Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra

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El Portal de Ciencias de la Tierra

La Tierra vista desde la Luna

Las ciencias de la Tierra o geociencias incluyen todos los campos de las ciencias naturales relacionados con el planeta Tierra. Esta es una rama de la ciencia que se ocupa de las complejas constituciones físicas, químicas y biológicas y los vínculos sinérgicos de las cuatro esferas de la Tierra: la biosfera , la hidrosfera / criosfera , la atmósfera y la geosfera (o litosfera ). Las ciencias de la Tierra pueden considerarse una rama de las ciencias planetarias pero con una historia mucho más antigua. ( Articulo completo... )

Artículos seleccionados

Imagen 1
Una escena en el Parque Nacional del Valle de las Flores de Uttarakhand . En contraste con la región de sombra de lluvia de Tirunelveli, el parque recibe abundante precipitación orográfica debido a su ubicación en una región montañosa orientada a barlovento encajada entre Zanskars y el Gran Himalaya .

El clima de la India se compone de una amplia gama de condiciones meteorológicas en una amplia escala geográfica y una topografía variada. Basado en el sistema de Köppen , la India abarca una amplia gama de subtipos climáticos. Estos varían desde regiones áridas y semiáridas en el oeste hasta climas de tierras altas, subárticos, tundra y capas de hielo en las regiones del norte del Himalaya , variando con la elevación. Las tierras bajas del norte experimentan condiciones subtropicales , con algunas áreas en altitudes más altas, como Srinagar , rozando climas continentales . Por el contrario, gran parte del sur y el este presentan condiciones climáticas tropicales , que sustentan exuberantes bosques tropicales en estos territorios. Muchas regiones tienen microclimas marcadamente diferentes , lo que lo convierte en uno de los países con mayor diversidad climática del mundo. El departamento meteorológico del país sigue el estándar internacional de cuatro estaciones con algunos ajustes locales: invierno (diciembre a febrero), verano (marzo a mayo), temporada de monzones o lluvias (junio a septiembre) y un período posmonzónico (octubre y noviembre). ). La geografía y la geología

de la India son climáticamente fundamentales: el desierto de Thar en el noroeste y el Himalaya en el norte trabajan en conjunto para crear un régimen monzónico de importancia cultural y económica . Como la cadena montañosa más alta y masiva de la Tierra, el Himalaya impide la afluencia de vientos gélidos catabáticos desde la helada meseta tibetana y el norte de Asia Central. De este modo , la mayor parte del norte de la India se mantiene caliente o sólo hace un poco de frío durante el invierno; la misma presa termal mantiene calientes la mayoría de las regiones de la India en verano. El clima en el sur de la India es generalmente más cálido y húmedo debido a sus costas. Sin embargo, algunas estaciones de montaña del sur de la India, como Ooty, son conocidas por su clima frío. ( Articulo completo... )
Imagen 2
Mapa de las 16 placas tectónicas principales de la Tierra

Divergente:
  Zona de extensión
Convergente:
  Zona de colisión
Transformar:
  Transformación siniestra

Plate tectonics (from Latin tectonicus, from Ancient Greek τεκτονικός (tektonikós) 'pertaining to building') is the scientific theory that Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid-to-late 1960s.

Earth's lithosphere, the rigid outer shell of the planet including the crust and upper mantle, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates or "platelets". Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary (or fault): convergent, divergent, or transform. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually. Faults tend to be geologically active, experiencing earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation. (Full article...)
Image 3
Calabozos is a Holocene caldera in central Chile's Maule Region (7th Region). Part of the Chilean Andes' volcanic segment, it is considered a member of the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ), one of the three distinct volcanic belts of South America. This most active section of the Andes runs along central Chile's western edge, and includes more than 70 of Chile's stratovolcanoes and volcanic fields. Calabozos lies in an extremely remote area of poorly glaciated mountains.

Calabozos and the majority of the Andean volcanoes formed from the subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate under the continental South American continental lithosphere. The caldera is in a transitional region between thick and thin lithosphere, and is probably supplied by a pool of andesitic and rhyolitic magma. It sits on a historic bed of volcanic and plutonic sedimentary rock (rock formed within the Earth) that in turn sits on top of a layer of merged sedimentary and metamorphic rock. (Full article...)
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The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event, also known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary (K–T) extinction, was the mass extinction of three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth approximately 66 million years ago. The event caused the extinction of all non-avian dinosaurs. Most other tetrapods weighing more than 25 kilograms (55 pounds) also became extinct, with the exception of some ectothermic species such as sea turtles and crocodilians. It marked the end of the Cretaceous period, and with it the Mesozoic era, while heralding the beginning of the current era, the Cenozoic. In the geologic record, the K–Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K–Pg boundary or K–T boundary, which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks. The boundary clay shows unusually high levels of the metal iridium, which is more common in asteroids than in the Earth's crust.

