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Papa Pío XII

El papa Pío XII (nacido Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli , pronunciación italiana: [euˈdʒɛːnjo maˈriːa dʒuˈzɛppe dʒoˈvanni paˈtʃɛlli] ; 2 de marzo de 1876 - 9 de octubre de 1958) fue jefe de la Iglesia católica y soberano del Estado de la Ciudad del Vaticano desde el 2 de marzo de 1939 hasta su muerte en octubre de 1958. Antes de su elección al papado , se desempeñó como secretario del Departamento de Asuntos Eclesiásticos Extraordinarios , nuncio papal en Alemania y cardenal secretario de Estado , en cuya capacidad trabajó para concluir tratados con varias naciones europeas y latinoamericanas, incluido el tratado Reichskonkordat con el Reich alemán . [1]

Aunque el Vaticano fue oficialmente neutral durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el Reichskonkordat y su liderazgo de la Iglesia católica durante la guerra siguen siendo objeto de controversia, incluidas las acusaciones de silencio público e inacción sobre el destino de los judíos. [2] Pío empleó la diplomacia para ayudar a las víctimas de los nazis durante la guerra y, al ordenar a la iglesia que brindara ayuda discreta a los judíos y otros, salvó miles de vidas. [3] [4] Pío mantuvo vínculos con la resistencia alemana y compartió inteligencia con los aliados. Su más fuerte condena pública del genocidio fue considerada inadecuada por las potencias aliadas , mientras que los nazis lo vieron como un simpatizante aliado que había deshonrado su política de neutralidad del Vaticano. [5]

Durante su papado, la Iglesia católica emitió el Decreto contra el comunismo , declarando que los católicos que profesan la doctrina comunista debían ser excomulgados como apóstatas de la fe cristiana. La iglesia experimentó una severa persecución y deportaciones masivas del clero católico en el Bloque del Este . A pesar de todo esto, el propio Stalin todavía estaba abierto a coordinarse con Pío XII en la lucha contra la persecución de la iglesia católica. [6] Invocó explícitamente la infalibilidad papal ex cathedra con el dogma de la Asunción de María en su constitución apostólica Munificentissimus Deus . [7] Sus cuarenta y una encíclicas incluyen Mystici Corporis Christi , sobre la Iglesia como Cuerpo Místico de Cristo ; Mediator Dei sobre la reforma de la liturgia ; y Humani generis , en la que instruyó a los teólogos a adherirse a la enseñanza episcopal y permitió que el cuerpo humano pudiera haber evolucionado a partir de formas anteriores. Eliminó la mayoría italiana en el Colegio de Cardenales en 1946.

Tras su muerte en 1958, el Papa Pío XII fue sucedido por Juan XXIII . En el proceso hacia la santidad, su causa de canonización fue abierta el 18 de noviembre de 1965 por Pablo VI durante la sesión final del Concilio Vaticano II . Fue nombrado Siervo de Dios por Juan Pablo II en 1990 y Benedicto XVI declaró a Pío XII Venerable el 19 de diciembre de 2009. [8]

Primeros años de vida

Eugenio Pacelli a la edad de seis años en 1882

Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli nació el segundo día de Cuaresma, el 2 de marzo de 1876, en Roma en una familia de clase alta de intensa piedad católica con una historia de vínculos con el papado (la " nobleza negra "). Sus padres fueron Filippo Pacelli  [it] (1837-1916) y Virginia (née Graziosi) Pacelli (1844-1920). Su abuelo Marcantonio Pacelli  [it] había sido subsecretario en el Ministerio Papal de Finanzas [9] y luego secretario del Interior bajo el papa Pío IX de 1851 a 1870 y ayudó a fundar el periódico del Vaticano, L'Osservatore Romano en 1861. [10] [11] Su primo, Ernesto Pacelli , fue un asesor financiero clave del papa León XIII ; su padre, Filippo Pacelli, un terciario franciscano , [12] fue el decano de la Rota Romana ; y su hermano, Francesco Pacelli , se convirtió en abogado canónico laico y asesor legal del Papa Pío XI , en cuyo papel negoció el Tratado de Letrán en 1929 con Benito Mussolini , poniendo fin a la cuestión romana .

Junto con su hermano Francesco (1872-1935) y sus dos hermanas, Giuseppina (1874-1955) y Elisabetta (1880-1970), [13] creció en el distrito de Parione , en el centro de Roma. Poco después de que la familia se mudara a Via Vetrina en 1880, comenzó la escuela en el convento de las Hermanas Francesas de la Divina Providencia en la Piazza Fiammetta. La familia rezaba en Chiesa Nuova . Eugenio y los otros niños hicieron su Primera Comunión en esta iglesia y Eugenio sirvió allí como monaguillo a partir de 1886. En 1886 también fue enviado a la escuela privada del profesor Giuseppe Marchi, cerca de la Piazza Venezia . [14] En 1891, el padre de Pacelli envió a Eugenio al Liceo Ginnasio Ennio Quirino Visconti , una escuela estatal situada en lo que había sido el Collegio Romano , la principal universidad jesuita de Roma.

En 1894, a los 18 años, Pacelli comenzó sus estudios de teología en el seminario más antiguo de Roma, el Almo Collegio Capranica , [15] y en noviembre del mismo año, se inscribió para tomar un curso de filosofía en la Pontificia Universidad Gregoriana de los Jesuitas y teología en el Pontificio Ateneo Romano S. Apollinare . También se inscribió en la Universidad Estatal, La Sapienza, donde estudió lenguas modernas e historia. Sin embargo, al final del primer año académico, en el verano de 1895, abandonó tanto la Capranica como la Universidad Gregoriana. Según su hermana Elisabetta, la comida en la Capranica era la culpable. [16] Habiendo recibido una dispensa especial, continuó sus estudios desde casa y así pasó la mayor parte de sus años de seminario como estudiante externo. En 1899 completó su educación en Sagrada Teología con un doctorado otorgado sobre la base de una breve disertación y un examen oral en latín . [17]

Carrera en la iglesia

Sacerdote y monseñor

Pacelli el día de su ordenación: 2 de abril de 1899

Mientras que todos los demás candidatos de la diócesis de Roma fueron ordenados en la Basílica de San Juan de Letrán , [18] Pacelli fue ordenado sacerdote el Domingo de Pascua , 2 de abril de 1899, solo en la capilla privada de un amigo de la familia, el vicegerente de Roma, Francesco di Paola Cassetta . Poco después de la ordenación comenzó estudios de posgrado en derecho canónico en Sant'Apollinaire. Recibió su primer destino como cura en Chiesa Nuova . [19] En 1901, ingresó en la Congregación para Asuntos Eclesiásticos Extraordinarios , una suboficina de la Secretaría de Estado del Vaticano . [20]

Pietro Gasparri , el recientemente nombrado subsecretario del Departamento de Asuntos Extraordinarios, había subrayado su propuesta a Pacelli de trabajar en el "equivalente vaticano del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores" destacando la "necesidad de defender a la Iglesia de los ataques del secularismo y el liberalismo en toda Europa". [21] Pacelli se convirtió en un "apprendista ", un aprendiz, en el departamento de Gasparri. En enero de 1901 también fue elegido, por el propio Papa León XIII, según un relato oficial, para entregar las condolencias en nombre del Vaticano al rey Eduardo VII del Reino Unido después de la muerte de la reina Victoria . [22]

Concordato serbio, 24 de junio de 1914. Por el Vaticano estuvieron presentes el cardenal Merry del Val y junto a él, Pacelli.

En 1904 Pacelli recibió su doctorado. El tema de su tesis fue la naturaleza de los concordatos y la función del derecho canónico cuando un concordato cae en desuso. Promovido al puesto de minutante , preparó resúmenes de informes que habían sido enviados a la Secretaría de todo el mundo y en el mismo año se convirtió en chambelán papal . En 1905 recibió el título de prelado doméstico . [19] Desde 1904 hasta 1916, ayudó al cardenal Pietro Gasparri en su codificación del derecho canónico con el Departamento de Asuntos Eclesiásticos Extraordinarios. [23] Según John Cornwell "el texto, junto con el Juramento Antimodernista , se convirtió en el medio por el cual la Santa Sede debía establecer y sostener la nueva, desigual y sin precedentes relación de poder que había surgido entre el papado y la Iglesia". [24]

En 1908, Pacelli sirvió como representante del Vaticano en el Congreso Eucarístico Internacional , acompañando a Rafael Merry del Val [25] a Londres, [22] donde conoció a Winston Churchill . [26] En 1911, representó a la Santa Sede en la coronación de Jorge V y María . [23] Pacelli se convirtió en subsecretario en 1911, secretario adjunto en 1912 (una posición que recibió bajo el Papa Pío X y mantuvo bajo el Papa Benedicto XV ), y secretario del Departamento de Asuntos Eclesiásticos Extraordinarios en febrero de 1914. [23] El 24 de junio de 1914, solo cuatro días antes de que el archiduque Francisco Fernando de Austria fuera asesinado en Sarajevo , Pacelli, junto con el cardenal Merry del Val, representó al Vaticano cuando se firmó el Concordato serbio. El éxito de Serbia en la Primera Guerra de los Balcanes contra Turquía en 1912 había aumentado el número de católicos dentro de la Gran Serbia. En esa época, Serbia, alentada por Rusia , estaba desafiando la esfera de influencia de Austria-Hungría en los Balcanes . Pío X murió el 20 de agosto de 1914. Su sucesor, Benedicto XV, nombró a Gasparri secretario de Estado y Gasparri se llevó a Pacelli con él a la Secretaría de Estado, convirtiéndolo en subsecretario. [27] Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, Pacelli mantuvo el registro de prisioneros de guerra del Vaticano y trabajó para implementar iniciativas de ayuda papal. En 1915, viajó a Viena para ayudar a Raffaele Scapinelli , nuncio en Viena, en sus negociaciones con el emperador Francisco José I de Austria con respecto a Italia. [28]

Arzobispo y nuncio papal

Pacelli en el cuartel general de Guillermo II

El Papa Benedicto XV nombró a Pacelli nuncio en Baviera el 23 de abril de 1917, consagrándolo como arzobispo titular de Sardes en la Capilla Sixtina el 13 de mayo de 1917, el mismo día de la primera aparición de la Santísima Virgen María en Fátima, Portugal . Después de su consagración, Eugenio Pacelli partió hacia Baviera . Como en ese momento no había ningún nuncio en Prusia o Alemania, Pacelli era, a todos los efectos prácticos, el nuncio en todo el Imperio alemán .

Una vez en Múnich , transmitió a las autoridades alemanas la iniciativa papal de poner fin a la guerra. [29] Se reunió con el rey Luis III el 29 de mayo, y más tarde con el káiser Guillermo II [30] y el canciller Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg , quien respondió positivamente a la iniciativa papal. Sin embargo, Bethmann Hollweg se vio obligado a dimitir y el alto mando alemán , con la esperanza de una victoria militar, retrasó la respuesta alemana hasta el 20 de septiembre.

La hermana Pascalina Lehnert recordó más tarde que el Nuncio estaba desconsolado porque el Káiser "hizo oídos sordos a todas sus propuestas". Más tarde escribió: "Al recordar hoy aquella época, cuando todos los alemanes todavía creíamos que nuestras armas triunfarían y el Nuncio lamentaba profundamente que se hubiera perdido la oportunidad de salvar lo que había que salvar, me viene a la mente una y otra vez la claridad con la que previó lo que estaba por venir. Una vez, mientras trazaba con el dedo el curso del Rin en un mapa, dijo con tristeza: "Sin duda, también esto se perderá". No quería creerlo, pero también en esto se demostró que tenía razón". [31]

Durante el resto de la Gran Guerra, Pacelli se concentró en los esfuerzos humanitarios de Benedicto XV [32], especialmente entre los prisioneros de guerra aliados bajo custodia alemana. [33] En la agitación que siguió al Armisticio, un desconcertado Pacelli solicitó el permiso de Benedicto XV para abandonar Múnich, donde Kurt Eisner había formado el Estado Libre de Baviera , y se fue por un tiempo a Rorschach , un tranquilo sanatorio suizo dirigido por monjas. Schioppa, el uditore , se quedó en Múnich. [34]

"Su recuperación comenzó con una 'relación ' " con la hermana Pascalina Lehnert, de 24 años, que pronto sería trasladada a Múnich, donde Pacelli "movía los hilos al más alto nivel". [35]

Cuando regresó a Munich, tras el asesinato de Eisner por el nacionalista bávaro conde Anton von Arco auf Valley , informó a Gasparri -utilizando el testimonio de testigo ocular de Schioppa sobre la caótica escena en el antiguo palacio real mientras el trío de Max Levien , Eugen Levine y Tobias Akselrod buscaba el poder: "la escena era indescriptible [-] la confusión totalmente caótica [-] en medio de todo esto, una pandilla de mujeres jóvenes, de apariencia dudosa, judías como el resto de ellas rondando [-] la jefa de esta chusma femenina era la amante de Levien, una joven rusa, judía y divorciada [-] y fue a ella a quien la nunciatura se vio obligada a rendir homenaje para poder proceder [-] Levien es un hombre joven, también ruso y judío. Pálido, sucio, con ojos drogados, vulgar, repulsivo..." John Cornwell alega que se percibe una preocupante impresión de antisemitismo en el "El catálogo de epítetos que describen su repulsividad física y moral" y la "constante insistencia de Pacelli en el judaísmo de este partido de usurpadores del poder" coincidían con la "creciente y extendida creencia entre los alemanes de que los judíos eran los instigadores de la revolución bolchevique , siendo su principal objetivo la destrucción de la civilización cristiana". [36] También según Cornwell, Pacelli informó a Gasparri que "la capital de Baviera está sufriendo una dura tiranía revolucionaria judeo-rusa". [37]

Pacelli en Baviera, 1922

Según la hermana Pascalina Lehnert, el Nuncio fue amenazado repetidamente por emisarios de la República Soviética de Baviera . En una ocasión, violando el derecho internacional, el Gobierno Revolucionario de Baviera intentó confiscar el coche de la Nunciatura a punta de pistola. Sin embargo, a pesar de sus exigencias, Pacelli se negó a abandonar su puesto. [38]

Después de que la República Soviética de Baviera fuera derrotada y derrocada por las tropas del Freikorps y del Reichswehr , el Nuncio se centró, según Lehnert, en "aliviar la angustia del período de posguerra, consolando y apoyando a todos con palabras y hechos". [39]

El Nuncio Pacelli en julio de 1924 con motivo del 900 aniversario de la fundación de la ciudad de Bamberg

Pacelli fue nombrado Nuncio Apostólico en Alemania el 23 de junio de 1920 y, tras la finalización de un Concordato Bávaro (1924) , su nunciatura se trasladó a Berlín en agosto de 1925. Muchos de los miembros del personal de Pacelli en Múnich se quedaron con él durante el resto de su vida, incluido su asesor Robert Leiber y la hermana Pascalina Lehnert, ama de llaves, cocinera, amiga y consejera durante 41 años. En Berlín, Pacelli fue Decano del Cuerpo Diplomático y participó activamente en actividades diplomáticas y sociales. Fue ayudado por el sacerdote alemán Ludwig Kaas , conocido por su experiencia en las relaciones entre la Iglesia y el Estado y fue un político a tiempo completo, políticamente activo en el Partido Católico del Centro , un partido que dirigió tras la renuncia de Wilhelm Marx en octubre de 1928. [40] Mientras estuvo en Alemania, viajó a todas las regiones, asistió a Katholikentag (reuniones nacionales de los fieles) y pronunció unos 50 sermones y discursos al pueblo alemán. [41] En Berlín vivió en el barrio de Tiergarten y organizó fiestas para la élite oficial y diplomática. Paul von Hindenburg , Gustav Stresemann y otros miembros del gabinete eran invitados habituales.

