experiencing earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation. (Full article...)
Image 22

View of Mount Samalas along with Mount Rinjani

In 1257, a catastrophic eruption occurred at Samalas, a volcano on the Indonesian island of Lombok. The event had a probable Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7, making it one of the largest volcanic eruptions during the Holocene epoch. It left behind a large caldera that contains Lake Segara Anak. Later volcanic activity created more volcanic centres in the caldera, including the Barujari cone, which remains active.

The event created eruption columns reaching tens of kilometres into the atmosphere and pyroclastic flows that buried much of Lombok and crossed the sea to reach the neighbouring island of Sumbawa. The flows destroyed human habitations, including the city of Pamatan, which was the capital of a kingdom on Lombok. Ash from the eruption fell as far as 340 kilometres (210 mi) away in Java; the volcano deposited more than 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of rocks and ash. (Full article...)
Image 23

Map showing location of epicenter of earthquake relative to Ambato; the bullseye is the epicenter; small blue lines are rivers

The 1949 Ambato earthquake was the deadliest earthquake in the Western Hemisphere in five years. On August 5, 1949, it struck Ecuador's Tungurahua Province southeast of its capital Ambato and killed 5,050 people. Measuring 6.4 on the Ms scale, it originated from a hypocenter 15 km beneath the surface. The nearby villages of Guano, Patate, Pelileo, and Pillaro were destroyed, and the city of Ambato suffered heavy damage. The earthquake flattened buildings and subsequent landslides caused damage throughout the Tungurahua, Chimborazo, and Cotopaxi Provinces. It disrupted water mains and communication lines and opened a fissure into which the small town of Libertad sank. Moderate shaking from the event extended as far away as Quito and Guayaquil.

Earthquakes in Ecuador stem from two major interrelated tectonic areas: the subduction of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate and the Andean Volcanic Belt. The 1949 Ambato earthquake initially followed an intersection of several northwest-southeast-trending faults in the Inter-Andean Valley which were created by the subduction of the Carnegie Ridge. Strata of rock cracked as the earthquake ruptured the faults, sending out powerful shock waves. Today threats exist throughout the country from both interplate and intraplate seismicity. (Full article...)
Image 24

Anning with her dog, Tray, painted before 1842; the hill Golden Cap can be seen in the background

Mary Anning (21 May 1799 – 9 March 1847) was an English fossil collector, dealer, and palaeontologist. She became known internationally for her discoveries in Jurassic marine fossil beds in the cliffs along the English Channel at Lyme Regis in the county of Dorset, Southwest England. Anning's findings contributed to changes in scientific thinking about prehistoric life and the history of the Earth.

Anning searched for fossils in the area's Blue Lias and Charmouth Mudstone cliffs, particularly during the winter months when landslides exposed new fossils that had to be collected quickly before they were lost to the sea. Her discoveries included the first correctly identified ichthyosaur skeleton when she was twelve years old; the first two nearly complete plesiosaur skeletons; the first pterosaur skeleton located outside Germany; and fish fossils. Her observations played a key role in the discovery that coprolites, known as bezoar stones at the time, were fossilised faeces, and she also discovered that belemnite fossils contained fossilised ink sacs like those of modern cephalopods. (Full article...)
Image 25

White Chuck Glacier in the United States in 1973

The retreat of glaciers since 1850 is well documented and is one of the effects of climate change. The retreat of mountain glaciers provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century. Examples include mountain glaciers in western North America, Asia, the Alps in central Europe and tropical and subtropical regions of South America and Africa. Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g., precipitation, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes are one of the most sensitive indicators of climate change. Retreat of glaciers is also a major reason for sea level rise. Excluding peripheral glaciers of ice sheets, the total cumulated global glacial losses over the 26-year period from 1993 to 2018 were likely 5500 gigatons, or 210 gigatons per yr.

On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets (also known as "continental glaciers") in the polar regions. Glaciers also exist in mountain ranges on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude oceanic island countries such as New Zealand. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km² (19,000 sq mi) are called ice sheets. They are several kilometers deep and obscure the underlying topography. (Full article...)