As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez and his son Walter, it is now generally thought that the K–Pg extinction was caused by the impact of a massive asteroid 10 to 15 km (6 to 9 mi) wide, 66 million years ago, which devastated the global environment, mainly through a lingering impact winter which halted photosynthesis in plants and plankton. The impact hypothesis, also known as the Alvarez hypothesis, was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 km (112 mi) Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula in the early 1990s, which provided conclusive evidence that the K–Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact. The fact that the extinctions occurred simultaneously provides strong evidence that they were caused by the asteroid. A 2016 drilling project into the Chicxulub peak ring confirmed that the peak ring comprised granite ejected within minutes from deep in the earth, but contained hardly any gypsum, the usual sulfate-containing sea floor rock in the region: the gypsum would have vaporized and dispersed as an aerosol into the atmosphere, causing longer-term effects on the climate and food chain. In October 2019, researchers asserted that the event rapidly acidified the oceans and produced long-lasting effects on the climate, detailing the mechanisms of the mass extinction. (Full article...)
Image 5
The inner planets. From left to right: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars and terrestrial dwarf planet, Ceres (sizes to scale)

The geology of solar terrestrial planets mainly deals with the geological aspects of the four terrestrial planets of the Solar System – Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars – and one terrestrial dwarf planet: Ceres. Earth is the only terrestrial planet known to have an active hydrosphere.

Terrestrial planets are substantially different from the giant planets, which might not have solid surfaces and are composed mostly of some combination of hydrogen, helium, and water existing in various physical states. Terrestrial planets have a compact, rocky surfaces, and Venus, Earth, and Mars each also has an atmosphere. Their size, radius, and density are all similar. (Full article...)
Image 6

White Chuck Glacier in the United States in 1973

The retreat of glaciers since 1850 is well documented and is one of the effects of climate change. The retreat of mountain glaciers provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century. Examples include mountain glaciers in western North America, Asia, the Alps in central Europe and tropical and subtropical regions of South America and Africa. Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g., precipitation, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes are one of the most sensitive indicators of climate change. Retreat of glaciers is also a major reason for sea level rise. Excluding peripheral glaciers of ice sheets, the total cumulated global glacial losses over the 26-year period from 1993 to 2018 were likely 5500 gigatons, or 210 gigatons per yr.

On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets (also known as "continental glaciers") in the polar regions. Glaciers also exist in mountain ranges on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude oceanic island countries such as New Zealand. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km² (19,000 sq mi) are called ice sheets. They are several kilometers deep and obscure the underlying topography. (Full article...)
Image 7
The ACFEL ice auger showing an ice core pushed up into the core remover barrel.

Ice drilling allows scientists studying glaciers and ice sheets to gain access to what is beneath the ice, to take measurements along the interior of the ice, and to retrieve samples. Instruments can be placed in the drilled holes to record temperature, pressure, speed, direction of movement, and for other scientific research, such as neutrino detection.

Many different methods have been used since 1840, when the first scientific ice drilling expedition attempted to drill through the Unteraargletscher in the Alps. Two early methods were percussion, in which the ice is fractured and pulverized, and rotary drilling, a method often used in mineral exploration for rock drilling. In the 1940s, thermal drills began to be used; these drills melt the ice by heating the drill. Drills that use jets of hot water or steam to bore through ice soon followed. A growing interest in ice cores, used for palaeoclimatological research, led to ice coring drills being developed in the 1950s and 1960s, and there are now many different coring drills in use. For obtaining ice cores from deep holes, most investigators use cable-suspended electromechanical drills, which use an armoured cable to carry electrical power to a mechanical drill at the bottom of the borehole. (Full article...)
Image 8
Eruptions in the Lassen volcanic area in the last 70,000 years. Circle shows base of Mount Tehama. See timeline image.

The Lassen volcanic area presents a geological record of sedimentation and volcanic activity in and around Lassen Volcanic National Park in Northern California, U.S. The park is located in the southernmost part of the Cascade Mountain Range in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Pacific Oceanic tectonic plates have plunged below the North American Plate in this part of North America for hundreds of millions of years. Heat and molten rock from these subducting plates has fed scores of volcanoes in California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia over at least the past 30 million years, including these in the Lassen volcanic areas.

Between 3 and 4 million years ago, volcanic-derived mud flows called lahars streamed down several major mountains that included nearby but now extinct Mount Yana and Mount Maidu to become the Tuscan Formation. Basaltic and later andesitic to dacitic flows of lava covered increasingly larger areas of this formation to eventually form the lava plateau upon which the park is situated. About 600,000 years ago, Mount Tehama started to rise as a stratovolcano in the southwestern corner of the park, eventually reaching an estimated 11,000 ft (3,400 m) in height. (Full article...)
Image 9

Strokkur geyser, Iceland

A geyser (/ˈɡaɪzər/, UK: /ˈɡiːzər/) is a spring with an intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam. The formation of geysers is fairly rare, and is caused by particular hydrogeological conditions that exist only in a few places on Earth.