El Nuncio Pacelli visita la mina de carbón de Dorstfeld con motivo del Katholikentag en Dortmund en 1927 Alemania

En Alemania, tras la Segunda Guerra Mundial, en ausencia de un nuncio en Moscú, Pacelli trabajó también en acuerdos diplomáticos entre el Vaticano y la Unión Soviética . Negoció envíos de alimentos a Rusia, donde la Iglesia católica era perseguida. Se reunió con representantes soviéticos, entre ellos el ministro de Asuntos Exteriores Georgi Chicherin , que rechazó cualquier tipo de educación religiosa, la ordenación de sacerdotes y obispos, pero ofreció acuerdos sin los puntos vitales para el Vaticano. [42]

Eugenio Pacelli en 1927

A pesar del pesimismo del Vaticano y la falta de progreso visible, Pacelli continuó las negociaciones secretas, hasta que Pío XI ordenó que se interrumpieran en 1927. Pacelli apoyó la actividad diplomática alemana destinada a rechazar las medidas punitivas de los antiguos enemigos victoriosos. Bloqueó los intentos franceses de una separación eclesiástica de la región del Sarre , apoyó el nombramiento de un administrador papal para Danzig y ayudó a la reintegración de los sacerdotes alemanes expulsados ​​de Polonia . [43] Un concordato prusiano se firmó el 14 de junio de 1929. Después del desplome de Wall Street de 1929 , aparecieron los inicios de una crisis económica mundial y los días de la República de Weimar estaban contados. Pacelli fue convocado de regreso a Roma en ese momento; la llamada llegó por telegrama mientras descansaba en su retiro favorito, el sanatorio del convento de Rorschach. Dejó Berlín el 10 de diciembre de 1929. [44] David G. Dalin escribió que «de los cuarenta y cuatro discursos que Pacelli pronunció en Alemania como nuncio papal entre 1917 y 1929, cuarenta denunciaron algún aspecto de la ideología nazi emergente». [45] En 1935 escribió una carta a Karl Joseph Schulte , arzobispo de Colonia, describiendo a los nazis como «falsos profetas con el orgullo de Lucifer» y como «portadores de una nueva fe y un nuevo Evangelio» que estaban intentando crear «una antinomia mendaz entre la fidelidad a la Iglesia y la patria». [46] Dos años más tarde, en Notre Dame de París, nombró a Alemania como «esa nación noble y poderosa a la que los malos pastores llevarían por mal camino hacia una ideología de raza». [45]

Cardenal Secretario de Estado y Camarlengo

El secretario de Estado Pacelli con el presidente brasileño Getúlio Vargas (a la derecha de Pacelli) y otros dignatarios en Río de Janeiro , 1934

Pacelli fue nombrado cardenal presbítero de Santi Giovanni e Paolo al Celio el 16 de diciembre de 1929 por el papa Pío XI y, pocos meses después, el 7 de febrero de 1930, Pío XI lo nombró cardenal secretario de Estado , responsable de la política exterior y de las relaciones de los Estados en todo el mundo. En 1935, Pacelli fue nombrado camarlengo de la Santa Iglesia Romana .

Como cardenal secretario de Estado, Pacelli firmó concordatos con varios países y estados. Inmediatamente después de convertirse en cardenal secretario de Estado, Pacelli y Ludwig Kaas iniciaron negociaciones sobre un Concordato de Baden que continuaron hasta la primavera y el verano de 1932. El decreto papal nombró a un partidario de Pacelli y su política de concordatos, Conrad Gröber , como nuevo arzobispo de Friburgo , y el tratado se firmó en agosto de 1932. [47] Otros siguieron: Austria (1933), Alemania (1933), Yugoslavia (1935) y Portugal (1940). Los tratados de Letrán con Italia (1929) se concluyeron antes de que Pacelli se convirtiera en secretario de Estado. El catolicismo se había convertido en la única religión reconocida; el poderoso Partido Popular Católico democrático , en muchos aspectos similar al Partido del Centro en Alemania, se había disuelto, y en lugar del catolicismo político, la Santa Sede alentó la Acción Católica . Se permitió sólo en la medida en que desarrollara "su actividad fuera de todo partido político y en dependencia directa de la jerarquía eclesiástica para la difusión y aplicación de los principios católicos". [48] Estos concordatos permitieron a la Iglesia católica organizar grupos de jóvenes, hacer nombramientos eclesiásticos, dirigir escuelas, hospitales y obras de caridad, o incluso celebrar servicios religiosos. También garantizaron que el derecho canónico fuera reconocido en algunas esferas (por ejemplo, los decretos eclesiásticos de nulidad en el ámbito del matrimonio). [49]

Al comenzar la década, Pacelli quería que el Partido del Centro en Alemania se alejara de los socialistas. En el verano de 1931 chocó con el canciller católico Heinrich Brüning , quien le dijo francamente a Pacelli que creía que "no comprendía la situación política en Alemania y el carácter real de los nazis". [50] Tras la renuncia de Brüning en mayo de 1932, Pacelli, al igual que el nuevo canciller católico Franz von Papen , se preguntó si el Partido del Centro debería mirar a la derecha en busca de una coalición "que se correspondiera con sus principios". [51] Hizo muchas visitas diplomáticas por toda Europa y las Américas, incluida una extensa visita a los Estados Unidos en 1936, donde se reunió con el presidente Franklin D. Roosevelt , quien nombró un enviado personal (que no requirió la confirmación del Senado) a la Santa Sede en diciembre de 1939, restableciendo una tradición diplomática que se había roto desde 1870 cuando el Papa perdió el poder temporal . [52]

Pacelli sonriente junto al presidente argentino Agustín P. Justo

Pacelli presidió como legado papal el Congreso Eucarístico Internacional en Buenos Aires , Argentina, del 10 al 14 de octubre de 1934, y en Budapest del 25 al 30 de mayo de 1938. [53] En ese momento, se estaban formulando leyes antisemitas en Hungría . Pacelli hizo referencia a los judíos "cuyos labios maldicen [a Cristo] y cuyos corazones lo rechazan incluso hoy". [54] [ disputadodiscutir ] Esta tradicional relación adversaria con el judaísmo se revertiría en Nostra aetate emitida durante el Concilio Vaticano II . [55] Según Joseph Bottum , Pacelli en 1937 "advirtió a AW Klieforth que Hitler era 'un sinvergüenza indigno de confianza y una persona fundamentalmente malvada', para citar a Klieforth, quien también escribió que Pacelli 'no creía que Hitler fuera capaz de moderación, y... apoyaba plenamente a los obispos alemanes en su postura antinazi'. Esto coincidió con el descubrimiento del informe antinazi de Pacelli , escrito al año siguiente para el presidente Roosevelt y presentado al embajador Joseph Kennedy , que declaraba que la iglesia consideraba que el compromiso con el Tercer Reich estaba 'fuera de cuestión'". [56]

El historiador Walter Bussmann sostuvo que Pacelli, como cardenal secretario de Estado, disuadió al Papa Pío XI –quien estaba próximo a morir en ese momento [57] – de condenar la Noche de los Cristales Rotos en noviembre de 1938, [58] cuando fue informado de ello por el nuncio papal en Berlín. [59]

El proyecto de encíclica Humani generis unitas ("Sobre la unidad de la raza humana") estaba listo en septiembre de 1938 pero, según los responsables de una edición del documento [60] y otras fuentes, no fue remitido a la Santa Sede por el general jesuita Wlodimir Ledóchowski . [61] [62] El proyecto de encíclica contenía una condena abierta y clara del colonialismo , la persecución racial y el antisemitismo . [61] [63] [ cita completa requerida ] [64] Los historiadores Passelecq y Suchecky han argumentado que Pacelli se enteró de la existencia del borrador solo después de la muerte de Pío XI y no lo promulgó como Papa. [65] Utilizó partes de él en su encíclica inaugural Summi Pontificatus , que tituló "Sobre la unidad de la sociedad humana". [66] Sus diversas posiciones sobre cuestiones eclesiásticas y políticas durante su mandato como Cardenal Secretario de Estado fueron hechas públicas por la Santa Sede en 1939. El más notable entre los 50 discursos es su revisión de las cuestiones Iglesia-Estado en Budapest en 1938. [67]

Un año antes de su elección papal, el 26 de enero de 1938, el cardenal secretario de Estado ofició el bautismo del infante Juan Carlos ( rey de España de 1975 a 2014), en una ceremonia celebrada en el Palacio Malta de Roma . [68]

Concordato del ReichyCon dolores más intensos

Pío XI (centro) con el cardenal Pacelli (delante a la izquierda), el pionero de la transmisión por radio Guglielmo Marconi (atrás a la izquierda) y otros en la inauguración de Radio Vaticano el 12 de febrero de 1931
Pacelli (sentado, en el centro) en la firma del Reichskonkordat el 20 de julio de 1933 en Roma con (de izquierda a derecha) : el prelado alemán Ludwig Kaas, el vicecanciller alemán Franz von Papen , el secretario de Asuntos Eclesiásticos Extraordinarios Giuseppe Pizzardo , Alfredo Ottaviani y el ministro del Reich Rudolf Buttmann

El Reichskonkordat fue parte integral de cuatro concordatos que Pacelli concluyó en nombre del Vaticano con los estados alemanes. Los concordatos estatales eran necesarios porque la constitución federalista alemana de Weimar dio a los estados alemanes autoridad en el área de educación y cultura y, por lo tanto, disminuyó la autoridad de las iglesias en estas áreas; esta disminución de la autoridad de la iglesia era una preocupación principal del Vaticano. Como nuncio bávaro, Pacelli negoció con éxito con las autoridades bávaras en 1924. Esperaba que el concordato con la católica Baviera fuera el modelo para el resto de Alemania. [69] [70] Prusia mostró interés en las negociaciones solo después del concordato bávaro. Sin embargo, Pacelli obtuvo condiciones menos favorables para la iglesia en el Concordato prusiano de 1929, que excluía las cuestiones educativas. Pacelli completó un concordato con el estado alemán de Baden en 1932, después de haberse mudado a Roma. Allí también negoció un concordato con Austria en 1933. [71] En el período de diez años de 1922 a 1932 se habían concluido un total de 16 concordatos y tratados con estados europeos. [72]

El Reichskoncordat , firmado el 20 de julio de 1933 entre Alemania y la Santa Sede, aunque formaba parte de una política general del Vaticano, fue controvertido desde su comienzo. Sigue siendo el más importante de los concordatos de Pacelli. Se debate no por su contenido, que sigue siendo válido hoy en día, sino por el momento en que se firmó. Un concordato nacional con Alemania era uno de los principales objetivos de Pacelli como secretario de Estado, porque esperaba fortalecer la posición jurídica de la Iglesia. Pacelli, que conocía bien las condiciones alemanas, hizo hincapié en particular en la protección de las asociaciones católicas (§ 31), la libertad de educación y de escuelas católicas y la libertad de publicaciones. [73]

Como nuncio durante la década de 1920, había hecho intentos infructuosos para obtener el acuerdo alemán para tal tratado, y entre 1930 y 1933 intentó iniciar negociaciones con representantes de sucesivos gobiernos alemanes, pero la oposición de los partidos protestantes y socialistas, la inestabilidad de los gobiernos nacionales y el cuidado de los estados individuales por proteger su autonomía frustraron este objetivo. En particular, las cuestiones de las escuelas confesionales y el trabajo pastoral en las fuerzas armadas impidieron cualquier acuerdo a nivel nacional, a pesar de las conversaciones en el invierno de 1932. [74] [75]

Adolf Hitler fue nombrado canciller el 30 de enero de 1933 y trató de ganar respetabilidad internacional y eliminar la oposición interna de los representantes de la Iglesia y del Partido del Centro Católico . Envió a su vicecanciller Franz von Papen , un noble católico, a Roma para ofrecer negociaciones sobre un Reichskonkordat. [76] [77] En nombre de Pacelli, el prelado Ludwig Kaas , el presidente saliente del Partido del Centro, negoció los primeros borradores de los términos con von Papen. [78] El concordato fue finalmente firmado, por Pacelli para el Vaticano y von Papen para Alemania, el 20 de julio y ratificado el 10 de septiembre de 1933. [79] El obispo Konrad von Preysing advirtió contra el compromiso con el nuevo régimen, contra aquellos que vieron la persecución nazi de la Iglesia como una aberración que Hitler corregiría. [80]

Entre 1933 y 1939, Pacelli emitió 55 protestas por violaciones del Reichskonkordat . En particular, a principios de 1937, Pacelli pidió a varios cardenales alemanes, incluido el cardenal Michael von Faulhaber , que lo ayudaran a escribir una protesta por las violaciones nazis del Reichskonkordat ; esto se convertiría en la encíclica de 1937 de Pío XI, Mit brennender Sorge . La encíclica fue escrita en alemán y no en el latín habitual de los documentos oficiales de la Iglesia Católica. Distribuida en secreto por un ejército de motociclistas y leída desde todos los púlpitos de la Iglesia Católica alemana el Domingo de Ramos , condenaba el paganismo de la ideología nazi . [81] Pío XI atribuyó su creación y redacción a Pacelli. [82] Fue la primera denuncia oficial del nazismo hecha por una organización importante y resultó en la persecución de la iglesia por parte de los nazis enfurecidos que cerraron todas las imprentas participantes y "tomaron numerosas medidas vengativas contra la Iglesia, incluyendo la realización de una larga serie de juicios por inmoralidad del clero católico". [83] El 10 de junio de 1941, el Papa comentó sobre los problemas del Reichskonkordat en una carta al obispo de Passau , en Baviera: "La historia del Reichskonkordat muestra que el otro lado carecía de los prerrequisitos más básicos para aceptar las libertades y derechos mínimos de la Iglesia, sin los cuales la Iglesia simplemente no puede vivir y operar, a pesar de los acuerdos formales". [84]

Relaciones con los medios de comunicación

El cardenal Pacelli pronunció una conferencia titulada «La prensa y el apostolado» en la Universidad Pontificia de Santo Tomás de Aquino, Angelicum , el 17 de abril de 1936. [85]

Papado

Elección y coronación

El Papa Pío XII aparece en la logia central después de su elección el 2 de marzo de 1939
La firma de Pío XII nunca cambió [86]

El papa Pío XI murió el 10 de febrero de 1939. Varios historiadores han interpretado el cónclave para elegir a su sucesor como una elección entre un candidato diplomático o espiritual, y consideran la experiencia diplomática de Pacelli, especialmente con Alemania, como uno de los factores decisivos en su elección el 2 de marzo de 1939, su 63 cumpleaños, después de solo un día de deliberación y tres votaciones. [87] [88] Fue el primer cardenal secretario de Estado en ser elegido papa desde Clemente IX en 1667. [89] Fue uno de los dos únicos hombres conocidos que sirvieron como camarlengo inmediatamente antes de ser elegido papa (el otro fue el papa León XIII ). Según los rumores, pidió que se realizara otra votación para asegurar la validez de su elección. Después de que su elección fuera efectivamente confirmada, eligió el nombre de Pío XII en honor a su predecesor inmediato.

Su coronación tuvo lugar el 12 de marzo de 1939. Al ser elegido Papa, fue también formalmente Gran Maestre de la Orden Ecuestre del Santo Sepulcro de Jerusalén , Prefecto de la Suprema Sagrada Congregación del Santo Oficio , Prefecto de la Sagrada Congregación para las Iglesias Orientales y Prefecto de la Sagrada Congregación Consistorial . Sin embargo, existía un Cardenal Secretario para dirigir estos organismos en el día a día.

Pacelli adoptó el mismo nombre papal que su predecesor, un título usado exclusivamente por los Papas italianos . Se le cita diciendo: "Me llamo Pío; toda mi vida estuvo bajo Papas con este nombre, pero especialmente como un signo de gratitud hacia Pío XI ". [90] El 15 de diciembre de 1937, durante su último consistorio, Pío XI insinuó firmemente a los cardenales que esperaba que Pacelli fuera su sucesor, diciendo "Él está en medio de ustedes". [91] [92] Anteriormente se le había citado diciendo: "Cuando hoy muera el Papa, mañana tendréis otro, porque la Iglesia continúa. Sería una tragedia mucho mayor si el cardenal Pacelli muriera, porque sólo hay uno. Rezo todos los días para que Dios envíe a otro a uno de nuestros seminarios, pero a día de hoy, sólo hay uno en este mundo". [93]

Equipo

Después de su elección, nombró a Luigi Maglione como su sucesor como cardenal secretario de Estado. El cardenal Maglione, un experimentado diplomático del Vaticano, había restablecido relaciones diplomáticas con Suiza y fue nuncio en París durante doce años . Sin embargo, Maglione no ejerció la influencia de su predecesor Pacelli, quien como Papa continuó su estrecha relación con Giovanni Battista Montini (más tarde Papa Pablo VI ) y Domenico Tardini . Después de la muerte de Maglione en 1944, Pío dejó el puesto vacante y nombró a Tardini jefe de su sección extranjera y a Montini jefe de la sección interna. [94] Tardini y Montini continuaron sirviendo allí hasta 1953, cuando Pío XII decidió nombrarlos cardenales, [95] un honor que ambos rechazaron. [96] Luego fueron designados prosecretarios con el privilegio de usar insignias episcopales. [97] Tardini continuó siendo un estrecho colaborador del Papa hasta la muerte de Pío XII, mientras que Montini se convirtió en arzobispo de Milán , después de la muerte de Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster .

Pío XII erosionó lentamente el monopolio italiano sobre la Curia romana ; empleó como asesores a jesuitas alemanes y holandeses , Robert Leiber, Augustin Bea y Sebastian Tromp . También apoyó la elevación de estadounidenses como el cardenal Francis Spellman de un papel menor a uno mayor en la iglesia. [98] [99] Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Pío XII nombró a más no italianos que cualquier Papa antes que él. Entre los designados estadounidenses se encontraban Joseph P. Hurley como regente de la nunciatura en Belgrado , Gerald P. O'Hara como nuncio en Rumania y Aloisius Joseph Muench como nuncio en Alemania. Por primera vez, numerosos jóvenes europeos, asiáticos y "estadounidenses fueron entrenados en varias congregaciones y secretarías dentro del Vaticano para un eventual servicio en todo el mundo". [100]

Consistorios

Uno de los primeros retratos oficiales en color de Pío XII, c.  1939-40

Pío XII sólo celebró dos consistorios durante su pontificado para crear nuevos cardenales , a diferencia de Pío XI, que lo había hecho 17 veces en otros tantos años. Pío XII decidió no nombrar nuevos cardenales durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y el número de cardenales se redujo a 38, siendo Dennis Joseph Dougherty, de Filadelfia, el único cardenal estadounidense vivo.

La primera ocasión, el 18 de febrero de 1946, dio como resultado la elevación de un récord de 32 nuevos cardenales, casi la mitad del Colegio Cardenalicio y alcanzando el límite canónico de 70 cardenales. [a] En el consistorio de 1946, Pío XII, aunque mantuvo el tamaño máximo del Colegio Cardenalicio en 70, nombró cardenales de China , India , Oriente Medio y aumentó el número de cardenales de las Américas, disminuyendo proporcionalmente la influencia italiana. [101]

En su segundo consistorio, el 12 de enero de 1953, se esperaba que sus colaboradores más cercanos, Mons. Domenico Tardini y Giovanni Montini, fueran elevados [102] y Pío XII informó a los cardenales reunidos que ambos estaban originalmente en la parte superior de su lista, [103] pero habían rechazado la oferta y fueron recompensados ​​en su lugar con otras promociones. [104] Tanto Montini como Tardini se convertirían en cardenales poco después de la muerte de Pío; Montini se convirtió más tarde en el Papa Pablo VI . Los dos consistorios de 1946 y 1953 pusieron fin a más de quinientos años de italianos constituyendo una mayoría en el Colegio Cardenalicio . [105]

Con pocas excepciones, los prelados italianos aceptaron positivamente los cambios; no hubo ningún movimiento de protesta ni oposición abierta a los esfuerzos de internacionalización. [106]

Reformas de la Iglesia

Reformas litúrgicas

En su encíclica Mediator Dei , Pío XII vincula la liturgia con la última voluntad de Jesucristo .

Pero es voluntad suya que el culto que instituyó y practicó durante su vida terrena continúe siempre sin interrupción, pues no ha dejado huérfanos a los hombres, sino que nos ofrece siempre el apoyo de su intercesión poderosa e infalible, actuando como nuestro «abogado ante el Padre». Nos ayuda también por medio de su Iglesia, en la que está presente indefectiblemente a lo largo de los siglos: por medio de la Iglesia que constituyó «columna de la verdad» y dispensadora de la gracia, y que con su sacrificio en la cruz fundó, consagró y confirmó para siempre. [107]

La Iglesia tiene, pues, según Pío XII, un fin común con el mismo Cristo: enseñar a todos los hombres la verdad y ofrecer a Dios un sacrificio agradable y aceptable. De este modo, la Iglesia restablece la unidad entre el Creador y sus criaturas. [108] El Sacrificio del Altar, siendo acción propia de Cristo, comunica y dispensa la gracia divina de Cristo a los miembros del Cuerpo Místico. [109]

El Papa Pío XII sentado en la Sedia gestatoria en 1949

El obispo Carlos Duarte Costa , crítico durante mucho tiempo de las políticas de Pío XII durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial y opositor del celibato clerical y del uso del latín como lengua de la liturgia , fue excomulgado por Pío XII el 2 de julio de 1945. [110] Más tarde estableció un grupo cismático llamado " Iglesia Católica Apostólica Brasileña ". [111]

Reformas del derecho canónico

La reforma del Código de Derecho Canónico (CIC) tenía como objetivo la descentralización de la autoridad y una mayor independencia de las Iglesias uniatas . En sus nuevas constituciones, los Patriarcas orientales se hicieron casi independientes de Roma (CIC Orientalis, 1957), la ley oriental sobre el matrimonio (CIC Orientalis, 1949), la ley civil (CIC Orientalis, 1950), las leyes que regulaban las asociaciones religiosas (CIC Orientalis, 1952), la ley de propiedad (CIC Orientalis, 1952) y otras leyes. Estas reformas y los escritos de Pío XII tenían como objetivo establecer a los orientales como partes iguales del cuerpo místico de Cristo, como se explica en la encíclica Mystici Corporis Christi .

Sacerdotes y religiosos

Con la constitución apostólica Sedis Sapientiae , Pío XII añadió a la formación pastoral de los futuros sacerdotes las ciencias sociales , la sociología , la psicología y la psicología social . Pío XII subrayó la necesidad de analizar sistemáticamente la condición psicológica de los candidatos al sacerdocio para asegurarse de que son capaces de una vida de celibato y de servicio. [112] Pío XII añadió un año a la formación teológica de los futuros sacerdotes. Incluyó un «año pastoral», una introducción a la práctica del trabajo parroquial. [113]

Pío XII escribió en Menti Nostrae que el llamado a la constante reforma interior y al heroísmo cristiano significa estar por encima de la media, ser un ejemplo vivo de virtud cristiana. Las estrictas normas que gobiernan sus vidas tienen por objeto convertirlos en modelos de perfección cristiana para los laicos. [114] Se anima a los obispos a fijarse en santos modelo como Bonifacio y el Papa Pío X. [ 115] Se anima a los sacerdotes a ser ejemplos vivos del amor de Cristo y su sacrificio. [116]

Teología

Estatua de Fátima del Papa Pío XII, que consagró a Rusia y al mundo : "Así como hace algunos años consagramos todo el género humano al Inmaculado Corazón de la Virgen María , Madre de Dios , así hoy consagramos y de manera muy especial encomendamos a este Inmaculado Corazón a todos los pueblos de Rusia..."

Pío XII explicó la fe católica en 41 encíclicas y casi 1000 mensajes y discursos durante su largo pontificado. Mystici Corporis Christi aclaró la pertenencia y la participación en la Iglesia. La encíclica Divino afflante Spiritu abrió las puertas a la investigación bíblica. Su magisterio fue mucho más amplio y es difícil de resumir. En numerosos discursos la enseñanza católica se relaciona con diversos aspectos de la vida, la educación, la medicina, la política, la guerra y la paz, la vida de los santos, María , la Madre de Dios , cosas eternas y contemporáneas. Teológicamente, Pío XII especificó la naturaleza de la autoridad docente de la Iglesia católica. También dio una nueva libertad para emprender investigaciones teológicas. [117]

Orientación teológica

Investigación bíblica

La encíclica Divino afflante Spiritu , publicada en 1943, [118] enfatizó el papel de la Biblia. Pío XII liberó la investigación bíblica de las limitaciones anteriores. Animó a los teólogos cristianos a revisar las versiones originales de la Biblia en griego y hebreo . Al notar mejoras en la arqueología , la encíclica revirtió la encíclica del Papa León XIII, que solo había abogado por volver a los textos originales para resolver la ambigüedad en la Vulgata latina . La encíclica exige una comprensión mucho mejor de la historia y las tradiciones hebreas antiguas. Requiere que los obispos de toda la iglesia inicien estudios bíblicos para los laicos. El Pontífice también solicita una reorientación de la enseñanza y la educación católicas, apoyándose mucho más en las escrituras sagradas en los sermones y la instrucción religiosa. [119]

El papel de la teología

Sin embargo, esta libertad de investigación teológica no se extiende a todos los aspectos de la teología. Según Pío, los teólogos, empleados por la Iglesia católica, son asistentes para enseñar las enseñanzas oficiales de la Iglesia y no sus propios pensamientos privados. Son libres de dedicarse a la investigación empírica, que la Iglesia apoya generosamente, pero en materia de moralidad y religión, están sujetos al magisterio y a la autoridad de la Iglesia, el Magisterio . "El más noble oficio de la teología es mostrar cómo una doctrina definida por la Iglesia está contenida en las fuentes de la revelación, ... en el sentido en que ha sido definida por la Iglesia". [120] El depósito de la fe se interpreta auténticamente no para cada uno de los fieles, ni siquiera para los teólogos, sino sólo para la autoridad docente de la Iglesia. [121]

Mariología y el dogma de la Asunción

El 1 de noviembre de 1950, Pío XII definió el dogma de la Asunción ( en la imagen, La Assunta de Tiziano (1516-1518)).

Consagración mundial al Inmaculado Corazón de María

De niño y en su juventud, Pacelli fue un ferviente seguidor de la Virgen María. Fue consagrado obispo el 13 de mayo de 1917, el mismo día de las apariciones de Nuestra Señora de Fátima . Siguiendo las peticiones de la mística portuguesa Alexandrina de Balazar , consagró el mundo al Inmaculado Corazón de María en 1942. Sus restos fueron enterrados en la cripta de la Basílica de San Pedro el día de la festividad de Nuestra Señora de Fátima, el 13 de octubre de 1958.

Dogma de la Asunción de María

El 1 de noviembre de 1950, Pío XII invocó la infalibilidad papal por primera vez desde 1854 al definir el dogma de la Asunción de María , es decir, que ella "habiendo completado el curso de su vida terrena, fue asunta en cuerpo y alma a la gloria celestial". [122] Hasta la fecha, esta es la última vez que se ha utilizado la infalibilidad papal completa. El dogma fue precedido por la encíclica Deiparae Virginis Mariae de 1946 , que solicitaba a todos los obispos católicos que expresaran su opinión sobre una posible dogmatización. El 8 de septiembre de 1953, la encíclica Fulgens corona anunció un año mariano para 1954, el centenario del dogma de la Inmaculada Concepción . [123] En la encíclica Ad caeli reginam promulgó la fiesta de la Realeza de María . [124] Mystici Corporis Christi resume su mariología . [125] El 15 de agosto de 1954, festividad de la Asunción, inició la práctica de dirigir el Ángelus todos los domingos antes de dirigirse a la multitud reunida en Castel Gandolfo . [126]

Enseñanzas sociales

Coronación de la Salus Populi Romani por el Papa Pío XII en 1954

Teología médica

Pío XII pronunció numerosos discursos ante profesionales médicos e investigadores. [127] Se dirigió a médicos, enfermeras y parteras para detallar todos los aspectos de los derechos y la dignidad de los pacientes, las responsabilidades médicas, las implicaciones morales de las enfermedades psicológicas y los usos de los psicofármacos. También abordó cuestiones como los usos de los medicamentos en personas terminales , las mentiras médicas ante una enfermedad grave y los derechos de los familiares a tomar decisiones en contra del consejo médico de expertos. El Papa Pío XII a menudo reconsideró la verdad previamente aceptada, por lo que fue el primero en determinar que el uso de medicamentos para el dolor en pacientes terminales está justificado, incluso si esto puede acortar la vida del paciente, siempre que el acortamiento de la vida no sea el objetivo en sí. [128]

Familia y sexualidad

El Papa Pío XII desarrolló una extensa teología de la familia, abordando cuestiones como los roles familiares, el reparto de las tareas domésticas, la educación de los hijos, la resolución de conflictos, los dilemas financieros, los problemas psicológicos, la enfermedad, el cuidado de las generaciones mayores, el desempleo, la santidad y la virtud conyugales, la oración en común, las discusiones religiosas y más. Aceptó el método del ritmo como una forma moral de planificación familiar , aunque sólo en circunstancias limitadas, dentro del contexto de la familia. [129]

Teología y ciencia

Para Pío XII, la ciencia y la religión eran hermanas celestiales, manifestaciones diferentes de la exactitud divina, que no podían contradecirse entre sí en el largo plazo. [130] Sobre su relación, su consejero, el profesor Robert Leiber, escribió: «Pío XII tuvo mucho cuidado de no cerrar ninguna puerta prematuramente. Fue enérgico en este punto y lamentó que en el caso de Galileo ...». [131]

Evolución del cuerpo humano

En 1950, Pío XII promulgó la Humani generis , que reconocía que la evolución podía describir con precisión los orígenes biológicos de la forma humana, pero al mismo tiempo criticaba a quienes "imprudente e indiscretamente sostienen que la evolución... explica el origen de todas las cosas". Los católicos deben creer que el alma humana fue creada inmediatamente por Dios. Dado que el alma es una sustancia espiritual, no surge a través de la transformación de la materia, sino directamente por Dios, de ahí la singularidad especial de cada persona. [132] Cincuenta años después, el Papa Juan Pablo II , afirmando que la evidencia científica ahora parecía favorecer la teoría de la evolución, sostuvo la distinción de Pío XII con respecto al alma humana. "Incluso si el cuerpo humano se origina de materia viva preexistente, el alma espiritual es creada espontáneamente por Dios". [133]

Pena capital

En un discurso pronunciado el 14 de septiembre de 1952, el Papa Pío XII afirmó que la Iglesia no considera la ejecución de criminales como una violación por parte del Estado del derecho universal a la vida:

Cuando se trata de la ejecución de un condenado, el Estado no dispone del derecho a la vida del individuo. En este caso, corresponde al poder público privar al condenado del goce de la vida en expiación de su delito, cuando por éste ya se ha deshecho de su derecho a vivir. [134]

La Iglesia considera las sanciones penales como "medicinales", pues impiden que el delincuente vuelva a delinquir, y como "vengativas", pues proporcionan retribución por el delito cometido. Pío defendió la autoridad del Estado para ejecutar castigos, incluso la pena de muerte. [135]

Democracia y monarquía

Pío XII enseñó que las masas eran una amenaza para la verdadera democracia. En una democracia así, la libertad es el deber moral del individuo y la igualdad es el derecho de todos a vivir honorablemente en el lugar y la posición que Dios les ha asignado. [136]

El 1 de junio de 1946, un día antes del referéndum institucional italiano de 1946 sobre la abolición o el mantenimiento de la monarquía italiana, Pío XII pronunció un sermón en la plaza de San Pedro . Si bien no mencionó directamente la monarquía ni el republicanismo, dado el contexto, su discurso fue visto de todos modos como un respaldo a Humberto II en el referéndum, y es difícil malinterpretar su alegato. [137]

Pío afirmó:

El problema es si una u otra de esas naciones, de esas dos hermanas latinas [el mismo día se celebraban elecciones en Francia] con varios milenios de civilización, seguirán aprendiendo contra la roca sólida del cristianismo... o por el contrario quieren entregar el destino de su futuro a la omnipotencia imposible de un estado material sin ideales extraterrestres, sin religión y sin Dios. Una de estas dos alternativas se dará según salgan victoriosos de las urnas los nombres de los campeones o de los destructores de la civilización cristiana [138]

Después de que el referéndum tuvo éxito y se abolió la monarquía italiana, Pío acordó en privado con su enviado Myron Taylor "...que habría sido mucho mejor que Italia siguiera siendo una monarquía, pero también señaló que lo hecho, hecho estaba". [139]

Encíclicas, escritos y discursos

En 1939 Pío XII puso su pontificado bajo el cuidado maternal de Nuestra Señora del Buen Consejo y compuso una oración a ella. [140] [141] Esta pintura del siglo XIX es de Pasquale Sarullo .

