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Judíos americanos

Los judíos estadounidenses o judíos estadounidenses son ciudadanos estadounidenses que son judíos , ya sea por cultura , etnia o religión . [4] Según una encuesta de 2020 realizada por Pew Research , aproximadamente dos tercios de los judíos estadounidenses se identifican como asquenazíes , el 3 % se identifica como sefardíes y el 1 % se identifica como mizrajíes . Un 6 % adicional se identifica como alguna combinación de las tres categorías. [5]

Durante la era colonial, los judíos sefardíes que llegaron a través de Portugal representaban la mayor parte de la entonces pequeña población judía de Estados Unidos. Si bien sus descendientes son una minoría en la actualidad, representan el resto de aquellos judíos estadounidenses originales junto con una variedad de otras comunidades judías, incluidos los judíos sefardíes más recientes , los judíos mizrajíes , los judíos beta israelitas-etíopes , varios otros grupos étnicos judíos , así como un número menor de conversos al judaísmo . La comunidad judía estadounidense manifiesta una amplia gama de tradiciones culturales judías , que abarcan todo el espectro de la observancia religiosa judía .

Según las definiciones religiosas y los datos de población variables, Estados Unidos tiene la comunidad judía más grande o la segunda más grande del mundo, después de Israel . A partir de 2020, la población judía estadounidense se estima en 7,5 millones de personas, lo que representa el 2,4% de la población total de EE. UU. Esto incluye 4,2 millones de adultos que identifican su religión como judía, 1,5 millones de adultos judíos que no se identifican con ninguna religión y 1,8 millones de niños judíos. [1] Se estima que hasta 15.000.000 de estadounidenses forman parte de la población judía estadounidense "ampliada" , lo que representa el 4,5% de la población total de EE. UU., compuesta por aquellos que tienen al menos un abuelo judío y serían elegibles para la ciudadanía israelí según la Ley del Retorno . [6]

Historia

Los judíos estuvieron presentes en las Trece Colonias desde mediados del siglo XVII. [7] [8] Sin embargo, eran pocos en número, con un máximo de 200 a 300 habiendo llegado en 1700. [9] Esos primeros llegados eran en su mayoría inmigrantes judíos sefardíes , de ascendencia sefardí occidental (también conocida como judía española y portuguesa ), [10] pero en 1720, predominaban los judíos asquenazíes de las comunidades de la diáspora en Europa central y oriental. [9]

Por primera vez, la Ley de Plantaciones Inglesa de 1740 permitió a los judíos convertirse en ciudadanos británicos y emigrar a las colonias . El primer judío famoso en la historia de los Estados Unidos fue Chaim Salomon , un judío nacido en Polonia que emigró a Nueva York y jugó un papel importante en la Revolución Americana. Fue un financiero exitoso que apoyó la causa patriótica y ayudó a recaudar la mayor parte del dinero necesario para financiar la Revolución Americana. [11]

A pesar de que a algunos de ellos se les negó el derecho a votar o a ocupar cargos en jurisdicciones locales, los judíos sefardíes se volvieron activos en los asuntos comunitarios en la década de 1790, después de que se les concediera la igualdad política en los cinco estados donde eran más numerosos. [12] Hasta aproximadamente 1830, Charleston, Carolina del Sur, tenía más judíos que cualquier otro lugar de América del Norte . La inmigración judía a gran escala comenzó en el siglo XIX, cuando, a mediados de siglo, muchos judíos alemanes habían llegado, migrando a los Estados Unidos en grandes cantidades debido a las leyes y restricciones antisemitas en sus países de nacimiento. [13] Se convirtieron principalmente en comerciantes y dueños de tiendas. Gradualmente, los primeros judíos que llegaron de la costa este viajarían hacia el oeste, y en el otoño de 1819 se llevaron a cabo los primeros servicios religiosos judíos al oeste de la cordillera de los Apalaches durante las Altas Fiestas en Cincinnati , la comunidad judía más antigua del Medio Oeste. Poco a poco, la comunidad judía de Cincinnati adoptaría prácticas novedosas bajo el liderazgo del rabino Isaac Meyer Wise , el padre del judaísmo reformista en los Estados Unidos, [14] como la inclusión de mujeres en el minyan . [15] Una gran comunidad creció en la región con la llegada de judíos alemanes y lituanos en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, lo que llevó al establecimiento de Manischewitz , uno de los mayores productores de productos kosher estadounidenses y ahora con sede en Nueva Jersey , y el periódico judío más antiguo publicado de forma continua en los Estados Unidos, y el segundo más antiguo publicado de forma continua en el mundo, The American Israelite , establecido en 1854 y todavía existente en Cincinnati. [16] En 1880 había aproximadamente 250.000 judíos en los Estados Unidos, muchos de ellos judíos alemanes educados y en gran parte seculares, aunque una población minoritaria de las antiguas familias judías sefardíes seguía siendo influyente.

Inmigrantes judíos de Europa del Este que llegan a Nueva York

La migración judía a los Estados Unidos aumentó drásticamente a principios de la década de 1880, como resultado de la persecución y las dificultades económicas en partes de Europa del Este. La mayoría de estos nuevos inmigrantes eran judíos asquenazíes de habla yiddish , la mayoría de los cuales llegaron de comunidades pobres de la diáspora del Imperio ruso y la Zona de Asentamiento , ubicada en la actual Polonia , Lituania , Bielorrusia , Ucrania y Moldavia . Durante el mismo período, un gran número de judíos asquenazíes también llegaron de Galicia , en ese momento la región más empobrecida del Imperio austrohúngaro con una gran población urbana judía, expulsada principalmente por razones económicas. Muchos judíos también emigraron de Rumania . Más de 2.000.000 de judíos desembarcaron entre fines del siglo XIX y 1924, cuando la Ley de Inmigración de 1924 restringió la inmigración. La mayoría se estableció en el área metropolitana de Nueva York , estableciendo las mayores concentraciones de población judía del mundo. En 1915, la circulación de los diarios en yiddish era de medio millón de ejemplares sólo en la ciudad de Nueva York y de 600.000 a nivel nacional. Además, miles de personas más se suscribieron a los numerosos periódicos semanales y a las numerosas revistas en yiddish. [17]

A principios del siglo XX, estos judíos recién llegados construyeron redes de apoyo que consistían en muchas sinagogas pequeñas y Landsmanshaften (en alemán y yiddish, "asociaciones de campesinos") para judíos de la misma ciudad o pueblo. Los escritores judíos estadounidenses de la época instaron a la asimilación e integración en la cultura estadounidense más amplia , y los judíos rápidamente se convirtieron en parte de la vida estadounidense. Aproximadamente 500.000 judíos estadounidenses (o la mitad de todos los varones judíos entre 18 y 50 años) lucharon en la Segunda Guerra Mundial , y después de la guerra, las familias más jóvenes se unieron a la nueva tendencia de suburbanización . Allí, los judíos se asimilaron cada vez más y demostraron un aumento de los matrimonios mixtos . Los suburbios facilitaron la formación de nuevos centros, ya que la matriculación escolar judía se duplicó con creces entre el final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y mediados de la década de 1950, mientras que la afiliación a la sinagoga saltó del 20% en 1930 al 60% en 1960; el crecimiento más rápido se produjo en las congregaciones reformistas y, especialmente, conservadoras. [18] Las olas más recientes de emigración judía procedentes de Rusia y otras regiones se han unido en gran medida a la corriente principal de la comunidad judía estadounidense.

Los estadounidenses de ascendencia judía han tenido éxito en muchos campos y aspectos a lo largo de los años. [19] [20] La comunidad judía en Estados Unidos ha pasado de ser parte de la clase baja de la sociedad, con numerosos empleos prohibidos para ellos, [21] a ser un grupo con una alta concentración de miembros del mundo académico y un ingreso per cápita más alto que el promedio en los Estados Unidos. [22] [23] [24]

Autoidentidad

Los académicos debaten si la experiencia histórica de los judíos en los Estados Unidos ha sido una experiencia tan única como para validar el excepcionalismo estadounidense . [26]

Korelitz (1996) muestra cómo los judíos estadounidenses durante finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX abandonaron una definición racial del judaísmo en favor de una que abarcaba la etnicidad. La clave para entender esta transición de una autodefinición racial a una cultural o étnica se puede encontrar en el Menorah Journal entre 1915 y 1925. Durante este tiempo, los colaboradores del Menorah promovieron una visión cultural , en lugar de una visión racial, religiosa o de otro tipo del judaísmo como un medio para definir a los judíos en un mundo que amenazaba con abrumar y absorber la singularidad judía. La revista representó los ideales del movimiento de la menorá establecido por Horace M. Kallen y otros para promover un renacimiento de la identidad cultural judía y combatir la idea de la raza como un medio para definir o identificar a los pueblos. [27]

Siporin (1990) utiliza el folclore familiar de los judíos étnicos para explicar su historia colectiva y su transformación en una forma de arte histórico. Nos cuentan cómo los judíos han sobrevivido al desarraigo y la transformación. Muchas narraciones de inmigrantes abordan el tema de la naturaleza arbitraria del destino y la condición reducida de los inmigrantes en una nueva cultura. En cambio, las narraciones de familias étnicas tienden a mostrar que la etnia tiene más control sobre su vida y tal vez corre el riesgo de perder su judaísmo por completo. Algunas historias muestran cómo un miembro de la familia negoció con éxito el conflicto entre las identidades étnica y estadounidense. [28]

Después de 1960, los recuerdos del Holocausto , junto con la Guerra de los Seis Días en 1967, tuvieron un gran impacto en la configuración de la identidad étnica judía . Algunos han sostenido que el Holocausto puso de relieve para los judíos la importancia de su identidad étnica en un momento en que otras minorías afirmaban la suya propia. [29] [30] [31]

