Portal: Historia moderna

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El portal de la historia moderna

La era moderna o el período moderno se considera el período histórico actual de la historia de la humanidad . Originalmente se aplicó a la historia de Europa y a la historia occidental para eventos que vinieron después de la Edad Media , a menudo alrededor del año 1500. A partir de la década de 1990, es más común entre los historiadores referirse al período posterior a la Edad Media y hasta el siglo XIX como el período moderno temprano . El período moderno se utiliza hoy con mayor frecuencia para eventos desde el siglo XIX hasta la actualidad. El período transcurrido desde el final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial (1945) también puede describirse como parte de la historia contemporánea . La definición común del período moderno actual se asocia a menudo con acontecimientos como la Revolución Francesa , la Revolución Industrial y la transición del nacionalismo hacia el orden internacional liberal .

El período moderno ha sido un período de desarrollo significativo en los campos de la ciencia , la política , la guerra y la tecnología . También ha sido una era de descubrimientos y globalización . Durante esta época, las potencias europeas y posteriormente sus colonias, fortalecieron su colonización política, económica y cultural del resto del mundo. También creó un nuevo estilo de vida moderno y ha cambiado permanentemente la forma de vida de las personas en todo el mundo.

En el siglo XIX y principios del XX , el arte , la política , la ciencia y la cultura modernistas llegaron a dominar no sólo Europa occidental y América del Norte , sino casi todas las áreas del mundo, incluidos movimientos considerados opuestos al mundo occidental y la globalización . La era moderna está estrechamente asociada con el desarrollo del individualismo , el capitalismo , la urbanización y la creencia en las posibilidades positivas del progreso tecnológico y político . ( Articulo completo... )

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La Quinta República ( en francés : Cinquième République ) es el actual sistema republicano de gobierno de Francia . Fue establecido el 4 de octubre de 1958 por Charles de Gaulle en virtud de la Constitución de la Quinta República . La Quinta República surgió del colapso de la Cuarta República , reemplazando la antigua república parlamentaria por un sistema semipresidencial (o ejecutivo dual) que dividía los poderes entre un presidente como jefe de Estado y un primer ministro como jefe de gobierno . Charles de Gaulle , que fue el primer presidente francés elegido bajo la Quinta República en diciembre de 1958, creía en un jefe de Estado fuerte, al que describió como encarnando l'esprit de la nation ("el espíritu de la nación"). Durante la quinta república, el presidente tiene derecho a disolver la asamblea nacional y celebrar nuevas elecciones parlamentarias. Si el presidente tiene mayoría en la asamblea nacional, fija la política interna y el primer ministro la pone en práctica. Durante un mandato presidencial, el presidente también puede cambiar de primeros ministros y reorganizar el gobierno. Si hay una mayoría diferente en la Asamblea Nacional, el presidente se ve obligado a nombrar a un primer ministro de un partido diferente, lo que se denomina cohabitación . Al comienzo de la Quinta República, las elecciones presidenciales se celebraban cada siete años y las parlamentarias cada cinco años, lo que significaba que el presidente y la mayoría elegida en la asamblea nacional podían pertenecer a partidos diferentes. A partir del año 2000, las elecciones presidenciales y parlamentarias se sincronizaron y se celebraron cada cinco años, lo que significa que el presidente siempre tiene mayoría. La convivencia sigue siendo posible si el presidente disuelve el parlamento en mitad de un mandato presidencial. La Quinta República es el tercer régimen político más duradero de Francia, después de la monarquía feudal hereditaria del Antiguo Régimen y la Tercera República parlamentaria ( 4 de septiembre de 1870 - 10 de julio de 1940 ). La Quinta República superará a la Tercera República como el segundo régimen francés más largo y la república francesa más duradera el 8 de agosto de 2028. ( Artículo completo... )
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Francoist Spain (Spanish: España franquista), also known as the Francoist dictatorship (dictadura franquista), was the period of Spanish history between 1936 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after the Spanish Civil War with the title Caudillo. After his death in 1975 due to a heart attack, Spain transitioned into a democracy. During this time period, Spain was officially known as the Spanish State (Estado Español).