Pío XII publicó 41 encíclicas durante su pontificado —más que todos sus sucesores en los últimos 50 años juntos— junto con muchos otros escritos y discursos. El pontificado de Pío XII fue el primero en la historia del Vaticano en publicar discursos y alocuciones papales en lengua vernácula de manera sistemática. Hasta entonces, los documentos papales se publicaban principalmente en latín en Acta Apostolicae Sedis desde 1909. Debido a la novedad de todo esto y a la temida ocupación del Vaticano por la Wehrmacht alemana , no todos los documentos existen hoy en día. En 1944, varios documentos papales fueron quemados o "encerrados". [142]

Varias encíclicas se dirigieron a las Iglesias católicas orientales . Orientalis Ecclesiae fue publicada en 1944 en el 15º centenario de la muerte de Cirilo de Alejandría , un santo común al cristianismo oriental y las Iglesias latinas . Pío XII pide oración por un mejor entendimiento y unificación de las iglesias. Orientales omnes Ecclesias , publicada en 1945 en el 350º aniversario de la reunificación, es un llamado a la unidad continua de la Iglesia greco-católica rutena , amenazada en su propia existencia por las autoridades de la Unión Soviética. Sempiternus Rex fue publicada en 1951 en el 1500º aniversario del Concilio Ecuménico de Calcedonia . Incluía un llamado a las comunidades orientales que se adhieren a la teología miafisita para que regresen a la Iglesia católica. Orientales Ecclesias fue publicada en 1952 y dirigida a las Iglesias orientales, protestando por la continua persecución estalinista de la iglesia. Se enviaron varias cartas apostólicas a los obispos de Oriente. El 13 de mayo de 1956, el Papa Pío se dirigió a todos los obispos de rito oriental. María, la madre de Dios, fue objeto de cartas encíclicas al pueblo de Rusia en Fulgens corona , así como de una carta papal al pueblo de Rusia. [143] [144] [145] [146] [147] [148] [149]

Pío XII hizo dos intervenciones importantes sobre los medios de comunicación. Su discurso de 1955 La película ideal , originalmente pronunciado en dos partes ante miembros de la industria cinematográfica italiana, ofrecía un «análisis sofisticado de la industria cinematográfica y del papel del cine en la sociedad moderna». [150] En comparación con la enseñanza de su predecesor, la encíclica Miranda Prorsus (1957) muestra una «gran consideración por la importancia del cine, la televisión y la radio». [151]

Fiestas y devociones

En 1958, el Papa Pío XII declaró la Fiesta del Santo Rostro de Jesús como el Martes de Carnaval (el martes anterior al Miércoles de Ceniza ) para todos los católicos. La primera medalla del Santo Rostro, realizada por la Hermana María Pierina de Micheli, basada en la imagen del Santo Sudario de Turín, había sido ofrecida a Pío XII, quien aprobó la medalla y la devoción basada en ella. La devoción general al Santo Rostro de Jesús había sido aprobada por el Papa León XIII en 1885 antes de que la imagen del Santo Sudario de Turín hubiera sido fotografiada. [152] [153]

Canonizaciones y beatificaciones

El papa Pío XII canonizó a numerosas personas, entre ellas al papa Pío X —«ambos estaban decididos a erradicar, en la medida de lo posible, todo rastro de heterodoxia peligrosa » [154] — y a María Goretti . Beatificó al papa Inocencio XI . Las primeras canonizaciones fueron las de dos mujeres, la fundadora de una congregación para mujeres, María Eufrasia Pelletier , y una joven laica, Gemma Galgani . Pelletier tenía fama de abrir nuevos caminos para las obras de caridad católicas, ayudando a personas en dificultades con la ley, que habían sido desatendidas por el sistema y la iglesia. Galgani era una mujer virtuosa de unos veinte años, de la que se decía que tenía los estigmas . [155]

Pío XII también nombró a Antonio de Padua Doctor de la Iglesia el 16 de enero de 1946, al tiempo que le confirió el título de Doctor evangelius . [ cita requerida ]

Segunda Guerra Mundial

Miembros del 22.º Regimiento Real Canadiense , en audiencia con el Papa Pío XII, tras la Liberación de Roma en 1944

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Pío XII consideró que su obligación primordial era asegurar la continuidad de la " Iglesia visible " y su misión divina. [156] Pío XII presionó a los líderes mundiales para evitar el estallido de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y luego expresó su consternación por la llegada de la guerra en su encíclica Summi Pontificatus de octubre de 1939. Siguió una estricta política pública de neutralidad del Vaticano durante la duración del conflicto, reflejando la del Papa Benedicto XV .

En 1939, Pío XII convirtió el Vaticano en un centro de ayuda que organizó desde varias partes del mundo. [157] A petición del Papa, funcionó en el Vaticano una oficina de información para prisioneros de guerra y refugiados bajo la dirección de Giovanni Battista Montini , que en los años de su existencia desde 1939 hasta 1947 recibió casi 10 millones (9.891.497) de solicitudes de información y produjo más de 11 millones (11.293.511) de respuestas sobre personas desaparecidas. [158]

McGoldrick (2012) concluye que durante la guerra:

Pío XII tenía un afecto genuino por Alemania, aunque no por el elemento criminal en cuyas manos había caído; temía al bolchevismo, una ideología dedicada a la aniquilación de la iglesia de la que era jefe, pero sus simpatías estaban con los aliados y las democracias, especialmente los Estados Unidos, en cuya economía de guerra había transferido e invertido los considerables activos del Vaticano. [159]

Comienzo de la guerra

Summi Pontificatus

Summi Pontificatus fue la primera encíclica papal emitida por el Papa Pío XII, en octubre de 1939, y estableció algunos de los temas de su pontificado. Durante la redacción de la carta, comenzó la Segunda Guerra Mundial con la invasión alemana/soviética de Polonia : "la terrible tempestad de la guerra ya está rugiendo a pesar de todos nuestros esfuerzos por evitarla". La carta papal denunciaba el antisemitismo, la guerra, el totalitarismo, el ataque a la Polonia católica y la persecución nazi de la Iglesia. [160]

Pío XII reiteró la enseñanza de la Iglesia sobre el «principio de igualdad», con referencia específica a los judíos: «no hay gentil ni judío, circuncisión ni incircuncisión». [161] El olvido de la solidaridad «impuesta por nuestro origen común y por la igualdad de naturaleza racional en todos los hombres» fue calificado de «error pernicioso». [162] Se pidió a los católicos de todas partes que ofrecieran «compasión y ayuda» a las víctimas de la guerra. [163] El Papa declaró su determinación de trabajar para acelerar el retorno de la paz y la confianza en las oraciones por la justicia, el amor y la misericordia, para prevalecer contra el azote de la guerra. [164] La carta también denunció la muerte de no combatientes. [165]

Siguiendo los temas tratados en Non abbiamo bisogno (1931); Mit brennender Sorge (1937) y Divini redemptoris (1937), Pío escribió contra los "movimientos anticristianos" y la necesidad de traer de vuelta a la Iglesia a aquellos que estaban siguiendo "un modelo falso... engañados por el error, la pasión, la tentación y el prejuicio, [quienes] se han alejado de la fe en el Dios verdadero". [166] Pío escribió sobre los "cristianos desafortunadamente más de nombre que de hecho" que habían mostrado "cobardía" frente a la persecución por parte de estos credos, y respaldó la resistencia: [166]

¿Quién, entre los «soldados de Cristo», eclesiástico o laico, no se siente incitado y espoleado a una mayor vigilancia, a una resistencia más decidida, al ver la hueste cada vez más numerosa de enemigos de Cristo; al percibir que los portavoces de estas tendencias niegan o descuidan en la práctica las verdades vivificantes y los valores inherentes a la creencia en Dios y en Cristo; al percibir que rompen arbitrariamente las Tablas de los Mandamientos de Dios para sustituirlas por otras tablas y otros criterios despojados del contenido ético de la Revelación del Sinaí, criterios en los que no tiene cabida el espíritu del Sermón de la Montaña y de la Cruz?

Pío escribió sobre una iglesia perseguida [167] y una época que exigía "caridad" para las víctimas que tenían "derecho" a la compasión. Contra la invasión de Polonia y la matanza de civiles escribió: [160]

"Esta es una hora de tinieblas... en la que el espíritu de violencia y de discordia acarrea a la humanidad sufrimientos indescriptibles... Las naciones arrastradas por el trágico torbellino de la guerra quizá estén todavía sólo en el "principio de los dolores"... pero ya ahora reinan en miles de familias la muerte y la desolación, el llanto y la miseria. La sangre de innumerables seres humanos, incluso no combatientes, eleva un lastimoso canto fúnebre sobre una nación como nuestra querida Polonia, que, por su fidelidad a la Iglesia, por sus servicios en defensa de la civilización cristiana, escritos con caracteres indelebles en los anales de la historia, tiene derecho a la simpatía generosa y fraterna del mundo entero, mientras espera, contando con la poderosa intercesión de María, Auxilio de los cristianos, la hora de una resurrección en armonía con los principios de la justicia y de la verdadera paz.

Como Italia no era todavía aliada de Hitler en la guerra, se pidió a los italianos que permanecieran fieles a la Iglesia católica. Pío evitó las denuncias explícitas del hitlerismo o del estalinismo , estableciendo el tono público "imparcial" que se volvería controvertido en una evaluación posterior de su pontificado: "Una declaración completa de la posición doctrinal que debe adoptarse frente a los errores de hoy, si es necesario, puede aplazarse para otro momento, a menos que haya perturbaciones por eventos externos calamitosos; por el momento Nos limitamos a algunas observaciones fundamentales". [168]

Invasión de Polonia

En Summi Pontificatus , Pío XII expresó su consternación por la matanza de no combatientes en la invasión nazi/soviética de Polonia y expresó su esperanza en la "resurrección" de ese país. Los nazis y los soviéticos comenzaron una persecución de la Iglesia católica en Polonia . En abril de 1940, el Vaticano informó al gobierno de los Estados Unidos que sus esfuerzos por proporcionar ayuda humanitaria habían sido bloqueados por los alemanes y que la Santa Sede se había visto obligada a buscar canales indirectos a través de los cuales dirigir su ayuda. [169] Michael Phayer , un crítico de Pío XII, evalúa su política como haber sido la de "negarse a censurar" la invasión y anexión "alemana" de Polonia. Esto, escribió Phayer, fue considerado como una "traición" por muchos católicos y clérigos polacos, que vieron su nombramiento de Hilarius Breitinger como administrador apostólico para Wartheland en mayo de 1942, un "reconocimiento implícito" de la desintegración de Polonia; Las opiniones de los Volksdeutsche , en su mayoría minorías católicas alemanas que vivían en la Polonia ocupada, eran más variadas. [170] Phayer sostiene que Pío XII, tanto antes como durante su papado, constantemente "se mostró reticente hacia Alemania a expensas de Polonia", y vio a Alemania, no a Polonia, como crítica para "reconstruir una gran presencia católica en Europa Central". [171] En mayo de 1942, Kazimierz Papée , embajador polaco en el Vaticano, se quejó de que Pío no había condenado la reciente ola de atrocidades en Polonia; cuando el cardenal secretario de Estado Maglione respondió que el Vaticano no podía documentar atrocidades individuales, Papée declaró que "cuando algo se vuelve notorio, no se requieren pruebas". [172] Aunque Pío XII recibió frecuentes informes sobre atrocidades cometidas por y/o contra los católicos, su conocimiento era incompleto; por ejemplo, lloró después de la guerra al enterarse de que el cardenal August Hlond había prohibido los servicios litúrgicos alemanes en Polonia. [173]

Hubo un caso bien conocido de rabinos judíos que, buscando apoyo contra la persecución nazi de los judíos polacos en el Gobierno General (zona polaca ocupada por los nazis), se quejaron a los representantes de la Iglesia Católica. El intento de intervención de la iglesia provocó que los nazis tomaran represalias arrestando a los rabinos y deportándolos al campo de exterminio. Posteriormente, la Iglesia Católica en Polonia abandonó la intervención directa, centrándose en cambio en organizar la ayuda clandestina, con un enorme apoyo internacional orquestado por el Papa Pío XII y su Santa Sede. El Papa fue informado sobre las atrocidades nazis cometidas en Polonia tanto por funcionarios de la Iglesia polaca como de la clandestinidad polaca . Esos materiales de inteligencia fueron utilizados por Pío XII el 11 de marzo de 1940 durante una audiencia formal con Joachim von Ribbentrop (asesor de asuntos exteriores de Hitler) cuando el Papa estaba "enumerando la fecha, el lugar y los detalles precisos de cada crimen", como lo describió Joseph L. Lichten [174] después de otros.

Acciones tempranas para poner fin al conflicto

Con Polonia invadida, pero Francia y los Países Bajos aún sin ser atacados, Pío siguió esperando una paz negociada para evitar la propagación del conflicto. El presidente estadounidense Franklin D. Roosevelt, de ideas similares , restableció las relaciones diplomáticas estadounidenses con el Vaticano después de una pausa de 70 años y envió a Myron C. Taylor como su representante personal. [175] Pío recibió calurosamente al enviado de Roosevelt y a la iniciativa de paz, calificándolos de "un acto ejemplar de solidaridad fraternal y cordial... en defensa contra el aliento gélido de tendencias anticristianas agresivas y mortales, impías". [176] La correspondencia estadounidense hablaba de "esfuerzos paralelos por la paz y el alivio del sufrimiento". [177] A pesar del colapso temprano de las esperanzas de paz, la misión de Taylor continuó en el Vaticano. [175]

According to Hitler biographer John Toland, following the November 1939 assassination attempt by Johann Georg Elser, Hitler said Pius would have wanted the plot to succeed: "he's no friend of mine".[178] In the spring of 1940, a group of German generals seeking to overthrow Hitler and make peace with the British approached Pope Pius XII, who acted as an interlocutor between the British and the abortive plot.[179] According to Toland, Munich lawyer Joseph Muller made a clandestine trip to Rome in October 1939, met with Pius XII and found him willing to act as intermediary. The Vatican agreed to send a letter outlining the bases for peace with England and the participation of the Pope was used to try to persuade senior German Generals Franz Halder and Walther von Brauchitsch to act against Hitler.[180]

Pius warned the Allies of the planned German invasion of the Low Countries in 1940.[181] In Rome in 1942, U.S. envoy Myron C. Taylor, thanked the Holy See for the "forthright and heroic expressions of indignation made by Pope Pius XII when Germany invaded the Low countries".[182] After Germany invaded the Low Countries during 1940, Pius XII sent expressions of sympathy to Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, King Leopold III of Belgium, and Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. When Mussolini learned of the warnings and the telegrams of sympathy, he took them as a personal affront and had his ambassador to the Vatican file an official protest, charging that Pius XII had taken sides against Italy's ally Germany. Mussolini's foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano claimed that Pius XII was "ready to let himself be deported to a concentration camp, rather than do anything against his conscience".[183]

When, in 1940, the Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop led the only senior Nazi delegation permitted an audience with Pius XII and asked why the Pope had sided with the Allies, Pius replied with a list of recent Nazi atrocities and religious persecutions committed against Christians and Jews, in Germany, and in Poland, leading The New York Times to headline its report "Jews Rights Defended" and write of "burning words he spoke to Herr Ribbentrop about religious persecution".[184] During the meeting, von Ribbentrop suggested an overall settlement between the Vatican and the Reich government in exchange for Pius XII instructing the German bishops to refrain from political criticism of the German government, but no agreement was reached.[185]

The investments of Bernardino Nogara were critical to the financing of the papacy during World War II.