Generally, geyser field sites are located near active volcanic areas, and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of magma. Surface water works its way down to an average depth of around 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) where it contacts hot rocks. The pressurized water boils, and this causes the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser's surface vent. (Full article...)
Image 10

Yosemite Valley from Tunnel View

Yosemite National Park (/joʊˈsɛmɪti/ yoh-SEM-ih-tee) is a national park in California. It is bordered on the southeast by Sierra National Forest and on the northwest by Stanislaus National Forest. The park is managed by the National Park Service and covers 759,620 acres (1,187 sq mi; 3,074 km²) in four counties – centered in Tuolumne and Mariposa, extending north and east to Mono and south to Madera. Designated a World Heritage Site in 1984, Yosemite is internationally recognized for its granite cliffs, waterfalls, clear streams, groves of giant sequoia, lakes, mountains, meadows, glaciers, and biological diversity. Almost 95 percent of the park is designated wilderness. Yosemite is one of the largest and least fragmented habitat blocks in the Sierra Nevada.

Its geology is characterized by granite and remnants of older rock. About 10 million years ago, the Sierra Nevada was uplifted and tilted to form its unique slopes, which increased the steepness of stream and river beds, forming deep, narrow canyons. About one million years ago glaciers formed at higher elevations. They moved downslope, cutting and sculpting the U-shaped Yosemite Valley. (Full article...)
Image 11
Changes in surface air temperature over the past 50 years. The Arctic has warmed the most, and temperatures on land have generally increased more than sea surface temperatures.

In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global average temperature is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices add to greenhouse gases. These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary greenhouse gas driving global warming, has grown by about 50% and is at levels unseen for millions of years.

Climate change has an increasingly large impact on the environment. Deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Amplified warming in the Arctic has contributed to thawing permafrost, retreat of glaciers and sea ice decline. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise. (Full article...)
Image 12

Anning with her dog, Tray, painted before 1842; the hill Golden Cap can be seen in the background

Mary Anning (21 May 1799 – 9 March 1847) was an English fossil collector, dealer, and palaeontologist. She became known internationally for her discoveries in Jurassic marine fossil beds in the cliffs along the English Channel at Lyme Regis in the county of Dorset, Southwest England. Anning's findings contributed to changes in scientific thinking about prehistoric life and the history of the Earth.

Anning searched for fossils in the area's Blue Lias and Charmouth Mudstone cliffs, particularly during the winter months when landslides exposed new fossils that had to be collected quickly before they were lost to the sea. Her discoveries included the first correctly identified ichthyosaur skeleton when she was twelve years old; the first two nearly complete plesiosaur skeletons; the first pterosaur skeleton located outside Germany; and fish fossils. Her observations played a key role in the discovery that coprolites, known as bezoar stones at the time, were fossilised faeces, and she also discovered that belemnite fossils contained fossilised ink sacs like those of modern cephalopods. (Full article...)
Image 13

The Berlin Archaeopteryx specimen (A. siemensii)

Archaeopteryx (/ˌɑːrkiːˈɒptərɪks/; lit. 'old-wing'), sometimes referred to by its German name, "Urvogel" (lit. Primeval Bird) is a genus of bird-like dinosaurs. The name derives from the ancient Greek ἀρχαῖος (archaīos), meaning "ancient", and πτέρυξ (ptéryx), meaning "feather" or "wing". Between the late 19th century and the early 21st century, Archaeopteryx was generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest known bird (member of the group Avialae). Older potential avialans have since been identified, including Anchiornis, Xiaotingia, and Aurornis.

Archaeopteryx lived in the Late Jurassic around 150 million years ago, in what is now southern Germany, during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now. Similar in size to a Eurasian magpie, with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven, the largest species of Archaeopteryx could grow to about 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) in length. Despite their small size, broad wings, and inferred ability to fly or glide, Archaeopteryx had more in common with other small Mesozoic dinosaurs than with modern birds. In particular, they shared the following features with the dromaeosaurids and troodontids: jaws with sharp teeth, three fingers with claws, a long bony tail, hyperextensible second toes ("killing claw"), feathers (which also suggest warm-bloodedness), and various features of the skeleton. (Full article...)
Image 14
Life in the Ediacaran Period as imagined by researchers in 1980.

The Ediacaran (/ˌiːdiˈækərən/; formerly Vendian) biota is a taxonomic period classification that consists of all life forms that were present on Earth during the Ediacaran Period (c. 635–538.8 Mya). These were enigmatic tubular and frond-shaped, mostly sessile, organisms. Trace fossils of these organisms have been found worldwide, and represent the earliest known complex multicellular organisms. The term "Ediacara biota" has received criticism from some scientists due to its alleged inconsistency, arbitrary exclusion of certain fossils, and inability to be precisely defined.

