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Pratītyasamutpāda

Ladrillo con la inscripción del Sutra sobre el origen dependiente. Encontrado en Gopalpur, distrito de Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. Datado en torno al año  500 d. C. , período Gupta . Museo Ashmolean .

Pratītyasamutpāda ( sánscrito : प्रतीत्यसमुत्पाद, pali : paṭiccasamuppāda ), comúnmente traducida como origen dependiente o surgimiento dependiente , es una doctrina clave en el budismo compartida por todas las escuelas del budismo . [1] [nota 1] Afirma que todos los dharmas (fenómenos) surgen en dependencia de otros dharmas: "si esto existe, eso existe; si esto deja de existir, eso también deja de existir". El principio básico es que todas las cosas (dharmas, fenómenos, principios) surgen en dependencia de otras cosas.

La doctrina incluye descripciones del surgimiento del sufrimiento ( anuloma-paṭiccasamuppāda , "con la corriente", condicionalidad hacia adelante) y descripciones de cómo se puede revertir la cadena ( paṭiloma-paṭiccasamuppāda , "contra la corriente", condicionalidad inversa). [2] [3] Estos procesos se expresan en varias listas de fenómenos de origen dependiente, el más conocido de los cuales son los doce eslabones o nidānas (Pāli: dvādasanidānāni, sánscrito: dvādaśanidānāni ). La interpretación tradicional de estas listas es que describen el proceso de renacimiento de un ser sintiente en saṃsāra y el duḥkha resultante (sufrimiento, dolor, insatisfacción), [4] y proporcionan un análisis del renacimiento y el sufrimiento que evita postular un atman (un yo inmutable o alma eterna). [5] [6] Se explica que la inversión de la cadena causal conduce al cese del renacimiento (y, por lo tanto, al cese del sufrimiento). [4] [7]

Otra interpretación considera que las listas describen el surgimiento de procesos mentales y la noción resultante de "yo" y "mío" que conduce al aferramiento y al sufrimiento. [8] [9] Varios eruditos occidentales modernos sostienen que existen inconsistencias en la lista de doce vínculos y la consideran una síntesis posterior de varias listas y elementos más antiguos, algunos de los cuales se pueden rastrear hasta los Vedas . [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [5]

La doctrina del origen dependiente aparece en todos los textos budistas primitivos . Es el tema principal del Nidana Samyutta del Saṃyuttanikāya (en adelante SN) de la escuela Theravada . También existe una colección paralela de discursos en el Saṁyuktāgama chino (en adelante SA). [14]

Descripción general

El origen dependiente es un concepto filosóficamente complejo, sujeto a una gran variedad de explicaciones e interpretaciones. Como las interpretaciones a menudo involucran aspectos específicos del origen dependiente, no son necesariamente excluyentes entre sí.

El origen dependiente puede contrastarse con el concepto occidental clásico de causalidad , según el cual se dice que la acción de una cosa causa un cambio en otra. En cambio, el origen dependiente considera que el cambio es causado por muchos factores, no solo por uno o incluso por unos pocos. [15]

El principio del origen dependiente tiene una variedad de implicaciones filosóficas.

Etimología

Pratītyasamutpāda consta de dos términos:

Pratītyasamutpāda ha sido traducido al inglés como origen dependiente , surgimiento dependiente , co-surgimiento interdependiente , surgimiento condicionado y génesis condicionada . [31] [16] [nota 3]

Jeffrey Hopkins señala que los términos sinónimos de pratītyasamutpāda son apekṣasamutpāda y prāpyasamutpāda . [37]

El término también puede referirse a los doce nidānas , Pali : dvādasanidānāni, sánscrito: dvādaśanidānāni, de dvādaśa ("doce") + nidānāni (plural de " nidāna ", "causa, motivación, vínculo"). [cita 2] En términos generales, en la tradición Mahayana, pratityasamutpada (sánscrito) se usa para referirse al principio general de causalidad interdependiente, mientras que en la tradición Theravada, paticcasamuppāda (pali) se usa para referirse a los doce nidānas.

Origen dependiente en el budismo primitivo

El principio de condicionalidad

En los primeros textos budistas , el principio básico de condicionalidad se denomina con diferentes nombres, como "la certeza (o ley) del dhamma" ( dhammaniyāmatā ), "talidad del dharma" (法如; * dharmatathatā ), "principio duradero" ( ṭhitā dhātu ), "condicionalidad específica" ( idappaccayatā ) y "naturaleza dhámmica" (法爾; dhammatā ). [24] Este principio se expresa en su forma más general de la siguiente manera: [3] [39] [40] [nota 4]

Cuando esto existe, aquello llega a ser. Con el surgimiento (uppada) de esto, aquello surge. Cuando esto no existe, aquello no llega a ser. Con el cese (nirodha) de esto, aquello cesa.

—  Samyutta Nikaya 12.61. [41]

Según Paul Williams, "esto es lo que es la causalidad para el pensamiento budista primitivo. Es una relación entre eventos, y es lo que llamamos cuando si X ocurre, Y se sigue, y cuando X no ocurre, Y no se sigue". [42] Richard Gombrich escribe que este principio básico de que "las cosas suceden bajo ciertas condiciones" significa que el Buda entendió las experiencias como "procesos sujetos a causalidad". [43] Bhikkhu Bodhi escribe que la condicionalidad específica "es una relación de indispensabilidad y dependencia: la indispensabilidad de la condición (por ejemplo, el nacimiento) con el estado surgido (por ejemplo, el envejecimiento y la muerte), la dependencia del estado surgido de su condición". [44]

Peter Harvey afirma que esto significa que “nada (excepto el nirvana) es independiente. La doctrina complementa así la enseñanza de que no se puede encontrar un yo permanente e independiente”. [3] Ajahn Brahm sostiene que la gramática del pasaje anterior indica que una característica del principio budista de causalidad es que “puede haber un intervalo de tiempo sustancial entre una causa y su efecto. Es un error suponer que el efecto sigue un momento después de su causa, o que aparece simultáneamente con su causa”. [39]

Fenómenos variables, principio invariante

Según el sutta Paccaya (SN 12.20 y su paralelo en SA 296) , el origen dependiente es el principio básico de la condicionalidad que está en juego en todos los fenómenos condicionados. Este principio es invariable y estable, mientras que los "procesos que surgen de manera dependiente" ( paṭiccasamuppannā dhammā ) son variables e impermanentes. [40] [45] [nota 5]

Peter Harvey sostiene que existe un "Patrón Básico general que es Dhamma" dentro del cual "patrones básicos específicos (dhammas) fluyen y se nutren mutuamente en patrones complejos, pero establecidos y regulares". [3]

Principio invariante

Según el sutta Paccaya (SN 12.20) y su paralelo, esta ley natural de esta/aquella condicionalidad es independiente de ser descubierta por un Buda (un " Tathāgata "), al igual que las leyes de la física . El sutta Paccaya afirma que, independientemente de si hay o no Budas que la vean, "este hecho elemental ( dhātu , o "principio") simplemente permanece ( thitā ), esta estabilidad del patrón básico ( dhamma-tthitatā ), esta regularidad del patrón básico ( dhamma-niyāmatā ): condicionalidad específica ( idappaccayatā )". [3] [40] [47]

Bhikkhu Sujato traduce la descripción básica de la estabilidad del origen dependiente como "el hecho de que esto es real, no irreal, no de otra manera". [45] El paralelo chino en SA 296 afirma de manera similar que el origen dependiente es "la constancia de los dharmas, la certeza de los dharmas, la talidad de los dharmas, la no desviación de lo verdadero, la no diferencia de lo verdadero, la actualidad, la verdad, la realidad, la no confusión". [48] Según Harvey, estos pasajes indican que la condicionalidad es "un principio de regularidad causal, un Patrón Básico (Dhamma) de las cosas" que puede ser descubierto, entendido y luego trascendido. [3]

Fenómenos variables – procesos que surgen de manera dependiente

El principio de condicionalidad, que es real y estable, se contrasta con los "procesos que surgen de manera dependiente", que se describen como "impermanentes, condicionados, que surgen de manera dependiente, de una naturaleza que se destruye, de una naturaleza que se desvanece, de una naturaleza que se desvanece, de una naturaleza que cesa". [40] SA 296 los describe simplemente como "surgiendo así de acuerdo con la condición causal, estos se llaman dharmas surgidos por la condición causal". [49]

Condicionalidad y liberación

El descubrimiento de la condicionalidad por parte del Buda

En cuanto al surgimiento del sufrimiento, SN 12.10 habla de cómo antes del despertar del Buda, él buscaba la manera de escapar del sufrimiento de la siguiente manera: "¿cuándo lo que existe es vejez y muerte? ¿Cuál es la condición para la vejez y la muerte?", descubriendo la cadena de condiciones tal como se expresa en los doce nidanas y otras listas. [40] [50] MN 26 también informa que después del despertar del Buda, él consideró que el origen dependiente era uno de los dos principios que eran "profundos ( gambhira ), difíciles de ver, difíciles de entender, pacíficos, sublimes, más allá del alcance del mero razonamiento ( atakkāvacara ), sutiles". Se dice que el otro principio que es profundo y difícil de ver es el Nirvana , "la detención o trascendencia del co-surgimiento condicionado" (Harvey). [3] [nota 6]

En el Mahānidānasutta (DN 15) el Buda afirma que el origen dependiente es "profundo y parece profundo", y que es "debido a no entender y no penetrar esta enseñanza" que las personas se "enredan como una bola de hilo" en puntos de vista ( diṭṭhis ), samsara, renacimiento y sufrimiento. [51] [52] SN 12.70 y su contraparte SA 347 afirman que el "conocimiento de la estabilidad del Dhamma" ( dhamma-tthiti-ñānam ) viene primero, luego viene el conocimiento del nirvana ( nibbane-ñānam ). [3] [53] Sin embargo, mientras que el proceso que conduce al nirvana está condicionado, el nirvana en sí mismo se llama "no nacido, no devenido, no hecho, no construido" ( Ud . 80-1). [3] El Milinda Panha compara cómo una montaña no depende del camino que lleva a ella (Miln. 269)". [3] Según Harvey, dado que "no es co-surgido ( asamuppana ) ( It . 37-8), el nirvāna no es algo que surge condicionalmente, sino que es la detención de todos esos procesos". [3]

Viendo el dharma

MN 28 asocia el conocimiento del origen dependiente con el conocimiento del dharma : [3] [40] [54]

"Quien ve el origen dependiente ve el Dharma. Quien ve el Dharma ve el origen dependiente". Y estos cinco agregados de apego se originan de hecho de manera dependiente. El deseo, la adherencia, la atracción y el apego por estos cinco agregados de apego es el origen del sufrimiento. Abandonar y deshacerse del deseo y la codicia por estos cinco agregados de apego es la cesación del sufrimiento.

Se dice que una exposición temprana y bien conocida del principio básico de causalidad condujo a la entrada en la corriente de Sariputta y Moggallāna . Esta frase ye dharmā hetu , que aparece en el Vinaya (Vin. I. 40) y otras fuentes, dice: [3] [55] [56]

De aquellos fenómenos que surgen de una causa, el Tathagata ha establecido la causa y también su cesación.