Política

En la ciudad de Nueva York, mientras que la comunidad judía alemana estaba bien establecida en la "zona alta", los judíos más numerosos que emigraron de Europa del Este enfrentaron tensiones en el "centro" con sus vecinos católicos irlandeses y alemanes, especialmente los católicos irlandeses que controlaban la política del Partido Demócrata [35] en ese momento . Los judíos se establecieron con éxito en los oficios de la confección y en los sindicatos de agujas en Nueva York. En la década de 1930 eran un factor político importante en Nueva York, con un fuerte apoyo a los programas más liberales del New Deal . Continuaron siendo un elemento importante de la Coalición del New Deal , dando un apoyo especial al Movimiento por los Derechos Civiles . Sin embargo, a mediados de la década de 1960, el movimiento Black Power causó una creciente separación entre negros y judíos, aunque ambos grupos permanecieron sólidamente en el campo demócrata. [36]

Mientras que los primeros inmigrantes judíos de Alemania tendían a ser políticamente conservadores , la ola de judíos de Europa del Este que comenzó a principios de la década de 1880 era generalmente más liberal o de izquierda y se convirtió en la mayoría política. [37] Muchos llegaron a Estados Unidos con experiencia en los movimientos socialista, anarquista y comunista, así como en el Bund Laboral , que emanaba de Europa del Este. Muchos judíos ascendieron a posiciones de liderazgo en el movimiento obrero estadounidense de principios del siglo XX y ayudaron a fundar sindicatos que desempeñaron un papel importante en la política de izquierda y, después de 1936, en la política del Partido Demócrata . [37]

Aunque los judíos estadounidenses en general tendían al Partido Republicano en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, la mayoría ha votado a los demócratas al menos desde 1916, cuando votaron en un 55% por Woodrow Wilson . [32]

Con la elección de Franklin D. Roosevelt , los judíos estadounidenses votaron más firmemente por los demócratas. Votaron el 90% por Roosevelt en las elecciones de 1940 y 1944, lo que representa el mayor apoyo, igualado solo una vez desde entonces. En la elección de 1948, el apoyo judío al demócrata Harry S. Truman cayó al 75%, y el 15% apoyó al nuevo Partido Progresista . [32] Como resultado del cabildeo y con la esperanza de competir mejor por el voto judío, las plataformas de los dos principales partidos habían incluido un punto prosionista desde 1944, [38] [39] y apoyaron la creación de un estado judío; sin embargo, tuvo poco efecto aparente, ya que el 90% todavía votó por otros partidos que no fueran republicanos. En todas las elecciones desde entonces, excepto en 1980, ningún candidato presidencial demócrata ha ganado con menos del 67% del voto judío. (En 1980, Carter obtuvo el 45% del voto judío. Véase más abajo).

Durante las elecciones de 1952 y 1956, los votantes judíos emitieron el 60% o más de sus votos para el demócrata Adlai Stevenson , mientras que el general Eisenhower obtuvo el 40% del voto judío para su reelección, el mejor resultado hasta la fecha para los republicanos desde el 43% de Warren G. Harding en 1920. [32] En 1960, el 83% votó por el demócrata John F. Kennedy contra Richard Nixon , y en 1964, el 90% de los judíos estadounidenses votaron por Lyndon Johnson , por encima de su oponente republicano, el archiconservador Barry Goldwater . Hubert Humphrey obtuvo el 81% del voto judío en las elecciones de 1968 en su candidatura perdedora para la presidencia contra Richard Nixon . [32]

Durante la campaña de reelección de Nixon en 1972, los votantes judíos se mostraron aprensivos con respecto a George McGovern y solo favorecieron al demócrata en un 65%, mientras que Nixon duplicó con creces el apoyo judío republicano al 35%. En las elecciones de 1976, los votantes judíos apoyaron al demócrata Jimmy Carter en un 71% frente al 27% del presidente en ejercicio Gerald Ford , pero durante la campaña de reelección de Carter en 1980, los votantes judíos abandonaron en gran medida al demócrata, con solo un 45% de apoyo, mientras que el ganador republicano Ronald Reagan obtuvo un 39% y un 14% fue para el independiente (ex republicano) John Anderson . [32] [40]

Durante la campaña de reelección de Reagan en 1984, el republicano conservó el 31% del voto judío, mientras que el 67% votó por el demócrata Walter Mondale . En las elecciones de 1988, los votantes judíos favorecieron al demócrata Michael Dukakis con un 64%, mientras que George HW Bush obtuvo un respetable 35%, pero durante el intento de reelección de Bush en 1992, su apoyo judío cayó a sólo el 11%, con un 80% votando por Bill Clinton y un 9% por el independiente Ross Perot . La campaña de reelección de Clinton en 1996 mantuvo un alto apoyo judío en el 78%, con un 16% apoyando a Bob Dole y un 3% a Perot. [32] [40]

En las elecciones presidenciales de 2000 , Joe Lieberman se convirtió en el primer judío estadounidense en postularse a un cargo nacional en una lista de un partido importante cuando fue elegido como candidato a vicepresidente por el candidato presidencial demócrata Al Gore . Las elecciones de 2000 y 2004 vieron que el apoyo judío a los demócratas Al Gore y John Kerry , un católico, se mantuvo en el rango alto a medio del 70%, mientras que la reelección del republicano George W. Bush en 2004 vio el apoyo judío aumentar del 19% al 24%. [40] [41]

En las elecciones presidenciales de 2008 , el 78% de los judíos votaron por Barack Obama , quien se convirtió en el primer afroamericano en ser elegido presidente. [42] Además, el 83% de los judíos blancos votaron por Obama en comparación con solo el 34% de los protestantes blancos y el 47% de los católicos blancos, aunque el 67% de los que se identifican con otra religión y el 71% de los que no se identifican con ninguna religión también votaron por Obama. [43]

En las primarias demócratas de New Hampshire de febrero de 2016 , Bernie Sanders se convirtió en el primer candidato judío en ganar las elecciones primarias presidenciales de un estado. [44]

En las elecciones al Congreso y al Senado, desde 1968, los judíos estadounidenses han votado entre un 70 y un 80% por los demócratas; [45] este apoyo aumentó al 87% para los candidatos demócratas a la Cámara de Representantes durante las elecciones de 2006. [46]

David Levy Yulee

El primer judío estadounidense en servir en el Senado fue David Levy Yulee , quien fue el primer senador de Florida, sirviendo entre 1845 y 1851 y nuevamente entre 1855 y 1861.

Al comienzo del 112.º Congreso , había 19 judíos entre los 435 representantes de los Estados Unidos ; [47] 26 demócratas y 1 ( Eric Cantor ) republicano. Si bien muchos de estos miembros representaban ciudades costeras y suburbios con poblaciones judías significativas, otros no lo hacían (por ejemplo, Kim Schrier de Seattle, Washington; John Yarmuth de Louisville, Kentucky; y David Kustoff y Steve Cohen de Memphis, Tennessee). El número total de judíos que sirven en la Cámara de Representantes disminuyó de 31 en el 111.º Congreso . [48] John Adler de Nueva Jersey, Steve Kagan de Wisconsin, Alan Grayson de Florida y Ron Klein de Florida perdieron sus intentos de reelección, Rahm Emanuel renunció para convertirse en el jefe de gabinete del presidente; y Paul Hodes de New Hampshire no se postuló para la reelección, sino que (sin éxito) buscó el escaño vacante en el Senado de su estado. David Cicilline , de Rhode Island, fue el único judío estadounidense que fue elegido recientemente para el 112.º Congreso; había sido alcalde de Providence . El número disminuyó cuando Jane Harman , Anthony Weiner y Gabby Giffords renunciaron durante el 112.º Congreso. [ cita requerida ]

En enero de 2014 , había cinco hombres abiertamente homosexuales en el Congreso y dos son judíos: Jared Polis de Colorado y David Cicilline de Rhode Island. [ cita requerida ]

En noviembre de 2008, Cantor fue elegido líder de la minoría de la Cámara de Representantes , el primer republicano judío en ser seleccionado para el puesto. [49] En 2011, se convirtió en el primer líder judío de la mayoría de la Cámara de Representantes . Se desempeñó como líder de la mayoría hasta 2014, cuando renunció poco después de su derrota en las elecciones primarias republicanas para su escaño en la Cámara de Representantes. [ cita requerida ]

En 2013, Pew descubrió que el 70% de los judíos estadounidenses se identificaban o se inclinaban hacia el Partido Demócrata , mientras que solo el 22% se identificaban o se inclinaban hacia el Partido Republicano . [50]

El 114º Congreso incluyó a 10 judíos [51] entre 100 senadores estadounidenses : nueve demócratas ( Michael Bennet , Richard Blumenthal , Brian Schatz , Benjamin Cardin , Dianne Feinstein , Jon Ossoff , Jacky Rosen , Charles Schumer , Ron Wyden ) y Bernie Sanders , quien se convirtió en demócrata para postularse a la presidencia, pero regresó al Senado como independiente. [52]

En el 118.º Congreso hay 28 representantes judíos de Estados Unidos. [53] 25 son demócratas y los otros 3 son republicanos. Los 10 senadores judíos son demócratas. [54]

Además, 6 miembros del gabinete del presidente Joe Biden son judíos ( el secretario de Estado Antony Blinken , el fiscal general Merrick Garland , la directora nacional del país Avril Haines , el jefe de gabinete de la Casa Blanca Ron Klain , el secretario de Seguridad Nacional Alejandro Mayorkas y la secretaria del Tesoro Janet Yellen ). [55]

Participación en movimientos por los derechos civiles

Entre los miembros de la comunidad judía estadounidense se encuentran destacados participantes en los movimientos por los derechos civiles . A mediados del siglo XX, hubo judíos estadounidenses que estuvieron entre los participantes más activos del Movimiento por los Derechos Civiles y de los movimientos feministas . Varios judíos estadounidenses también han sido figuras activas en la lucha por los derechos de los homosexuales en Estados Unidos .