The nature of the regime evolved and changed during its existence. Months after the start of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936, Franco emerged as the dominant rebel military leader and was proclaimed head of state on 1 October 1936, ruling a dictatorship over the territory controlled by the Nationalist faction. The 1937 Unification Decree, which merged all parties supporting the rebel side, led to Nationalist Spain becoming a single-party regime under the FET y de las JONS. The end of the war in 1939 brought the extension of the Franco rule to the whole country and the exile of Republican institutions. The Francoist dictatorship originally took a form described as "fascistized dictatorship", or "semi-fascist regime", showing clear influence of fascism in fields such as labor relations, the autarkic economic policy, aesthetics, and the single-party system. As time went on, the regime opened up and became closer to developmental dictatorships, although it always preserved residual fascist trappings.

During the Second World War, Spain did not join the Axis powers (its supporters from the civil war, Italy and Germany). Nevertheless, Spain supported them in various ways throughout most of the war while maintaining its neutrality as an official policy of "non-belligerence". Because of this, Spain was isolated by many other countries for nearly a decade after World War II, while its autarkic economy, still trying to recover from the civil war, suffered from chronic depression. The 1947 Law of Succession made Spain a de jure kingdom again, but defined Franco as the head of state for life with the power to choose the person to become King of Spain and his successor. (Full article...)
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Contemporary history, in English-language historiography, is a subset of modern history that describes the historical period from approximately 1945 to the present. In the social sciences, contemporary history is also continuous with, and related to, the rise of postmodernity.

Contemporary history is politically dominated by the Cold War (1947–1991) between the Western Bloc, led by the United States, and the Eastern Bloc, led by the Soviet Union. The confrontation spurred fears of a nuclear war. An all-out "hot" war was avoided, but both sides intervened in the internal politics of smaller nations in their bid for global influence and via proxy wars. The Cold War ultimately ended with the Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The latter stages and aftermath of the Cold War enabled the democratization of much of Europe, Africa, and Latin America. Decolonization was another important trend in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa as new states gained independence from European colonial empires during the period from 1945–1975. The Middle East also saw a conflict involving the new state of Israel, the rise of petroleum politics, the continuing prominence but later decline of Arab nationalism, and the growth of Islamism. The first supranational organizations of government, such as the United Nations and European Union, emerged during the period after 1945.

Countercultures rose and the sexual revolution transformed social relations in western countries between the 1960s and 1980s, as seen in the protests of 1968. Living standards rose sharply across the developed world because of the post-war economic boom. Japan and West Germany both emerged as exceptionally strong economies. The culture of the United States spread widely, with American television and movies spreading across the world. Some Western countries began a slow process of deindustrializing in the 1970s; globalization led to the emergence of new financial and industrial centers in Asia. The Japanese economic miracle was later followed by the Four Asian Tigers of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan. China launched major economic reforms from 1979 onward, becoming a major exporter of consumer goods around the world. (Full article...)
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An Austrian railway in 1895

The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of rapid scientific discovery, standardisation, mass production and industrialisation from the late 19th century into the early 20th century. The First Industrial Revolution, which ended in the middle of the 19th century, was punctuated by a slowdown in important inventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870. Though a number of its events can be traced to earlier innovations in manufacturing, such as the establishment of a machine tool industry, the development of methods for manufacturing interchangeable parts, as well as the invention of the Bessemer process and open hearth furnace to produce steel, later developments harkened the Second Industrial Revolution, which is generally dated between 1870 and 1914 (the beginning of World War I).

Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled the widespread adoption of technological systems such as telegraph and railroad networks, gas and water supply, and sewage systems, which had earlier been limited to a few select cities. The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas, which culminated in a new wave of globalization. In the same time period, new technological systems were introduced, most significantly electrical power and telephones. The Second Industrial Revolution continued into the 20th century with early factory electrification and the production line; it ended at the beginning of World War I.