Una frase similar es pronunciada por Kondañña , el primer converso que alcanzó el despertar, al final del primer sermón dado por el Buda : "todo lo que tiene la naturaleza de surgir ( samudaya dhamma ) también tiene la naturaleza de desaparecer ( nirodha dhamma )". [56]

Solicitud

La condicionalidad como vía intermedia: el no-yo y el vacío

Los primeros textos budistas también asocian el surgimiento dependiente con el vacío y la no existencia de un yo. Los primeros textos budistas describen diferentes maneras en las que el origen dependiente es un camino intermedio entre diferentes conjuntos de puntos de vista "extremos" (como las ontologías " monistas " y " pluralistas " o las visiones materialistas y dualistas de la relación mente-cuerpo). [nota 7] En el Kaccānagottasutta (SN 12.15, paralelo en SA 301), el Buda afirma que "este mundo se basa principalmente en las nociones duales de existencia y no existencia" y luego explica la visión correcta de la siguiente manera: [58]

Pero cuando verdaderamente veas el origen del mundo con la comprensión correcta, no tendrás la noción de la no existencia con respecto al mundo. Y cuando verdaderamente veas la cesación del mundo con la comprensión correcta, no tendrás la noción de la existencia con respecto al mundo. [59]

El Kaccānagottasutta luego coloca la enseñanza del origen dependiente (enumerando los doce nidanas en orden directo e inverso) como un camino intermedio que rechaza estas dos visiones metafísicas "extremas" que pueden verse como dos concepciones erróneas del yo. [60] [5] [nota 8]

Según Hùifēng, un tema recurrente en todo el Nidānasamyutta (SN 12) es el "rechazo del Buda a surgir de cualquiera de las cuatro categorías de yo, otro, ambos o ninguno (no causalidad)". [24] Una declaración relacionada se puede encontrar en el Paramārthaśūnyatāsūtra ( Discurso del Dharma sobre la Vacuidad Última, SĀ 335, paralelo en EĀ 37:7), que afirma que cuando surge un órgano sensorial "no viene de ninguna ubicación... no va a ninguna ubicación", como tal se dice que es "irreal, pero surge; y al haber surgido, termina y cesa". Además, este sutra afirma que aunque "hay acción ( karma ) y resultado ( vipāka )", no hay "ningún agente actor" ( kāraka ). También afirma que los dharmas de origen dependiente se clasifican como convencionales. [24]

El Kaccānagottasutta y su paralelo también asocian la comprensión del origen dependiente con el abandono de las visiones de un yo (atman). Este texto afirma que si "no te sientes atraído, aferrado y comprometido con la noción 'mi yo', no tendrás dudas ni incertidumbre de que lo que surge es solo sufrimiento que surge, y lo que cesa es solo sufrimiento que cesa". [58] [59] De manera similar, el Mahānidānasutta (DN 15) asocia la comprensión del origen dependiente con el abandono de varias visiones erróneas sobre un yo, mientras que no entenderlo se asocia con enredarse en estas visiones. [61] Otro sutra, SĀ 297, afirma que el origen dependiente es "el Discurso del Dharma sobre la Gran Vacuidad", y luego procede a refutar numerosas formas de "visión del yo" ( ātmadṛṣṭi ). [24]

En SĀ 12:12 (paralelo en SĀ 372) se le hacen al Buda una serie de preguntas sobre el yo (¿quién siente? ¿quién anhela? etc.), el Buda afirma que estas preguntas no son válidas y, en cambio, enseña el origen dependiente. [24] SĀ 80 también analiza un logro meditativo importante llamado la concentración del vacío ( śūnyatāsamādhi) que en este texto se asocia con la contemplación de cómo los fenómenos surgen debido a las condiciones y están sujetos a la cesación. [ 24]

Las cuatro nobles verdades

Según suttas tempranos como AN 3.61, la segunda y tercera verdades nobles de las cuatro verdades nobles están directamente correlacionadas con el principio de la originación dependiente. [62] [63] [64] La segunda verdad aplica la originación dependiente en un orden directo, mientras que la tercera verdad la aplica en orden inverso. [64] Además, según SN 12.28, el noble óctuple sendero (la cuarta verdad noble) es el camino que conduce a la cesación de los doce vínculos de la originación dependiente y como tal es el "mejor de todos los estados condicionados" (AN.II.34). [3] Por lo tanto, según Harvey, las cuatro verdades nobles "pueden ser vistas como una aplicación del principio de co-surgimiento condicionado enfocado particularmente en dukkha". [3]

Listas de nidanas

En los primeros textos budistas , el origen dependiente se analiza y se expresa en varias listas de fenómenos (dhammas) o causas (nidānas) de origen dependiente . Los nidānas son principios, procesos o eventos co-dependientes, que actúan como eslabones de una cadena, condicionándose y dependiendo unos de otros. [65] [66] Cuando ciertas condiciones están presentes, dan lugar a condiciones posteriores, que a su vez dan lugar a otras condiciones. [67] [68] [69] Los fenómenos se sostienen solo mientras sus factores sustentadores permanezcan. [70]

La más común es una lista de doce causas ( pali : dvādasanidānāni, sánscrito: dvādaśanidānāni ). [71] Bucknell se refiere a ella como la "lista estándar". Se encuentra en la sección 12 del Samyutta Nikaya y sus paralelos, así como en otros suttas pertenecientes a otros Nikayas y Agamas. [72] Esta lista también aparece en textos Mahasamghika como el Salistamba Sutra y en obras (posteriores) como los textos Abhidharma y los sutras Mahayana . Según Eviatar Shulman, "los 12 vínculos son paticcasamuppada", que es un proceso de condicionamiento mental. [73] Cox señala que aunque las escrituras tempranas contienen numerosas variaciones de listas, la lista de 12 factores se convirtió en la lista estándar en los tratados Abhidharma y Mahayana posteriores. [74]

La interpretación más común de la lista de doce causas en la literatura exegética tradicional es que la lista describe el surgimiento condicional del renacimiento en saṃsāra y el duḥkha resultante (sufrimiento, dolor, insatisfacción). [67] [68] [69] [4] [65] [66] [nota 9] Una interpretación Theravada alternativa considera que la lista describe el surgimiento de formaciones mentales y la noción resultante de "yo" y "mío", que son la fuente del sufrimiento. [9]

Se dice que la comprensión de las relaciones entre estos fenómenos conduce al nibbana , la completa liberación de los ciclos cíclicos de renacimiento del samsara . [75] [4] [7] Tradicionalmente, se explica que la inversión de la cadena causal conduce al cese de las formaciones mentales y al renacimiento. [4] [7] Alex Wayman señala que "según la tradición budista, Gautama descubrió esta fórmula durante la noche de la Iluminación y trabajando hacia atrás desde "la vejez y la muerte" en el orden inverso del surgimiento". [76] Wayman también escribe que "con el tiempo, los doce miembros fueron representados en el borde de una rueda que representaba el samsara". [76]

Listas de nidanas

Los doce nidanas

La lista popular de doce nidānas se encuentra en numerosas fuentes. En algunos de los textos más antiguos, los propios nidānas están definidos y sujetos a análisis ( vibhaṅga ). Las explicaciones de los nidānas se pueden encontrar en el Pali SN 12.2 ( Vibhaṅga "Análisis" sutta ) y en su paralelo en SA 298. [77] Se pueden encontrar más paralelos a SN 12.2 en EA 49.5, algunos paralelos sánscritos como el Pratītyasamutpādādivibhaṅganirdeśanāmasūtra (El discurso que da la explicación y análisis del origen condicional desde el principio) y una traducción tibetana de este texto sánscrito en Toh 211. [78] [79] [80]

Listas alternativas en SN/SA

La lista de doce ramas, aunque popular, es sólo una de las muchas listas de fenómenos de origen dependiente que aparecen en las fuentes tempranas. [12] Según Analayo, las listas alternativas de fenómenos de origen dependiente son "expresiones alternativas del mismo principio" igualmente válidas. [71]

Choong señala que algunos discursos (SN 12.38-40 y SA 359-361) contienen sólo 11 elementos, omitiendo la ignorancia y comenzando desde la voluntad ( ceteti ). SN 12.39 comienza con tres sinónimos para saṅkhāra, querer, intentar ( pakappeti ) y llevar a cabo ( anuseti ). Luego afirma que "esto se convierte en un objeto ( arammanam ) para la persistencia de la conciencia ( viññanassa-thitiya )", lo que conduce a la aparición del nombre y la forma. A continuación sigue la lista estándar. [100]

SN 12.38 (y el paralelo en SA 359) contienen una secuencia mucho más corta, comienza con la voluntad como arriba que conduce a la conciencia, luego siguiendo después de la conciencia dice: "hay en el futuro el devenir del renacimiento ( punabbhavabhinibbatti )", que conduce a "venir-y-irse ( agatigati )", seguido por "muerte-y-renacimiento ( cutupapato )" y siguiendo eso "surgen en el futuro nacimiento, envejecimiento-y-muerte, pena, lamentación, dolor, angustia y desesperación". [100] Otra secuencia corta se encuentra en SN 12. 66 y SA 291 que contienen un análisis del origen dependiente con sólo tres factores: ansia ( tanha ), base ( upadhi , posiblemente relacionada con upadana) y sufrimiento ( dukkha ). [101]

En SN 12.59 y su contraparte SA 284, hay una cadena que comienza diciendo que para alguien que "permanece en ver [los chinos tienen aferrarse a ] el sabor de los dharmas que encadenan ( saññojaniyesu dhammesu ), surge la apariencia ( avakkanti ) de la conciencia". Luego sigue la lista estándar. Luego dice que si alguien permanece viendo el peligro ( adinavanupassino ) en los dharmas (los chinos tienen ver la impermanencia ), no hay apariencia de conciencia (los chinos tienen mente ). [102]

SN 12.65 y 67 (y SA 287 y 288) comienzan la cadena con la conciencia y el nombre y la forma condicionándose mutuamente en una relación cíclica. También afirma que "la conciencia se vuelve hacia atrás, no va más allá del nombre y la forma". [103] SN 12.67 también contiene una cadena en la que la conciencia, el nombre y la forma están en una relación recíproca. En este sutta, Sariputta afirma que esta relación es como dos haces de juncos que se apoyan uno en el otro para sostenerse (el paralelo en SA 288 tiene tres haces en cambio). [104]

También hay varios pasajes con cadenas que comienzan con las seis esferas sensoriales ( ayatana ). Se pueden encontrar en SN 12. 24, SA 343, SA 352-354, SN 12. 13-14 y SN 12. 71-81. [105] Otro de estos se encuentra en SN 35.106, que Bucknell denomina la "versión ramificada" porque se ramifica en seis clases de conciencia: [106] [12]

La conciencia del ojo surge en función del ojo y de la vista. El encuentro de los tres es el contacto. El contacto es una condición para la sensación. La sensación es una condición para el anhelo. Éste es el origen del sufrimiento… [la misma fórmula se repite con las otras seis bases sensoriales y seis conciencias, es decir, el oído, la nariz, la lengua, el cuerpo y la mente]