Joachim Prinz , presidente del Congreso Judío Americano , declaró lo siguiente cuando habló desde el podio del Monumento a Lincoln durante la famosa Marcha sobre Washington el 28 de agosto de 1963: "Como judíos, traemos a esta gran manifestación, en la que miles de nosotros participamos orgullosamente, una doble experiencia: una del espíritu y otra de nuestra historia  ... De nuestra experiencia histórica judía de tres mil quinientos años decimos: Nuestra historia antigua comenzó con la esclavitud y el anhelo de libertad. Durante la Edad Media, mi pueblo vivió durante mil años en los guetos de Europa  ... Es por estas razones que no es meramente la simpatía y la compasión por el pueblo negro de América lo que nos motiva. Es, por encima de todo y más allá de todas esas simpatías y emociones, un sentido de completa identificación y solidaridad nacido de nuestra propia y dolorosa experiencia histórica". [56] [57]

El Holocausto

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial , la comunidad judía estadounidense se dividió profundamente y en gran medida y, como resultado, no pudo formar un frente unido. La mayoría de los judíos que habían emigrado previamente a los Estados Unidos desde Europa del Este apoyaban el sionismo , porque creían que el regreso a su patria ancestral era la única solución a la persecución y el genocidio que estaban ocurriendo en Europa. Un acontecimiento importante fue la repentina conversión de muchos líderes judíos estadounidenses al sionismo a finales de la guerra. [58] Los medios estadounidenses ignoraron en gran medida el Holocausto mientras estaba sucediendo. Los periodistas y editores en gran medida no creyeron las historias de atrocidades que llegaban de Europa. [59]

El Holocausto tuvo un profundo impacto en la comunidad judía de los Estados Unidos, especialmente después de 1960, cuando mejoró la educación sobre el Holocausto, cuando los judíos trataron de comprender lo que había sucedido durante el mismo y, especialmente, cuando trataron de conmemorarlo y lidiar con él cuando miraban hacia el futuro. Abraham Joshua Heschel resumió este dilema cuando intentó comprender Auschwitz : "Intentar responder es cometer una blasfemia suprema. Israel nos permite soportar la agonía de Auschwitz sin desesperación radical, para sentir un rayo [del] resplandor de Dios en las junglas de la historia". [60]

Asuntos internacionales

Winston Churchill y Bernard Baruch conversan en el asiento trasero de un automóvil frente a la casa de Baruch.

El sionismo se convirtió en un movimiento bien organizado en los EE. UU. con la participación de líderes como Louis Brandeis y la promesa de una patria reconstituida en la Declaración Balfour . [61] Los judíos estadounidenses organizaron boicots a gran escala de mercancías alemanas durante la década de 1930 para protestar contra la Alemania nazi . Las políticas internas izquierdistas de Franklin D. Roosevelt recibieron un fuerte apoyo judío en las décadas de 1930 y 1940, al igual que su política exterior antinazi y su promoción de las Naciones Unidas . El apoyo al sionismo político en este período, aunque creciente en influencia, siguió siendo una opinión claramente minoritaria entre los judíos de los Estados Unidos hasta aproximadamente 1944-45, cuando los primeros rumores e informes del asesinato masivo sistemático de los judíos en los países ocupados por los nazis se hicieron públicos con la liberación de los campos de concentración y exterminio nazis . La fundación del moderno Estado de Israel en 1948 y su reconocimiento por parte del gobierno estadounidense (a pesar de las objeciones de los aislacionistas estadounidenses) fue una indicación tanto de su apoyo intrínseco como de su respuesta al conocimiento de los horrores del Holocausto.

Esta atención se basó en una afinidad natural hacia Israel y en el apoyo a este país en la comunidad judía. La atención se debe también a los conflictos subsiguientes y no resueltos en relación con la fundación de Israel y el papel del movimiento sionista en el futuro. Un animado debate interno comenzó después de la Guerra de los Seis Días . La comunidad judía estadounidense estaba dividida sobre si estaba de acuerdo o no con la respuesta israelí; la gran mayoría terminó aceptando la guerra como necesaria. [62] Se despertaron tensiones similares con la elección de Menachem Begin en 1977 y el surgimiento de políticas revisionistas , la Guerra del Líbano de 1982 y la continua gobernanza administrativa de partes del territorio de Cisjordania . [63] El desacuerdo sobre la aceptación de los Acuerdos de Oslo por parte de Israel en 1993 causó una división adicional entre los judíos estadounidenses; [64] esto reflejó una división similar entre los israelíes y condujo a una ruptura paralela dentro del lobby pro-israelí , e incluso en última instancia con los Estados Unidos por su apoyo "ciego" a Israel. [64] Abandonando toda pretensión de unidad, ambos segmentos comenzaron a desarrollar organizaciones independientes de defensa y cabildeo. Los partidarios liberales del Acuerdo de Oslo trabajaron a través de Americans for Peace Now (APN), Israel Policy Forum (IPF) y otros grupos amigos del gobierno laborista en Israel. Intentaron asegurar al Congreso que los judíos estadounidenses respaldaban el Acuerdo y defendieron los esfuerzos de la administración para ayudar a la incipiente Autoridad Palestina (AP), incluidas las promesas de ayuda financiera. En una batalla por la opinión pública, el IPF encargó una serie de encuestas que mostraban un amplio apoyo a Oslo entre la comunidad.

En oposición a Oslo, una alianza de grupos conservadores, como la Organización Sionista de América (ZOA), los Estadounidenses por un Israel Seguro (AFSI) y el Instituto Judío para Asuntos de Seguridad Nacional (JINSA), trataron de contrarrestar el poder de los judíos liberales. El 10 de octubre de 1993, los opositores al acuerdo palestino-israelí organizaron la Conferencia de Liderazgo Estadounidense por un Israel Seguro, donde advirtieron que Israel se estaba postrando ante "un matón armado", y predijeron que el "13 de septiembre es una fecha que vivirá en la infamia". Algunos sionistas también criticaron, a menudo con un lenguaje duro, al Primer Ministro Yitzhak Rabin y a Shimon Peres , su Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores y principal arquitecto del acuerdo de paz. Con la comunidad tan fuertemente dividida, AIPAC y la Conferencia de Presidentes, que tenía la tarea de representar el consenso judío nacional, lucharon por mantener civilizado el discurso cada vez más antagónico. Como reflejo de estas tensiones, la conferencia le pidió a Abraham Foxman , de la Liga Antidifamación, que se disculpara por criticar a Morton Klein , de la ZOA . La conferencia, que según sus directrices organizativas estaba a cargo de moderar el discurso comunitario, censuró a regañadientes a algunos portavoces ortodoxos por atacar a Colette Avital , la cónsul general israelí en Nueva York designada por el Partido Laborista y una ardiente partidaria de esa versión de un proceso de paz. [65]

Demografía

Judíos estadounidenses por estado según el Anuario Judío Estadounidense de 2020 y la Oficina del Censo de EE. UU.

En 2020, la población judía estadounidense es, según el método de identificación , la más grande del mundo o la segunda más grande del mundo (después de Israel ). Las cifras precisas de población varían dependiendo de si se contabiliza a los judíos en función de consideraciones halájicas o de factores de identificación seculares, políticos y ancestrales . En 2001, había alrededor de cuatro millones de seguidores del judaísmo en los EE. UU., aproximadamente el 1,4% de la población estadounidense. Según la Agencia Judía , para el año 2023 Israel albergaba a 7,2 millones de judíos (el 46% de la población judía mundial), mientras que Estados Unidos contenía 6,3 millones (el 40,1%). [66]

Según los hallazgos de Gallup y Pew Research Center, "como máximo el 2,2% de la población adulta de EE. UU. tiene alguna base para la autoidentificación judía". [67] En 2020, los demógrafos Arnold Dashefsky e Ira M. Sheskin estimaron en el American Jewish Yearbook que la población judía estadounidense ascendía a 7,15 millones, lo que representa el 2,17% de los 329,5 millones de habitantes del país. [68] [69] Ese mismo año, otra organización estimó que la población judía estadounidense era de 7,6 millones de personas, lo que representa el 2,4% de la población total de EE. UU. Esto incluye 4,9 millones de adultos que identifican su religión como judía, 1,2 millones de adultos judíos que no se identifican con ninguna religión y 1,6 millones de niños judíos. [70]

La encuesta de población del American Jewish Yearbook había situado el número de judíos estadounidenses en 6,4 millones, o aproximadamente el 2,1% de la población total. Esta cifra es significativamente más alta que la estimación de la encuesta a gran escala anterior, realizada por las estimaciones de la población judía nacional de 2000-2001, que estimaron 5,2 millones de judíos. Un estudio de 2007 publicado por el Steinhardt Social Research Institute (SSRI) en la Universidad de Brandeis presenta evidencia que sugiere que ambas cifras pueden ser subestimaciones con un potencial de 7,0 a 7,4 millones de estadounidenses de ascendencia judía. [71] Sin embargo, esas estimaciones más altas se obtuvieron incluyendo a todos los miembros de la familia y los miembros del hogar no judíos, en lugar de a los individuos encuestados. [72] En un estudio de 2019 de Jews of Color Initiative se encontró que aproximadamente el 12-15% de los judíos en los Estados Unidos, alrededor de 1.000.000 de 7.200.000 se identifican como multirraciales y judíos de color . [73] [74] [75] [76] [77]

La población de estadounidenses de ascendencia judía se caracteriza demográficamente por una composición poblacional envejecida y tasas de fertilidad bajas, significativamente inferiores al reemplazo generacional. [72]

La Encuesta Nacional de Población Judía de 1990 pidió a 4,5 millones de judíos adultos que identificaran su denominación. El total nacional mostró que el 38% estaba afiliado a la tradición reformista , el 35% eran conservadores , el 6% eran ortodoxos , el 1% eran reconstruccionistas , el 10% se vinculaban a alguna otra tradición y el 10% dijeron que eran "simplemente judíos". [78] En 2013, la encuesta de población judía de Pew Research encontró que el 35% de los judíos estadounidenses se identificaron como reformistas, el 18% como conservadores, el 10% como ortodoxos, el 6% se identificaron con otras sectas y el 30% no se identificaron con una denominación. [79] La encuesta de Pew de 2020 encontró que el 37% se afiliaba al judaísmo reformista, el 17% al judaísmo conservador y el 9% al judaísmo ortodoxo. Los judíos jóvenes tienen más probabilidades de identificarse como ortodoxos o como no afiliados en comparación con los miembros mayores de la comunidad judía. [5]

Muchos judíos se concentran en el noreste, particularmente alrededor de la ciudad de Nueva York . Muchos judíos también viven en el sur de Florida , Los Ángeles y otras grandes áreas metropolitanas, como Chicago , San Francisco o Atlanta . Las áreas metropolitanas de la ciudad de Nueva York, Los Ángeles y Miami contienen casi una cuarta parte de los judíos del mundo [80] y el área metropolitana de la ciudad de Nueva York en sí contiene alrededor de una cuarta parte de todos los judíos que viven en los Estados Unidos.