¿Sabías que (generado automáticamente)

... que la geóloga danesa Tove Birkelund recibió una medalla de oro por sus primeros trabajos sobre fósiles de escafitas en Groenlandia?
... que la geología de las montañas Ellsworth fue explorada por geólogos utilizando toboganes a motor en 1961?
... que la roca más importante de Nueva Caledonia es la peridotita , que procede del manto terrestre ?
... que Frederick Murray Trotter tuvo una distinguida carrera como geólogo de campo a pesar de perder una parte de su cráneo y un ojo por metralla durante la Primera Guerra Mundial?
... que el espectrómetro de viento solar del Apolo 12 detectó una onda de choque de iones de gas producida por el impacto de la etapa S-IVB del Apolo 13 en la superficie lunar ?
... que los Iowa Colored Cowboys jugaron softbol ante un público de más de mil personas, en una atmósfera similar a un espectáculo de los Harlem Globetrotters ?
... que existe vida en cada parte de la biosfera , desde las partes más profundas del océano hasta altitudes de hasta 64 km (40 millas) en la atmósfera?

¿Más sabías? - html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color ,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin- theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin- theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}muestra diferentes entradas

... que el geólogo neozelandés Patrick Marshall (en la foto) fue el primero en utilizar el término " línea de andesita "?
...que el campo magnético de la Tierra tiene la forma aproximada de un dipolo magnético , con los polos actualmente ubicados cerca de los polos geográficos del planeta?
...En total, unas 401 personas han estado fuera de la atmósfera terrestre hasta 2004 y, de ellas, doce han caminado sobre la Luna?
...que el Bosque Nacional Apache-Sitgreaves es un bosque nacional de 2 millones de acres (8000 km²) que corre a lo largo del Borde Mogollon y las Montañas Blancas en el centro-este de Arizona y se extiende hasta Nuevo México , Estados Unidos ?
...¿que la cordillera del Himalaya es la cadena montañosa más alta del mundo?
... que el terremoto de Chamoli de 1999 en la India , en el que murieron 103 personas, se sintió también en los distritos de Baitadi, Dadeldhura y Kanchanpur en Nepal ?