Otras representaciones de la cadena en SN 12.52 y su paralelo en SA 286, comienzan con ver la assada (gusto; disfrute; satisfacción) que conduce al anhelo y al resto de la lista de nidanas. [107] Mientras tanto, en SN 12.62 y SA 290, el origen dependiente se representa con solo dos nidanas, contacto ( phassa ) y sentimiento ( vedana ). SN 12.62 dice que cuando uno se desencanta con el contacto y el sentimiento, el deseo se desvanece. [108]

Listas alternativas en otras Nikayas

El Kalahavivāda Sutta del Sutta Nipāta (Sn. 862-872) tiene la siguiente cadena de causas (según lo resumió Doug Smith):

El nombre y la forma condicionan el contacto, el contacto condiciona el sentimiento, el sentimiento condiciona el deseo, el deseo condiciona el apego, y el apego condiciona las peleas, las disputas, las lamentaciones y el dolor. [109] [110]

Dīgha Nikāya Sutta 1, el Brahmajala Sutta , versículo 3.71 describe seis nidānas:

Experimentan estos sentimientos mediante el contacto repetido a través de las seis bases sensoriales; el sentimiento condiciona el anhelo; el anhelo condiciona el apego; el apego condiciona el devenir; el devenir condiciona el nacimiento; el nacimiento condiciona el envejecimiento y la muerte, el dolor, la lamentación, la tristeza y la angustia. [111] [nota 35]

De manera similar, el Madhupiṇḍikasutta (MN 18) también contiene el siguiente pasaje: [112]

La conciencia ocular surge en función del ojo y de lo que se ve. El encuentro de los tres es el contacto. El contacto es una condición para sentir. Lo que sientes, lo percibes. Lo que percibes, lo piensas. Lo que piensas, lo proliferas ( papañca ). Lo que proliferas es la fuente de la que una persona se ve acosada por conceptos de identidad que surgen de la proliferación de percepciones. Esto ocurre con respecto a lo que se ve con el ojo en el pasado, el futuro y el presente. [El mismo proceso se repite luego con las otras seis bases sensoriales].

El Mahānidānasutta (DN 15) y sus paralelos chinos como DA 13 describen una versión única que Bucknell denomina "versión en bucle" (DN 14 también tiene una cadena en bucle similar pero agrega los seis campos sensoriales después del nombre y la forma): [113] [12] [114]

El nombre y la forma son condiciones para la conciencia. La conciencia es una condición para el nombre y la forma. El nombre y la forma son condiciones para el contacto. El contacto es una condición para la sensación. La sensación es una condición para el anhelo. El anhelo es una condición para el aferramiento. El aferramiento es una condición para la existencia continua. La existencia continua es una condición para el renacimiento. El renacimiento es una condición para que surjan la vejez y la muerte, el dolor, la lamentación, el sufrimiento, la tristeza y la angustia. Así es como se origina toda esta masa de sufrimiento.

El Mahahatthipadopama-sutta (M 28) contiene otra breve explicación del origen dependiente: [5] [115]

Estos cinco agregados de apego se originan de manera dependiente. El deseo, la adherencia, la atracción y el apego por estos cinco agregados de apego son el origen del sufrimiento. Abandonar y deshacerse del deseo y la codicia por estos cinco agregados de apego es la cesación del sufrimiento.

Correlación con los cinco agregados

Mathieu Boisvert relaciona los nidanas intermedios (3-10) con los cinco agregados . [116] Según Boisvert, los agregados de la conciencia y de los sentimientos se correlacionan directamente con el nidana correspondiente, mientras que el agregado rupa se correlaciona con los seis objetos de los sentidos y el contacto. El agregado samskara, por su parte, se correlaciona con el nidana #2, así como con el anhelo, el apego y bhava (existencia, devenir). [116]

Boisvert señala que si bien sañña (“percepción” o “reconocimiento”) no se encuentra explícitamente en la cadena de doce partes, encajaría entre la sensación y el anhelo. Esto se debe a que las percepciones malsanas (como deleitarse en sensaciones placenteras) son responsables del surgimiento de samskaras malsanos (como el anhelo). Del mismo modo, las percepciones hábiles (como concentrarse en las tres marcas de la existencia ) conducen a samskaras saludables. [117]

Según Analayo, cada uno de los doce nidanas “requiere que los cinco agregados existan simultáneamente”. Además: [71]

La enseñanza sobre el surgimiento dependiente no postula la existencia de ninguno de los vínculos en abstracto, sino que muestra cómo un vínculo particular, como aspecto de la continuidad de los cinco agregados, tiene una influencia condicionante sobre otro vínculo. No implica que ninguno de estos vínculos exista aparte de los cinco agregados. [71]

Desarrollo de los doce nidanas

Comentario sobre la cosmogonía védica

Alex Wayman ha argumentado que las ideas que se encuentran en la doctrina del origen dependiente pueden preceder al nacimiento del Buda, señalando que los primeros cuatro vínculos causales que comienzan con avidya en los Doce Nidānas se encuentran en la teoría del desarrollo cósmico del Brihadaranyaka Upanishad y otros textos védicos más antiguos. [119] [118] [120]

Según Kalupahana, el concepto de causalidad y eficacia causal donde una causa "produce un efecto porque una propiedad o svadha (energía) es inherente a algo" junto con ideas alternativas de causalidad, aparecen ampliamente en la literatura védica del segundo milenio a. C., como el décimo mandala del Rigveda y la capa Brahmanas de los Vedas . [121] [nota 36]

Joanna Jurewicz ha observado una semejanza similar al afirmar que los primeros cuatro nidanas se parecen al Himno de la Creación (RigVeda X, 12) y a otras fuentes védicas que describen la creación del cosmos. [126] [6] Jurewicz sostiene que el origen dependiente es "una polémica " contra el mito védico de la creación y que, paradójicamente, "el Buda extrajo la esencia de la cosmogonía védica y la expresó en un lenguaje explícito". Richard Gombrich está de acuerdo con esta opinión y sostiene que los primeros cuatro elementos del origen dependiente son el intento del Buda de "ironizar y criticar la cosmogonía védica". [128] Según Gombrich, mientras que en la teoría védica de la creación "se considera que el universo se basa en una esencia primordial que está dotada de conciencia", la teoría del Buda evita esta esencia ( atman-Bahman ). [124]

Jurewicz y Gombrich comparan el primer nidana, la ignorancia ( avijja ), con la etapa anterior a la creación que se describe en el Himno de la Creación del Rigveda . [124] [6] Si bien el término avidya no aparece en realidad en este Himno, la etapa anterior a la creación se considera incognoscible y se caracteriza por la oscuridad. [6] Según Gombrich, en esta etapa "la conciencia es no dual, lo que quiere decir que es la capacidad de conocer pero aún no la conciencia de nada, porque aún no hay una división entre sujeto y objeto". Esto es diferente del punto de vista del Buda, en el que la conciencia es siempre conciencia de algo. [125] Jurewicz luego compara el deseo y el hambre del creador védico de crear el atman (o "su segundo yo") con los impulsos volitivos ( samskara ). [6] Según Jurewicz, el tercer nidana, vijñana , puede compararse con el vijñanamaya kosha del atman en la literatura védica, que es la conciencia del creador y sus manifestaciones subjetivas. [6]

Según Jurewicz, "en la cosmogonía védica, el acto de dar un nombre y una forma marca la formación final del atman del creador". Esto puede remontarse a la ceremonia védica del nacimiento en la que un padre da un nombre a su hijo. [6] En la creación védica, la conciencia pura crea el mundo como nombre y forma ( nama-rupa ) y luego entra en él. Sin embargo, en este proceso, la conciencia también se esconde de sí misma, perdiendo de vista su verdadera identidad. [126] La visión budista de la conciencia que entra en el nombre y la forma describe una cadena similar de eventos que conducen a una ignorancia más profunda y un enredo con el mundo. [6]

Jurewizc sostiene además que el resto de los doce nidanas muestran similitudes con los términos e ideas que se encuentran en la cosmovisión védica, especialmente en lo que se refiere al fuego sacrificial (como metáfora del deseo y la existencia). Estos términos védicos pueden haber sido adoptados por el Buda para comunicar su mensaje de no-yo porque su audiencia (a menudo educada en el pensamiento védico) entendería su significado básico. [6] Según Jurewizc, el origen dependiente replica el modelo general de creación védica, pero niega su metafísica y su moral. Además, Jurewizc sostiene que: [6]

Esto priva a la cosmogonía védica de su significado positivo como la actividad exitosa del Absoluto y la presenta como una cadena de cambios absurdos y sin sentido que sólo podrían resultar en la muerte repetida de cualquiera que reproduzca este proceso cosmogónico en la actividad ritual y la vida cotidiana.

Según Gombrich, la tradición budista pronto perdió de vista su conexión con la cosmovisión védica que el Buda estaba criticando en los primeros cuatro eslabones de la originación dependiente. Aunque era consciente de que en el cuarto eslabón debería aparecer una persona individual, la tradición budista equiparó rupa con el primer skandha y nama con los otros cuatro skandhas. Sin embargo, como señala Gombrich, samkhara , vijnana y vedana también aparecen como eslabones separados en la lista de doce, por lo que esta ecuación no puede ser correcta para este nidana . [126]

Síntesis de listas antiguas

Síntesis temprana del Buda

Según Erich Frauwallner , la cadena de doce partes resultó de la combinación de dos listas que hizo el Buda. Originalmente, el Buda explicó la aparición de dukkha a partir de tanha , "sed", ansia. Más tarde, el Buda incorporó avijja , "ignorancia", como causa del sufrimiento en su sistema. Esto se describe en la primera parte del origen dependiente. [10] Frauwallner vio esta "mezcla puramente mecánica" como "enigmática", "contradictoria" y una "deficiencia en la sistematización". [129]

Paul Williams analiza la idea de Frauwallner de que los 12 eslabones pueden ser un compuesto. Sin embargo, finalmente concluye que "puede ser imposible en nuestra etapa actual de investigación determinar de manera muy satisfactoria cuál era la lógica original de la fórmula completa de doce partes, si es que alguna vez hubo una intención en absoluto". [130]

Como síntesis posterior de los monjes

Hajime Nakamura ha sostenido que deberíamos buscar en el Sutta Nipata la forma más antigua de origen dependiente, ya que es la fuente más antigua. Según Nakamura, "el marco principal de las teorías posteriores del origen dependiente" puede reconstruirse a partir del Sutta Nipata de la siguiente manera: avidya, tanha, upadana, bhava, jaramarana. [131] Lambert Schmitthausen también ha sostenido que la lista de doce partes es una síntesis de tres listas anteriores, argumentando que la interpretación de las tres vidas es una consecuencia no intencionada de esta síntesis. [132] [nota 37]

Según Mathieu Boisvert, nidana 3-10 se correlaciona con los cinco skandhas. [134] Boisvert señala que si bien sañña , "percepción", no se encuentra en la cadena de doce partes, sí juega un papel en los procesos descritos por la cadena, particularmente entre el sentimiento y el surgimiento de los samskaras. [135] Asimismo, Waldron señala que las anusaya , "tendencias subyacentes, son el vínculo entre los procesos cognitivos de phassa ("contacto") y vedana (sentimiento), y las respuestas aflictivas de tanha ("anhelo") y upadana ("aferramiento"). [136]