Por estado

Según un estudio publicado por los demógrafos y sociólogos Ira M. Sheskin y Arnold Dashefsky en el American Jewish Yearbook, la distribución de la población judía en 2020 fue la siguiente: [68] [69]

Centros de población judía importantes

El área metropolitana de la ciudad de Nueva York alberga, con diferencia, la mayor población judía estadounidense.

El área metropolitana de la ciudad de Nueva York es el segundo centro de población judía más grande del mundo después del área metropolitana de Tel Aviv en Israel. [80] Varias otras ciudades importantes tienen grandes comunidades judías, incluidas Los Ángeles , Miami , Baltimore , Boston , Chicago , San Francisco y Filadelfia . [82] En muchas áreas metropolitanas, la mayoría de las familias judías viven en áreas suburbanas. El área metropolitana de Phoenix albergaba a unos 83.000 judíos en 2002 y ha estado creciendo rápidamente. [83] La mayor población judía per cápita para las áreas incorporadas en los EE. UU. son Kiryas Joel Village, Nueva York (más del 93% según el idioma hablado en el hogar), [84] la ciudad de Beverly Hills, California (61%), [85] y Lakewood Township , Nueva Jersey (59%), [86] con dos de las áreas incorporadas, Kiryas Joel y Lakewood, que tienen una alta concentración de judíos haredí, y un área incorporada, Beverly Hills, que tiene una alta concentración de judíos no ortodoxos.

El fenómeno de la migración israelí a los Estados Unidos se suele denominar Yerida . La comunidad de inmigrantes israelíes en los Estados Unidos está menos extendida. Las comunidades de inmigrantes israelíes más importantes en los Estados Unidos se encuentran en el área metropolitana de la ciudad de Nueva York, Los Ángeles, Miami y Chicago. [87]

Según la encuesta nacional de población judía de 2001 [89] , 4,3 millones de judíos estadounidenses tienen algún tipo de conexión fuerte con la comunidad judía, ya sea religiosa o cultural.

Distribución de los judíos americanos

Según el North American Jewish Data Bank [90], los 104 condados y ciudades independientes con las comunidades judías más grandes, como porcentaje de la población, en 2011 eran:

Asimilación y cambios poblacionales

Estos temas paralelos han facilitado el extraordinario éxito económico, político y social de la comunidad judía estadounidense, pero también han contribuido a una asimilación cultural generalizada . [91] Sin embargo, más recientemente, la idoneidad y el grado de asimilación también se han convertido en un tema importante y controvertido dentro de la comunidad judía estadounidense moderna, con escépticos tanto políticos como religiosos. [92]

Aunque no todos los judíos desaprueban los matrimonios mixtos , muchos miembros de la comunidad judía se han preocupado de que la alta tasa de matrimonios interreligiosos resulte en la eventual desaparición de la comunidad judía estadounidense. Las tasas de matrimonios mixtos han aumentado de aproximadamente el 6% en 1950 y el 25% en 1974, [93] a aproximadamente el 40-50% en el año 2000. [94] Para 2013, la tasa de matrimonios mixtos había aumentado al 71% para los judíos no ortodoxos. [95] Esto, en combinación con la tasa de natalidad comparativamente baja en la comunidad judía, ha llevado a una disminución del 5% en la población judía de los Estados Unidos en la década de 1990. Además de esto, en comparación con la población estadounidense en general, la comunidad judía estadounidense es ligeramente mayor.

Un tercio de las parejas mixtas proporcionan a sus hijos una educación judía, y hacerlo es más común entre las familias mixtas que crían a sus hijos en áreas con altas poblaciones judías. [96] El área de Boston, por ejemplo, es excepcional en el sentido de que se estima que el 60% de los hijos de matrimonios mixtos están siendo criados como judíos, lo que significa que el matrimonio mixto en realidad estaría contribuyendo a un aumento neto en el número de judíos. [97] Además, algunos niños criados a través de matrimonios mixtos redescubren y abrazan sus raíces judías cuando ellos mismos se casan y tienen hijos.

En contraste con las tendencias actuales de asimilación, algunas comunidades dentro del judaísmo estadounidense, como los judíos ortodoxos , tienen tasas de natalidad significativamente más altas y tasas de matrimonios mixtos más bajas, y están creciendo rápidamente. La proporción de miembros de la sinagoga judía que eran ortodoxos aumentó del 11% en 1971 al 21% en 2000, mientras que la comunidad judía en general disminuyó en número.  [98] En 2000, había 360.000 judíos llamados "ultraortodoxos" ( haredi ) en EE. UU. (7,2%). [99] La cifra para 2006 se estima en 468.000 (9,4%). [99] Los datos del Pew Center muestran que, a partir de 2013, el 27% de los judíos estadounidenses menores de 18 años viven en hogares ortodoxos, un aumento dramático de los judíos de 18 a 29 años, de los cuales solo el 11% son ortodoxos. La Federación UJA de Nueva York informa que el 60% de los niños judíos de la zona de la ciudad de Nueva York viven en hogares ortodoxos. Además de ahorrar y compartir, muchas comunidades haredí dependen de la ayuda del gobierno para mantener su alta tasa de natalidad y sus familias numerosas. El pueblo jasídico de New Square, Nueva York, recibe  subsidios de vivienda de la Sección 8 a un ritmo mayor que el resto de la región, y la mitad de la población del pueblo jasídico de Kiryas Joel, Nueva York, recibe cupones de alimentos, mientras que un tercio recibe Medicaid. [100]

Se considera que aproximadamente la mitad de los judíos estadounidenses son religiosos. De esta población judía religiosa de 2.831.000 personas, el 92% son blancos no hispanos , el 5% hispanos (más comúnmente de Argentina, Venezuela o Cuba), el 1% asiáticos , el 1% negros y el 1% otros (mestizos, etc.). Casi esta cantidad de judíos no religiosos existen en los Estados Unidos. [101]

Raza y etnicidad

Divisiones étnicas judías

La Oficina del Censo de los Estados Unidos clasifica a la mayoría de los judíos estadounidenses como blancos . [102] Los judíos son culturalmente diversos y pueden ser de cualquier raza, etnia u origen nacional. Muchos judíos se han asimilado culturalmente y son fenotípicamente indistinguibles de las poblaciones locales dominantes de regiones como Europa , el Cáucaso y Crimea , el norte de África , Asia occidental , África subsahariana , Asia meridional, oriental y central , y las Américas , donde han vivido durante muchos siglos. [103] [104] [105] La mayoría de los judíos estadounidenses son judíos asquenazíes que descienden de poblaciones judías de Europa central y oriental y se los considera blancos a menos que sean judíos asquenazíes de color. [ cita requerida ] Muchos judíos estadounidenses se identifican a sí mismos como judíos y blancos , mientras que muchos se identifican únicamente como judíos, resistiéndose a esta identificación. [106] Varios comentaristas han observado que "muchos judíos estadounidenses conservan un sentimiento de ambivalencia sobre la blancura ". [107] Karen Brodkin explica que esta ambivalencia tiene sus raíces en las ansiedades sobre la posible pérdida de la identidad judía , especialmente fuera de las élites intelectuales. [108] De manera similar, Kenneth Marcus observa una serie de fenómenos culturales ambivalentes que también han sido notados por otros académicos, y concluye que "la apariencia de blancura no ha establecido de manera concluyente la construcción racial de los judíos estadounidenses". [109] La relación entre la identidad judía y la identidad de la mayoría blanca continúa siendo descrita como "complicada" para muchos judíos estadounidenses, particularmente judíos asquenazíes y sefardíes de ascendencia europea. La cuestión de la blancura judía puede ser diferente para muchos judíos mizrajíes, sefardíes, negros, asiáticos y latinos, muchos de los cuales tal vez nunca sean considerados blancos por la sociedad. [110] Muchos nacionalistas blancos y supremacistas blancos estadounidenses ven a todos los judíos como no blancos, incluso si son de ascendencia europea. [111] Algunos nacionalistas blancos creen que los judíos pueden ser blancos y un pequeño número de nacionalistas blancos son judíos . [112]

En 2013, el Retrato de los judíos estadounidenses del Pew Research Center encontró que más del 90% de los judíos que respondieron a su encuesta se describieron a sí mismos como blancos no hispanos , el 2% se describieron a sí mismos como negros , el 3% se describieron a sí mismos como hispanos y el 2% se describieron a sí mismos como personas de otros orígenes raciales o étnicos. [113]

Judíos por raza, ascendencia u origen nacional

Judíos asiático-americanos

Según el Pew Research Center, en 2020 menos del 1% de los judíos estadounidenses se identificaron como asiático-estadounidenses . Alrededor del 1% de los judíos religiosos se identificaron como asiático-estadounidenses. [114]