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Imágenes seleccionadas

Image 1Barita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 2Dundasita por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 3Opal , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 4Crocoita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 5Wulfenita , de Didier Descouens (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 6Sal del Himalaya , por Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 7Pico Sarychev en erupción explosiva , por la NASA (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 8Creedita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 9Tronco petrificado en el Parque Nacional del Bosque Petrificado , por Moondigger (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 10Mimetita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 11Atacamite , de Iifar (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 12Tierra de diatomeas , por Richard Wheeler (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 13Los astronautas a bordo del transbordador espacial Discovery registraron este fenómeno raramente visto de la Luna llena parcialmente oscurecida por la atmósfera de la Tierra. La imagen fue tomada con una cámara fotográfica electrónica a las 15:15:15 GMT del 21 de diciembre de 1999. (Crédito: NASA .) (De Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 14Concreciones , de Mbz1 (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 15Escaneo de sección delgada , por Kallerna (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 16Este mapa muestra las trayectorias de todos los ciclones tropicales que se formaron en todo el mundo entre 1985 y 2005. Los puntos muestran las ubicaciones de las tormentas en intervalos de seis horas y utilizan el esquema de colores que se muestra a la derecha de la escala de huracanes Saffir-Simpson . (Crédito: Nilfanion .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 17Malaquita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 18Vanadinita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 19Sandstone , de Moondigger (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 20Bultfonteinita , por Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 21Dolomita y magnesita cristalinas , de Didier Descouens (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 22Erupción del Monte Redoubt , por R. Clucas (USGS) (editado por Janke ) (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 23El huracán Katrina fue la tercera tormenta más poderosa de la temporada de huracanes del Atlántico de 2005 . Tocó tierra por primera vez como huracán de categoría 1 justo al norte de Miami, Florida, el 25 de agosto de 2005, y luego nuevamente el 29 de agosto a lo largo de la costa central del Golfo cerca de Buras-Triumph, Luisiana, como tormenta de categoría 4. Esta fotografía del ojo del huracán fue tomada desde un avión Cazahuracanes de la NOAA el 28 de agosto de 2005. (Crédito: NOAA .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 24Imagen de satélite del ciclón Gafilo , un potente ciclón tropical de categoría 5 que azotó Madagascar en marzo de 2004 y causó daños devastadores. Esto se tomó justo antes de tocar tierra, cuando el sistema estaba en su máxima intensidad a unos 333 km (207 millas) al este de Madagascar, con una velocidad de viento sostenida de 260 km/h (160 mph). Al menos 250 personas figuraron muertas, más desaparecidas y 300.000 personas quedaron sin hogar debido a Gafilo. (Crédito: satélite Terra , NASA .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 25Una erupción de octubre de 2002 del Monte Etna , un volcán en la isla italiana de Sicilia , vista desde la Estación Espacial Internacional . El Etna es el mayor de los tres volcanes activos de Italia y uno de los más activos del mundo. Esta erupción, una de las más vigorosas del Etna en años, fue provocada por una serie de terremotos . Se informó sobre caídas de ceniza en lugares tan lejanos como Libia , 600 km (373 millas) al sur. (Crédito: tripulación de la Expedición 5. ) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 26Madera petrificada , de Daniel Schwen (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 27Espécimen de un sitio paleontológico del Líbano en Paleontología en el Líbano , por Mila Zinkova (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 28Fuente incandescente Pahoeoe en el volcán Escudo , por JD Griggs, USGS (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 29Azurita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 30Casiterita , de Alchemist-hp (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 31Los cirros están compuestos de cristales de hielo y tienen forma de filamentos parecidos a pelos. Se forman en altitudes superiores a los 5.000 metros (16.500 pies). Las rayas están hechas de copos de nieve que caen de la nube y son atrapados por los vientos de alto nivel. Las rayas apuntan en la dirección del viento y pueden parecer rectas dando a las nubes la apariencia de una coma ( cirrus uncinus ), o pueden parecer enredadas, una indicación de turbulencia de alto nivel . (Crédito: Piccolo Namek .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 32Azurita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 33Rosa del desierto , de Didier Descouens (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 34Amatista , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 35Aegirine , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 36Rocas erosionadas en el Parque Nacional Joshua Tree , por Mila Zinkova (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 37Pirita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 38Prehnita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 39Mohawkita , de Alchemist-hp (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 40Praderas de la costa norte de Sihlsee , un lago artificial cerca de Einsiedeln en el cantón de Schwyz , Suiza . (Crédito: Markus Bernet.) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 41Tefra volcánica , de Godot13 (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 42Los océanos cubren casi las tres cuartas partes (71%) de la superficie de la Tierra y casi la mitad de las aguas marinas del mundo tienen más de 3.000 m de profundidad. Este cuerpo global e interconectado de agua salada , llamado Océano Mundial, está dividido por los continentes y archipiélagos en los siguientes cinco cuerpos, del más grande al más pequeño: el Océano Pacífico , el Océano Atlántico , el Océano Índico , el Océano Austral , y el Océano Ártico . Los límites oficiales están definidos por la Organización Hidrográfica Internacional . (Crédito: Alexandre Van de Sande .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 43La rosa de los vientos más grande del mundo , dibujada en el suelo del desierto en la Base de la Fuerza Aérea Edwards en California , Estados Unidos . Pintado en la playa cerca del Centro de Investigación de Vuelo Dryden , está inclinado hacia el norte magnético y es utilizado por los pilotos para calibrar los indicadores de rumbo . (Crédito: NASA .