Hans Wolfgang Schumann sostiene que una comparación de los doce nidanas con los cinco skhandhas muestra que la cadena de 12 eslabones contiene inconsistencias lógicas, que pueden explicarse cuando se considera que la cadena es una elaboración posterior. [137] Schumann concluyó así que la cadena de doce eslabones era una síntesis posterior compuesta por monjes budistas, que constaba de tres listas más cortas. Estas listas pueden haber abarcado los nidanas 1-4, 5-8 y 8-12. [138] Schumann también propone que los 12 nidanas se extienden a lo largo de tres existencias, e ilustra la sucesión de renacimientos. Mientras que Buddhaghosa y Vasubandhu mantienen un esquema 2-8-2, Schumann mantiene un esquema 3-6-3. [137]

Según Richard Gombrich, la lista de doce partes es una combinación de dos listas anteriores, la segunda lista comienza con tanha , "sed", la causa del sufrimiento como se describe en la segunda noble verdad". [128] La primera lista consta de las primeras cuatro nidanas , que hacen referencia a la cosmogonía védica, como lo describe Jurewicz. [nota 39] Según Gombrich, las dos listas se combinaron, lo que resultó en contradicciones en su versión inversa. [128] [nota 40]

La tesis de Bucknell

Roderick S. Bucknell analizó cuatro versiones de los doce nidanas para explicar la existencia de varias versiones de la secuencia pratitya-samutpada . La versión dodecagonal es la "versión estándar", en la que vijnana se refiere a la conciencia sensual. [nota 41] Según Bucknell, la "versión estándar" de los doce nidanas se desarrolló a partir de una versión antecesora, que a su vez derivó en dos versiones diferentes que entienden la conciencia ( vijñana ) y el nombre y la forma ( namarupa ) de manera diferente. [12]

Según Bucknell, SN 35.106 describe una "versión ramificada" no lineal del origen dependiente en el que la conciencia se deriva de la unión de los órganos sensoriales y los objetos sensoriales (y por lo tanto representa la percepción sensorial). El Mahānidānasutta (DN 15) describe una "versión en bucle", en la que la conciencia y el nama-rupa se condicionan mutuamente. También describe el descenso de la conciencia al útero. [140] Según Bucknell, "algunos relatos de la versión en bucle establecen explícitamente que la cadena de causalidad no va más allá del bucle". [141]

Waldron también menciona la idea de que en el budismo temprano, la conciencia puede haber sido entendida como teniendo estos dos aspectos diferentes (conciencia básica o sensibilidad y conciencia sensorial cognitiva). [142] Si bien estos dos aspectos eran en gran medida indiferenciados en el pensamiento budista temprano, estos dos aspectos y su relación se explicaron en el pensamiento budista posterior, dando lugar al concepto de alaya-vijñana . [143]

En otra versión lineal, denominada "versión Sutta-nipata", la conciencia se deriva de avijja ("ignorancia") y saṅkhāra ("actividades" también traducidas como "formaciones volitivas"). [144]

Según Bucknell, mientras que la "versión ramificada" se refiere directamente a los seis objetos sensoriales, la "versión en bucle" y la versión estándar utilizan en cambio el término nama-rupa como "un término colectivo para los seis tipos de objetos sensoriales". Cita varios pasajes de las fuentes tempranas y la erudición de Yinshun , Reat y Watsuji en apoyo. [140] Bucknell cree que el nombre y la forma finalmente se malinterpretaron como una referencia a "mente y cuerpo", lo que provocó discrepancias en la serie de 12 pliegues y hizo posible interpretar el comienzo de la cadena como una referencia al renacimiento. [145] [nota 42] Según Bucknell, la lista lineal, con sus distorsiones y significado cambiado para la conciencia, el nombre y la forma, puede haberse desarrollado cuando la lista comenzó a recitar en orden inverso. [147] Bucknell señala además que la "versión ramificada" se corresponde con la interpretación de los doce nidanas como procesos mentales, mientras que la "versión en bucle" (que ve la conciencia como la "conciencia del renacimiento") se corresponde con la interpretación de las "tres vidas". [148]

Las 12 nidānas como lista temprana

Contra la opinión de que la cadena de 12 eslabones es posterior, Alex Wayman escribe: "Estoy convencido de que los doce miembros completos han estado en el budismo desde los tiempos más remotos, así como es seguro que también se conocía una división natural en los primeros siete y los últimos cinco". [76]

Bhikkhu Bodhi escribe que las sugerencias de algunos eruditos de que la fórmula duodecimal es una expansión posterior de una lista más corta "siguen siendo puramente conjeturales, engañosas y objetables desde el punto de vista doctrinal y textual". [71]

Choong, en su estudio comparativo de SN y SA, también escribe que los diferentes relatos del origen dependiente existieron en una etapa temprana y que son simplemente formas diferentes de presentar la misma enseñanza que se habrían utilizado en diferentes épocas y con diferentes audiencias. Choong escribe que las diversas versiones del surgimiento dependiente "es poco probable que representen un desarrollo progresivo, ya que algunas son anteriores y otras posteriores" y que "los datos comparativos revelados aquí no proporcionan evidencia para apoyar la sugerencia especulativa de que solo hubo un relato original (o relativamente temprano) de la serie, a partir del cual se desarrollaron los otros relatos atestiguados más tarde". [149]

Comparación de listas

El siguiente cuadro compara diferentes listas de nidanas de las fuentes tempranas con otras listas similares:


Origen dependiente trascendental/inverso

Comprender el origen dependiente es indispensable para alcanzar el nirvana, ya que conduce a una comprensión de cómo se puede poner fin al proceso de surgimiento dependiente (es decir, el nirvana). Dado que el proceso de origen dependiente siempre produce sufrimiento, los budistas consideran que la inversión o desactivación de la secuencia es la forma de detener todo el proceso. [151] [3] Tradicionalmente, se explica que la inversión de la secuencia de los doce nidanas conduce al cese del renacimiento y el sufrimiento. [4] [69] [36] Los primeros textos budistas afirman que, con el surgimiento de la sabiduría o la comprensión de la verdadera naturaleza de las cosas, cesa el origen dependiente. Algunos suttas afirman que "de la desaparición y el cese de la ignorancia sin restos surge el cese de los saṅkhāras... ", etcétera (se dice que esto conduce al cese de toda la cadena de doce partes en orden inverso). [nota 43]

Según Jayarava Attwood, mientras que algunos pasajes de originación dependiente (denominados lokiya , mundanos) "[modelan] seres atrapados en ciclos de ansia y aferramiento, nacimiento y muerte", otros pasajes (denominados lokuttara , 'más allá del mundo') "[modelan] el proceso y la dinámica de la liberación de esos mismos ciclos". [153] Según Bodhi, estos también se clasifican como "exposición de la ronda" ( vaṭṭakathā ) y "el final de la ronda" ( vivaṭṭakathā ). [154] Beni Barua llamó a estos dos tipos diferentes de originación dependiente "cíclico" y "progresivo". [153] Varios textos budistas tempranos presentan diferentes secuencias de originación dependiente trascendental ( lokuttara paṭicca-samuppāda ) o de originación dependiente inversa ( paṭiloma-paṭiccasamuppāda ). [2] [153] [75] [nota 44] El Upanisā Sutta (y su paralelo chino en MĀ 55) es el único texto en el que ambos tipos de origen dependiente aparecen uno al lado del otro y, por lo tanto, se ha convertido en la fuente principal utilizada para enseñar el origen dependiente inverso en fuentes en idioma inglés. [153] Attwood cita numerosos otros suttas Pali que contienen varias listas de fenómenos de origen dependiente que conducen a la liberación, siendo cada uno una "condición previa" ( upanisā ) para el siguiente en la secuencia. [nota 45]

Según Attwood, AN 11.2 (que tiene un paralelo en MA 43) es un mejor representante de los pasajes de originación dependiente trascendental y se ajusta mejor "al esquema general del camino budista que consiste en ética, meditación y sabiduría". [153] AN 11.2 afirma que una vez que alguien ha cumplido con un elemento del camino, naturalmente conduce al siguiente. [153] Por lo tanto, no hay necesidad de querer o desear (Pali: cetanā , intención, volición) que una cosa lleve a la otra, ya que esto sucede sin esfuerzo. [153] Por lo tanto, el sutta afirma que "las buenas cualidades fluyen y se llenan de una a otra, para ir de la orilla cercana a la orilla lejana". [155] El proceso comienza con el cultivo de la ética, utilizando la siguiente fórmula que luego se aplica a cada factor adicional secuencialmente: "Mendicantes, una persona ética, que ha cumplido con la conducta ética, no necesita pedir un deseo: '¡Que no tenga remordimientos!' Es natural que una persona ética no tenga remordimientos...etc." [155]

Comparación de listas

El siguiente cuadro compara varias secuencias de surgimiento dependiente trascendental que se encuentran en fuentes pali y chinas:

Interpretations

There are numerous interpretations of the doctrine of dependent origination across the different Buddhist traditions and within them as well. Various systematizations of the doctrine were developed by the Abhidharma traditions which arose after the death of the Buddha. Modern scholars have also interpreted the teaching in different ways. According to Ajahn Brahm, a fully correct understanding of dependent origination can only be known by awakened being or ariyas. Brahm notes that "this goes a long way to answering the question why there is so much difference of opinion on the meaning of dependent origination."[161]

Collett Cox writes that the majority of scholarly investigations of dependent origination adopt two main interpretations of dependent origination, they either see it as "a generalized and logical principle of abstract conditioning applicable to all phenomena" or they see it as a "descriptive model for the operation of action (karman) and the process of rebirth."[74] According to Bhikkhu Analayo, there are two main interpretative models of the 12 nidanas in the later Buddhist exegetical literature, a model which sees the 12 links as working across three lives (the past life, the present life, the future life) and a model which analyzes how the 12 links are mental processes working in the present moment. Analayo argues that these are not mutually exclusive, but instead are complementary interpretations.[71]

Alex Wayman has argued that understanding the dependent origination formula requires understanding its two main interpretations. According to Wayman, these two are: (1) the general principle of dependent origination itself, its nidanas and their relationships and (2) how it deals with the particular process of the rebirth of sentient beings.[162]

Conditionality

The general principle of conditionality is expressed in numerous early sources as "When this is, that is; This arising, that arises; When this is not, that is not; This ceasing, that ceases."[163][164] According to Rupert Gethin, this basic principle is neither a direct Newtonian-like causality nor a singular form of causality. Rather, it asserts an indirect and plural conditionality which is somewhat different from classic European views on causation.[165][166][167][168] The Buddhist concept of dependence is referring to conditions created by a plurality of causes that necessarily co-originate phenomena within and across lifetimes, such as karma in one life creating conditions that lead to rebirth in a certain realm of existence for another lifetime.[15][169][170][note 46]

Bhikkhu Bodhi writes that the Buddhist principle of conditionality "shows that the "texture" of being is through and through relational."[164] Furthermore, he notes that dependent arising goes further than just presenting a general theory about conditionality, it also teaches a specific conditionality (idappaccayatā), which explains change in terms of specific conditions. Dependent arising therefore also explains the structure of relationships between specific types of phenomena (in various interlocking sequences) which lead to suffering as well as the ending of suffering.[164]