The Ediacaran biota may have undergone evolutionary radiation in a proposed event called the Avalon explosion, 575 million years ago. This was after the Earth had thawed from the Cryogenian period's extensive glaciation. This biota largely disappeared with the rapid increase in biodiversity known as the Cambrian explosion. Most of the currently existing body plans of animals first appeared in the fossil record of the Cambrian rather than the Ediacaran. For macroorganisms, the Cambrian biota appears to have almost completely replaced the organisms that dominated the Ediacaran fossil record, although relationships are still a matter of debate. (Full article...)
Image 15

Isabel at peak intensity, northeast of the Leeward Islands, on September 11

Hurricane Isabel was the strongest Atlantic hurricane since Mitch, and the deadliest, costliest, and most intense hurricane in the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season. Hurricane Isabel was also the strongest hurricane in the open waters of the Atlantic, both by wind speed and central pressure, before being surpassed by hurricanes Irma and Dorian in 2017 and 2019, respectively. The ninth named storm, fifth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the season, Isabel formed near the Cape Verde Islands from a tropical wave on September 6, in the tropical Atlantic Ocean. It moved northwestward, and within an environment of light wind shear and warm waters, it steadily strengthened to reach peak winds of 165 mph (266 km/h) on September 11. After fluctuating in intensity for four days, during which it displayed annular characteristics, Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, with winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) on September 18. Isabel quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over western Pennsylvania on the next day. On September 20, the extratropical remnants of Isabel were absorbed into another system over Eastern Canada.

In North Carolina, the storm surge from Isabel washed out a portion of Hatteras Island to form what was unofficially known as Isabel Inlet. Damage was greatest along the Outer Banks, where thousands of homes were damaged or even destroyed. The worst of the effects of Isabel occurred in Virginia, especially in the Hampton Roads area and along the shores of rivers as far west and north as Richmond and Baltimore. Virginia reported the most deaths and damage from the hurricane. About 64% of the damage and 69% of the deaths occurred in North Carolina and Virginia. Electric service was disrupted in areas of Virginia for several days, some more rural areas were without electricity for weeks, and local flooding caused thousands of dollars in damage. (Full article...)
Image 16

Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral that is a hydrous phosphate of copper and aluminium, with the chemical formula CuAl₆(PO4)₄(OH)₈·4H2O. It is rare and valuable in finer grades and has been prized as a gemstone for millennia due to its hue.

Like most other opaque gems, turquoise has been devalued by the introduction of treatments, imitations, and synthetics into the market. The robin egg blue or sky blue color of the Persian turquoise mined near the modern city of Nishapur, Iran, has been used as a guiding reference for evaluating turquoise quality. (Full article...)
Image 17

A map of the world as it appeared during the mid-Ediacaran, c. 600 Ma

The Ediacaran ( /ˌiːdiˈækərən, ˌɛdi-/ EE-dee-AK-ər-ən, ED-ee-) is a geological period of the Neoproterozoic Era that spans 96 million years from the end of the Cryogenian Period at 635 Mya to the beginning of the Cambrian Period at 538.8 Mya. It is the last period of the Proterozoic Eon as well as the last of the so-called "Precambrian supereon", before the beginning of the subsequent Cambrian Period marks the start of the Phanerozoic Eon, where recognizable fossil evidence of life becomes common.

The Ediacaran Period is named after the Ediacara Hills of South Australia, where trace fossils of a diverse community of previously unrecognized lifeforms (later named the Ediacaran biota) were first discovered by geologist Reg Sprigg in 1946. Its status as an official geological period was ratified in 2004 by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), making it the first new geological period declared in 120 years. Although the period took namesake from the Ediacara Hills in the Nilpena Ediacara National Park, the type section is actually located in the bed of the Enorama Creek within the Brachina Gorge in the Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park, at , approximately 55 km (34 mi) southeast of the Ediacara Hills fossil site. (Full article...)
Image 18

Imaging from NASA's Shuttle Radar Topography Mission STS-99 reveals part of the diameter ring of the crater in the form of a shallow circular trough. Numerous cenotes (sinkholes) cluster around the trough marking the inner crater rim.

The Chicxulub crater (IPA: [t͡ʃikʃuˈluɓ] ^ⓘ cheek-shoo-LOOB) is an impact crater buried underneath the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. Its center is offshore, but the crater is named after the onshore community of Chicxulub Pueblo (not the larger coastal town of Chicxulub Puerto). It was formed slightly over 66 million years ago when an asteroid, about ten kilometers (six miles) in diameter, struck Earth. The crater is estimated to be 200 kilometers (120 miles) in diameter and 20 kilometers (12 miles) in depth. It is believed to be the second largest impact structure on Earth, and the only one whose peak ring is intact and directly accessible for scientific research.