Una pequeña pero creciente comunidad de alrededor de 350 judíos indios americanos vive en el área metropolitana de la ciudad de Nueva York, tanto en el estado de Nueva York como en Nueva Jersey. Muchos son miembros de la comunidad Bene Israel de la India . [115] La Congregación Judía India de los Estados Unidos, con sede en la ciudad de Nueva York, es el centro de la comunidad organizada. [116]

Judíos de ascendencia europea

Los judíos de ascendencia europea, a menudo denominados judíos blancos, están clasificados como blancos por el censo de los EE. UU. y generalmente han sido clasificados como blancos legalmente a lo largo de la historia estadounidense. [117] Muchos judíos estadounidenses de ascendencia europea se identifican como judíos y blancos , mientras que otros se identifican únicamente como judíos o se identifican como judíos y no blancos. [118] Sin embargo, los judíos de ascendencia europea rara vez se identifican como judíos de color y rara vez se los considera personas de color en la sociedad estadounidense. Según el Pew Research Center, la mayoría de los judíos estadounidenses son judíos asquenazíes blancos no hispanos. [114] El profesor de derecho David Bernstein ha cuestionado la idea de que los judíos estadounidenses alguna vez fueron considerados no blancos, escribiendo que los judíos estadounidenses "de hecho eran considerados blancos por ley y por costumbre" a pesar del hecho de que experimentaron "discriminación, hostilidad, afirmaciones de inferioridad y ocasionalmente incluso violencia". Bernstein señala que los judíos no fueron el objetivo de las leyes contra el matrimonio interracial, se les permitió asistir a escuelas solo para blancos y fueron clasificados como blancos en el sur de Jim Crow. [119] Los sociólogos Philip Q. Yang y Kavitha Koshy también han cuestionado lo que ellos llaman la "tesis de volverse blanco", señalando que la mayoría de los judíos de ascendencia europea han sido clasificados legalmente como blancos desde el primer censo de los EE. UU. en 1790 , eran legalmente blancos para los propósitos de la Ley de Naturalización de 1790 que limitaba la ciudadanía a "persona(s) blanca(s) libre(s)", y que no pudieron encontrar evidencia legislativa o judicial de que los judíos estadounidenses alguna vez hubieran sido considerados no blancos. [117]

Varios comentaristas han observado que "muchos judíos estadounidenses mantienen un sentimiento de ambivalencia sobre la blancura ". [120] Karen Brodkin explica que esta ambivalencia tiene sus raíces en las ansiedades sobre la posible pérdida de la identidad judía , especialmente fuera de las élites intelectuales. [121] De manera similar, Kenneth Marcus observa una serie de fenómenos culturales ambivalentes que también han sido notados por otros académicos, y concluye que "la apariencia de blancura no ha establecido de manera concluyente la construcción racial de los judíos estadounidenses". [122] La relación entre los judíos estadounidenses y la identidad de mayoría blanca continúa siendo descrita como "complicada". [123] Muchos nacionalistas blancos estadounidenses ven a los judíos como no blancos. [124]

Judíos de ascendencia de Oriente Medio y el norte de África

Los judíos de ascendencia de Oriente Medio y el norte de África (a menudo denominados judíos mizrajíes ) están clasificados como blancos por el censo de los EE. UU. Los judíos mizrajíes a veces se identifican como judíos de color, pero a menudo no lo hacen, y pueden o no ser considerados personas de color por la sociedad. Los judíos sirios rara vez se identifican como judíos de color y, por lo general, la sociedad no los considera judíos de color. Muchos judíos sirios se identifican como blancos, de Oriente Medio o no blancos en lugar de como judíos de color. [114]

Judíos afroamericanos

La comunidad judía estadounidense incluye a los judíos afroamericanos y otros judíos estadounidenses que son de ascendencia africana , una definición que excluye a los judíos estadounidenses del norte de África , que actualmente están clasificados por el censo de EE. UU. como blancos (aunque la Oficina del Censo recomendó una nueva categoría para el censo de 2020). [125] Las estimaciones del número de judíos estadounidenses de ascendencia africana en los Estados Unidos varían de 20 000 [126] a 200 000. [127] Los judíos de ascendencia africana pertenecen a todas las denominaciones judías estadounidenses . Al igual que sus otras contrapartes judías, algunos judíos negros son ateos .

Entre los judíos afroamericanos notables se incluyen Drake , Lenny Kravitz , Lisa Bonet , Sammy Davis Jr. , Rashida Jones , Ros Gold-Onwude , Yaphet Kotto , Jordan Farmar , Taylor Mays , Daveed Diggs , Alicia Garza , Tiffany Haddish y los rabinos Capers Funnye y Alysa Stanton .

Las relaciones entre los judíos estadounidenses de ascendencia africana y otros judíos estadounidenses son generalmente cordiales. [ cita requerida ] Sin embargo, existen desacuerdos con una minoría específica de la comunidad de israelitas hebreos negros entre los afroamericanos que se consideran a sí mismos, pero no a otros judíos, como los verdaderos descendientes de los antiguos israelitas . Los israelitas hebreos negros generalmente no son considerados miembros de la comunidad judía dominante, porque no se han convertido formalmente al judaísmo y no están relacionados étnicamente con otros judíos. Uno de esos grupos, los israelitas hebreos africanos de Jerusalén , emigró a Israel y se le concedió el estatus de residencia permanente allí. [128]

Judíos hispanos y latinoamericanos

Los judíos hispanos han vivido en lo que hoy es Estados Unidos desde la época colonial. Los primeros colonos judíos hispanos fueron judíos sefardíes de España y Portugal. A partir del siglo XVI, algunos de los colonos españoles en lo que hoy es Nuevo México y Texas eran criptojudíos , pero no había una presencia judía organizada. [129] [130] Olas posteriores de inmigración sefardí trajeron judíos judeo-españoles del Imperio Otomano, en lo que hoy es Grecia, Turquía, Bulgaria, Libia y Siria. Estos judíos sefardíes hispanohablantes, así como los judíos sefardíes de ascendencia europea, como los judíos españoles y portugueses , a veces se consideran culturalmente pero no étnicamente hispanos.

Los judíos hispanos y latinoamericanos, en particular los judíos asquenazíes hispanos y latinoamericanos, a menudo se identifican como blancos en lugar de como judíos de color. Algunos judíos con raíces en América Latina pueden no identificarse en absoluto como "hispanos" o "latinos", generalmente debido a sus orígenes como inmigrantes europeos recientes. [114] Los judíos estadounidenses de ascendencia argentina, brasileña y mexicana a menudo son asquenazíes, pero algunos son sefardíes. [131]

Judíos divididos por grupos culturales o divisiones étnicas judías

Judíos asquenazíes en Estados Unidos

Ashkenazi Jews,[136] also known as Ashkenazic Jews or, by using the Hebrew plural suffix -im, Ashkenazim[b] are a Jewish diaspora population who coalesced in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium.[138] The term "Ashkenazi" refers to Jewish settlers who established communities along the Rhine river in Western Germany and in Northern France dating to the Middle Ages.[139] The traditional diaspora language of Ashkenazi Jews is Yiddish (a Germanic language with elements of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Slavic languages),[138] developed after they had moved into northern Europe: beginning with Germany and France in the Middle Ages. For centuries they used Hebrew only as a sacred language, until the revival of Hebrew as a common language in 20th century's Israel.[140][141][142][143] A majority of the Jewish population in the United States are Ashkenazi Jews who descend from diaspora Jewish populations of Central and Eastern Europe. Most American Ashkenazi Jews are non-Hispanic whites, but a minority are Jews of color, Hispanic/Latino, or both.

Sephardi Jews in the United States

Sephardi Jews, also known as Sephardic Jews, Sephardim,[c] or Hispanic Jews by modern scholars,[144] are a Jewish ethnic division originating from traditionally established communities in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal). The term "Sephardim" also sometimes refers to Mizrahi Jews (Eastern Jewish communities) of Western Asia and North Africa. Although most of this latter group do not have ancestry from the Jewish communities of Iberia, the majority of them were influenced by the Sephardic style of liturgy and Sephardic law and customs from the influence of the Iberian Jewish exiles over the course of the last few centuries (including from the Sephardic Golden Age and the teachings of many Iberian Jewish philosophers). This article deals with Sephardim within the narrower ethnic definition.

Largely expelled from the Iberian Peninsula in the late 15th century, they carried a distinctive Jewish diasporic identity with them to North Africa, including modern day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt; South-Eastern and Southern Europe, including France, Netherlands, Italy, Greece, Rumania, Bulgaria, and North Macedonia; Western Asia, including Turkey, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Iran; as well as the Americas (although in smaller numbers compared to the Ashkenazi Jewish diaspora); and all other places of their exiled settlement. They sometimes settled near existing Jewish communities, such as the one from former Kurdistan, or were the first in new frontiers, with their furthest reach via the Silk Road.[145]

As a result of the more recent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, many of the Sephardim Tehorim from Western Asia and North Africa relocated to either Israel or France, where they form a significant portion of the Jewish communities today. Other significant communities of Sephardim Tehorim also migrated in more recent times from the Near East to New York City, Argentina, Costa Rica, Mexico, Montreal, Gibraltar, Puerto Rico, and Dominican Republic.[146] Because of poverty and turmoil in Latin America, another wave of Sephardic Jews joined other Latin Americans who migrated to the United States, Canada, Spain, and other countries of Europe.

Mizrahi Jews in the United States

Mizrahi Jews (Hebrew: יהודי המִזְרָח) or Mizrahim (מִזְרָחִים), also sometimes referred to as Mizrachi (מִזְרָחִי), Edot HaMizrach (עֲדוֹת-הַמִּזְרָח; transl. '[Jewish] Communities of the [Middle] East') or Oriental Jews,[147] are the descendants of the local Jewish communities that had existed in West Asia and North Africa from Biblical times into the modern era.