Necessary and sufficient conditions

Ajahn Brahm has argued that the Buddhist doctrine of conditionality includes two main elements of the logical concepts of conditionality: necessity and sufficiency. According to Brahm, "when this is, that is; from the arising of this, that arises." refers to a "sufficient condition" while "when this is not, that is not; from the ceasing of this, that ceases" refers to a "necessary condition".[39] Like Brahm, Bodhi also argues that there are two main characterizations of conditionality in the early sources. One is positive, indicating "a contributory influence passing from the condition to the dependent state," while the other is negative, indicating "the impossibility of the dependent state appearing in the absence of its condition." He compares these two with the first and second phrases of the general principle definition respectively. Regarding the second, positive characterization, other early sources also state that a condition "originates (samudaya) the dependent state, provides it with a source (nidāna), generates it (jātika), gives it being (pabhava), nourishes it (āhāra), acts as its foundation (upanisā), causes it to surge (upayāpeti)" (see: SN 12.11, 23, 27, 66, 69).[44]

However, according to Harvey and Brahm, while the 12 nidanas are necessary conditions for each other, not all of them are necessary and sufficient conditions (some are, some are not). As Harvey notes, if this was the case, "when a buddha or arahat experienced feeling they would inevitably experience craving" (but they do not). As such, feeling is only one of the conditions for craving (another one is ignorance). Therefore, in this Buddhist view of causality, nothing has a single cause.[3] Bodhi agrees with this, stating that not all conditional relations in dependent arising are based on direct causal necessitation. While in some cases there is a direct necessary relationship between the phenomena outlined in the lists (birth will always lead to death), in other cases there is not.[44] This is an important point because as Bodhi notes, "if dependent arising described a series in which each factor necessitated the next, the series could never be broken," and liberation would be impossible.[171]

Abhidharma views of conditionality

The Buddhist abhidharma traditions developed a more complex schematization of conditionality than that found in the early sources. These systems outlined different kinds of conditional relationships. According to K.L. Dhammajoti, vaibhāṣika abhidharma developed two major schemes to explain conditional relations: the four conditions (pratyaya) and the six causes (hetu).[172] The vaibhāṣika system also defended a theory of simultaneous causation.[173] While simultaneous causation was rejected by the sautrāntika school, it was later adopted by yogācāra.[174] The Theravāda abhidhamma also developed a complex analysis of conditional relations, which can be found in the Paṭṭhāna.[175] A key element of this system is that nothing arises from a single cause or as a solitary phenomenon, instead there are always a plurality of conditions giving rise to clusters of dhammas (phenomena).[161] The Theravāda abhidhamma outlines twenty four kinds of conditional relations.[176]

Conditioned or unconditioned?

As a result of their doctrinal development, the various sectarian Buddhist schools eventually became divided over the question of whether or not the very principle of dependent origination was itself conditioned (saṃskṛta) or unconditioned (asaṃskṛta). This debate also included other terms such as "stability of dharma" (dharmasthititā) and "suchness" (tathatā), which were not always seen as synonymous with "dependent origination" by all schools.[24] The Theravāda, vātsīputriya and sarvāstivāda school generally affirmed that dependent origination itself was conditioned. The mahāsāṃghikas and mahīśāsakas accepted the conditioned nature of the "stability of dharma", but both held that dependent origination itself was unconditioned. The Dharmaguptaka's Śāriputrābhidharma also held that dependent origination was unconditioned.[24]

Ontological principle

Relations of being, becoming, existence and ultimate reality

According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, Peter Harvey and Paul Williams, dependent arising can be understood as an ontological principle; that is, a theory to explain the nature and relations of being, becoming, existence and ultimate reality. (Theravada) Buddhism asserts that there is nothing independent, except nirvana.[177][16][17][note 47][note 48] This ontology holds that all physical and mental states depend on and arise from other pre-existing states, and in turn from them arise other dependent states while they cease.[178] These 'dependent arisings' are causally conditioned, and thus pratityasamutpada is the Buddhist belief that causality is the basis of ontology. As Williams explains, "all elements of samsara exist in some sense or another relative to their causes and conditions. That is why they are impermanent, for if the cause is impermanent then so too will be the effect."[17]

Gombrich describes dependent origination as the idea that "nothing accessible to our reason or our normal experience exists without a cause". Furthermore, this can be seen as a metaphysical middle way which does not see phenomena as existing essentially nor as not-existing at all. Instead it sees the world as "a world of flux and process", a world of "verbs, not nouns."[18]

According to Rupert Gethin, the ontological principle of dependent origination is applied not only to explain the nature and existence of matter and empirically observed phenomenon, but also to the causally conditioned nature and existence of life.[179] Indeed, according to Williams, the goal of this analysis is to understand how suffering arises for sentient beings through an impersonal law and thus how it can also be brought to an end by reversing its causes.[180] Understood in this way, dependent origination has no place for a creator God nor the ontological Vedic concept called universal Self (Brahman) nor any other 'transcendent creative principle'.[181][182] In this worldview, there is no 'first cause' from which all beings arose, instead, every thing arises in dependence on something else.[183][43]

Though Eviatar Shulman sees dependent origination as mainly being concerned with mental processes, he also states that it "possessed important ontological implications" which "suggest that rather than things being conditioned by other things, they are actually conditioned by consciousness." This is implied by the fact that form (rūpa) is said to be conditioned by consciousness and willed activities (saṇkhara) as well as by how grasping is said to condition existence (bhava).[5] For Shulman, "these forms of conditioning undermine the realistic ontology normally attributed to early Buddhism" and furthermore "suggest that the mind has power over objects beyond what we normally believe" as well as implying that "ontology is secondary to experience."[5]

While some scholars have argued that the Buddha put aside all metaphysical questions, Noa Ronkin argues that, while he rejected certain metaphysical questions, he was not an anti-metaphysician: nothing in the texts suggests that metaphysical questions are completely meaningless. Instead, the Buddha taught that sentient experience is dependently originated and that whatever is dependently originated is conditioned, impermanent, subject to change, and lacking independent selfhood.[184]

Rebirth

Analysis of rebirth without a self

The view that the application of dependent origination in the twelve nidanas is closely connected with rebirth is supported by passages from the early sources. Both the Sammādiṭṭhisutta and the Mahānidānasutta specifically mention the factors of dependent origination as being related to the process of conception in the womb.[109][185] Bhikkhu Bodhi affirms the centrality of rebirth for dependent origination. Bodhi writes that "the primary purpose, as seen in the most archaic Buddhist texts, is to show the causal origination of suffering, which is sustained precisely by our bondage to rebirth."[186]

Ajahn Brahm agrees, writing that the main purpose of dependent origination is to explain "how there can be rebirth without a soul" and "why there is suffering, and where suffering comes to an end." Brahm cites the definitions of the nidanas in the Vibhaṅgasutta (SN 12.2) which clearly indicate that birth and death is meant literally.[39] According to Brahm,

Paṭicca-samuppāda shows the empty process, empty of a soul that is, which flows within a life and overflows into another life. It also shows the forces at work in the process, which drive it this way and that, even exercising sway in a subsequent life. Dependent origination also reveals the answer to how kamma done in a previous life can affect a person in this life.[39]

Brahm argues that there are two parallel processes at work in dependent origination (which are really one process looked at from different angles), one is delusion and kamma leading to rebirth consciousness (nidanas # 1 – 3) and the other is craving and clinging leading to existence and rebirth (# 8 – 11). Brahm describes this as follows: "deluded kamma and craving produce the fuel which generates existence and rebirth (into that existence), thereby giving rise to the start of the stream of consciousness that is at the heart of the new life."[39]

Furthermore, dependent origination explains rebirth without appeal to an unchanging self or soul (atman). Paul Williams sees dependent origination as closely connected with the doctrine of not-self (anatman) which rejects the idea there is a unchanging essence that moves across lives. Williams cites the Mahatanhasankhaya Sutta as showing how dependent origination is to be seen as an alternative theory to such views.[17] According to Williams, dependent origination allows the Buddha to replace a view of the world based on unchanging selves "with an appeal to what he sees as being its essentially dynamic nature, a dynamism of experiences based on the centrality of causal conditioning."[187]

Bhikkhu Analayo writes that "dependent arising is the other side of the coin of emptiness, in the sense of the absence of a substantial and unchanging entity anywhere in subjective experience. Experience or existence is nothing but conditions. This leaves no room for positing a self of any type."[71]

According to Eisel Mazard, the twelve Nidanas are a description of "a sequence of stages prior to birth", as an "orthodox defense against any doctrine of a 'supernal self' or soul of any kind [...] excluding an un-mentioned life-force (jīva) that followers could presume to be additional to the birth of the body, the arising of consciousness, and the other aspects mentioned in the 12-links formula."[188][note 49] According to Mazard, "many later sources have digressed from the basic theme and subject-matter of the original text, knowingly or unknowingly."[188]

Abhidharma three life model
A circular schema of the 12 nidanas as understood in Theravada Buddhist scholasticism

In the Buddhist Abhidharma traditions like the Theravāda, more systematized explanations of the twelve nidanas developed.[179][189] As an expository device, the commentarial traditions of the Theravāda, sarvāstivāda-vaibhasika and sautrantika schools defended an interpretation which saw the 12 factors as a sequence that spanned three lives.[3][76] This is sometimes referred to as the "prolonged" explanation of dependent origination.[190][3]

The three life interpretation can first be seen in the Paṭisambhidāmagga (I.275, circa 2nd or 3rd c. BCE).[191] It is also defended by the Theravāda scholar Buddhaghosa (c. fifth century CE) in his influential Visuddhimagga (Vism.578–8I) and it became standard in Theravada.[192][193][194] The three-lives model, with its "embryological" interpretation which links dependent origination with rebirth was also promoted by the Sarvāstivāda school as evidenced by the Abhidharmakosa (AKB.III.21–4) of Vasubandhu (fl. 4th to 5th century CE) and the Jñanaprasthana.[194][3][76] Wayman notes that this model is also present in Asanga's Abhidharmasamuccaya and is commented on by Nagarjuna.[76]

The three lives interpretation can be broken down as follows:[76][193][195][196][note 50]

Bhikkhu Bodhi notes that this distribution of the 12 nidanas into three lives "is an expository device employed for the purpose of exhibiting the inner dynamics of the round. It should not be read as implying hard and fast divisions, for in lived experience the factors are always intertwined."[71] Furthermore, Bodhi argues that these twelve causes are not something hidden, but are "the fundamental pattern of experience" which "always present, always potentially accessible to our awareness."[71]

Nagarjuna's Pratityasamutpada-hrdaya-karika also outlines the 12 nidanas as a rebirth process. According to Wayman, Nagarjuna's explanation is as follows: "the three defilements – nescience, craving, and indulgence – give rise to the two karmas – motivations and gestation – and that these two give rise to the seven sufferings – perception, name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, feelings, re-birth, and old age and death."[76] Vasubandhu's presentation is fully consistent with Nagarjuna's: "nescience, craving, and indulgence are defilement; motivations and gestations are karma; the remaining seven are the basis (asraya) as well as the fruit (phala).[76]

As outlined by Wayman, Asanga's Abhidharma-samuccaya divides the nidanas into the following groups:[76]

According to Gombrich, the "contorted" three lives interpretation is rendered unnecessary by the analysis provided by Jurewicz and other scholars which show that the 12 link chain is a composite list.[198]