At a special mass at St Peters for the victims of the war, held in November 1940, soon after the commencement of the London Blitz bombing by the Luftwaffe, Pius preached in his homily: "may the whirlwinds, that in the light of day or the dark of night, scatter terror, fire, destruction, and slaughter on helpless folk cease. May justice and charity on one side and on the other be in perfect balance, so that all injustice be repaired, the reign of right restored".[186] Later he appealed to the Allies to spare Rome from aerial bombing, and visited wounded victims of the Allied bombing of 19 July 1943.[187]

Widening conflict

Pius attempted, unsuccessfully, to dissuade the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini from joining Hitler in the war.[188] In April 1941, Pius XII granted a private audience to Ante Pavelić, the leader of the newly proclaimed Croatian state (rather than the diplomatic audience Pavelić had wanted).[189] Pius was criticised for his reception of Pavelić: an unattributed British Foreign Office memo on the subject described Pius as "the greatest moral coward of our age".[190] The Vatican did not officially recognise Pavelić's regime. While Pius XII did not publicly condemn the expulsions and forced conversions to Catholicism perpetrated on Serbs by Pavelić,[191] the Holy See did expressly repudiate the forced conversions in a memorandum dated 25 January 1942, from the Vatican Secretariat of State to the Yugoslavian Legation.[192] The Pope was well informed of Catholic clergy involvement with the Ustaše regime, even possessing a list of clergy members who had "joined in the slaughter", but decided against condemning the regime or taking action against the clergy involved, fearing that it would lead to schism in the Croatian church or undermine the formation of a future Croatian state.[193] Pius XII would elevate Aloysius Stepinac—a Croatian archbishop convicted of collaborating with the Ustaše by the newly established Yugoslav Communist regime—to the cardinalate in 1953.[194] Phayer agrees that Stepinac's was a "show trial", but states "the charge that he [Pius XII] supported the Ustaša regime was, of course, true, as everyone knew",[195] and that "if Stepinac had responded to the charges against him, his defense would have inevitably unraveled, exposing the Vatican's support of the genocidal Pavelić".[196] Throughout 1942, the Yugoslav government in exile sent letters of protest to Pius XII asking him to use all possible means to stop the massacres against the Serbs in the Croat state, however Pius XII did nothing.[197]

In 1941, Pius XII interpreted Divini Redemptoris, an encyclical of Pope Pius XI, which forbade Catholics to help Communists, as not applying to military assistance to the Soviet Union. This interpretation assuaged American Catholics who had previously opposed Lend-Lease arrangements with the Soviet Union.[citation needed]

In March 1942, Pius XII established diplomatic relations with the Empire of Japan and received ambassador Ken Harada, who remained in that position until the end of the war.[198][199]

In June 1942, diplomatic relations were established with the Nationalist government of China. This step was envisaged earlier, but delayed due to Japanese pressure to establish relations with the pro-Japanese Wang Jingwei regime. The first Chinese Minister to the Vatican, Hsieh Shou-kang, was only able to arrive at the Vatican in January 1943, due to difficulties of travel resulting from the war. He remained in that position until late 1946.[200]

The Pope employed the new technology of radio and a series of Christmas messages to preach against selfish nationalism and the evils of modern warfare and offer sympathy to the victims of the war.[187] Pius XII's 1942 Christmas address via Vatican Radio voiced concern at human rights abuses and the murder of innocents based on race. The majority of the speech spoke generally about human rights and civil society; at the very end of the speech, Pius XII mentioned "the hundreds of thousands of persons who, without any fault on their part, sometimes only because of their nationality or race, have been consigned to death or to a slow decline".[201] According to Rittner, the speech remains a "lightning rod" in debates about Pius XII.[202] The Nazis themselves responded to the speech by stating that it was "one long attack on everything we stand for. ... He is clearly speaking on behalf of the Jews. ... He is virtually accusing the German people of injustice toward the Jews, and makes himself the mouthpiece of the Jewish war criminals." The New York Times wrote that "The voice of Pius XII is a lonely voice in the silence and darkness enveloping Europe this Christmas. ... In calling for a 'real new order' based on 'liberty, justice and love', ... the Pope put himself squarely against Hitlerism."[203] Historian Michael Phayer claims, however, that "it is still not clear whose genocide or which genocide he was referring to".[204] Speaking on the 50th anniversary of Pius's death in 2008, the German Pope Benedict XVI recalled that the Pope's voice had been "broken by emotion" as he "deplored the situation" with a "clear reference to the deportation and extermination of the Jews".[205]

Several authors have alleged a plot to kidnap Pius XII by the Nazis during their occupation of Rome in 1943 (Vatican City itself was not occupied); British historian Owen Chadwick and the Jesuit ADSS editor Robert A. Graham each concluded such claims were an intentional creation of the British Political Warfare Executive.[206][207] However, in 2007, subsequently to those accounts, Dan Kurzman published a work in which he establishes that the plot was a fact.[208]

In 1944, Pius XII issued a Christmas message in which he warned against rule by the masses and against secular conceptions of liberty and equality.[136]

Final stages

As the war was approaching its end in 1945, Pius advocated a lenient policy by the Allied leaders in an effort to prevent what he perceived to be the mistakes made at the end of World War I.[209] On 23 August 1944, he met British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who was visiting Rome. At their meeting, the Pope acknowledged the justice of punishing war criminals, but expressed a hope that the people of Italy would not be punished, preferring that they be made "full allies" in the remaining war effort.[210]

Holocaust

Cesare Orsenigo, Pius XII's nuncio to Germany throughout World War II, with Hitler and Joachim von Ribbentrop
Polish prisoners toast their liberation from Dachau. Nazi persecution of Catholics was at its most severe in occupied Poland.
Pope Pius XII by Peter McIntyre c.1943–1944

During the Second World War, after Nazi Germany commenced its mass-murder of Jews in occupied Soviet territory, Pius XII employed diplomacy to aid victims of the Holocaust and directed the church to provide discreet aid to Jews.[211] Upon his death in 1958, among many Jewish tributes, the Chief Rabbi of Rome Elio Toaff, said: "Jews will always remember what the Catholic Church did for them by order of the Pope during the Second World War. When the war was raging, Pius spoke out very often to condemn the false race theory."[212] This is disputed by commentator John Cornwell, who, in his book, Hitler's Pope, argues that the Pope was weak and vacillating in his approach to Nazism. Cornwell asserts that the Pope did little to challenge the progressing holocaust of the Jews out of fear of provoking the Nazis into invading Vatican City.[213]

In his 1939 Summi Pontificatus first papal encyclical, Pius reiterated Catholic teaching against racial persecution and antisemitism and affirmed the ethical principles of the "Revelation on Sinai". At Christmas 1942, once evidence of the mass-murder of Jews had emerged, Pius XII voiced concern at the murder of "hundreds of thousands" of "faultless" people because of their "nationality or race" and intervened to attempt to block Nazi deportations of Jews in various countries. Upon his death in 1958, Pius was praised emphatically by the Israeli Foreign Minister Golda Meir, and other world leaders. But his insistence on Vatican neutrality and avoidance of naming the Nazis as the evildoers of the conflict became the foundation for contemporary and later criticisms from some quarters. His strongest public condemnation of genocide was considered inadequate by the Allied Powers, while the Nazis viewed him as an Allied sympathizer who had dishonoured his policy of Vatican neutrality.[214] Hitler biographer John Toland, while scathing of Pius's cautious public comments in relation to the mistreatment of Jews, concluded that the Allies' own record of action against the Holocaust was "shameful", while "The Church, under the Pope's guidance, had already saved the lives of more Jews than all other churches, religious institutions and rescue organizations combined".[180]

In 1939, the newly elected Pope Pius XII appointed several prominent Jewish scholars to posts at the Vatican after they had been dismissed from Italian universities under Fascist leader Benito Mussolini's racial laws.[215] In 1939, the Pope employed a Jewish cartographer, Roberto Almagia, to work on old maps in the Vatican Library. Almagia had been at the Sapienza University of Rome since 1915 but was dismissed after Benito Mussolini's antisemitic legislation of 1938. The Pope's appointment of two Jews to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences as well as the hiring of Almagia were reported by The New York Times in the editions of 11 November 1939 and 10 January 1940.[216]

Pius later engineered an agreement—formally approved on 23 June 1939—with the President of Brazil Getúlio Vargas to issue 3,000 visas to "non-Aryan Catholics". However, over the next 18 months, Brazil's Conselho de Imigração e Colonização (CIC) continued to tighten the restrictions on their issuance, including requiring a baptismal certificate dated before 1933, a substantial monetary transfer to the Banco do Brasil, and approval by the Brazilian Propaganda Office in Berlin.[217] The program was cancelled 14 months later, after fewer than 1,000 visas had been issued, amid suspicions of "improper conduct" (i.e., continuing to practice Judaism) among those who had received visas.[59][218]

In April 1939, after the submission of Charles Maurras and the intervention of the Carmel of Lisieux, Pius XII ended his predecessor's ban on Action Française, a virulently antisemitic organization.[219][220]

Following the German/Soviet invasion of Poland, the Pope's first encyclical, Summi Pontificatus reiterated Catholic teaching against racial persecution and rejected antisemitism, quoting scripture singling out the "principle of equality"—with specific reference to Jews: "there is neither Gentile nor Jew, circumcision nor uncircumcision" and direct affirmation of the Jewish Revelation on Sinai.[221][222] The forgetting of solidarity "imposed by our common origin and by the equality of rational nature in all men" was called "pernicious error".[162] Catholics everywhere were called upon to offer "compassion and help" to the victims of the war.[163] The Pope declared determination to work to hasten the return of peace and trust in prayers for justice, love and mercy, to prevail against the scourge of war.[223] The letter also decried the deaths of noncombatants.[165]

Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Maglione received a request from Chief Rabbi of Palestine Isaac Herzog in the spring of 1940 to intercede on behalf of Lithuanian Jews about to be deported to Germany.[59] Pius called Joachim von Ribbentrop on 11 March, repeatedly protesting against the treatment of Jews.[220] In 1940, Pius asked members of the clergy, on Vatican letterhead, to do whatever they could on behalf of interned Jews.[224]

In 1941, Cardinal Theodor Innitzer of Vienna informed Pius of Jewish deportations in Vienna.[225] Later that year, when asked by the Vichy regime Head of State Philippe Pétain if the Vatican objected to antisemitic laws, Pius responded that the church condemned antisemitism, but would not comment on specific rules.[225] Similarly, when Pétain's regime adopted the "Jewish statutes", the Vichy ambassador to the Vatican, Léon Bérard (a French politician), was told that the legislation did not conflict with Catholic teachings.[226] Valerio Valeri, the nuncio to France, was "embarrassed" when he learned of this publicly from Pétain[227] and personally checked the information with Cardinal Secretary of State Maglione[228] who confirmed the Vatican's position.[229] In June 1942, Pius XII personally protested against the mass deportations of Jews from France, ordering the papal nuncio to protest to Pétain against "the inhuman arrests and deportations of Jews".[230] In September 1941, Pius XII objected to a Slovak Jewish Code,[231] which, unlike the earlier Vichy codes, prohibited intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews.[227] In October 1941, Harold H. Tittmann Jr., a U.S. delegate to the Vatican, asked the Pope to condemn the atrocities against Jews; Pius replied that the Vatican wished to remain "neutral",[232] reiterating the neutrality policy that Pius had invoked as early as September 1940.[226]

In 1942, the Slovak chargé d'affaires told Pius that Slovak Jews were being sent to concentration camps.[225] On 11 March 1942, several days before the first transport was due to leave, the chargé d'affaires in Bratislava reported to the Vatican: "I have been assured that this atrocious plan is the handwork of ... Prime Minister (Tuka), who confirmed the plan ... he dared to tell me—he who makes such a show of his Catholicism—that he saw nothing inhuman or un-Christian in it ... the deportation of 80,000 persons to Poland, is equivalent to condemning a great number of them to certain death." The Vatican protested to the Slovak government that it "deplore(s) these... measures which gravely hurt the natural human rights of persons, merely because of their race."[233]

On 18 September 1942, Pius XII received a letter from Monsignor Montini (future Pope Paul VI), saying "the massacres of the Jews reach frightening proportions and forms".[225] Later that month, Myron Taylor warned Pius that the Vatican's "moral prestige" was being injured by silence on European atrocities, a warning that was echoed simultaneously by representatives from the United Kingdom, Brazil, Uruguay, Belgium, and Poland.[234] Myron C. Taylor passed a U.S. Government memorandum to Pius on 26 September 1942, outlining intelligence received from the Jewish Agency for Palestine, which said that Jews from across the Nazi Empire were being systematically "butchered". Taylor asked if the Vatican might have any information that might "tend to confirm the reports", and, if so, what the Pope might be able to do to influence public opinion against the "barbarities".[235]

Cardinal Maglione handed Harold Tittmann a response to the letter on 10 October. The note thanked Washington for passing on the intelligence, and confirmed that reports of severe measures against the Jews had reached the Vatican from other sources, though it had not been possible to "verify their accuracy". Nevertheless, Maglione stated, "every opportunity is being taken by the Holy See, however, to mitigate the suffering of these unfortunate people".[236] According to David Kertzer's The Pope at War,[237] Monsignor Domenico Tardini "told the British envoy to the Vatican in mid-December [1942] that the Pope couldn't speak out about Nazi atrocities because the Vatican hadn't been able to verify the information".[238]

In December 1942, when Tittmann asked Cardinal Secretary of State Maglione if Pius would issue a proclamation similar to the Allied declaration "German Policy of Extermination of the Jewish Race", Maglione replied that the Vatican was "unable to denounce publicly particular atrocities".[239] Pius XII directly explained to Tittman that he could not name the Nazis without at the same time mentioning the Bolsheviks.[240]

On 14 December 1942, German Jesuit and German resistance activist Lothar König wrote to Reverend Robert Leiber, the Pope's private secretary and a liaison to the Resistance, to inform him that his sources had confirmed approximately 6,000 Polish and Jewish people were being killed every day in "SS-furnaces" located in an area of what was then German-occupied Poland and is now part of western Ukraine.[241] It also referenced the Nazi death camps at Auschwitz and Dachau.[241] Giovanni Coco, an archivist in the Vatican Apostolic Archive, said that König urged the Holy See to withhold this information to protect the lives of his sources in the resistance.[242]

Following the Nazi/Soviet invasion of Poland, Pius XII's Summi Pontificatus called for the sympathy of the whole world towards Poland, where "the blood of countless human beings, even noncombatants" was being spilled.[165] Pius never publicly condemned the Nazi massacre of 1,800,000–1,900,000 Poles, overwhelmingly Catholic (including 2,935 members of the Catholic clergy).[243][244] In late 1942, Pius XII advised German and Hungarian bishops to speak out against the massacres on the Eastern Front.[245] In his 1942 Christmas Eve message, he expressed concern for "those hundreds of thousands, who ... sometimes only by reason of their nationality or race, are marked down for death or progressive extinction.[246] On 7 April 1943, Msgr. Tardini, one of Pius XII's closest advisors, advised Pius XII that it would be politically advantageous after the war to take steps to help Slovak Jews.[247]

In January 1943, Pius XII declined to denounce publicly the Nazi discrimination against the Jews, following requests to do so from Władysław Raczkiewicz, president of the Polish government-in-exile, and Bishop Konrad von Preysing of Berlin.[248] According to Toland, in June 1943, Pius XII addressed the issue of mistreatment of Jews at a conference of the Sacred College of Cardinals and said: "Every word We address to the competent authority on this subject, and all Our public utterances have to be carefully weighed and measured by Us in the interests of the victims themselves, lest, contrary to Our intentions, We make their situation worse and harder to bear".[180]

On 26 September 1943, following the German occupation of northern Italy, Nazi officials gave Jewish leaders in Rome 36 hours to produce 50 kilograms (110 lb) of gold (or the equivalent), threatening to take 300 hostages. Then Chief Rabbi of Rome Israel Zolli recounts in his memoir that he was selected to go to the Vatican and seek help.[249] The Vatican offered to loan 15 kilos, but the offer proved unnecessary when the Jews received an extension.[250] Soon afterward, when deportations from Italy were imminent, 477 Jews were hidden in the Vatican itself and another 4,238 were protected in Roman monasteries and convents.[251] Eighty percent of Roman Jews were saved from deportation.[252] Phayer argues that the German diplomats in Rome were the "initiators of the effort to save the city's Jews", but holds that Pius XII "cooperated in this attempt at rescue", while agreeing with Zuccotti that the Pope "did not give orders" for any Catholic institution to hide Jews.[253]

On 30 April 1943, Pius XII wrote to Bishop Konrad von Preysing of Berlin to say: "We give to the pastors who are working on the local level the duty of determining if and to what degree the danger of reprisals and of various forms of oppression occasioned by episcopal declarations ... ad maiora mala vitanda (to avoid worse) ... seem to advise caution. Here lies one of the reasons, why We impose self-restraint on Ourselves in our speeches; the experience, that we made in 1942 with papal addresses, which We authorized to be forwarded to the Believers, justifies our opinion, as far as We see. ... The Holy See has done whatever was in its power, with charitable, financial and moral assistance. To say nothing of the substantial sums which we spent in American money for the fares of immigrants."[254]

On 28 October 1943, Ernst von Weizsäcker, the German Ambassador to the Vatican, telegraphed Berlin that "the Pope has not yet let himself be persuaded to make an official condemnation of the deportation of the Roman Jews. ... Since it is currently thought that the Germans will take no further steps against the Jews in Rome, the question of our relations with the Vatican may be considered closed."[255][256]

In March 1944, through the papal nuncio in Budapest, Angelo Rotta, the Pope urged the Hungarian government to moderate its treatment of the Jews.[257] The Pope ordered Rotta and other papal legates to hide and shelter Jews.[258] These protests, along with others from the King of Sweden, the International Red Cross, the United States, and Britain led to the cessation of deportations on 8 July 1944.[259] Also in 1944, Pius appealed to 13 Latin American governments to accept "emergency passports", although it also took the intervention of the United States Department of State for those countries to honor the documents.[260] The Kaltenbrunner Report to Hitler, dated 29 November 1944, against the backdrop of the 20 July 1944 Plot to assassinate Hitler, states that the Pope was somehow a conspirator, specifically naming Eugenio Pacelli (Pope Pius XII), as being a party in the attempt.[261]

Jewish orphans controversy

In 2005, Corriere della Sera published a document dated 20 November 1946 on the subject of Jewish children baptized in war-time France. The document ordered that baptized children, if orphaned, should be kept in Catholic custody and stated that the decision "has been approved by the Holy Father". Nuncio Angelo Roncalli (who became Pope John XXIII, and was recognized by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations) ignored this directive.[262] Abe Foxman, the national director of the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), who had himself been baptized as a child and had undergone a custody battle afterwards, called for an immediate freeze on Pius's beatification process until the relevant Vatican Secret Archives and baptismal records were opened.[263] Two Italian scholars, Matteo Luigi Napolitano and Andrea Tornielli, confirmed that the memorandum was genuine, although the reporting by the Corriere della Sera was misleading, as the document had originated in the French Catholic Church archives rather than the Vatican archives and strictly concerned itself with children without living blood relatives who were supposed to be handed over to Jewish organizations.[264]

Writings from released Vatican records revealed that Pius XII was personally but secretly involved in hiding the Finaly children from their Jewish family in an ultimately failed attempt to keep them Catholic after their secret baptism done against the wishes of their family. The French Catholic Church received very bad press from the affair, and several nuns and monks were jailed for the kidnapping before the children were discovered and spirited away to Israel. Only recently was the Pope's personal involvement revealed.[265]

Post–World War II

Bishop Aloisius Joseph Muench, Pius XII's post-war liaison to the Office of Military Government, United States

After World War II, Pope Pius XII focused on material aid to war-torn Europe, an internal internationalization of the Catholic Church, and the development of its worldwide diplomatic relations. His encyclicals, Evangelii praecones and Fidei donum, issued on 2 June 1951 and 21 April 1957, respectively, increased the local decision-making of Catholic missions, many of which became independent dioceses. Pius XII demanded recognition of local cultures as fully equal to European culture.[266][267] Though his language retained old conceptions – Africa, for example, merited special attention since the church there worked 'to forward her work among the heathen multitudes' – in 1956 he expressed solidarity with the 'non-Europeans who aspire to full political independence'.[268]

In the immediate aftermath of the war, Pius XII elevated a number of high-profile resistors of Nazism to the College of Cardinals in 1946, among them the German Bishops Joseph Frings of Cologne, Clemens von Galen of Münster and Konrad von Preysing of Berlin. From elsewhere in the liberated Nazi Empire Pius selected other resistors: Dutch Archbishop Johannes de Jong; Hungarian Bishop József Mindszenty; Polish Archbishop Adam Stefan Sapieha; and French Archbishop Jules-Géraud Saliège. In 1946 and 1953, respectively, he named as cardinals Thomas Tien Ken-sin of China and Valerian Gracias of India – the first indigenous Catholics of their respective nations to sit in the College of Cardinals.[269] Italian Papal diplomat Angelo Roncalli (later Pope John XXIII) and Polish Archbishop Stefan Wyszyński were others among those elevated in 1953.