The crater was discovered by Antonio Camargo and Glen Penfield, geophysicists who had been looking for petroleum in the Yucatán Peninsula during the late 1970s. Penfield was initially unable to obtain evidence that the geological feature was a crater and gave up his search. Later, through contact with Alan R. Hildebrand in 1990, Penfield obtained samples that suggested it was an impact feature. Evidence for the crater's impact origin includes shocked quartz, a gravity anomaly, and tektites in surrounding areas. (Full article...)
Image 19

Bryce Canyon National Park (/braɪs/) is an American national park located in southwestern Utah. The major feature of the park is Bryce Canyon, which despite its name, is not a canyon, but a collection of giant natural amphitheaters along the eastern side of the Paunsaugunt Plateau. Bryce is distinctive due to geological structures called hoodoos, formed by frost weathering and stream erosion of the river and lake bed sedimentary rock. The red, orange, and white colors of the rocks provide spectacular views for park visitors. Bryce Canyon National Park is much smaller and sits at a much higher elevation than nearby Zion National Park. The rim at Bryce varies from 8,000 to 9,000 feet (2,400 to 2,700 m).

The Bryce Canyon area was settled by Mormon pioneers in the 1850s and was named after Ebenezer Bryce, who homesteaded in the area in 1874. The area was originally designated as a national monument by President Warren G. Harding in 1923 and was redesignated as a national park by Congress in 1928. The park covers 35,835 acres (55.992 sq mi; 14,502 ha; 145.02 km²) and receives substantially fewer visitors than Zion National Park (nearly 4.3 million in 2016) or Grand Canyon National Park (almost 6 million in 2016), largely due to Bryce's more remote location. In 2023, Bryce Canyon received 2,461,269. (Full article...)
Image 20

Lili near peak intensity in the Gulf of Mexico on October 2

Hurricane Lili was the second costliest, deadliest, and strongest hurricane of the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season, only surpassed by Hurricane Isidore, which affected the same areas around a week before Lili. Lili was the twelfth named storm, fourth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season. The storm developed from a tropical disturbance in the open Atlantic on September 21. It continued westward, affecting the Lesser Antilles as a tropical storm, then entered the Caribbean. As it moved west, the storm dissipated while being affected by wind shear south of Cuba, and regenerated when the vertical wind shear weakened. It turned to the northwest and strengthened up to category 2 strength on October 1. Lili made two landfalls in western Cuba later that day, and then entered the Gulf of Mexico. The hurricane rapidly strengthened on October 2, reaching Category 4 strength that afternoon. It weakened rapidly thereafter, and hit Louisiana as a Category 1 hurricane on October 3. It moved inland and dissipated on October 6.

Lili caused extensive damage through the Caribbean, particularly to crops and poorly built homes. Mudslides were common on the more mountainous islands, particularly Haiti and Jamaica. In the United States, the storm cut off the production of oil within the Gulf of Mexico, and caused severe damage in parts of Louisiana. Lili was also responsible for severe damage to the barrier islands and marshes in the southern portion of the state. Total damage amounted to $925 million (2002 USD), and the storm killed 15 people during its existence. (Full article...)
Image 21
Geologic time shown in a diagram called a geological clock, showing the relative lengths of the eons of Earth's history and noting major events

The geological history of the Earth follows the major geological events in Earth's past based on the geological time scale, a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet's rock layers (stratigraphy). Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the Solar System.

Initially, Earth was molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans. However, in 2020, researchers reported that sufficient water to fill the oceans may have always been on the Earth since the beginning of the planet's formation. (Full article...)
Image 22

Darwin, c. 1854, when he was preparing On the Origin of Species

Charles Robert Darwin FRS FRGS FLS FZS JP (/ˈdɑːrwɪn/ DAR-win; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended from a common ancestor is now generally accepted and considered a fundamental scientific concept. In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding. Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history and was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.

Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. His studies at the University of Cambridge's Christ's College from 1828 to 1831 encouraged his passion for natural science. However, it was his five-year voyage on HMS Beagle from 1831 to 1836 that truly established Darwin as an eminent geologist. The observations and theories he developed during his voyage supported Charles Lyell's concept of gradual geological change. Publication of his journal of the voyage made Darwin famous as a popular author. (Full article...)
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The 1867 Manhattan earthquake struck Riley County, Kansas, in the United States on April 24, 1867, at 20:22 UTC, or about 14:30 local time. The strongest earthquake to originate in the state, it measured 5.1 on a seismic scale that is based on an isoseismal map or the event's felt area. The earthquake's epicenter was near the town of Manhattan.

The earthquake had a maximum perceived intensity of VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused minor damage, reports of which were confined to Kansas, Iowa, and Missouri, according to the United States Geological Survey. Felt over an area of 200,000 square miles (520,000 km²), the earthquake reached the states of Indiana, Illinois, and possibly Ohio, though the latter reports have been questioned. (Full article...)
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The Paleocene (IPA: /ˈpæli.əsiːn, -i.oʊ-, ˈpeɪli-/ PAL-ee-ə-seen, -⁠ee-oh-, PAY-lee-), or Palaeocene, is a geological epoch that lasted from about 66 to 56 million years ago (mya). It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name is a combination of the Ancient Greek παλαιός palaiós meaning "old" and the Eocene Epoch (which succeeds the Paleocene), translating to "the old part of the Eocene".