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 44Platinum , de Alchemist-hp (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 45Yeso , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 46Terremoto y tsunami del Océano Índico de 2004 en Terremoto y tsunami del Océano Índico de 2004 , por Vasily V. Titov, NOAA (editado por Veledan ) (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 47Una erupción de 2002 del Monte Etna , un volcán en la isla italiana de Sicilia , vista desde la Estación Espacial Internacional . (Crédito: NASA, con ediciones de imágenes realizadas por Usuario: Darkone ). (De Portal: Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 48Rodocrosita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 49Tsunami en Tailandia durante el terremoto y tsunami del Océano Índico de 2004 , por David Rydevik (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 50Hormiga atrapada en ámbar del Báltico , por Baltic-amber-beetle (editado por AmericanXplorer13 ) (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 51Erg Chebbi ( árabe : عرج شبّي ) es el único ergio sahariano en Marruecos . Tiene 22 km de largo (Norte-Sur) y 5 km de ancho. Sus dunas alcanzan una altura máxima de 150 metros. Se encuentra a unos 40 kilómetros al sureste de Erfoud . El centro local para turistas es el pueblo de Merzouga . (Crédito: Rosa Cabecinhas y Alcino Cunha.) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 52Liberación de presión del granito en el Área Natural Estatal Enchanted Rock de Texas , Estados Unidos . La foto muestra la exfoliación geológica de la roca del domo de granito. (Tomada por Wing-Chi Poon el 2 de abril de 2005.) (de Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 53Stellerita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 54Aragonita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 55Acanthita , por Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 56Monte Hood reflejado en Mirror Lake , Oregón . (Crédito: Territorio del Monte Hood de Oregón). (De Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 57Una imagen en colores reales de Irlanda , vista desde el espacio, con el Océano Atlántico al oeste y el Mar de Irlanda al este. (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 58Piromorfita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 59El invierno es una de las cuatro estaciones de las zonas templadas. El invierno meteorológico es la estación que presenta los días más cortos (que varían mucho según la latitud ) y las temperaturas más bajas. (Crédito: Richard Fabi.) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 60Cuarzo , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 61El retroceso de los glaciares es un tipo de movimiento glacial en el que se elimina más materialde su extremo del glaciar del que se repone con el flujo hacia esa región. En esta región de Bután - Himalaya , se han ido formando rápidamente lagos glaciares en la superficie de los glaciares cubiertos de escombros y los investigadores han encontrado una fuerte correlación entre el aumento de las temperaturas y el retroceso de los glaciares. (Crédito: NASA y USGS .) (De Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 62Erosión del acantilado en Pacifica , por mbz1 (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 63Cinabrio , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 64La Antártida , el continente que rodea el Polo Sur de la Tierra , es el lugar más frío del planeta y está casi completamente cubierto de hielo . La Antártida fue descubierta a finales de enero de 1820 . Demasiado fría y seca para sustentar prácticamente cualquier planta vascular, la flora de la Antártida actualmente se compone de alrededor de 250 líquenes , 100 musgos , 25-30 hepáticas y alrededor de 700 especies de algas terrestres y acuáticas . (Crédito: NASA .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 65Blairmorite , de Paul Glombick (editado por Bammesk ) (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 66Hemimorfita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 67Cerusita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 68Wulfenita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 69Los gases atmosféricos dispersan las longitudes de onda azules de la luz visible más que otras longitudes de onda, dando al borde visible de la Tierra un halo azul. A mayor altitud, la atmósfera se vuelve tan delgada que esencialmente deja de existir. Poco a poco, el halo atmosférico se desvanece en la oscuridad del espacio. (Crédito: Observatorio de la Tierra de la NASA ). (De Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 70Celestina , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 71Sulphur , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 72La Estructura Richat es una depresión en el país de Mauritania , de casi 50 km (30 millas) de ancho. Originalmente se pensó que se trataba del impacto de un meteorito . Ahora se piensa que es un levantamiento simétrico ( anticlinal circular o cúpula) que ha estado expuesto a la erosión . En esta fotografía en colores falsos , el lecho de roca es marrón, la arena es amarilla y blanca, la vegetación es verde y los sedimentos salados son azules. (Crédito: Landsat 7. ) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 73Partículas de arena , por Siim (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 74Cuarzo ahumado , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 75Una tormenta eléctrica es una forma de clima severo que involucra relámpagos y truenos . Las tormentas han tenido una influencia poderosa y duradera en la humanidad. Los romanos pensaban que se trataba de batallas libradas por Júpiter . Las tormentas estaban asociadas con el Thunderbird , considerado por los nativos americanos como un sirviente del Gran Espíritu . (Crédito: John Kerstholt.) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )

En las noticias

4 de junio de 2024 –: El volcán Kanlaon en el centro de Filipinas entra en erupción, provocando evacuaciones y suspensión de actividades en la ciudad de Canlaon . (Reuters)
4 de junio de 2024 – programa espacial chino: La nave espacial Chang'e 6 de la Administración Nacional del Espacio de China despega de la superficie de la cara oculta de la Luna llevando muestras de suelo y rocas lunares de regreso a la Tierra . (Reuters)
3 de junio de 2024 –: El volcán Kīlauea en Hawái , Estados Unidos , entra en erupción por primera vez en nueve meses. (Los New York Times)
2 de junio de 2024 – programa espacial chino: La misión de exploración lunar Chang'e 6 de China para recolectar rocas lunares aterriza con éxito en la cara oculta de la Luna . (Reuters)
19 mayo 2024 –: Siete pueblos de la isla de Halmahera , Indonesia , se ven obligados a evacuar tras la erupción del volcán Monte Ibu . (Reuters)

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