Mental processes

The twelve nidanas have also been interpreted within various Buddhist traditions as explaining the arising of psychological or phenomenological processes in the present moment or across a series of moments.[3][25]

Abhidharma interpretations

Prayudh Payutto notes that in Buddhaghosa's Sammohavinodani, a commentary to the Vibhaṅga, the principle of dependent origination is explained as occurring entirely within the space of one mind moment.[25] Furthermore, according to Payutto, there is material in the Vibhaṅga which discusses both models, the three lifetimes model (at Vibh.147) and the one mind moment model.[3][25][199] Similarly, Cox notes that the Sarvastivadin Vijñānakāya contains two interpretations of dependent origination, one which explains the 12 nidanas as functioning in a single moment as a way to account for ordinary experience and another interpretation that understands the 12 nidanas as arising sequentially, emphasizing their role in the functioning of rebirth and karma.[74]

Wayman notes that an interpretation referring to mental processes (referred to as dependent origination with a transient character) can also be found in northern sources, such as the Jñānaprasthāna, the Arthaviniscaya-tika and the Abhidharmakosa (AKB.III.24d).[76][3] The Jñānaprasthāna, explains the nidanas with the example of the act of killing. Ignorance leads to the motivation to kill, which is acted on through consciousness, name and form and so on. This leads to mental karma being generated (bhava) which leads to the movement of the hand to kill (birth).[76]

The different interpretations of dependent origination as understood in the northern tradition can be found in the Abhidharmakosa, which outlines three models of the twelve nidanas:[200][194]

  1. Instantaneous – All 12 links "are realized in one and the same moment".[201]
  2. Prolonged – The interdependence and causal relationship of dharmas is seen as arising at different times (across three lifetimes).
  3. Serial – The causal relationship of the twelve links arising and ceasing in a continuous series of mind moments.

Modern interpretations

The interpretation of dependent origination as mainly referring to mental processes has been defended by various modern scholars such as Eviatar Shulman and Collett Cox.[5]

Eviatar Shulman argues that dependent origination only addresses "the way the mind functions in samsara, the processes of mental conditioning that transmigration consists of." He further argues that it "should be understood to be no more than an inquiry into the nature of the self (or better, the lack of a self)."[5] Shulman grants that there are some ontological implications that may be gleaned from dependent origination. However, he argues that at its core dependent origination is concerned with "identifying the different processes of mental conditioning and describing their relations". For Shulman, dependent origination does not "deal with how things exist, but with the processes by which the mind operates."[5]

Shulman argues that the general principle of dependent origination deals exclusively with the processes outlined in the lists of nidanas (not with existence per se, and certainly not with all objects). Shulman writes that seeing dependent origination as referring to the nature of reality in general "means investing the words of the earlier teachings with meanings derived from later Buddhist discourse" which leads to a misrepresentation of early Buddhism.[5]

Sue Hamilton presents a similar interpretation which sees dependent origination as showing how all things and indeed our entire "world" (of experience) are dependently originated through our cognitive apparatus. As such, Hamilton argues that the focus of this teaching is on our subjective experience, not on anything external to it.[202] Collett Cox also sees the theory of dependent origination found in the early Buddhist sources as an analysis of how suffering is produced in our experience. Cox states that it is only in later Abhidharma literature that dependent origination became an abstract theory of causation.[74]

A similar interpretation has been put forth by Bhikkhu Buddhadasa who argues that, in the list of the twelve nidanas, jati and jaramarana refer not to rebirth and physical death, but to the birth and death of our self-concept, the "emergence of the ego". According to Buddhadhasa,

...dependent arising is a phenomenon that lasts an instant; it is impermanent. Therefore, Birth and Death must be explained as phenomena within the process of dependent arising in everyday life of ordinary people. Right Mindfulness is lost during contacts of the Roots and surroundings. Thereafter, when vexation due to greed, anger, and ignorance is experienced, the ego has already been born. It is considered as one 'birth'".[203]

Ñāṇavīra Thera is another modern Theravada Bhikkhu known for rejecting the traditional interpretation and instead explaining the 12 links as a structural schema which does not happen in successive moments in time, but is instead a timeless structure of experience.[99]

Mahāyāna interpretations

Mahāyāna Buddhism, which sees dependent arising as closely connected with the doctrine of emptiness, strongly expresses that all phenomena and experiences are empty of independent identity. This is especially important for the madhyamaka school, one of the most influential traditions of Mahayana thought. The yogacara school meanwhile, understands dependent origination through its idealistic philosophy and sees dependent origination as the process that produces the illusory subject-object duality.

One of the most important and widely cited sutras on dependent origination in the Indian Mahayana tradition was the Śālistamba Sūtra (Rice Seedling Sutra).[204] This sutra introduced the well-known Mahayana simile of a rice seed and its sprout as a way to explain conditionality. It also contains the influential passage: "He who sees dependent arising sees the dharma. He who sees the dharma sees the Buddha."[204] This sutra contains numerous passages which parallel the early Buddhist sources (such as MN 38) and outlines the classic 12 nidanas. It also contains some unique elements such as the figure of Maitreya, the idea of illusion (māyā) and the idea of the dharmaśarīra (dharma-body).[205] Numerous commentaries were written on this sutra, some of which are attributed to Nāgārjuna (but this is questionable).[205]

Non-arising

Some Mahāyāna sūtras contain statements which speak of the "unarisen" or "unproduced" (anutpāda) nature of dharmas. According to Edward Conze, in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, the ontological status of dharmas can be described as having never been produced (anutpāda), as never been brought forth (anabhinirvritti), as well as unborn (ajata). This is illustrated through various similies such as a dream, an illusion and a mirage. Conze also states that the "patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas" (anutpattika-dharmakshanti) is "one of the most distinctive virtues of the Mahāyānistic saint."[206]

Perhaps the earliest of these sutras, the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā, contains a passage which describes the suchness (tathatā) of dharmas using various terms including shūnyatā, cessation (nirodha) and unarisen (anutpāda).[207] Most famously, the Heart Sutra states:

Sariputra, in that way, all phenomena are empty, that is, without characteristic, unproduced, unceased, stainless, not stainless, undiminished, unfilled.[208]

The Heart Sutra also negates the 12 links of dependent origination: "There is no ignorance, no extinction of ignorance, up to and including no aging and death and no extinction of aging and death."[209]

Some Mahāyāna sūtras present the insight into the non-arisen nature of dharmas as a great achievement of bodhisattvas. The Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra mentions that Vaidehi had, on listening to the teaching in this sutra, attained "great awakening with clarity of mind and reached the insight into the non-arising of all dharmas."[210] Similarly, the Vimalakirti sutra mentions various bodhisattvas (including Vimalakirti) that have attained "the forbearance of the nonarising of dharmas."[211] The Lotus Sutra states that when the "thought of the highest path" arises in sentient beings "they will become convinced of the nonarising of all dharmas and reside in the stage of non-retrogression."[212]

The Samdhinirmochana Sutra's chapter 7 mentions a teaching which states: "All phenomena are without an essence, unborn, unceasing, primordially in the state of peace, and naturally in the state of nirvāṇa." However, it states that this teaching is that of the "discourses of provisional meaning", and that it should be taught along with the teachings of the third turning of the wheel of Dharma.[213] Similarly, the Lankavatara sutra explains the doctrine of the unborn and unoriginated nature of dharmas through the idealistic philosophy of mind-only. Since all things are illusory manifestations of the mind, they do not really originate or arise.[214]

Madhyamaka

In madhyamaka philosophy, to say that an object dependently originated is synonymous with saying that it is "empty" (shunya). This is directly stated by Nāgārjuna in his Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (MMK):[215]

Whatever arises dependently, is explained as empty. Thus dependent attribution, is the middle way. Since there is nothing whatever, that is not dependently existent. For that reason, there is nothing whatsoever that is not empty. – MMK, Ch. 24.18–19 [216]

According to Nāgārjuna, all phenomena (dharmas) are empty of svabhāva (variously translated as essence, intrinsic nature, inherent existence, and own being) which refers to a self-sustaining, causally independent and permanent identity.[217][218] Nāgārjuna's philosophical works analyze all phenomena in order to show that nothing at all can exist independently, and yet, they are also not non-existent since they exist conventionally, i.e. as empty dependent arisings.[218] In the very first (dedicatory) verse of the MMK, dependent origination is also described apophatically through "the eight negations" as follows "there is neither cessation nor origination, neither annihilation nor the eternal, neither singularity nor plurality, neither the coming nor the going of any dharma, for the purpose of nirvāṇa characterized by the auspicious cessation of hypostatization [prapañca]."[219]

The first chapter of the MMK focuses on the general idea of causation and attempts to show how it is a process that is empty of any essence. According to Jay Garfield, in the first chapter, Nāgārjuna argues against a reified view of causality which sees dependent origination in terms of substantial powers (kriyā) of causation (hetu) that phenomena have as part of their intrinsic nature (svabhāva). Instead, Nāgārjuna sees dependent origination as a series of conditional relationships (pratyaya) that are merely nominal designations and "explanatorily useful regularities".[218] According to Nāgārjuna, if something could exist inherently or essentially from its own side (and thus have its own inherent causal powers), change and dependent arising would be impossible. Nāgārjuna states that "if things did not exist without essence, the phrase, "when this exists so this will be," would not be acceptable."[218]

Jan Westerhoff notes that Nāgārjuna argues that cause and effect are "neither identical nor different nor related as part and whole, they are neither successive, nor simultaneous, nor overlapping." Westerhoff states that Nāgārjuna thinks all conceptual frameworks of causality that make use of such ideas are based on a mistaken presupposition which is that "cause and effect exist with their own svabhāva".[220] Westerhoff further argues that for Nāgārjuna, causes and effects are both dependent on one another (conceptually and existentially) and neither one can exist independently.[221] As such, he rejects four ways that something could be causally produced: by itself, by something else, by both, by nothing at all.[222] Westerhoff also notes that for Nāgārjuna, cause and effect do not exist objectively, that is to say, they are not independent of a cognizing subject.[223] As such, cause and effect are "not just mutually interdependent, but also mind-dependent." This means that for Nāgārjuna, causality and causally constructed objects are ultimately just conceptual constructs.[224]

Nāgārjuna applies a similar analysis to numerous other kinds of phenomena in the MMK such as motion, the self, and time.[225] Chapter 7 of the MMK attempts to argue against the idea that dependent arising exists either as a conditioned entity or as an unconditioned one.[226] Rejecting both options, Nāgārjuna ends this chapter by stating that dependent arising is like an illusion, a dream or a city of gandharvas (a stock example for a mirage).[227] Chapter 20 tackles the question of whether an assemblage of causes and conditions can produce an effect (it is argued that it cannot).[228] This analysis of dependent arising therefore means that emptiness itself is empty. As Jay Garfield explains, this means that emptiness (and thus dependent origination) "is not a self-existent void standing behind the veil of illusion represented by conventional reality, but merely an aspect of conventional reality."[218]