Starting in 1947, the Information Age is sometimes also called the Third Industrial Revolution. (Full article...)
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Since attaining independence from the United Kingdom on 10 October 1970, Fijian history has been marked by exponential economic growth up to 1987, followed by relative stagnation, caused to a large extent by political instability following two military coups in 1987 and a civilian putsch in 2000. This was followed by another military coup in 2006. Rivalry between indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians, rather than ideological differences, have been the most visible cleavage of Fijian politics. Later in 2020, Fiji was hit by the global COVID-19 pandemic, which affected the economy and the daily lives of the people. (Full article...)
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Modernist literature originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and is characterised by a self-conscious separation from traditional ways of writing in both poetry and prose fiction writing. Modernism experimented with literary form and expression, as exemplified by Ezra Pound's maxim to "Make it new." This literary movement was driven by a conscious desire to overturn traditional modes of representation and express the new sensibilities of the time. The immense human costs of the First World War saw the prevailing assumptions about society reassessed, and much modernist writing engages with the technological advances and societal changes of modernity moving into the 20th century. In Modernist Literature, Mary Ann Gillies notes that these literary themes share the "centrality of a conscious break with the past", one that "emerges as a complex response across continents and disciplines to a changing world". (Full article...)
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The world map by the Italian Amerigo Vespucci (from whose name the word America is derived) and Belgian Gerardus Mercator shows (besides the classical continents Europe, Africa, and Asia) the Americas as America sive India Nova', New Guinea, and other islands of Southeast Asia, as well as a hypothetical Arctic continent and a yet undetermined Terra Australis.
The 16th century began with the Julian year 1501 (represented by the Roman numerals MDI) and ended with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600 (MDC), depending on the reckoning used (the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582).

The 16th century is regarded by historians as the century which saw the rise of Western civilization.

The Renaissance in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science. Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 appearance of a Milky Way supernova. These events directly challenged the long-held notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle, and led to major revolutions in astronomy and science. Galileo Galilei became a champion of the new sciences, invented the first thermometer and made substantial contributions in the fields of physics and astronomy, becoming a major figure in the Scientific Revolution in Europe. (Full article...)
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History of modern Serbia or modern history of Serbia covers the history of Serbia since national awakening in the early 19th century from the Ottoman Empire, then Yugoslavia, to the present day Republic of Serbia. The era follows the early modern history of Serbia. (Full article...)
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Louis XIV of France (the Sun King), under whose reign the ancien régime reached an absolutist form of government; portrait by Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1701

The ancien régime (/ˌɒ̃sjæ̃ reɪˈʒiːm/; French: [ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim] ^ⓘ; lit. 'old rule') was the political and social system of the Kingdom of France that the French Revolution overturned through its abolition in 1790 of the feudal system of the French nobility and in 1792 through its execution of the king and declaration of a republic. "Ancien régime" is now a common metaphor for "a system or mode no longer prevailing".

The administrative and social structures of the ancien régime in France evolved across years of state-building, legislative acts (like the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts), and internal conflicts. The attempts of the Valois Dynasty to reform and re-establish control over the scattered political centres of the country were hindered by the Wars of Religion from 1562 to 1598. During the Bourbon Dynasty, much of the reigns of Henry IV (r. 1589–1610) and Louis XIII (r. 1610–1643) and the early years of Louis XIV (r. 1643–1715) focused on administrative centralization. Despite the notion of "absolute monarchy" (typified by the king's right to issue orders through lettres de cachet) and efforts to create a centralized state, ancien régime France remained a country of systemic irregularities: administrative, legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions and prerogatives frequently overlapped, the French nobility struggled to maintain their influence in local judiciary and state branches while the Fronde and other major internal conflicts violently contested additional centralization.

The drive for centralization related directly to questions of royal finances and the ability to wage war. The internal conflicts and dynastic crises of the 16th and the 17th centuries between Catholics and Protestants, the Habsburgs' internal family conflict, and the territorial expansion of France in the 17th century all demanded great sums, which needed to be raised by taxes, such as the land tax (taille) and the tax on salt (gabelle), and by contributions of men and service from the nobility. (Full article...)
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A reenactment of an Iraq War battle in Poland

Modern reenactment is historical reenactment of events of the modern period, most commonly events from the 18th century to the present.