The epoch is bracketed by two major events in Earth's history. The K–Pg extinction event, brought on by an asteroid impact (Chicxulub impact) and possibly volcanism (Deccan Traps), marked the beginning of the Paleocene and killed off 75% of species, most famously the non-avian dinosaurs. The end of the epoch was marked by the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), which was a major climatic event wherein about 2,500–4,500 gigatons of carbon were released into the atmosphere and ocean systems, causing a spike in global temperatures and ocean acidification. (Full article...)
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Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone

Yellowstone National Park is a national park located in the western United States, largely in the northwest corner of Wyoming and extending into Montana and Idaho. It was established by the 42nd U.S. Congress with the Yellowstone National Park Protection Act and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872. Yellowstone was the first national park in the U.S. and is also widely held to be the first national park in the world. The park is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially the Old Faithful geyser, one of its most popular. While it represents many types of biomes, the subalpine forest is the most abundant. It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion.

While Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years, aside from visits by mountain men during the early-to-mid-19th century, organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s. Management and control of the park originally fell under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of the Interior, the first Secretary of the Interior to supervise the park being Columbus Delano. However, the U.S. Army was eventually commissioned to oversee the management of Yellowstone for 30 years between 1886 and 1916. In 1917, the administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service, which had been created the previous year. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, and researchers have examined more than a thousand indigenous archaeological sites. (Full article...)

Sabías(auto generado)

... que Frederick Murray Trotter tuvo una distinguida carrera como geólogo de campo a pesar de perder una parte de su cráneo y un ojo por metralla durante la Primera Guerra Mundial?
... que existe vida en cada parte de la biosfera , desde las partes más profundas del océano hasta altitudes de hasta 64 km (40 millas) en la atmósfera?
... que el espectrómetro de viento solar del Apolo 12 detectó una onda de choque de iones de gas producida por el impacto de la etapa S-IVB del Apolo 13 sobre la superficie lunar ?
... que la geología de las montañas Ellsworth fue explorada por geólogos utilizando toboganes a motor en 1961?
... que la roca más importante de Nueva Caledonia es la peridotita , que procede del manto terrestre ?
... que la geóloga danesa Tove Birkelund recibió una medalla de oro por sus primeros trabajos sobre fósiles de escafitas en Groenlandia?
... que los Iowa Colored Cowboys jugaron softbol ante un público de más de mil personas, en una atmósfera similar a un espectáculo de los Harlem Globetrotters ?

¿Más sabías? -html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color, html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme -clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme -clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}muestra diferentes entradas

... que un mapa mundial de Gerardus Mercator atribuye el campo magnético de la Tierra a una montaña magnética (en la foto) sobre el Círculo Polar Ártico?
... que un equipo de arqueólogos descubrió un Han Solo fosilizado en las rocas de China ?
... que los anillos de bosque habían pasado desapercibidos para los geólogos hasta que la fotografía aérea se convirtió en una herramienta topográfica común en la década de 1950?
... que dos investigadores hayan argumentado que algunos adoquines deberían llamarse "cantos rodados muy pequeños"?
... que enjambres de diques han invadido Uruguay?
... que se evaluaron formaciones rocosas precarias para estimar la aceleración máxima del suelo del terremoto del condado de Kern de 1952 ?