Yogācāra

The yogācāra school interpreted the doctrine of dependent origination through its central schema of the "three natures" (which are really three ways of looking at one dependently originated reality).[229] In this schema, the constructed or fabricated nature is an illusory appearance (of a dualistic self), while the "dependent nature" refers specifically to the process of dependent origination or as Jonathan Gold puts it "the causal story that brings about this seeming self." Furthermore, as Gold notes, in Yogacara, "this causal story is entirely mental," and so our body, sense bases and so on are illusory appearances.[230] Indeed, D.W. Mitchell writes that yogācāra sees consciousness as "the causal force" behind dependent arising.[231]

Dependent origination is therefore "the causal series according to which the mental seeds planted by previous deeds ripen into the appearance of the sense bases".[230] This "stream of dependent mental processes" as Harvey describes it, is what generates the subject-object split (and thus the idea of a '"self" and "other" things which are not the self).[3] The third nature then, is the fact that dependent origination is empty of a self, the fact that even though self (as well as an "other", that which is apart from the self) appears, it does not exist.[229]

The 12 nidanas in Mahāyāna sutras and tantras

Alex Wayman writes that Mahāyāna texts such as Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra present an alternative interpretation of the twelve nidanas. According to Wayman, this interpretation holds that arhats, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas have eliminated the four kinds of clinging (nidana # 9), which are the usual condition for existence (or "gestation", nidana #10) and rebirth (#11) in one of the three realms. Instead of being reborn, they have a "body made of mind" (manōmaya kāya), which is a special consciousness (vijñana). This consciousness is projected by ignorance (nidana #1) and purified by a special kind of samskara (# 2) called "nonfluxional karma" (anāsrava-karma). These mind-made bodies produce a reflected image in the three worlds, and thus they appear to be born.[76]

According to Wayman, this view of dependent origination posits "a dualistic structure of the world, in the manner of heaven and earth, where the "body made of mind" is in heaven and its reflected image, or coarser equivalent, is on earth. Otherwise stated, the early members of Dependent Origination apply to the superior realm, the later members to the inferior realm. But the Śrī-mālā-Sūtra does not clarify how those members are allotted to their respective realms."[76]

According to Wayman, similar interpretations appear in tantric texts, such as the Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇatantra. This tantra contains a passage which appears to suggest that "the first ten terms of dependent origination are prenatal."[76] He also notes that there is a tantric interpretation of dependent origination in the Guhyasamājatantra, "in which the first three members are equivalent to three mystical light stages.[76]

Tibetan interpretations

In Tibetan Buddhism, the 12 nidanas are typically shown on the outer rim of a wheel of existence. This is a common genre of art found in Tibetan temples and monasteries.[232] The three poisons (greed, hatred and delusion) sit at the very center of wheel.

Tibetan Buddhist scholars rely on the north Indian works of scholars such as Asanga, Vasubandhu and Nagarjuna in their interpretation of the 12 nidanas. For example, according to Wayman, Tsongkhapa, attempted to harmonize the presentations of the 12 links found in Nagarjuna and in Asanga.[3] Tsongkhapa also explains how the twelve nidanas can be applied to one life of a single person, two lives of a single person, and three lives of a single person.[233]

Discussing the three lifetimes model, Alex Wayman states that the Theravada interpretation is different from the Vajrayana view, because the Vajrayana view places a bardo or an intermediate state (which is denied in Theravada) between death and rebirth.[234] The Tibetan Buddhism tradition allocates the twelve nidanas differently between various lives.[235]

Madhyamaka is interpreted in different ways by different traditions. Some scholars accept a version of the shentong view introduced by Dolpopa (1292–1361), which argues that buddha-nature and buddhahood was not dependently originated and thus not empty of itself (but empty of what is not itself).[236] The Gelug school which follows Tsongkhapa's thought rejects this view, and instead holds that all phenomena are said to lack 'inherent' existence (svabhava) and thus, everything is empty and dependently originated.[237] Other Tibetan madhyamakas like Gorampa argue for a more anti-realist view, negating the very existence of all phenomena and seeing them all as illusions.[238] Meanwhile, scholars of the Nyingma school such as Ju Mipham have also attempted to interpret orthodox madhyamaka in a way that is compatible with the view of dzogchen.[239]

Interdependence

The Huayan school taught the doctrine of the mutual containment and interpenetration of all phenomena (yuánróng, 圓融), as expressed in the metaphor of Indra's net. One thing contains all other existing things, and all existing things contain that one thing. This philosophy is based on the Avatamsaka Sutra and the writings of the patriarchs of Huayan.

Thích Nhất Hạnh explains this concept as follows: "You cannot just be by yourself alone. You have to inter-be with every other thing." He uses the example of a sheet of paper that can only exist due to every other cause and condition (sunshine, rain, trees, people, the mind etc). According to Hanh "this sheet of paper is, because everything else is."[240]

Sogyal Rinpoche states all things, when seen and understood in their true relation, are not independent but interdependent with all other things. A tree, for example, cannot be isolated from anything else. It has no independent existence.[241]

According to Richard Gombrich, the East Asian interpretation of dependent origination as the idea that "all phenomena exert causal influence on each other" does not follow from the early Buddhist understanding of dependent origination.[242] He further argues that this interpretation "would subvert the Buddha's teaching of karma." This is because "if we were heirs of other people's deeds, the whole moral edifice would collapse."[198]

Comparison with western philosophy

The concept of pratītyasamutpāda has also been compared to Western metaphysics, the study of reality. Schilbrack states that the doctrine of interdependent origination seems to fit the definition of a metaphysical teaching, by questioning whether there is anything at all.[243] Hoffman disagrees, and asserts that pratītyasamutpāda should not be considered a metaphysical doctrine in the strictest sense, since it does not confirm nor deny specific entities or realities.[quote 3]

The Hellenistic philosophy of Pyrrhonism parallels the Buddhist view of dependent origination, as it does in many other matters (see: similarities between Phyrrhonism and Buddhism).[245][246][247] Aulus Gellius in Attic Nights describes how appearances are produced by relative interactions between mind and body and how there are no self-dependent things.[248] The ancient Commentary on Plato's Theaetetus also defends a kind of relativism which states that nothing has its own intrinsic character.[249]