The period starts with events such as the Seven Years' War, the Napoleonic Wars, and the peak of the Royal Navy's power.

The Victorian era is included, although not as well covered in terms of events as the major battles before and after it, with the notable exception of the American Civil War, which has a large and active community of reenactors. (Full article...)
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Habsburg Spain refers to Spain and the Hispanic Monarchy, also known as the Catholic Monarchy, in the period from 1516 to 1700 when it was ruled by kings from the House of Habsburg. It had territories around the world, including modern-day Spain, a piece of south-eastern France, eventually Portugal and many other lands outside the Iberian Peninsula, including in the Americas and Asia. Habsburg Spain was a composite monarchy and a personal union. The Habsburg Spanish monarchs of this period are chiefly Charles I, Philip II, Philip III, Philip IV and Charles II. In this period the Spanish Empire was at the zenith of its influence and power. Spain, or "the Spains", referring to Spanish territories across different continents in this period, initially covered the entire Iberian Peninsula, including the crowns of Castile, Aragon and from 1580 Portugal. It then expanded to include territories over the five continents, consisting of much of the American continent and islands thereof, the West Indies in the Americas, the Low Countries, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italian territories and parts of France in Europe, Portuguese possessions such as small enclaves like Ceuta and Oran in North Africa, and the Philippines and other possessions in Southeast Asia. The period of Spanish history has also been referred to as the "Age of Expansion".

The marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 resulted in the union of the two main crowns, Castile and Aragon, which eventually led to the de facto unification of Spain after the culmination of the Reconquista with the conquest of Granada in 1492 and of Navarre in 1512 to 1529. Isabella and Ferdinand were bestowed the title of "Catholic King and Queen" by Pope Alexander VI in 1494. With the Habsburgs, the term Monarchia Catholica (Catholic Monarchy, Modern Spanish: Monarquía Católica) remained in use Spain continued to be one of the greatest political and military powers in Europe and the world for much of the 16th and 17th centuries. During the Habsburg's period, Spain ushered in the Spanish Golden Age of arts and literature producing some of the world's most outstanding writers and painters and influential intellectuals, including Teresa of Ávila, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Miguel de Cervantes, Francisco de Quevedo, Diego Velázquez, El Greco, Domingo de Soto, Francisco Suárez and Francisco de Vitoria.
After the death in 1700 of Spain's last Habsburg king, Charles II, the resulting War of the Spanish Succession led to the ascension of Philip V of the Bourbon dynasty, which began a new centralising state formation, which came into being de jure after the Nueva Planta decrees that merged the multiple crowns of its former realms (except for Navarre). (Full article...)
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The Journal of Modern History is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering European intellectual, political, and cultural history, published by the University of Chicago Press. Established in 1929, the journal covers events from approximately 1500 to the present, with a geographical scope extending from the United Kingdom through the European continent, including Russia and the Balkans. (Full article...)
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The history of the Italian Republic concerns the events relating to the history of Italy that have occurred since 1946, when Italy became a republic after the 1946 Italian institutional referendum. The Italian republican history is generally divided into two phases, the First and Second Republic.

After the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy and the end of World War II, Italian politics and society were dominated by Christian Democracy (DC), a broad-based Christian political party, from 1946 to 1994. From the late 1940s until 1991, the opposition was led by the Italian Communist Party (PCI). Christian Democracy governed uninterrupted during this period, dominating every cabinet and providing nearly every Prime Minister. It governed primarily with the support of an array of minor parties from the centre-left to the centre-right, including the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), Italian Democratic Socialist Party (PSDI), Italian Republican Party (PRI), and Italian Liberal Party (PLI), and even far-right parties like the Italian Social Movement (MSI). The Communist Party was excluded entirely from government, with the partial exception of the short-lived Historic Compromise, in which the PCI provided external support to a DC minority government from 1976 to 1979.