A German contingent dominated his inner circle at this period – the German Jesuits Robert Leiber, Wilhelm Hentrich and Ivo Zeiger. His personal confessor Augustin Bea was a German Jesuit and Mother Pascalina Lehnert and the other German speaking sisters of the papal household added to this element. The American bishop Aloisius Muench wrote in November 1948 that Pius XII was 'more interested in affairs of the Church in Germany than in any other part of the Church' and resolved to make the postwar German crisis a top priority – 'its refugee crisis, poverty, hunger and disease, the fate of prisoners-of-war and accused war criminals, the disruption to the internal organization and communal life of German Catholicism, and Germany's uncertain political future'.[270]

He was concerned too about the potential spread of Communism in Western Europe and the Americas. As he sought to secure resources from abroad to aid post-war recovery, believing deprivation fuelled political agitation, so he also sought to influence Italian politics. In January 1948, Luigi Gedda, of Italy's Catholic Action movement, was called to the Vatican as the election campaign for the first parliament of Italy's post-fascist republic was underway.[271]

Pius XII was rather distrustful of Alcide de Gasperi and Italy's Christian Democrats, considering the party indecisive and fractious – reformist currents within it particularly, which tended to the moderate Left – represented by the Sicilian priest Luigi Sturzo for example – he considered too accommodating to the Left. On the eve of the 1952 local elections in Rome, in which again the Communist and Socialist parties threatened to win out, he used informal connections to make his views known. Pius XII stated that the war against Communism was a holy war and excommunicated members of the Italian Communist Party. Having decided to encourage the Christian Democrats to consider a political alliance with the Rightist parties as part of an anti-left coalition, he asked the Jesuit, Father Riccardo Lombardi, to speak with de Gasperi to consider such an alliance – an electoral alliance with those even of monarchist and neo-fascist tendencies -including the Italian Social Movement. Adopting a domino theory he warned that, if "the Communists win in Rome, in Italy, it will cast a shadow on the entire world: France would become Communist, and then Spain and then all of Europe."[272]

Later life, illness and death

Late years of Pope Pius XII

A long illness in late 1954 caused the Pope to consider abdication. Afterwards, changes in his work habit became noticeable. The Pope avoided long ceremonies, canonizations and consistories and displayed hesitancy in personnel matters. He found it increasingly difficult to chastise subordinates and appointees such as his physician, Riccardo Galeazzi-Lisi, who after numerous indiscretions was excluded from Papal service for the last years, but, keeping his title, was able to enter the papal apartments to make photos of the dying Pope, which he sold to French magazines.[273] Pius underwent three courses of cellular rejuvenation treatment administered by Paul Niehans, the most important in 1954 when Pius was gravely ill. Side-effects of the treatment included hallucinations, from which the Pope suffered in his last years. "These years were also plagued by horrific nightmares. Pacelli's blood-curdling screams could be heard throughout the papal apartments."[274]

Pius XII often elevated young priests as bishops, such as Julius Döpfner (35 years) and Karol Wojtyła (later Pope John Paul II, 38 years), one of his last appointees in 1958. He took a firm stand against pastoral experiments, such as "worker-priests", who worked full-time in factories and joined political parties and unions. He continued to defend the theological tradition of Thomism as worthy of continued reform, and as superior to modern trends such as phenomenology or existentialism.[275]

Illness and death

Mother Pascalina Lehnert, Pius XII's housekeeper and confidant for 41 years, until his death[18]
Photograph of Pius XII on his deathbed in Castel Gandolfo, taken on 10 October 1958.

With frequent absences from work, Pope Pius XII had come to depend heavily on a few close colleagues, especially his aide Domenico Tardini, his speechwriter Robert Leiber, and his long-serving housekeeper Sister Pascalina Lehnert. The Pope still addressed lay people and groups about a wide range of topics. Sometimes he answered specific moral questions, which were addressed to him. To professional associations he explained specific occupational ethics in light of church teachings. Robert Leiber helped him occasionally with his speeches and publications. Cardinal Augustin Bea was his personal confessor. Sister Pascalina was for forty years his "housekeeper, muse and lifelong companion".[276]

On Monday, 6 October 1958, at around 8:30 CET (7:30 GMT), he suffered a stroke, weakening him greatly in addition to his other maladies, after having taken ill the previous day after a series of meetings. He received the Last rites. However, his condition suitably improved until 8 October when he suffered a second stroke. By the mid-afternoon, his doctors had reported that Pius XII was suffering from a severe cardio-pulmonary collapse and by 15:00 CET (14:00 GMT) believed that his death was imminent. Just before sunset, Pius XII contracted pneumonia and doctors immediately moved to bring in oxygen and blood plasma. His last words were reportedly, "Pray. Pray that this regrettable situation for the church may end". When Pius XII was interred, the small crucifix and rosary that he held in his hands as he died were buried with him.[277]

On the last full day of his life, his temperature rose steadily and his breathing became difficult. At 3:52 CET (2:52 GMT) on Thursday, 9 October, a Feast of Saint Denis of Paris, he gave a smile, lowered his head and died. The cause of death was recorded as acute heart failure. Domenico Tardini prayed the Magnificat Anima mea dominum, the Virgin Mary's praise of the Lord, in Latin. His doctor Gaspanini said afterwards: "The Holy Father did not die because of any specific illness. He was completely exhausted. He was overworked beyond limit. His heart was healthy, his lungs were good. He could have lived another 20 years, had he spared himself."[278] Spain declared ten days of mourning;[279] Italy declared three days of mourning and the closure of offices and schools as a sign of respect;[280] Cuba declared three days of mourning.[279]

The Testament of Pope Pius XII was published the month of his death.[281]

Botched embalming

The Pope of Mary: A Madonna and Child, added by John Paul II in 1982, hangs over the tomb of Pius XII.

Pius XII's physician, Riccardo Galeazzi-Lisi, reported that the pontiff's body was embalmed in the room where he died using a novel process invented by Oreste Nuzzi.[282]

Pope Pius XII did not want the vital organs removed from his body, demanding instead that it be kept in the same condition "in which God created it".[283] According to Galeazzi-Lisi, this was the reason why he and Nuzzi, an embalmer from Naples, used an atypical approach with the embalming procedure.[283] In a controversial press conference, Galeazzi-Lisi described in great detail the embalming of the body of the late pontiff. He claimed to have used the same system of oils and resins with which the body of Jesus Christ was preserved.[283][clarification needed]

Galeazzi-Lisi asserted that the new process would "preserve the body indefinitely in its natural state".[282] However, whatever chance the new embalming process had of efficaciously preserving the body was obliterated by intense heat in Castel Gandolfo during the embalming process. As a result, the body decomposed rapidly and the viewing of the faithful had to be terminated abruptly.[284]

Galeazzi-Lisi reported that heat in the halls, where the body of the late Pope lay in state, caused chemical reactions which required it to be treated twice after the original preparation.[283] Swiss Guards stationed around Pius XII's body were reported to have become ill during their vigil.[282]

Funeral

His funeral procession into Rome was the largest congregation of Romans as of that date. Romans mourned "their" pope, who was born in their own city, especially as a hero in the time of war.[285] Cardinal Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (later to be Pope John XXIII) wrote in his diary on Saturday, 11 October 1958 that probably no Roman emperor had enjoyed such a triumph, which he viewed as a reflection of the spiritual majesty and religious dignity of the late Pius XII.[286]

Cause for canonisation

Commemorative portrait of Pius XII, 1958

Pope Pius XII's cause of canonization was opened on 18 November 1965 by Pope Paul VI during the final session of the Second Vatican Council. In May 2007, the congregation recommended that Pius XII should be declared Venerable.[287] Pope Benedict XVI did so on 19 December 2009, simultaneously making the same declaration in regard to Pope John Paul II.[8]

For Venerable status, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints certifies the "heroic virtues" of the candidate. Making Pius XII as Venerable met with various responses, most centered on the papal words and actions during World War II. Benedict's signature on the decree of heroic virtue was regarded by some as a public relations blunder, though acceptance of Pius XII as a saviour of Europe's Jews is regarded as 'proof of fidelity to the Church, the pope and the Tradition' by neoconservative Catholic groups.[288] On the other hand, Rabbi Marvin Hier, founder and dean at the Simon Wiesenthal Center said "there would be a great distortion of history" if Pius XII were canonized.[289] Rabbi Jeremy Lawrence, the head of Sydney's Great Synagogue, said: "How can one venerate a man who ... seemed to give his passive permission to the Nazis as the Jews were prised from his doorstep in Rome?"[290]

On 1 August 2013, an anonymous "source who works for the Congregation for the Causes of Saints" said Pope Francis is considering canonization without a miracle, "us[ing] the formula of scientia certa".[291]

Pope Francis also announced his intention in January 2014 to open the Vatican Secret Archives to scholars so that an evaluation of the late pontiff's role in the war can be determined before canonization. This has been met with praise by the Jewish community. However, it was said that it could take up to a year to gather all the documents and then analyze them.[292][293][294]

On 26 May 2014 on his way back from the Holy Land to the Vatican City, Pope Francis stated that the late pope would not be beatified because the cause has stalled. Pope Francis stated that he checked the progress of the cause for Pius XII and said that there were no miracles attributed to his intercession, which was the main reason that the cause had halted.[295]

Father Peter Gumpel stated, on a 12 January 2016 documentary on the late pope, that there was consultation of the Vatican Secret Archives which were carried out in secret; in short it means that there are no controversies surrounding the late pontiff that could impede the potential beatification.[296] In that same documentary, the cause's vice-postulator Marc Lindeijer stated that several miracles attributed to the late pope are reported to the postulation every year but the individuals related to the healings do not come forward to enact diocesan proceedings of investigation. Lindeijer explained that this was the reason that the cause has stalled in the past as none have come forward to assist the postulation in their investigations.[297]

Potential miracle

Reports from 2014 indicate a potential miracle from the United States attributed to the intercession of the late pope that was reported to the postulation. The miracle pertains to a male plagued with severe influenza and pneumonia that could have proven to be fatal; the individual was said to have been healed in full after a novena to Pius XII.[298][299]

Views, interpretations and scholarship

Contemporary

During the war, Time credited Pius XII and the Catholic Church for "fighting totalitarianism more knowingly, devoutly and authoritatively, and for a longer time, than any other organised power".[300] During the war he was also praised editorially by The New York Times for opposing Nazi anti-Semitism and aggression.[301] According to Paul O'Shea, "The Nazis demonised the Pope as the agent of international Jewry; the Americans and British were continually frustrated because he would not condemn Nazi aggression; and the Russians accused him of being an agent of Fascism and the Nazis."[302]

On 21 September 1945, the general secretary of the World Jewish Congress, Aryeh Leon Kubowitzki, presented an amount of money to the Pope, "in recognition of the work of the Holy See in rescuing Jews from Fascist and Nazi persecutions."[303] After the war, in the autumn of 1945, Harry Greenstein from Baltimore, a close friend of Chief Rabbi Herzog of Jerusalem, told Pius XII how grateful Jews were for all he had done for them. "My only regret", the Pope replied, "is not to have been able to save a greater number of Jews".[304]

Pius XII was also criticised during his lifetime. Leon Poliakov wrote in 1950 that Pius XII had been a tacit supporter of Vichy France's anti-Semitic laws, calling him "less forthright" than Pope Pius XI either out of "Germanophilia" or the hope that Hitler would defeat Communist Russia.[305]

After Pius XII's death on 9 October 1958 many Jewish organisations and newspapers around the world paid tribute to his legacy. At the United Nations, Golda Meir, Israel's Foreign Minister, said, "When fearful martyrdom came to our people in the decade of Nazi terror, the voice of the Pope was raised for the victims. The life of our times was enriched by a voice speaking out on the great moral truths above the tumult of daily conflict."[306] The Jewish Chronicle (London) stated on 10 October, "Adherents of all creeds and parties will recall how Pius XII faced the responsibilities of his exalted office with courage and devotion. Before, during, and after the Second World War, he constantly preached the message of peace. Confronted by the monstrous cruelties of Nazism, Fascism and Communism, he repeatedly proclaimed the virtues of humanity and compassion."[306] In the Canadian Jewish Chronicle (17 October), Rabbi J. Stern stated that Pius XII "made it possible for thousands of Jewish victims of Nazism and Fascism to be hidden away..."[306] In 6 November edition of The Jewish Post & News in Winnipeg, William Zukerman, the former The American Hebrew columnist, wrote that no other leader "did more to help the Jews in their hour of greatest tragedy, during the Nazi occupation of Europe, than the late Pope".[306] Other prominent Jewish figures, such as Israeli Prime Minister Moshe Sharett and Chief Rabbi Isaac Herzog expressed their public gratitude to Pius XII.[307]

Early historical accounts

Some early works echoed the favourable sentiments of the war period, including Polish historian Oskar Halecki's Pius XII: Eugenio Pacelli: Pope of peace (1954) and Nazareno Padellaro's Portrait of Pius XII (1949).