Jay L. Garfield states that Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamikakarika uses the causal relation to understand the nature of reality, and of our relation to it. This attempt is similar to the use of causation by Hume, Kant, and Schopenhauer as they present their arguments. Nagarjuna uses causation to present his arguments on how one individualizes objects, orders one's experience of the world, and understands agency in the world.[33]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Pratītyasamutpāda doctrine, states Mathieu Boisvert, is a fundamental tenet of Buddhism and it may be considered as "the common denominator of all the Buddhist traditions throughout the world, whether Theravada, Mahayana or Vajrayana".[1]
  2. ^ such as hymns 4.5.14, 7.68.6 of the Rigveda and 19.49.8 of Atharvaveda
  3. ^ The term pratītyasamutpāda been translated into English as conditioned arising,[16] conditioned genesis,[32] dependent arising,[33][quote 1] dependent co-arising,[35] or dependent origination[36]
  4. ^ The general formula can be found in the following discourses in the Pali Canon: MN 79, MN 115, SN12.21, SN 12.22, SN 12.37, SN 12.41, SN 12.49, SN 12.50, SN 12.61, SN 12.62, SN 55.28, AN 10.92, Ud. 1.1 (first two lines), Ud. 1.2 (last two lines), Ud. 1.3, Nd2, Patis. According to Choong (2000) p. 157, the formula also appears in the Saṁyuktāgama (SA 293, 296-302, 349-350, 358, 369).
  5. ^ Choong Mun-keat translates these two as "the dharma of arising by causal condition and the dharmas arisen by causal condition" in his translation of SA 296.[46][14] According to Choong, these terms refer to two ideas: (1) a natural law of phenomena and (2) causal factors respectively.[46][14]
  6. ^ SN 20:7 (SĀ 1258) has the Buddha state that his disciples should study "those discourses taught by the Tathāgata that are profound, profound in meaning, transmundane, connected with emptiness". According to Hùifēng, in the early sources (SN 6:1, MN 26 and 27:7, as well as DN 15, MĀ 97 and DĀ 13), terms such as "profound" (gambhīra) as well as related terms such as "hard to see", "subtle" and "not within the sphere of reasoning" are used to describe dependent origination (as well as its reversal, dependent cessation).[24]
  7. ^ The early Buddhist texts also list other sets of extreme views that are avoided through insight into the middle teaching of dependent arising:[57][3]
    • The view that "the life-principle (jiva) is the same as the mortal body (sarira)" and the view that holds that "the life-principle is different from the mortal body" (in SN 12.35-36, SA 297, and SA 293). According to dependent origination, the mind and the body are seen as mutually supporting and deeply interconnected processes.
    • Feeling (vedana) is not created by oneself, by another, created by both, or arises without a cause. It is also not non-existent (natthi). Furthermore, the view that the one who acts is the same as the who experiences the karmic result of the action is one extreme, and the view which says that the one who acts and the one who experiences the results are different is another extreme. These ideas are found in SN 12.17-18, SA 302-303, SN 12.46 and SA 300.
    • The view that "all is a unity" (or "all is one") and the view that "all is a plurality" (or "everything is separate") are two extremes found in SN.II.77.[3] The first of these ideas is related to the idealistic monism seen in the Upanishads while the second view sees reality as totally separate and independent entities. Dependent origination is instead a network of interconnected processes which are neither the same thing nor totally different.
  8. ^ According to Harvey, what this means is that this teaching avoids the extreme of substantialism "seeing the experienced world as existing here and now in a solid, essential way" as well as believing there are fixed essences (especially an eternal self or soul); as well as avoiding annihilationism and nihilism, that is seeing the world as non-existent or holding that one is annihilated at death.[3] As Harvey writes, dependent origination avoids these two views, instead holding that "no unchanging "being" passes over from one life to another, but the death of a being leads to the continuation of the life process in another context, like the lighting of one lamp from another (Miln. 71)."[3]
  9. ^ Most Suttas follow the order from ignorance to dukkha. But SN 12.20[47] views this as a teaching of the requisite conditions for sustaining dukkha, which is its main application.
  10. ^ Harvey: any action, whether meritorious or harmful, and whether of body, speech or mind, creates karmic imprint on a being.[83] This includes will (cetana) and planning.[83] It leads to transmigratory consciousness.[83]
  11. ^ Bucknell: In the Maha-nidana Sutta, which contains ten links, vijnana and nama-rupa are described as conditioning each other, creating a loop which is absent in the standard version of twelve links.[12]
  12. ^ Here it refers to the function of the mind that cognizes feeling.
  13. ^ This is the faculty of the mind that names (recognizes) a feeling as pleasurable, unpleasurable or neutral, depending on what was its original tendency.
  14. ^ This is the faculty of the mind where volitions arise. It is important to note that volition is noted again in the same sequence as a cause of consciousness.
  15. ^ This is the faculty of the mind that can penetrate something, analyze, and objectively observe.
  16. ^ i.e. mentality or mind.
  17. ^ The earth (property of solidity), water (property of liquity), wind (property of motion, energy and gaseousness), fire (property of heat and cold). See also Mahabhuta. In other places in the Pali Canon (DN 33, MN 140 and SN 27.9) we also see two additional elements - the space property and the consciousness property. Space refers to the idea of space that is occupied by any of the other four elements. For example any physical object occupies space and even though that space is not a property of that object itself, the amount of space it occupies is a property of that object and is therefore a derived property of the elements.
  18. ^ Bucknell: originally, nama-rupa referred to the six classes of sense-objects, which together with the six-senses and the six sense-consciousnesses form phassa, "contact".[12]
  19. ^ Eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, skin-consciousness and mind-consciousness
  20. ^ Mahasi Sayadaw: "...To give another example, it is just like the case of a person in a room who sees many things when he opens the window and looks through it. If it is asked, 'Who is it that sees? Is it the window or the person that actually sees?' the answer is, 'The window does not possess the ability to see; it is only the person who sees.' If it is again asked, 'Will the person be able to see things on the outside without the window (if he is confined to a room without the window or with the window closed)?' the answer will be, 'It is not possible to see things through the wall without the window. One can only see through the window.' Similarly, in the case of seeing, there are two separate realities of the eye and seeing. (So the eye does not have the ability to see without the eye-consciousness. The eye-consciousness itself cannot see anything without the organ.) The eye is not seeing, nor is seeing the eye, yet there cannot be an act of seeing without the eye. In reality, seeing comes into being depending on the eye. It is now evident that in the body there are only two distinct elements of materiality (eye) and mentality (eye-consciousness) at every moment of seeing. There is also a third element of materiality — the visual object. Without the visual object there is nothing to be seen..."[88]
  21. ^ Enjoyment and clinging for music, beauty, sexuality, health, etc.
  22. ^ Clinging for notions and beliefs such as in God, or other cosmological beliefs, political views, economic views, one's own superiority, either due to caste, sex, race, etc., views regarding how things should be, views on being a perfectionist, disciplinarian, libertarian etc.
  23. ^ Clinging for rituals, dressing, rules of cleansing the body etc.
  24. ^ That there is a self consisting of form and is finite, or a self consisting of form but infinite, or a self that is formless but finite, or a self that is formless and infinite.
  25. ^ a b Bhikkhu Bodhi: "Bhava, in MLDB, was translated "being". In seeking an alternative, I had first experimented with "becoming", but when the shortcomings in this choice were pointed out to me I decided to return to "existence", used in my earlier translations. Bhava, however, is not "existence" in the sense of the most universal ontological category, that which is shared by everything from the dishes in the kitchen sink to the numbers in a mathematical equation. Existence in the latter sense is covered by the verb atthi and the abstract noun atthitā. Bhava is concrete sentient existence in one of the three realms of existence posited by Buddhist cosmology, a span of life beginning with conception and ending in death. In the formula of dependent origination it is understood to mean both (i) the active side of life that produces rebirth into a particular mode of sentient existence, in other words rebirth-producing kamma; and (ii) the mode of sentient existence that results from such activity."[93]
  26. ^ getting attracted, mesmerized, disgusted
  27. ^ growing older, tall, healthy, weak, becoming a parent or spouse, rich, etc.
  28. ^ annihilation, destruction, suicide, loss of a position etc.
  29. ^ Thanissaro Bhikkhu :"Nowhere in the suttas does he [the Buddha] define the term becoming, but a survey of how he uses the term in different contexts suggests that it means a sense of identity in a particular world of experience: your sense of what you are, focused on a particular desire, in your personal sense of the world as related to that desire."[96]
  30. ^ Bhikkhu Bodhi: "(i) the active side of life that produces rebirth into a particular mode of sentient existence, in other words rebirth-producing kamma; and (ii) the mode of sentient existence that results from such activity."[citation needed][note 25]
  31. ^ * Payutto: "[T]he entire process of behavior generated to serve craving and clinging (kammabhava).[8]
  32. ^ Analayo: "birth" may refer to (physical) birth; to rebirth; (Since without birth no aging, death, or any of the sorrows and disappointments of life would occur, birth is a requisite cause for dukkha. Thus, the complete cessation of dukkha must imply that there is no further birth for the enlightened) and to the arising of mental phenomena.[98]
  33. ^ The Vibhanga, the second book of the Theravada Abbidhamma, treats both rebirth and the arising of mental phenomena. In the Suttantabhajaniya it is described as rebirth, which is conditioned by becoming (bhava), and gives rise to old age and death (jarāmaraṇa) in a living being. In the Abhidhammabhajaniya it is treated as the arising of mental phenomena.[98]
  34. ^ Nanavira Thera: "...jati is 'birth' and not 'rebirth'. 'Rebirth' is punabbhava bhinibbatti'."[99]
  35. ^ Brahmajala Sutta, verse 3.71. This is identified as the first reference in the Canon in footnote 88 for Sutta 1, verse 3.71's footnotes.
  36. ^ The pre-Buddhist Vedic era theories on causality mention four types of causality, all of which Buddhism rejected.[122][123] The four Vedic era causality theories in vogue were:[122][123]
    • sayam katam (attakatam, self causation): this theory posits that there is no external agent (God) necessary for a phenomenon, there is svadha (inner energy) in nature or beings that lead to creative evolution, the cause and the effect are in the essence of the evolute and inseparable (found in the Vedic and particularly Upanishadic proto-Hindu schools);
    • param katam (external causation): posits that something external (God, fate, past karma or purely natural determinism) causes effects (found in materialistic schools like Charvaka, as well as fate-driven schools such as Ajivika);
    • sayam-param katam (internal and external causation): combination of the first two theories of causation (found in some Jainism, theistic proto-Hindu schools);
    • asayam-aparam katam (neither internal nor external causation): this theory denies direct determinism (ahetu) and posits fortuitous origination, asserting everything is a manifestation of a combination of chance (found in some proto-Hindu [clarification needed] schools).
  37. ^ Shulman refers to Schmitthausen (2000), Zur Zwolfgliedrigen Formel des Entstehens in Abhangigkeit, in Horin: Vergleichende Studien zur Japanischen Kultur, 7
  38. ^ Boisvert correlates vijnana in the twelve nidanas sequence; in the five skandhas, vijnana comes last.[133]
  39. ^ Jurewicz (2000), Playing with fire: the pratityasamutpada from the perspective of Vedic thought. Journal of the Pali Text Society, XXVI, 77-104.
  40. ^ Gombrich: "The six senses, and thence, via 'contact' and 'feeling', to thirst." It is quite plausible, however, that someone failed to notice that once the first four links became part of the chain, its negative version meant that in order to abolish ignorance one first had to abolish consciousness!"[128]
  41. ^ Bucknell: "vinnana: consciousness associated with eye, ear, nose tongue, body, and mind (mano)"[139]
  42. ^ Bucknell: "These observations by Watsuji, Yinshun, and Reat indicate that nama-rupa, far from signifying "mind-and-body" or something similar, is a collective term for the six types of sense object."[146]
  43. ^ a b Compare Grzegorz Polak, who argues that the four upassanā, the "four bases of mindfulness", have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations, but to the awareness of four different aspects of raising sati, mindfulness:[152]
    • the six sense-bases which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);
    • contemplation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);
    • the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);
    • the development from the five hindrances to the seven factors of enlightenment (dhammānupassanā).
  44. ^ Bhikkhu Bodhi: "In addition to giving a clear, explicit account of the conditional structure of the liberative progression, this sutta has the further advantage of bringing the supramundane form of dependent arising into immediate connection with its familiar samsaric counterpart. By making this connection it brings into prominence the comprehensive character of the principle of conditionality — its ability to support and explain both the process of compulsive involvement which is the origin of suffering and the process of disengagement which leads to deliverance from suffering. Thereby it reveals dependent arising to be the key to the unity and coherence of the Buddha's teaching.[75]
  45. ^ The various listings can be found in: DN 2 (repeated at DN 9, 10, 11, 12, 138, DN 34, MN 7 (repeat at MN 40), MN 51, SN 12.23, SN 35.97, SN 42.13, SN 55.40, AN 5.26, AN 6.10, AN 8.81, AN 10.1 (AN 11.1), AN 10.2 (AN 11.2), AN 10.3 (AN 11.3), AN 10.4 (AN 11.4), AN 10.5 (11.5), and AN 11.12.[153]
  46. ^ The fifth century Theravada commentator Buddhaghosa states that dependent arising "means that something can only arise when its conditions are gathered together (Vism.521). Something arises together with its conditions."[3]
  47. ^ Harvey: "This [doctrine] states the principle of conditionality, that all things, mental and physical, arise and exist due to the presence of certain conditions, and cease once their conditions are removed: nothing (except Nibbana) is independent. The doctrine thus complements the teaching that no permanent, independent self can be found."[16]
  48. ^ Bodhi: "it [dependent origination] provides the teaching with its primary ontological principle, its key for understanding the nature of being."[177]
  49. ^ Mazard: "[T]he 12-links formula is unambiguously an ancient tract that was originally written on the subject of the conception and development of the embryo, as a sequence of stages prior to birth; in examining the primary source text, this is as blatant today as it was over two thousand years ago, despite some very interesting misinterpretations that have arisen in the centuries in-between [...] In the Mahānidāna [sutta]'s brief gloss on the term nāmarūpa [...] we have a very explicit reminder that the subject-matter being described in this sequence of stages is the development of the embryo [...] it is indisputably clear that we are reading about something that may (or may not) enter into (okkamissatha) the mother's womb (mātukucchismiŋ) [...] [T]he passage is wildly incongruent with attempts of many other interpreters to render the whole doctrine in more abstract terms (variously psychological or metaphysical).[188]
  50. ^ Bhikkhi Bodhi briefly explains this interpretation as follows: "Due to ignorance-formally defined as non-knowledge of the Four Noble Truths-a person engages in ethically motivated action, which may be wholesome or unwholesome, bodily, verbal, or mental. These actions, referred to here as volitional formations, constitute kamma. At the time of rebirth kamma conditions the re-arising of consciousness, which comes into being bringing along its psychophysical adjuncts, "mentality-materiality" (niima-nipa). In dependence on the psychophysical adjuncts, the six sense bases develop---the five outer senses and the mind-base. Through these, contact takes place between consciousness and its objects, and contact in turn conditions feeling. In response to feeling craving springs up, and if it grows firm, leads into clinging. Driven by clinging actions are perfonned with the potency to generate new existence. These actions, kamma backed by craving, eventually bring a new existence: birth followed by aging and death.[197]
  51. ^ According to Keown, the first five nidanas of the present life relate to one's present destiny, and condition the present life's existence. The next three dependent originations, namely craving, indulgence and gestation foster the fruits of the present destiny.[193]

Quotes

  1. ^ The Dalai Lama explains: "In Sanskrit the word for dependent-arising is pratityasamutpada. The word pratitya has three different meanings—meeting, relying, and depending—but all three, in terms of their basic import, mean dependence. Samutpada means arising. Hence, the meaning of pratityasamutpada is that which arises in dependence upon conditions, in reliance upon conditions, through the force of conditions."[34]
  2. ^ The Nalanda Translation Committee states: "Pratitya-samutpada is the technical name for the Buddha's teaching on cause and effect, in which he demonstrated how all situations arise through the coming together of various factors. In the hinayana, it refers in particular to the twelve nidānas, or links in the chain of samsaric becoming."[38]
  3. ^ Hoffman states: "Suffice it to emphasize that the doctrine of dependent origination is not a metaphysical doctrine, in the sense that it does not affirm or deny some super-sensible entities or realities; rather, it is a proposition arrived at through an examination and analysis of the world of phenomena ..."[244]

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