The political situation was radically transformed in the early 1990s due to two major shocks: the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the wide-reaching Tangentopoli corruption scandal from 1992 to 1994. The former caused the dissolution and split of the PCI and splintering of the opposition, while the latter led to the collapse of nearly every established political party in Italy, including Christian Democracy, the PSI, PSDI, PRI, PLI, and others. Anti-establishment sentiment resulted in a 1993 referendum enabling the reform of the electoral system from pure proportional representation to a majoritarian-leaning mixed system. (Full article...)
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Habsburg Spain was at the height of its power and cultural influence at the beginning of the 17th century, but military, political, and economic difficulties were already being discussed within Spain. In the coming decades these difficulties grew and saw France gradually taking Spain's place as Europe's leading power through the later half of the century. Many different factors, including the decentralized political nature of Spain, inefficient taxation, a succession of weak kings, power struggles in the Spanish court and a tendency to focus on the American colonies instead of Spain's domestic economy, all contributed to the decline of the Habsburg rule of Spain.

The end of the century also brought the end of Habsburg rule. The 18th century began with the War of the Spanish Succession, which concluded in the establishment of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain. (Full article...)
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The history of Spain dates to contact between the pre-Roman peoples of the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula made with the Greeks and Phoenicians. During Classical Antiquity, the peninsula was the site of multiple successive colonizations of Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. Native peoples of the peninsula, such as the Tartessos people, intermingled with the colonizers to create a uniquely Iberian culture. The Romans referred to the entire peninsula as Hispania, from which the name "Spain" originates. As was the rest of the Western Roman Empire, Spain was subject to the numerous invasions of Germanic tribes during the 4th and 5th centuries AD, resulting in the end of Roman rule and the establishment of Germanic kingdoms, marking the beginning of the Middle Ages in Spain.

Germanic control lasted about 200 years until the Umayyad conquest of Hispania began in 711. The region became known as Al-Andalus, and except for the small Kingdom of Asturias, the region remained under the control of Muslim-led states for much of the Early Middle Ages, a period known as the Islamic Golden Age. By the time of the High Middle Ages, Christians from the north gradually expanded their control over Iberia, a period known as the Reconquista. As they expanded southward, a number of Christian kingdoms were formed, including the Kingdom of Navarre, the Kingdom of León, the Kingdom of Castile, and the Kingdom of Aragon. They eventually consolidated into two roughly equivalent polities, the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon. The early modern period is generally dated from the union of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon in 1469.

The marriage and joint rule of Isabella I and Ferdinand II is historiographically considered the foundation of a unified Spain. The conquest of Granada, and the first voyage of Columbus, both in 1492, made that year a critical inflection point in Spanish history. The voyages of the various explorers and conquistadors of Spain during the subsequent decades helped establish a Spanish colonial empire which was among the largest ever. King Charles I established the Spanish Habsburg dynasty. Under his son Philip II the Spanish Golden Age flourished, the Spanish Empire reached its territorial and economic peak, and his palace at El Escorial became the center of artistic flourishing. However, Philip's rule also saw the calamitous destruction of the Spanish Armada, numerous state bankruptcies and the independence of the Northern Netherlands, which marked the beginning of the slow decline of Spanish influence in Europe. Spain's power was further tested by its participation in the Eighty Years' War, whereby it tried and failed to recapture the newly independent Dutch Republic, and the Thirty Years' War, which resulted in continued decline of Habsburg power in favor of the French Bourbon dynasty. Matters came to a head during the reign of Charles II of Spain, whose mental incapacity and inability to father children left the future of Spain in doubt. Upon his death, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out between the French Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs over the right to succeed Charles II. The Bourbons prevailed, resulting in the ascension of Philip V of Spain, who took Spain into the various wars to recapture the Spanish-controlled lands in Southern Italy recently lost. (Full article...)