Pinchas Lapide, a Jewish theologian and Israeli diplomat to Milan in the 1960s, estimated controversially in Three Popes and the Jews that Pius "was instrumental in saving at least 700,000 but probably as many as 860,000 Jews from certain death at Nazi hands".[308] Some historians have questioned this[309] often cited number, which Lapide reached by "deducting all reasonable claims of rescue" by non-Catholics from the total number of European Jews surviving the Holocaust.[310] A Catholic scholar, Kevin J. Madigan, has interpreted this and other praise from prominent Jewish leaders, including that offered by Golda Meir, as less than sincere, an attempt to secure Vatican recognition of the State of Israel.[311]

The Deputy

A rare 1899 handwriting sample of Eugenio Pacelli with text in Latin

In 1963, Rolf Hochhuth's controversial drama Der Stellvertreter. Ein christliches Trauerspiel (The Deputy, a Christian tragedy, released in English in 1964) portrayed Pope Pius XII as a hypocrite who remained silent about the Holocaust. The depiction is described as lacking "credible substantiation" by the Encyclopædia Britannica.[312] Books such as Joseph Lichten's A Question of Judgment (1963), written in response to The Deputy, defended Pius XII's actions during the war. Lichten labelled any criticism of the Pope's actions during World War II as "a stupefying paradox" and said, "no one who reads the record of Pius XII's actions on behalf of Jews can subscribe to Hochhuth's accusation".[313] Critical scholarly works like Guenter Lewy's controversial The Catholic Church and Nazi Germany (1964) also followed the publication of The Deputy. Lewy's conclusion was that "the Pope and his advisers—influenced by the long tradition of moderate anti-Semitism so widely accepted in Vatican circles—did not view the plight of the Jews with a real sense of urgency and moral outrage. For this assertion no documentation is possible, but it is a conclusion difficult to avoid".[314] In 2002 the play was adapted into the film, Amen.. An article in La Civilità Cattolica in March 2009 indicated the accusations that Hochhuth's play made widely known originated not among Jews but in the Communist bloc. It was on Moscow Radio, on 2 June 1945, that the first accusation directly against Pius XII of refusing to speak out against the exterminations in Nazi concentration camps. It was also the first medium to call him "Hitler's Pope".[315]

The former high-ranking Securitate General Ion Mihai Pacepa alleged in 2007 that Hochhuth's play and numerous publications attacking Pius XII as a Nazi sympathizer were fabrications that were part of a KGB and Eastern bloc secret services disinformation campaign, named Seat 12, to discredit the moral authority of the church and Christianity in the west.[316] Pacepa indicated that he was involved in contacting eastern bloc agents close the Vatican in order to fabricate the story to be used for the attack against the wartime pope.[316]

Actes

In the aftermath of the controversy surrounding The Deputy, in 1964, Pope Paul VI authorized Jesuit scholars to access the Vatican State Secretariat Archives, which are normally not opened for seventy-five years. Original documents in French and Italian, Actes et documents du Saint Siège relatifs à la Seconde Guerre Mondiale, were published in eleven volumes between 1965 and 1981.[217] Pierre Blet also published a summary of the eleven volumes.[317]

Hitler's Pope and The Myth of Hitler's Pope

In 1999, British author John Cornwell's Hitler's Pope criticised Pius XII for his actions and inactions during the Holocaust. Cornwell argued that Pius XII subordinated opposition to the Nazis to his goal of increasing and centralising the power of the Papacy. Further, Cornwell accused Pius XII of anti-Semitism.[318] The Encyclopædia Britannica described Cornwell's depiction of Pius XII as anti-Semitic as lacking "credible substantiation".[319] Kenneth L. Woodward stated in his review in Newsweek that "errors of fact and ignorance of context appear on almost every page".[320] Paul O'Shea summarized the work by saying it was "disappointing because of its many inaccuracies, selective use of sources, and claims that do not bear any scrutiny. However, [Cornwell] has rendered a service by insisting Pacelli be re-examined thoroughly and placed firmly within the context of his times".[321] Five years after the publication of Hitler's Pope, Cornwell stated: "I would now argue, in the light of the debates and evidence following Hitler's Pope, that Pius XII had so little scope of action that it is impossible to judge the motives for his silence during the war, while Rome was under the heel of Mussolini and later occupied by Germany".[322][323][324]

Cornwell's work was the first to have access to testimonies from Pius XII's beatification process as well as to many documents from Pacelli's nunciature which had just been opened under the 75-year rule by the Vatican State Secretary archives.[325] Susan Zuccotti's Under His Very Windows: The Vatican and the Holocaust in Italy (2000) and Michael Phayer's The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965 (2000) and Pius XII, The Holocaust, and the Cold War (2008) provided further critical, though more scholarly analysis of Pius's legacy.[326] Daniel Goldhagen's A Moral Reckoning and David Kertzer's The Pope Against the Jews denounced Pius, while Ralph McInery and José Sanchez wrote less critical assessments of Pius XII's pontificate.[327]

In specific riposte to Cornwell's criticism, American Rabbi and historian David Dalin published The Myth of Hitler's Pope: How Pope Pius XII Rescued Jews from the Nazis in 2005. He reaffirmed previous accounts of Pius having been a saviour of thousands of Europe's Jews. In a review of the book, another Jewish scholar—Churchill biographer, Martin Gilbert—wrote that Dalin's work was "an essential contribution to our understanding of the reality of Pope Pius XII's support for Jews at their time of greatest danger. Hopefully, his account will replace the divisively harmful version of papal neglect, and even collaboration, that has held the field for far too long".[328] Dalin's book also argued that Cornwell and others were liberal Catholics and ex-Catholics who "exploit the tragedy of the Jewish people during the Holocaust to foster their own political agenda of forcing changes on the Catholic Church today" and that Pius XII was responsible for saving the lives of many thousands of Jews.[329]

A number of other scholars replied with favourable accounts of Pius XII, including Margherita Marchione's Yours Is a Precious Witness: Memoirs of Jews and Catholics in Wartime Italy (1997), Pope Pius XII: Architect for Peace (2000) and Consensus and Controversy: Defending Pope Pius XII (2002); Pierre Blet's Pius XII and the Second World War, According to the Archives of the Vatican (1999); and Ronald J. Rychlak's Hitler, the War and the Pope (2000).[326][330] Ecclesiastical historian William Doino (author of The Pius War: Responses to the Critics of Pius XII), concluded that Pius was "emphatically not silent".[331] Other important works challenging the negative characterization of Pius's legacy were written by Eamon Duffy, Clifford Longley, Cardinal Winning, Michael Burleigh, Paul Johnson, and Denis Mack Smith.[327]

In his 2003 book A Moral Reckoning, Daniel Goldhagen asserted that Pius XII "chose again and again not to mention the Jews publicly.... [In] public statements by Pius XII ... any mention of the Jews is conspicuously absent." In a review of Goldhagen's book, Mark Riebling counters that Pius used the word "Jew" in his first encyclical, Summi Pontificatus, published on 20 October 1939. "There Pius insisted that all human beings be treated charitably—for, as Paul had written to the Colossians, in God's eyes "there is neither Gentile nor Jew". In saying this, the Pope affirmed that Jews were full members of the human community—which is Goldhagen's own criterion for establishing 'dissent from the anti-Semitic creed'."[332]

In Pius XII, the Hound of Hitler, Catholic journalist Gerard Noel dismissed accusations that Pius was "anti-semitic" or "pro-Nazi", but accused him of "silence" based on fear of retaliation and wrote that "Hitler played the Pope with consummate expertise".[327] Ian Kershaw came to a similar conclusion about Pius's motives.[333] He suggested that besides seeking to protect his own church and parishioners, Pius feared that speaking out would worsen the plight of the Jews, though he could have hardly made it worse after 1942. Kershaw called the 1942 Christmas message "a missed opportunity", adding: "Having decided to refer to the genocide, Pius ought to have followed this with a condemnation that was loud, plain and unequivocal." However, he doubted that condemnation from the Pope would have led to Nazi Germany changing course.[333]

Gerald Steinacher's Nazis on the Run accused Pius of turning a blind eye to the activities of Vatican priests assisting "denazification through conversion", which he said helped ex-Nazi anti-communists to escape justice.[334][335]

A Berlin Jewish couple, Mr. and Mrs. Wolfsson, argued in defense of the pope: "None of us wanted the Pope to take an open stand. We were all fugitives, and fugitives do not wish to be pointed at. The Gestapo would have become more excited and would have intensified its inquisitions. If the Pope had protested, Rome would have become the center of attention. It was better that the Pope said nothing. We all shared this opinion at the time, and this is still our conviction today." There were examples when the Catholic Church reaction to Nazi brutality only intensified SS persecutions of both Jews and the church.[336]

International Catholic-Jewish Historical Commission

In 1999, in an attempt to address some of this controversy, the International Catholic-Jewish Historical Commission (Historical Commission), a group of three Catholic and three Jewish scholars was appointed, respectively, by the Holy See's Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews (Holy See's Commission) and the International Jewish Committee for Interreligious Consultations (IJCIC), to whom a preliminary report was issued in October 2000.[337]

The Commission did not discover any documents, but had the agreed-upon task to review the existing Vatican volumes, that make up the Actes et Documents du Saint Siège (ADSS)[338] The commission was internally divided over the question of access to additional documents from the Holy See, access to the news media by individual commission members, and, questions to be raised in the preliminary report. It was agreed to include all 47 individual questions by the six members, and use them as Preliminary Report.[339] In addition to the 47 questions, the commission issued no findings of its own. It stated that it was not their task to sit in judgment of the Pope and his advisors but to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the papacy during the Holocaust.[340]

The 47 questions by the six scholars were grouped into three parts: (a) 27 specific questions on existing documents,[341] mostly asking for background and additional information such as drafts of the encyclical Mit brennender Sorge, which was largely written by Eugenio Pacelli.[342] (b) Fourteen questions dealt with themes of individual volumes,[343] such as the question how Pius viewed the role of the church during the war.[344] (c) Six general questions,[345] such as the absence of any anti-communist sentiments in the documents.[346] The disagreement between members over additional documents locked up under the Holy See's 70-year rule resulted in a discontinuation of the commission in 2001 on friendly terms.[339] Unsatisfied with the findings, Michael Marrus, one of the three Jewish members of the commission, said the commission "ran up against a brick wall .... It would have been really helpful to have had support from the Holy See on this issue."[347]

Peter Stanford, a Catholic journalist and writer, wrote, regarding Fatal Silence: The Pope, the Resistance and the German Occupation of Rome (written by Robert Katz; Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003):

[The Vatican] still refuses to open all its files from the period—which seems to me to be a conclusive admission of guilt—but Katz has winkled various papers out of God's business address on earth to add to the stash of new information he has uncovered in America in the archives of the Office of Strategic Services. From this we learn that, although Pius's defenders still say that he paid a golden ransom in a vain effort to save Rome's Jews from transportation to the death camps, the most he did was indicate a willingness to chip in if the Jews could not raise the sum demanded. He also shows that no individual Jews were spared, as is often claimed, after Pius personally intervened with the Nazis. Moreover, Katz reveals that those who did escape the Nazi round-up and found sanctuary in church buildings in Rome did so in the face of explicit opposition from the Vatican. The real heroes and heroines were the priests and nuns who refused to bow to Pius's officials and hand over the desperate people whom they were hiding. The main problem with writing about Pius's wartime is that in effect, he did nothing. Facing the murders of six million people, he remained silent. As Jews were taken away from the ghetto that sat right alongside St Peter's, he may have agonised, but he did not intervene. When he did raise his voice with the German occupiers, it was either to ensure that the Vatican City state would not be compromised—that is to say, he would be safe—or to emphasise his own neutrality in a conflict which, for many, became a battle between good and evil. His unrealistic hope was that the Catholic Church could emerge as the peacemaker across Europe. Instead, both the American and British leaderships, as Katz shows, regarded the papacy as tainted by its association with Nazism and irrelevant in the post-1945 reshaping of the continent. Both had urged Pius to speak up against the Holocaust and so drew their own conclusions about him. Far from being a saint, then, he was at best a fool, perhaps an anti-Semite and probably a coward.[348]

Katz's book also discusses how the Pope's view of the anti-Nazi resistance—as harbingers of Communism—meant he chose not to intervene in the Ardeatine massacre.[349]

Recent developments

In The Real Odessa: How Peron Brought the Nazi War Criminals to Argentina (2002), the Argentine journalist Uki Goñi described how the Argentinian government dealt with war criminals who entered Argentina. However, during his research Goñi accidentally stumbled on British Foreign Office documents relating to the involvement of Vatican personnel in the smuggling of war criminals, the so-called post-war "ratlines". Goñi found out that the British Envoy D'Arcy Osborne had intervened with Pope Pius XII to put an end to these illegal activities. Furthermore, he discovered "that the Pope secretly pleaded with Washington and London on behalf of notorious criminals and Nazi collaborators".[350] Suzanne Brown-Fleming's The Holocaust and Catholic Conscience: Cardinal Aloisius Muench and the Guilt Question in Germany (2006) underlines Goñi's findings. Brown-Fleming stated how Pius XII allegedly intervened on behalf of German war criminals (e.g. Otto Ohlendorf). Brown-Fleming's main source was the archive of Pope Pius XII's representative in post-war Germany, Cardinal Aloisius Joseph Muench.[351] Then, Phayer's Pius XII, the Holocaust, and the Cold War (2008) utilized documents that were released via Bill Clinton's 1997 executive order declassifying wartime and postwar documents, many of which are currently at the US National Archives and Holocaust Memorial Museum. These documents include diplomatic correspondence, American espionage, and decryptions of German communications. Relevant documents have also been released by the Argentine government and the British Foreign Office. Other information sources have become available, including the diary of Bishop Joseph Patrick Hurley. These documents reveal new information about Pius XII's actions regarding the Ustaše regime, the genocides in Poland, the finances of the wartime church, the deportation of the Roman Jews, and the ratlines for Nazis and fascists fleeing Europe.[352] According to Phayer, "the face of Pope Pius that we see in these documents is not the same face we see in the eleven volumes the Vatican published of World War II documents, a collection which, though valuable, is nonetheless critically flawed because of its many omissions".[353]

On 19 September 2008, Pope Benedict XVI held a reception for conference participants during which he praised Pius XII as a pope who made every effort to save Jews during the war.[354] A second conference was held from 6–8 November 2008 by the Pontifical Academy of Life.[355]

On 9 October 2008, the 50th anniversary of Pius XII's death, Benedict XVI celebrated pontifical Mass in his memory. Shortly before and after the Mass, dialectics continued between the Jewish hierarchy and the Vatican as Rabbi She'ar Yashuv Cohen of Haifa addressed the Synod of Bishops and expressed his disappointment towards Pius XII's "silence" during the war.[356]

On 16 June 2009, the Pave the Way Foundation announced that it would release 2,300 pages of documents in Avellino, Italy, dating from 1940 to 1945, which the organisation claims show that Pius XII "worked diligently to save Jews from Nazi tyranny"; the organisation's founder, Krupp, has accused historians of harbouring "private agendas" and having "let down" the public.[357] The foundation's research led to the publication of the book Pope Pius XII and World War II: the documented truth, authored by Krupp; the book reproduces 225 pages of the new documents produced by the foundation's research.

Mark Riebling argued in his 2015 book Church of Spies that Pius XII was involved in plots to overthrow Hitler from mid-October 1939 and was prepared to mediate a peace between the Allies and the Axis in the event of a regime change in Germany. The courier between the resistance group under Admiral Wilhelm Canaris and the Pope was the Bavarian lawyer and Catholic politician Joseph Müller.[358]

Opening of the Vatican Secret Archives

On the occasion of the 80th anniversary of the appointment of Pius XII as Bishop of Rome, Pope Francis announced during an audience for staff of the Vatican Secret Archives on 4 March 2019 that Vatican archival materials pertaining to Pius XII's pontificate will be accessible to scholars beginning on 2 March 2020.[359][360] While this announcement was welcome by researchers, much of it has been clouded by the role of Pope Pius XII with regard to the Holocaust. However, archival research of this period should inform a much broader shift within global Christianity, from Europe to the global South.[361]

The Vatican archives have provided many millions of pages and it is expected to take many years to process the findings. As of May 2021, the study of the archive has been inconclusive.[362] In January 2022, historian Michael F. Feldkamp announced that he had discovered in the Vatican archives evidence that Pius XII had personally saved at least 15,000 Jews from extermination, and that he had sent a report on the Holocaust to the American government shortly after the Wannsee Conference, although they did not believe the pope.[363]

In June 2022, David Kertzer, one of the first historians to have analyzed the archives, published his book The Pope at War.[364] Kertzer, with the support of thousands of unpublished documents, uncovered the existence of secret negotiations between Hitler and Pius XII already a few weeks after the end of the conclave, promoted by Hitler himself with the intention of improving his relations with the Vatican. For his part, Pius XII concentrated his efforts on protecting and improving the situation of the Church in Germany in the face of the anti-Catholic policies of the Nazis, although no agreement was reached.[365]

In September 2023, Corriere della Sera published a newly discovered documentation from the Vatican Secret Archive showing that a German Jesuit had informed the Pope of the Holocaust.[366][367]


The archives have also demonstrated that Pope Pius XII had knowledge of Marcial Maciel’s crimes, including sexual abuse of seminarians and drug abuse, before action was taken.[368] The Vatican apparently knew of Rev. Maciel’s crimes for 50 years.[369]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ John Paul II surpassed this number on 21 February 2001, elevating 44 cardinals. By that time, the limit had been suspended and over 120 cardinals existed.