In current usage, the term Mizrahim is almost exclusively applied to descendants of the Middle Eastern Jewish communities from Western Asia and North Africa; in this classification are Iraqi, Kurdish, Lebanese, Syrian, Yemenite, Turkish and Iranian Jews, as well as the descendants of Maghrebi Jews who had lived in North African countries, such as Egyptian, Libyan, Tunisian, Algerian, and Moroccan Jews.[148]

Mizrahim is also sometimes extended to include Jewish communities from the Caucasus[149] and Central Asia,[150] such as Mountain Jews from Dagestan and Azerbaijan, and Bukharan Jews from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. While both communities traditionally speak Judeo-Iranian languages such as Juhuri and Bukharian, these countries were all part of the former Soviet Union, as a result of which many of their descendants also speak Russian to a large extent.

Post-1948, Mizrahi Jewish, mostly thousands from Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian Jewish descent, as well as some from other Middle East and North African Jewish communities migrated to the United States.

Ethiopian Jews in the United States

The Beta Israel, also known as Ethiopian Jews, are a Jewish community that developed and lived for centuries in the area of the Ethiopian Empire. Most of the Beta Israel community emigrated to Israel in the late 20th century.[151][152][153] Since the 1990s, around 1000 Hebrew-speaking, Ethiopian Jews that had settled in Israel as Ethiopian Jews in Israel re-settled in the United States as Ethiopian Americans, with around half of the Ethiopian Jewish Israeli-American community living in New York.[154]

Socioeconomics

Education plays a major role as a part of Jewish identity. As Jewish culture puts a special premium on it and stresses the importance of cultivation of intellectual pursuits, scholarship, and learning, American Jews as a group tend to be better educated and earn more than Americans as a whole.[155][156][157][158] Jewish Americans also have an average of 14.7 years of schooling making them the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the United States.[159][160]

Forty-four percent (55% of Reform Jews) report family incomes of over $100,000 compared to 19% of all Americans, with the next highest group being Hindus at 43%.[161][162] And while 27% of Americans have a four-year university or postgraduate education, fifty-nine percent (66% of Reform Jews) of American Jews have, the second highest of any ethnic groups after Indian-Americans.[161][163][164] 75% of American Jews have achieved some form of post-secondary education if two-year vocational and community college diplomas and certificates are also included.[165][166][167][160]

31% of American Jews hold a graduate degree; this figure is compared with the general American population where 11% of Americans hold a graduate degree.[161] White collar professional jobs have been attractive to Jews and much of the community tend to take up professional white collar careers requiring tertiary education involving formal credentials where the respectability and reputability of professional jobs is highly prized within Jewish culture. While 46% of Americans work in professional and managerial jobs, 61% of American Jews work as professionals, many of whom are highly educated, salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed in management, professional, and related occupations such as engineering, science, medicine, investment banking, finance, law, and academia.[168]

Much of the Jewish American community lead middle class lifestyles.[169] While the median household net worth of the typical American family is $99,500, among American Jews the figure is $443,000.[170][171] In addition, the median Jewish American income is estimated to be in the range of $97,000 to $98,000, nearly twice as high the American national median.[172] Either of these two statistics may be confounded by the fact that the Jewish population is on average older than other religious groups in the country, with 51% of polled adults over the age of 50 compared to 41% nationally.[163] Older people tend to both have higher income and be more highly educated. By 2016, Modern Orthodox Jews had a median household income of $158,000, while Open Orthodox Jews had a median household income at $185,000 (compared to the American median household income of $59,000 for 2016).[173]

As a whole, American and Canadian Jews donate more than $9 billion a year to charity. This reflects Jewish traditions of supporting social services as a way of living out the dictates of Jewish law. Most of the charities that benefit are not specifically Jewish organizations.[174]

While the median income of Jewish Americans is high, some Jewish communities have high levels of poverty. In the New York area, there are approximately 560,000 Jews living in poor or near-poor households, representing about 20% of the New York metropolitan Jewish community. Jewish people affected by poverty are disproportionately likely to be children, young adults, the elderly, people with low educational attainment, part-time workers, immigrants from the former Soviet Union, immigrants without American citizenship, Holocaust survivors, Orthodox families, and single adults including single parents.[175] Disability is a major factor in the socioeconomic status of disabled Jews. Disabled Jews are significantly more likely to be low-income compared to able-bodied Jews, while high-income Jews are significantly less likely to be disabled.[176][177] Secular Jews, Jews of no denomination, and people who identify as "just Jewish" are also more likely to live in poverty compared to Jews affiliated with a religious denomination.[178]

According to analysis by Gallup, American Jews have the highest well-being of any ethnic or religious group in America.[179][180]

The great majority of school-age Jewish students attend public schools, although Jewish day schools and yeshivas are to be found throughout the country. Jewish cultural studies and Hebrew language instruction is also commonly offered at synagogues in the form of supplementary Hebrew schools or Sunday schools.

From the early 1900s until the 1950s, quota systems were imposed at elite colleges and universities particularly in the Northeast, as a response to the growing number of children of recent Jewish immigrants; these limited the number of Jewish students accepted, and greatly reduced their previous attendance. Jewish enrollment at Cornell's School of Medicine fell from 40% to 4% between the world wars, and Harvard's fell from 30% to 4%.[181] Before 1945, only a few Jewish professors were permitted as instructors at elite universities. In 1941, for example, antisemitism drove Milton Friedman from a non-tenured assistant professorship at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.[182] Harry Levin became the first Jewish full professor in the Harvard English department in 1943, but the Economics department decided not to hire Paul Samuelson in 1948. Harvard hired its first Jewish biochemists in 1954.[183]

According to Clark Kerr, Martin Meyerson in 1965 became the first Jew to serve, albeit temporarily, as the leader of a major American research university.[184] That year, Meyerson served as acting chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley, but was unable to obtain a permanent appointment as a result of a combination of tactical errors on his part and antisemitism on the UC Board of Regents.[184] Meyerson served as the president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1970 to 1981.

By 1986, a third of the presidents of the elite undergraduate final clubs at Harvard were Jewish.[182] Rick Levin was president of Yale University from 1993 to 2013, Judith Rodin was president of the University of Pennsylvania from 1994 to 2004 (and is currently president of the Rockefeller Foundation), Paul Samuelson's nephew, Lawrence Summers, was president of Harvard University from 2001 until 2006, and Harold Shapiro was president of Princeton University from 1992 until 2000.

American Jews at American higher education institutions

Religion

Touro Synagogue (built in 1759), in Newport, Rhode Island, has the oldest still existing synagogue building in the United States.

Observances and engagement

The American Jews' majority continues to identify themselves with Judaism and its main traditions, such as Conservative, Orthodox and Reform Judaism.[189][190] But, already in the 1980s, 20–30 percent of members of largest Jewish communities, such as of New York City, Chicago, Miami, and others, rejected a denominational label.[189]

Birkat Hachama of Conservative Jews, Encino, Los Angeles

According to the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey, 38% of Jews were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are "just Jewish".[191]

US serviceman lighting a Menorah in observance of the first day of Hanukkah

Jewish religious practice in America is quite varied. Among the 4.3 million American Jews described as "strongly connected" to Judaism, over 80% report some sort of active engagement with Judaism,[192] ranging from attending at daily prayer services on one end of the spectrum, to as little as attending only Passover Seders or lighting Hanukkah candles on the other.

A 2003 Harris Poll found that 16% of American Jews go to the synagogue at least once a month, 42% go less frequently but at least once a year, and 42% go less frequently than once a year.[193]The survey found that of the 4.3 million strongly connected Jews, 46% belong to a synagogue. Among those households who belong to a synagogue, 38% are members of Reform synagogues, 33% Conservative, 22% Orthodox, 2% Reconstructionist, and 5% other types.

Traditionally, Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews do not have different branches (Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, etc.) but usually remain observant and religious. However, their synagogues are generally considered Orthodox or Sephardic Haredim by non-Sephardic Jews. But, not all Sephardim are Orthodox; among the pioneers of Reform Judaism movement in the 1820s there was the Sephardic congregation Beth Elohim in Charleston, South Carolina.[194]

The survey discovered that Jews in the Northeast and Midwest are generally more observant than Jews in the South or West. Reflecting a trend also observed among other religious groups, Jews in the Northwestern United States are typically the least observant.

The 2008 American Religious Identification Survey found that around 3.4 million American Jews call themselves religious—out of a general Jewish population of about 5.4 million. The number of Jews who identify themselves as only culturally Jewish has risen from 20% in 1990 to 37% in 2008, according to the study. In the same period, the number of all US adults who said they had no religion rose from 8% to 15%. Jews are more likely to be secular than Americans in general, the researchers said. About half of all US Jews—including those who consider themselves religiously observant—claim in the survey that they have a secular worldview and see no contradiction between that outlook and their faith, according to the study's authors. Researchers attribute the trends among American Jews to the high rate of intermarriage and "disaffection from Judaism" in the United States.[195]

Religious beliefs

American Jews are more likely to be atheists or agnostics than most Americans, especially when they are compared with American Protestants or Catholics. A 2003 poll found that while 79% of Americans believe in God, only 48% of American Jews do, compared to 79% and 90% of American Catholics and Protestants respectively. While 66% of Americans said that they were "absolutely certain" of God's existence, 24% of American Jews said the same. And though 9% of Americans believe that there is no God (8% of American Catholics and 4% of American Protestants), 19% of American Jews believe that God does not exist.[193]

A 2009 Harris Poll showed that American Jews constitute the one religious group which is most accepting of the science of evolution, with 80% accepting evolution, compared to 51% for Catholics, 32% for Protestants, and 16% of born-again Christians.[196] They were also less likely to believe in supernatural phenomena such as miracles, angels, or heaven.