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Image 1La división de Europa durante la Guerra Fría (de Historia contemporánea )
Image 2Earthrise , tomada el 24 de diciembre de 1968 por el astronauta William "Bill" Anders durante lamisión espacial Apolo 8 . Fue la primera fotografía tomada de la Tierra desde la órbita lunar . (del siglo XX )
Image 3Martin Luther King Jr. , líder del movimiento afroamericano de derechos civiles ( Washington, agosto de 1963 ) (del siglo XX )
Image 4Hong Kong , bajo administración británica de 1842 a 1997, es uno de los Cuatro Tigres Asiáticos originales . (del siglo XX )
Image 5Descolonización del Imperio Británico en África. (de Historia contemporánea )
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Potencias e imperios mundiales en 1914, justo antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial.
(del siglo XX )
Image 7El World Trade Center en llamas durante los atentados del 11 de septiembre (de Historia contemporánea )
Image 8Yo y el pueblo , 1911, de Marc Chagall , pintor moderno (del siglo XX )
Image 9Tropas del ejército estadounidense en la provincia de Kunar (de Historia contemporánea )
Image 10Elvis Presley en 1956, figura destacada del rock and roll y el rockabilly . (del siglo XX )
Image 11La nube en forma de hongo de la detonación de Little Boy , el primer ataque nuclear de la historia, el 6 de agosto de 1945 sobre Hiroshima , encendió la era nuclear con el hilo dominante de la seguridad internacional de destrucción mutua asegurada en la segunda mitad del siglo XX. (del siglo XX )
Image 12Países por tasa de crecimiento del PIB real en 2014. (Los países en marrón estaban en recesión) (de Historia contemporánea )
Image 13Yacimiento petrolífero en California, 1938.
El primer pozo petrolero moderno fue perforado en 1848 por el ingeniero ruso FN Semyonov, en la península de Apsheron, al noreste de Bakú . (del siglo XX )
Image 14Foto del astronauta estadounidense Buzz Aldrin durante el primer paseo lunar en 1969, tomada por Neil Armstrong . Las relativamente jóvenes industrias de ingeniería aeroespacial crecieron rápidamente en los 66 años posteriores al primer vuelo de los hermanos Wright. (del siglo XX )
Image 15Mapa de cambios territoriales en Europa después de la Primera Guerra Mundial (a partir de 1923). (del siglo XX )
Image 16El pionero de la informática , Alan Turing (del siglo XX )
Image 17La comunidad internacional creció significativamente en la segunda mitad del siglo debido a una nueva ola de descolonización, particularmente en África. La mayoría de los nuevos estados independientes se agruparon con muchos otros llamados países en desarrollo . Los países en desarrollo ganaron atención, particularmente debido al rápido crecimiento demográfico, que llevó a una población mundial récord de casi 7 mil millones de personas a finales de siglo. (del siglo XX )
Image 18Un sello conmemorativo de Alexander Fleming . Su descubrimiento de la penicilina cambió el mundo de la medicina al introducir la era de los antibióticos. (del siglo XX )
Image 19Una visualización de las distintas rutas a través de una parte de Internet. Mapa parcial de Internet basado en 2005. (de Historia contemporánea )
Image 20La Canica Azul , la Tierra vista desde el Apolo 17 en diciembre de 1972. La fotografía fue tomada por el LMP Harrison Schmitt . La segunda mitad del siglo XX vio la primera exploración espacial de la humanidad . (del siglo XX )
Image 21Magnavox Odyssey de Ralph Baer , la primera consola de videojuegos, lanzada en 1972. (del siglo XX )
Image 22Primer vuelo del Wright Flyer de los hermanos Wright el 17 de diciembre de 1903, en Kitty Hawk, Carolina del Norte ; Orville pilotando con Wilbur corriendo en la punta del ala. (del siglo XX )
Image 23Los rendimientos del trigo aumentaron considerablemente desde la Revolución Verde en los países menos desarrollados del mundo . (del siglo XX )
Image 24El Empire State Building es un edificio emblemático de la década de 1930. (del siglo XX )
Image 25Charlie Chaplin en su película de 1921 The Kid , con Jackie Coogan . (del siglo XX )