Portales relacionados

Imágenes seleccionadas

Image 1Opal , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 2Mimetita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 3Cerusita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 4Piromorfita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 5Azurita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 6Cuarzo ahumado , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 7Erupción del Monte Redoubt , por R. Clucas (USGS) (editado por Janke ) (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 8Cuarzo , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 9Bultfonteinita , por Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 10El huracán Katrina fue la tercera tormenta más poderosa de la temporada de huracanes del Atlántico de 2005 . Tocó tierra por primera vez como huracán de categoría 1 justo al norte de Miami, Florida, el 25 de agosto de 2005, y luego nuevamente el 29 de agosto a lo largo de la costa central del Golfo cerca de Buras-Triumph, Luisiana, como tormenta de categoría 4. Esta fotografía del ojo del huracán fue tomada desde un avión Cazahuracanes de la NOAA el 28 de agosto de 2005. (Crédito: NOAA .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 11Imagen de satélite del ciclón Gafilo , un potente ciclón tropical de categoría 5 que azotó Madagascar en marzo de 2004 y causó daños devastadores. Esto se tomó justo antes de tocar tierra, cuando el sistema estaba en su máxima intensidad a unos 333 km (207 millas) al este de Madagascar, con una velocidad de viento sostenida de 260 km/h (160 mph). Al menos 250 personas figuraron muertas, más desaparecidas y 300.000 personas quedaron sin hogar debido a Gafilo. (Crédito: satélite Terra , NASA .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 12Una erupción de 2002 del Monte Etna , un volcán en la isla italiana de Sicilia , vista desde la Estación Espacial Internacional . (Crédito: NASA, con ediciones de imágenes realizadas por Usuario: Darkone ). (De Portal: Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 13Casiterita , de Alchemist-hp (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 14Cinabrio , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 15Barita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 16Pico Sarychev en erupción explosiva , por la NASA (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 17Amatista , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 18Acanthita , por Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 19Yeso , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 20Rosa del desierto , de Didier Descouens (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 21Sulphur , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 22La Antártida , el continente que rodea el Polo Sur de la Tierra , es el lugar más frío del planeta y está casi completamente cubierto de hielo . La Antártida fue descubierta a finales de enero de 1820 . Demasiado fría y seca para sustentar prácticamente cualquier planta vascular, la flora de la Antártida actualmente se compone de alrededor de 250 líquenes , 100 musgos , 25-30 hepáticas y alrededor de 700 especies de algas terrestres y acuáticas . (Crédito: NASA .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 23Prehnita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 24Vanadinita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 25Sandstone , de Moondigger (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 26Dolomita y magnesita cristalinas , de Didier Descouens (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 27Escaneo de sección delgada , por Kallerna (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 28Fuente incandescente Pahoeoe en el volcán Escudo , por JD Griggs, USGS (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 29Dundasita por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 30Rodocrosita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 31Hemimorfita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 32Una tormenta eléctrica es una forma de clima severo que involucra relámpagos y truenos . Las tormentas han tenido una influencia poderosa y duradera en la humanidad. Los romanos pensaban que se trataba de batallas libradas por Júpiter . Las tormentas estaban asociadas con el Thunderbird , considerado por los nativos americanos como un sirviente del Gran Espíritu . (Crédito: John Kerstholt.) (de Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 33Terremoto y tsunami del Océano Índico de 2004 en Terremoto y tsunami del Océano Índico de 2004 , por Vasily V. Titov, NOAA (editado por Veledan ) (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 34Malaquita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 35Erg Chebbi ( árabe : عرج شبّي ) es el único ergio sahariano en Marruecos . Tiene 22 km de largo (Norte-Sur) y 5 km de ancho. Sus dunas alcanzan una altura máxima de 150 metros. Se encuentra a unos 40 kilómetros al sureste de Erfoud . El centro local para turistas es el pueblo de Merzouga . (Crédito: Rosa Cabecinhas y Alcino Cunha.) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 36Creedita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 37Hormiga atrapada en ámbar del Báltico , por Baltic-amber-beetle (editado por AmericanXplorer13 ) (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 38Una erupción de octubre de 2002 del Monte Etna , un volcán en la isla italiana de Sicilia , vista desde la Estación Espacial Internacional . El Etna es el mayor de los tres volcanes activos de Italia y uno de los más activos del mundo. Esta erupción, una de las más vigorosas del Etna en años, fue provocada por una serie de terremotos . Se informó sobre caídas de ceniza en lugares tan lejanos como Libia , 600 km (373 millas) al sur. (Crédito: tripulación de la Expedición 5. ) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 39Platinum , de Alchemist-hp (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 40Aegirine , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 41Los gases atmosféricos dispersan las longitudes de onda azules de la luz visible más que otras longitudes de onda, dando al borde visible de la Tierra un halo azul. A mayor altitud, la atmósfera se vuelve tan delgada que esencialmente deja de existir. Poco a poco, el halo atmosférico se desvanece en la oscuridad del espacio. (Crédito: Observatorio de la Tierra de la NASA ). (De Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 42Stellerita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 43La rosa de los vientos más grande del mundo , dibujada en el suelo del desierto de la Base de la Fuerza Aérea Edwards en California , Estados Unidos . Pintado en la playa cerca del Centro de Investigación de Vuelo Dryden , está inclinado hacia el norte magnético y es utilizado por los pilotos para calibrar los indicadores de rumbo . (Crédito: NASA .