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ Joseph Bottum; David G. Dalin (2004). The Pius War: Responses to the Critics of Pius XII. Lexington Books. pp. 224–27. ISBN 9780739158883.
  2. ^ Gerard Noel, The Hound of Hitler, p. 3 Encyclopædia Britannica Online – Reflections on the Holocaust: Further Reading; web 26 April 2013
  3. ^ Coppa, Frank J. (29 June 2006). "Pius XII: Assessment". Encyclopædia Britannica. he established the Vatican Information Service to provide aid to, and information about, thousands of war refugees and instructed the church to provide discreet aid to Jews, which quietly saved thousands of lives
  4. ^ "L'oro di Pio XII". archive.is. 13 April 2013. Archived from the original on 13 April 2013. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  5. ^ "Roman Catholicism: the period of the world wars". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 February 2016.
  6. ^ TIMES, Special to THE NEW YORK (13 May 1944). "Stalin for Cooperation With Pope, Free Worship, Orlemanski Says; U.S. PRIEST QUOTES STALIN ON RELIGION". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
  7. ^ Encyclopedia of Catholicism by Frank K. Flinn, J. Gordon Melton; ISBN 0-8160-5455-X, p. 267
  8. ^ a b Pitel, Laura (19 December 2009). "Pope John Paul II and Pope Pius XII move closer to sainthood". The Times. London. Retrieved 25 September 2011.[dead link]
  9. ^ Pollard, 2005, p. 70
  10. ^ Marchione, 2004, p. 1
  11. ^ Gerard Noel, Pius XII:The Hound of Hitler, p. 5
  12. ^ O'Brien, p. 1
  13. ^ "Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli, aka Pope Pius XII". www.familysearch.org. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
  14. ^ Paul O'Shea, A Cross Too Heavy, 2011, p. 79
  15. ^ O'Shea, p. 81
  16. ^ Cornwell, p. 22
  17. ^ Cornwell, p. 23
  18. ^ a b Noel, p. 9
  19. ^ a b Marchione, 2000, p. 193
  20. ^ O'Shea, p. 82
  21. ^ Noel, p. 10
  22. ^ a b Marchione, 2004, p. 9
  23. ^ a b c Marchione, 2004, p. 10
  24. ^ Cornwell, Hitler's Pope, p. 42
  25. ^ Cornwell, p. 32
  26. ^ Dalin, 2005, p. 47
  27. ^ O'Shea, pp. 86, 88
  28. ^ Levillain, 2002, p. 1211
  29. ^ Fatoni, 1992, pp. 45–85
  30. ^ Marchione, 2004, p. 11
  31. ^ Lehnert (2014), pages 5–6.
  32. ^ Rychlak, 2000, p. 6
  33. ^ Lehnert (2014), 6–7.
  34. ^ Cornwell, p. 73
  35. ^ Noel, p. 34
  36. ^ Cornwell, p. 75
  37. ^ John Cornwell (2000). Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII. Penguin. p. 78. ISBN 9780140296273.
  38. ^ Lehnert (2014), pages 7–8.
  39. ^ Lehnert (2014), page 8.
  40. ^ Volk, 1972; Cornwell, p. 96
  41. ^ Kaas, 1930.
  42. ^ Stehle, 1975, pp. 139–41
  43. ^ Morsey, p. 121
  44. ^ Cornwell, pp. 103–04
  45. ^ a b The Pius War: Responses to the Critics of Pius XII, David G. Dalin, Joseph Bottum, Lexington Books, 2010, p. 17
  46. ^ Controversial Concordats: The Vatican's Relations with Napoleon, Mussolini, and Hitler, Ed Frank J. Coppa, Catholic University of America Press, P. 173, ISBN 081320920X
  47. ^ Kent, 2002, p. 24
  48. ^ Cornwell, p. 115
  49. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin (ed.). Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (trans.) (2005). The Encyclopedia of Christianity; ISBN 0-8028-2416-1
  50. ^ Cornwell, p. 121
  51. ^ Cornwell, p. 128. Pacelli, quoted in Scholder's The Churches and the Third Reich, p. 157
  52. ^ Dalin, 2005, pp. 58–59
  53. ^ Marchione, 2002, p. 22
  54. ^ Christian responses to the Holocaust: moral and ethical issues: Religion, theology, and the Holocaust, Donald J. Dietrich, p. 92, Syracuse University Press, 2003; ISBN 0-8156-3029-8
  55. ^ A dictionary of Jewish-Christian relations, Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn, p. 86, Cambridge University Press, 2005; ISBN 0-521-82692-6
  56. ^ Joseph Bottum. April 2004. "The End of the Pius Wars" Archived 10 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, First Things; retrieved 1 July 2009.
  57. ^ Phayer, 2000, p. 3
  58. ^ Bussmann, Walter (1969). "Pius XII an die deutschen Bischöfe". Hochland. 61: 61–65.
  59. ^ a b c Gutman, Israel, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, p. 1136
  60. ^ Passelecq, Suchecky pp. 113–137
  61. ^ a b Hill, Roland. 1997, 11 August. "The lost encyclical" Archived 30 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Tablet.
  62. ^ On 28 January 1939, eleven days before the death of Pius XI, a disappointed Gundlach informed LaFarge, the encyclical's author, "It cannot go on like this". The text had not been forwarded to the Vatican. He had talked to the American assistant to Father General, who promised to look into the matter in December 1938, but did not report back. Passelecq, Suchecky. p. 121
  63. ^ Humani generis unitas
  64. ^ "Nostra aetate: Transforming the Catholic-Jewish Relationship: Jewish-Catholic Relationship Transformed". Adl.org. Archived from the original on 30 October 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
  65. ^ On 16 March four days after coronation, Gundlach informed LaFarge that the documents had been given to Pius XI shortly before his death, but that the new Pope had so far had no opportunity to learn about it. Passelecq, Suchecky. p. 126
  66. ^ Encyclical of Pope Pius on the unity of human society to our venerable brethren: The Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops, Bishops, and other ordinaries in peace and the communion with the Apostolic see (AAS 1939).
  67. ^ Eugenio Cardinal Pacelli. Discorsi E Panegirici 1931–1938; Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1939
  68. ^ "85 años del bautizo de Juan Carlos de Borbón (y el tenso reencuentro de los reyes Alfonso XIII y Victoria Eugenia)". Vanity Fair (in European Spanish). 25 January 2023. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
  69. ^ Ludwig Volk, Die Kirche in den deutschsprachigen Ländern in: Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte, Band VII, p. 539
  70. ^ Donald J. Dietrich, p. 92, Syracuse University Press, 2003; ISBN 0-8156-3029-8
  71. ^ Volk, pp. 539–544
  72. ^ They included: Latvia 1922, Bavaria 1924, Poland 1925, France I., 1926, France II. 1926, Lithuania 1927, Czechoslovakia 1928, Portugal I 1928, Italy I 1929, Italy II 1929, Portugal II 1929, Romania I 1927, Prussia 1929, Romania II 1932, Baden 1932, Germany 1933, Austria 1933. See P. Joanne M.Restrepo Restrepo SJ. Concordata Regnante Sanctissimo Domino Pio PP.XI. Inita Pontificia Universita Gregoriana, Roma, 1934.
  73. ^ Ludwig Volk, "Die Kirche in den deutschsprachigen Ländern" in: Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte, Band VII, pp. 546–547
  74. ^ Ludwig Volk Das Reichskonkordat vom 20. Juli 1933, pp. 34f, 45–58
  75. ^ Klaus Scholder The Churches and the Third Reich volume 1: especially Part 1, chapter 10; part 2, chapter 2
  76. ^ Volk, pp. 98–101
  77. ^ Feldkamp, pp. 88–93
  78. ^ Volk, pp. 101, 105
  79. ^ Volk, p. 254
  80. ^ Krieg, Robert A., Catholic Theologians in Nazi Germany, p. 112
  81. ^ Vidmar, pp. 327–31
  82. ^ Pham, p. 45, quote: "When Pius XI was complimented on the publication, in 1937, of his encyclical denouncing Nazism, Mit brennender Sorge, his response was to point to his Secretary of State and say bluntly, 'The credit is his.'"
  83. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 389–92, quote "And when Hitler showed increasing belligerance toward the Church, Pius met the challenge with a decisiveness that astonished the world. His encyclical Mit brennender Sorge was the 'first great official public document to dare to confront and criticize Nazism' and 'one of the greatest such condemnations ever issued by the Vatican'. Smuggled into Germany, it was read from all the Catholic pulpits on Palm Sunday in March 1937. It exposed the fallacy and denounced the Nazi myth of blood and soil; it decried its neopaganism, its war of annihilation against the Church, and even described the Führer himself as a 'mad prophet possessed of repulsive arrogance'. The Nazis were infuriated, and in retaliation closed and sealed all the presses that had printed it and took numerous vindictive measures against the Church, including staging a long series of immorality trials of the Catholic clergy."
  84. ^ 74.A l'Eveque de Passau, in "Lettres de Pie XII aux Eveques Allemands 1939–1944, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1967, p. 416
  85. ^ "Accessed 4 December 2014; "La Presse et L'apostolat: discours prononce au College Angelique le 17 Avril, 1936" Paris : Bonne Presse, 1936" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
  86. ^ Tardini, Pio XII roma 1960
  87. ^ Michael F. Feldkamp. Pius XII und Deutschland; ISBN 3-525-34026-5.
  88. ^ Dalin, 2005, pp. 69–70
  89. ^ Catholic Forum. Pope Pius XII profile Archived 24 April 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
  90. ^ Pacelli’s assertion was factually incorrect. Pacelli, born in 1876, was elected Pope at the age of 63. For 33 of those 63 years, the Pope was not named Pius. Leo XIII was Pope from 1878 to 1903, including the day in 1899 when Pacelli was ordained a priest. Benedict XV was Pope from 1914 to 1922, including the day in 1917 when Pacelli was consecrated a bishop. Pius XII, quoted in Joseph Brosch, Pius XII, Lehrer der Wahrheit, Kreuzring, Trier,1968, p. 45
  91. ^ "Medius vestrum stetit quem vos nescetis. Everybody knew what the Pope meant". Domenico Cardinale Tardini, Pio XII, Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1960, p. 105
  92. ^ Lehnert, Pascalina. Ich durfte Ihm Dienen, Erinnerungen an Papst Pius XII. Naumann, Würzburg, 1986, p. 57
  93. ^ Lehnert, Pascalina. Ich durfte Ihm Dienen, Erinnerungen an Papst Pius XII. Naumann, Würzburg, 1986, p. 49
  94. ^ Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs and Congregation of Ordinary Affairs
  95. ^ Pio XII, La Allocuzione nel consistorio Segreto del 12 Gennaio 1953 in Pio XII, Discorsi e Radiomessagi di Sua Santita Vatican City, 1953, p. 455
  96. ^ Domenico Cardinale Tardini, Pio XII, Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1960, p. 157
  97. ^ Giulio Nicolini, Il Cardinale Domenico Tardini, Padova, 1980; ISBN 88-7026-340-1; p. 313
  98. ^ In the Secretariat of State he had actively supported "foreigners", for example Francis Spellman, the American monsignor, whom he consecrated himself as the first American Bishop in the Vatican curia. Spellman had organized and accompanied Pacelli's American journey and arranged a meeting with President Roosevelt. Only 30 days after his coronation, on 12 April 1939, Pope Pius XII named Spellman as archbishop of New York.
  99. ^ Gannon, Robert I. The Cardinal Spellman Story, Doubleday Company, New York, 1962
  100. ^ Oscar Halecki, James Murray, Jr. Pius XII, Eugenio Pacelli, Pope of Peace; p. 370
  101. ^ Oscar Halecki, James Murray, Jr. Pius XII, Eugenio Pacelli, Pope of Peace, p. 371
  102. ^ Levillain, 2002, p. 1136
  103. ^ Pio XII, La Allocuzione nel concistorio Segreto del 12 Gennaio 1953 in Pio XII, Discorsi e Radiomessaggi di Sua Santità, Vatican City, 1953, p. 455
  104. ^ Tardini later thanked him for not appointing him. The Pope replied with a smile. "Monsignore mio, you thank me, for not letting me do what I wanted to do". I replied "Yes Holy Father, I thank you for everything you have done for me, but even more, what you have not done for me". The Pope smiled. In Domenico Cardinale Tardini, Pio XII, Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana, 1960 157
  105. ^ Tobin, Greg. (2003). Selecting the Pope: Uncovering the Mysteries of Papal Elections. Barnes & Noble Publishing; ISBN 0-7607-4032-1. pp. xv–xvi, 143.
  106. ^ For example, Padellaro: "Church history will memorize with special letters the secret conclave of 1946, and the cosmopolitan Pius XII, who called men of all races into the Senate of the Church", Nazareno Padellaro, Pio XII Torino, 1956, p. 484
  107. ^ AAS, 1947, Mediator Dei, p. 18
  108. ^ AAS, 1947, Mediator Dei, p. 19
  109. ^ AAS, 1947, Mediator Dei, p. 31
  110. ^ "Religion: Rebel in Rio". Time. 23 July 1945.
  111. ^ Howe, Marvine (3 August 1973). "Ex-Priest's 'Sainthood' Irks Catholics in Brazil". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
  112. ^ AAS, 1956, p. 354 ff
  113. ^ AAS, 1956, p. 357
  114. ^ AAS, 1950, p. 657
  115. ^ AAS 1954 p. 313
  116. ^ AAS 1957, p. 272
  117. ^ Humani generis (1950) and Divino afflante Spiritu (1943), p. 305
  118. ^ AAS, 1943, p. 297
  119. ^ AAS, 1943, p. 305
  120. ^ Pius XII, Enc. Humani generis, p. 21
  121. ^ Humani generis, p. 21
  122. ^ AAS, 1950, p. 753
  123. ^ AAS 1953, p. 577
  124. ^ AAS 1954, p. 625
  125. ^ Pius XII, Enc. Mystici Corporis Christi, p. 110
  126. ^ "In history the violence of the arrogant takes its toll, but God does not leave us". La Stampa. 15 August 2017. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
  127. ^ Pio XII, Discorsi Ai Medici compiles 700 pages of specific addresses.
  128. ^ Pope Pius XII, The Moral Limits of Medical Research and Treatment Archived 21 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
  129. ^ Two speeches on 29 October 1951, and 26 November 1951: Moral Questions Affecting Married Life: Addresses given to the Italian Catholic Union of Midwives 29 October 1951, and 26 November 1951 to the National Congress of the Family Front and the Association of Large Families, National Catholic Welfare Conference, Washington, D.C.. Text of the speeches available from EWTN or CatholicCulture.org
  130. ^ Discorsi E Radiomessaggi di sua Santita Pio XII, Vatican City, 1940, p. 407; Discorsi E Radiomessaggi di sua Santita Pio XII, Vatican City, 1942, p. 52; Discorsi E Radiomessaggi di sua Santita Pio XII, Vatican City, 1946, p. 89 Discorsi E Radiomessaggi di sua Santita Pio XII, Vatican City, 1951, pp. 28, 221, 413, 574
  131. ^ Leiber, p. 411
  132. ^ Pius XII, Enc. Humani generis, 36
  133. ^ "Finding God in human evolution". Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
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  135. ^ "Library : The Legitimacy of Capital Punishment". www.catholicculture.org. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
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  137. ^ White, Steven F. (2020). Modern Italy's Founding Fathers: The Making of a Postwar Republic. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 108–109.
  138. ^ Giuseppe Mammarealla Italy After Fascism A Political History 1943–1965, Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1966 p. 114
  139. ^ Bracaglia, Giorgio. The Italian Monarchy, The State, The Church and the Holy Shroud.
  140. ^ "Univ of Dayton". Campus.udayton.edu. 30 July 2009. Archived from the original on 8 June 2010. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
  141. ^ This Saint's for You by Thomas J. Craughwell 2007; ISBN 1-59474-184-0; p. 172
  142. ^ Communication, Father Robert Graham, SJ, 10 November 1992
  143. ^ Orientalis Ecclesiae, AAS, 1944, p. 129
  144. ^ Orientales omnes Ecclesias, AAS, 1946, pp. 33–63.
  145. ^ Sempiternus Rex, AAS, 1951, pp. 625–44.
  146. ^ Orientales Ecclesias. AAS, 1953, pp. 5–15.
  147. ^ Apostolic Letters to the bishops in the East. AAS, 1956, pp. 260–64.
  148. ^ Fulgens corona, AAS, 1953, pp. 577–93
  149. ^ Papal letter to the People of Russia, AAS, 1952, pp. 505–11.
  150. ^ Daniela Treveri Gennari, Post-War Italian Cinema: American Intervention, Vatican Interests (New York and London: Routledge, 2009), 22.
  151. ^ Helmuth Rolfes, "Inter Mirifica and What Followed: The Second Vatican Council as the Beginning of a New Era in the Relationship Between the Church and the Media", in Helmuth Rolfes and Angela Ann Zukowski, eds., Communicatio Socialis, Challenge of Theology and Ministry in the Church, Festschrift for Franz-Josef Eilers (Kassel, Germany: Kassel University Press, 2007), 11.
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  153. ^ Dorothy Scallan. The Holy Man of Tours. (1990); ISBN 0-89555-390-2
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  157. ^ O'Brien, p. 8
  158. ^ Corrado Pallenberg, p. 71
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Primary sources

Bibliography

Further reading

External links