A 2013 Pew Research Center report found that 1.7 million American Jewish adults, 1.6 million of whom were raised in Jewish homes or had Jewish ancestry, identified as Christians or Messianic Jews but also consider themselves ethnically Jewish. Another 700,000 American Christian adults considered themselves "Jews by affinity" or "grafted-in" Jews.[197][198]

Buddhism

Jewish Buddhists[199] are overrepresented among American Buddhists; this is specifically the case among those Jews whose parents are not Buddhist, and those Jews who are without a Buddhist heritage, with between one fifth[200] and 30% of all American Buddhists identifying as Jewish[201] though only 2% of Americans are Jewish. Nicknamed Jubus, an increasing[citation needed] number of American Jews have started to adopt Buddhist spiritual practices, while at the same time, they are continuing to identify with and practice Judaism. It may be the individual practices both Judaism and Buddhism.[199] Notable American Jewish Buddhists include: Robert Downey Jr.[202] Allen Ginsberg,[203] Linda Pritzker,[204] Jonathan F.P. Rose,[205] Goldie Hawn[206] and daughter Kate Hudson, Steven Seagal, Adam Yauch of the rap group The Beastie Boys, and Garry Shandling. Film makers the Coen Brothers have been influenced by Buddhism as well for a time.[207]

Contemporary politics

Map of Jewish senators as of 2024. Blue indicates there is currently one Jewish senator from that state. Gray indicates no Jewish senators from that state.

Today, American Jews are a distinctive and influential group in the nation's politics. Jeffrey S. Helmreich writes that the ability of American Jews to effect this through political or financial clout is overestimated,[208] that the primary influence lies in the group's voting patterns.[40]

"Jews have devoted themselves to politics with almost religious fervor," writes Mitchell Bard, who adds that Jews have the highest percentage voter turnout of any ethnic group (84% reported being registered to vote[209]).

Though the majority (60–70%) of the country's Jews identify as Democratic, Jews span the political spectrum, with those at higher levels of observance being far more likely to vote Republican than their less observant and secular counterparts.[210]

Florence Kahn was the first Jewish woman to be elected to the United States Congress and first woman to be reelected.

Owing to high Democratic identification in the 2008 United States Presidential Election, 78% of Jews voted for Democrat Barack Obama versus 21% for Republican John McCain, despite Republican attempts to connect Obama to Muslim and pro-Palestinian causes.[211] It has been suggested that running mate Sarah Palin's conservative views on social issues may have nudged Jews away from the McCain–Palin ticket.[40][211] In the 2012 United States presidential election, 69% of Jews voted for the Democratic incumbent President Obama.[212]

In 2019, after the 2016 election of Donald Trump, poll data from the Jewish Electorate Institute showed that 73% of Jewish voters felt less secure as Jews than before, 71% disapproved of Trump's handling of anti-Semitism (54% strongly disapprove), 59% felt that he bears "at least some responsibility" for the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting and Poway synagogue shooting, and 38% were concerned that Trump was encouraging right-wing extremism. Views of the Democratic and Republican parties were milder: 28% were concerned that Republicans were making alliances with white nationalists and tolerating anti-Semitism within their ranks, while 27% were concerned that Democrats were tolerating anti-Semitism within their ranks.[213]

In the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election, 77% of American Jews voted for Joe Biden, while 22% voted for Donald Trump.[214]

Foreign policy

American Jews have displayed a very strong interest in foreign affairs, especially regarding Germany in the 1930s, and Israel since 1945.[215] Both major parties have made strong commitments in support of Israel. Dr. Eric Uslaner of the University of Maryland argues, with regard to the 2004 election: "Only 15% of Jews said that Israel was a key voting issue. Among those voters, 55% voted for Kerry (compared to 83% of Jewish voters not concerned with Israel)." Uslander goes on to point out that negative views of Evangelical Christians had a distinctly negative impact for Republicans among Jewish voters, while Orthodox Jews, traditionally more conservative in outlook as to social issues, favored the Republican Party.[216] A New York Times article suggests that the Jewish movement to the Republican party is focused heavily on faith-based issues, similar to the Catholic vote, which is credited for helping President Bush taking Florida in 2004.[217] However, Natan Guttman, The Forward's Washington bureau chief, dismisses this notion, writing in Moment that while "[i]t is true that Republicans are making small and steady strides into the Jewish community ... a look at the past three decades of exit polls, which are more reliable than pre-election polls, and the numbers are clear: Jews vote overwhelmingly Democratic,"[218] an assertion confirmed by the most recent presidential election results.

Jewish Americans were more strongly opposed to the Iraq War from its onset than any other ethnic group, or even most Americans. The greater opposition to the war was not simply a result of high Democratic identification among Jewish Americans, as Jewish Americans of all political persuasions were more likely to oppose the war than non-Jews who shared the same political leanings.[219][220]

Domestic issues

A 2013 Pew Research Center survey suggests that American Jews' views on domestic politics are intertwined with the community's self-definition as a persecuted minority who benefited from the liberties and societal shifts in the United States and feel obligated to help other minorities enjoy the same benefits. American Jews across age and gender lines tend to vote for and support politicians and policies which are supported by the Democratic Party. On the other hand, Orthodox American Jews have domestic political views which are more similar to those of their religious Christian neighbors.[221]

American Jews are largely supportive of LGBT rights with 79% responding in a 2011 Pew poll that homosexuality should be "accepted by society", while the overall average in the same 2011 poll among Americans of all demographic groups was that 50%.[222] A split on homosexuality exists by level of observance. Reform rabbis in America perform same-sex marriages as a matter of routine, and there are fifteen LGBT Jewish congregations in North America.[223] Reform, Reconstructionist and, increasingly, Conservative, Jews are far more supportive on issues like gay marriage than Orthodox Jews are.[224] A 2007 survey of Conservative Jewish leaders and activists showed that an overwhelming majority supported gay rabbinical ordination and same-sex marriage.[225] Accordingly, 78% of Jewish voters rejected Prop 8, the bill that banned gay marriage in California. No other ethnic or religious group voted as strongly against it.[226]

A 2014 Pew poll found that American Jews mostly support abortion rights, with 83% answering that abortion should be legal in all or most cases.[227]

In considering the trade-off between the economy and environmental protection, American Jews were significantly more likely than other religious groups (excepting Buddhism) to favor stronger environmental protection.[228]

Jews in America also overwhelmingly oppose current United States marijuana policy.[needs update] In 2009, eighty-six percent of Jewish Americans opposed arresting nonviolent marijuana smokers, compared to 61% for the population at large and 68% of all Democrats. Additionally, 85% of Jews in the United States opposed using federal law enforcement to close patient cooperatives for medical marijuana in states where medical marijuana is legal, compared to 67% of the population at large and 73% of Democrats.[229]

A 2014 Pew Research survey titled "How Americans Feel About Religious Groups", found that Jews were viewed the most favorably of all other groups, with a rating of 63 out of 100.[230] Jews were viewed most positively by fellow Jews, followed by white Evangelicals. Sixty percent of the 3,200 persons surveyed said they had ever met a Jew.[231]

Jewish American culture

Since the time of the last major wave of Jewish immigration to America (over 2,000,000 Jews from Eastern Europe who arrived between 1890 and 1924), Jewish secular culture in the United States has become integrated in almost every important way with the broader American culture. Many aspects of Jewish American culture have, in turn, become part of the wider culture of the United States.

Language

Most American Jews today are native English speakers. A variety of other languages are still spoken within some American Jewish communities that are representative of the various Jewish ethnic divisions from around the world that have come together to make up all of America's Jewish population.

Many of America's Hasidic Jews, being exclusively of Ashkenazi descent, are raised speaking Yiddish. Yiddish was once spoken as the primary language by most of the several million Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to the United States. It was, in fact, the original language in which The Forward was published. Yiddish has had an influence on American English, and words borrowed from it include chutzpah ("effrontery", "gall"), nosh ("snack"), schlep ("drag"), schmuck ("an obnoxious, contemptible person", euphemism for "penis"), and, depending on idiolect, hundreds of other terms. (See also Yinglish.)

Many Mizrahi Jews, including those from Arab countries such as Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Yemen, Morocco, Libya, etc. speak Arabic. There are communities of Mizrahim in Brooklyn. The town of Deal, New Jersey, is notably mostly Syrian-Jewish, with many of them Orthodox.[236]

The Persian Jewish community in the United States, notably the large community in and around Los Angeles and Beverly Hills, California, primarily speak Persian (see also Judeo-Persian) in the home and synagogue. They also support their own Persian language newspapers. Persian Jews also reside in eastern parts of New York such as Kew Gardens and Great Neck, Long Island.

Many recent Jewish immigrants from the Soviet Union speak primarily Russian at home, and there are several notable communities where public life and business are carried out mainly in Russian, such as in Brighton Beach in New York City and Sunny Isles Beach in Florida. 2010 estimates of the number of Jewish Russian-speaking households in the New York city area are around 92,000, and the number of individuals are somewhere between 223,000 and 350,000.[237] Another high population of Russian Jews can be found in the Richmond District of San Francisco where Russian markets stand alongside the numerous Asian businesses.

A typical poster-hung wall in Jewish Brooklyn, New York

American Bukharan Jews speak Bukhori, a dialect of Tajik Persian. They publish their own newspapers such as the Bukharian Times and a large portion live in Queens, New York. Forest Hills in the New York City borough of Queens is home to 108th Street, which is called by some "Bukharian Broadway",[238] a reference to the many stores and restaurants found on and around the street that have Bukharian influences. Many Bukharians are also represented in parts of Arizona, Miami, Florida, and areas of Southern California such as San Diego.