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 44Azurita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 45Una imagen en colores reales de Irlanda , vista desde el espacio, con el Océano Atlántico al oeste y el Mar de Irlanda al este. (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 46Madera petrificada , de Daniel Schwen (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 47Este mapa muestra las trayectorias de todos los ciclones tropicales que se formaron en todo el mundo entre 1985 y 2005. Los puntos muestran las ubicaciones de las tormentas en intervalos de seis horas y utilizan el esquema de colores que se muestra a la derecha de la escala de huracanes Saffir-Simpson . (Crédito: Nilfanion .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 48La Estructura Richat es una depresión en el país de Mauritania , de casi 50 km (30 millas) de ancho. Originalmente se pensó que se trataba del impacto de un meteorito . Ahora se piensa que es un levantamiento simétrico ( anticlinal circular o cúpula) que ha estado expuesto a la erosión . En esta fotografía en colores falsos , el lecho de roca es marrón, la arena es amarilla y blanca, la vegetación es verde y los sedimentos salados son azules. (Crédito: Landsat 7. ) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 49Sal del Himalaya , por Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 50Wulfenita , de Didier Descouens (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 51Concreciones , de Mbz1 (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 52El invierno es una de las cuatro estaciones de las zonas templadas. El invierno meteorológico es la estación que presenta los días más cortos (que varían mucho según la latitud ) y las temperaturas más bajas. (Crédito: Richard Fabi.) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 53Tierra de diatomeas , por Richard Wheeler (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 54Los astronautas a bordo del transbordador espacial Discovery registraron este fenómeno raramente visto de la Luna llena parcialmente oscurecida por la atmósfera de la Tierra. La imagen fue grabada con una cámara fotográfica electrónica a las 15:15:15 GMT del 21 de diciembre de 1999. (Crédito: NASA .) (De Portal: Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 55Monte Hood reflejado en Mirror Lake , Oregón . (Crédito: Territorio del Monte Hood de Oregón). (De Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 56Atacamite , de Iifar (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 57Liberación de presión del granito en el Área Natural Estatal Enchanted Rock de Texas , Estados Unidos . La foto muestra la exfoliación geológica de la roca del domo de granito. (Tomada por Wing-Chi Poon el 2 de abril de 2005.) (de Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Fotos seleccionadas )
Image 58Partículas de arena , de Siim (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 59Espécimen de un sitio paleontológico del Líbano en Paleontología en el Líbano , por Mila Zinkova (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 60Rocas erosionadas en el Parque Nacional Joshua Tree , por Mila Zinkova (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 61Mohawkita , de Alchemist-hp (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 62Erosión del acantilado en Pacifica , por mbz1 (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 63Crocoita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 64Celestina , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 65Wulfenita , de Iifar (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 66El retroceso de los glaciares es un tipo de movimiento glacial en el que se elimina más materialde su extremo del glaciar del que se repone con el flujo hacia esa región. En esta región de Bután - Himalaya , se han ido formando rápidamente lagos glaciares en la superficie de los glaciares cubiertos de escombros y los investigadores han encontrado una fuerte correlación entre el aumento de las temperaturas y el retroceso de los glaciares. (Crédito: NASA y USGS .) (De Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 67Tronco petrificado en el Parque Nacional del Bosque Petrificado , por Moondigger (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 68Praderas de la costa norte de Sihlsee , un lago artificial cerca de Einsiedeln en el cantón de Schwyz , Suiza . (Crédito: Markus Bernet.) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 69Tsunami en Tailandia durante el terremoto y tsunami del Océano Índico de 2004 , por David Rydevik (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 70Los cirros están compuestos de cristales de hielo y tienen forma de filamentos parecidos a pelos. Se forman en altitudes superiores a los 5.000 metros (16.500 pies). Las rayas están hechas de copos de nieve que caen de la nube y son atrapados por los vientos de alto nivel. Las rayas apuntan en la dirección del viento y pueden parecer rectas dando a las nubes la apariencia de una coma ( cirrus uncinus ), o pueden parecer enredadas, una indicación de turbulencia de alto nivel . (Crédito: Piccolo Namek .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 71Los océanos cubren casi las tres cuartas partes (71%) de la superficie de la Tierra y casi la mitad de las aguas marinas del mundo tienen más de 3.000 m de profundidad. Este cuerpo global e interconectado de agua salada , llamado Océano Mundial, está dividido por los continentes y archipiélagos en los siguientes cinco cuerpos, del más grande al más pequeño: el Océano Pacífico , el Océano Atlántico , el Océano Índico , el Océano Austral , y el Océano Ártico . Los límites oficiales están definidos por la Organización Hidrográfica Internacional . (Crédito: Alexandre Van de Sande .) (del Portal:Ciencias de la Tierra/Imágenes seleccionadas )
Image 72Blairmorite , de Paul Glombick (editado por Bammesk ) (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 73Pirita , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 74Tefra volcánica , de Godot13 (de Wikipedia:Fotos destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )
Image 75Aragonito , por JJ Harrison (de Wikipedia: Imágenes destacadas/Ciencias/Geología )

En las noticias

24 julio 2024 –: Investigadores de la Asociación Escocesa de Ciencias Marinas informan sobre evidencia de que se produce oxígeno oscuro a partir de metales en el fondo marino . Anteriormente se suponía que casi todo el oxígeno libre ( O
₂) en la Tierra se creó mediante la fotosíntesis , que requiere luz solar. (NPR)
18 julio 2024 –: El esqueleto de estegosaurio Apex se subasta por 44,6 millones de dólares (34 millones de libras esterlinas) en unasubasta de Sotheby's en la ciudad de Nueva York , Estados Unidos , la cifra más alta jamás pagada por un fósil. (Noticias de la BBC)
15 de julio de 2024 – Pozo de Mare Tranquillitatis: En la revista Nature Astronomy , científicos estadounidenses e italianos anuncian el descubrimiento de una cueva lunar, a aproximadamente 250 millas (400 km) del lugar de alunizaje del Apolo 11 . (AP) (Astronomía de la Naturaleza)

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