There is a sizeable Mountain Jewish population in Brooklyn, New York that speaks Judeo-Tat (Juhuri), a dialect of Persian.[239]

Classical Hebrew is the language of most Jewish religious literature, such as the Tanakh (Bible) and Siddur (prayerbook). Modern Hebrew is also the primary official language of the modern State of Israel, which further encourages many to learn it as a second language. Some recent Israeli immigrants to America speak Hebrew as their primary language.

There are a diversity of Hispanic Jews living in America. The oldest community is that of the Sephardi Jews of New Netherland. Their ancestors had fled Spain or Portugal during the Inquisition for the Netherlands, and then came to New Netherland. Though there is dispute over whether they should be considered Hispanic. Some Hispanic Jews, particularly in Miami and Los Angeles, immigrated from Latin America. The largest groups are those that fled Cuba after the communist revolution (known as Jewbans), Argentine Jews, and more recently, Venezuelan Jews. Argentina is the Latin American country with the largest Jewish population. There are a large number of synagogues in the Miami area that give services in Spanish. The last Hispanic Jewish community would be those that recently came from Portugal or Spain, after Spain and Portugal granted citizenship to the descendants of Jews who fled during the Inquisition. All the above listed Hispanic Jewish groups speak either Spanish or Ladino.

Jewish American literature

Although American Jews have contributed greatly to American arts in general, there still remains a distinctly Jewish American literature. Jewish American literature often explores the experience of being a Jew in America, and the conflicting pulls of secular society and history.

Popular culture

Yiddish theater was very well attended, and provided a training ground for performers and producers who moved to Hollywood in the 1920s. Many of the early Hollywood moguls and pioneers were Jewish.[240][241] They played roles in the development of radio and television networks, typified by William S. Paley who ran CBS.[242] Stephen J. Whitfield states that "The Sarnoff family was long dominant at NBC."[243]

Many individual Jews have made significant contributions to American popular culture.[244] There have been many Jewish American actors and performers, ranging from early 1900s actors, to classic Hollywood film stars, and culminating in many currently known actors. The field of American comedy includes many Jews. The legacy also includes songwriters and authors, for example the author of the song "Viva Las Vegas" Doc Pomus, or Billy the Kid composer Aaron Copland. Many Jews have been at the forefront of women's issues.

The first generation of Jewish Americans who immigrated during the 1880–1924 peak period were not interested in baseball, the country's national pastime, and in some cases tried to prevent their children from watching or participating in baseball-related activities. Most were focused on making sure they and their children took advantage of education and employment opportunities. Despite the efforts of parents, Jewish children became interested in baseball quickly since it was already embedded in the broader American culture. The second generation of immigrants saw baseball as a means to celebrate American culture without abandoning their broader religious community. After 1924, many Yiddish newspapers began covering baseball, which they had not done previously.[245]

Government and military

Grave of a Confederate Jewish soldier near Clinton, Louisiana

Since 1845, a total of 34 Jews have served in the Senate, including the 14 present-day senators noted above. Judah P. Benjamin was the first practicing Jewish Senator, and would later serve as Confederate Secretary of War and Secretary of State during the Civil War. Rahm Emanuel served as Chief of Staff to President Barack Obama. The number of Jews elected to the House rose to an all-time high of 30. Eight Jews have been appointed to the United States Supreme Court, of which one (Elena Kagan) is currently serving. Had Merrick Garland's 2016 nomination been accepted, that number would have risen to four out of nine since Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer were also serving at that time.

The Civil War marked a transition for American Jews. It killed off the antisemitic canard, widespread in Europe, to the effect that Jews are cowardly, preferring to run from war rather than serve alongside their fellow citizens in battle.[246][247]

At least twenty eight American Jews have been awarded the Medal of Honor.

World War II

More than 550,000 Jews served in the U.S. military during World War II; about 11,000 of them were killed and more than 40,000 of them were wounded. There were three recipients of the Medal of Honor; 157 recipients of the Army Distinguished Service Medal, Navy Distinguished Service Medal, Distinguished Service Cross, or Navy Cross; and about 1600 recipients of the Silver Star. About 50,000 other decorations and awards were given to Jewish military personnel, making a total of 52,000 decorations. During this period, Jews were approximately 3.3 percent of the total U.S. population but they constituted about 4.23 percent of the U.S. armed forces. About 60 percent of all Jewish physicians in the United States who were under 45 years of age were in service as military physicians and medics.[248]

Many[citation needed] Jewish physicists, including J. Robert Oppenheimer, were involved in the Manhattan Project, the secret World War II effort to develop the atomic bomb. Many of these physicists were refugees from Nazi Germany or they were refugees from antisemitic persecution which was also occurring elsewhere in Europe.

American folk music

Jews have been involved in the American folk music scene since the late 19th century;[249] these tended to be refugees from Central and Eastern Europe, and significantly more economically disadvantaged than their established Western European Sephardic coreligionists.[250] Historians see it as a legacy of the secular Yiddish theater, cantorial traditions and a desire to assimilate. By the 1940s Jews had become established in the American folk music scene.

Examples of the major impact Jews have had in the American folk music arena include, but are not limited to: Moe Asch the first to record and release much of the music of Woody Guthrie, including "This Land is Your Land" (see The Asch Recordings) in response to Irving Berlin's "God Bless America", and Guthrie wrote Jewish songs. Guthrie married a Jew and their son Arlo became influential in his own right. Asch's one-man corporation Folkways Records also released much of the music of Leadbelly and Pete Seeger from the '40s and '50s. Asch's large music catalog was voluntarily donated to the Smithsonian.

Jews have also thrived in Jazz music and contributed to its popularization.

Three of the four creators of the Newport Folk Festival, Wein, Bikel and Grossman (Seeger is not) were Jewish. Albert Grossman put together Peter, Paul and Mary, of which Yarrow is Jewish. Oscar Brand, from a Canadian Jewish family, has the longest running radio program "Oscar Brand's Folksong Festival" which has been on air consecutively since 1945 from New York City.[251] And is the first American broadcast where the host himself will answer any personal correspondence.

The influential group The Weavers, successor to the Almanac Singers, led by Pete Seeger, had a Jewish manager, and two of the four members of the group were Jewish (Gilbert and Hellerman). The B-side of "Good Night Irene" had the Hebrew folk song personally chosen for the record by Pete Seeger "Tzena, Tzena, Tzena".

The influential folk music magazine Sing Out! was co-founded and edited by Irwin Silber in 1951, and edited by him until 1967, when the magazine stopped publication for decades. Rolling Stone magazine's first music critic Jon Landau is of German Jewish descent. Izzy Young who created the legendary[252] Folklore Center in New York, and currently the Folklore Centrum near Mariatorget in Södermalm, Sweden, which relates to American and Swedish folk music.[253]

Dave Van Ronk observed that the behind the scenes 1950s folk scene "was at the very least 50 percent Jewish, and they adopted the music as part of their assimilation into the Anglo-American tradition which itself was largely an artificial construct but none the less provided us with some common ground".[254]Nobel Prize winner Bob Dylan is also Jewish.

Finance and law

Jews have been involved in financial services since the colonial era. They received rights to trade fur, from the Dutch and Swedish colonies. British governors honored these rights after taking over. During the Revolutionary War, Haym Solomon helped create America's first semi-central bank, and advised Alexander Hamilton on the building of America's financial system.[citation needed]

American Jews in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries played a major role in developing America's financial services industry, both at investment banks and with investment funds.[255] German Jewish bankers began to assume a major role in American finance in the 1830s when government and private borrowing to pay for canals, railroads and other internal improvements increased rapidly and significantly. Men such as August Belmont (Rothschild's agent in New York and a leading Democrat), Philip Speyer, Jacob Schiff (at Kuhn, Loeb & Company), Joseph Seligman, Philip Lehman (of Lehman Brothers), Jules Bache, and Marcus Goldman (of Goldman Sachs) illustrate this financial elite.[256] As was true of their non-Jewish counterparts, family, personal, and business connections, a reputation for honesty and integrity, ability, and a willingness to take calculated risks were essential to recruit capital from widely scattered sources. The families and the firms which they controlled were bound together by religious and social factors, and by the prevalence of intermarriage. These personal ties fulfilled real business functions before the advent of institutional organization in the 20th century.[257][258] Antisemitic elements often falsely targeted them as key players in a supposed Jewish cabal conspiring to dominate the world.[259]

Since the late 20th century, Jews have played a major role in the hedge fund industry, according to Zuckerman (2009).[260] Thus SAC Capital Advisors,[261] Soros Fund Management,[262] Och-Ziff Capital Management,[263] GLG Partners[264] Renaissance Technologies[265] and Elliott Management Corporation[266][267] are large hedge funds cofounded by Jews. They have also played a pivotal role in the private equity industry, co-founding some of the largest firms in the United States, such as Blackstone,[268] Cerberus Capital Management,[269] TPG Capital,[270] BlackRock,[271] Carlyle Group,[272] Warburg Pincus,[273] and KKR.[274][275][276]

Very few Jewish lawyers were hired by White Anglo-Saxon Protestant ("WASP") upscale white-shoe law firms, but they started their own. The WASP dominance in law ended when a number of major Jewish law firms attained elite status in dealing with top-ranked corporations. As late as 1950 there was not a single large Jewish law firm in New York City. However, by 1965 six of the 20 largest firms were Jewish; by 1980 four of the ten largest were Jewish.[277]

Federal Reserve

Paul Warburg, one of the leading advocates of the establishment of a central bank in the United States and one of the first governors of the newly established Federal Reserve System, came from a prominent Jewish family in Germany.[278] Since then, several Jews have served as chairmen of the Fed, including Eugene Meyer, Arthur F. Burns, Alan Greenspan, Ben Bernanke and Janet Yellen.

Science, business, and academia

Many Jews have become remarkably successful as an entrepreneurial and professional minority in the United States.[169] Many Jewish family businesses that are passed down from one generation to the next serve as an asset, source of income and layer a strong financial groundwork for the family's overall socioeconomic prosperity.[279][280][281][282] Within the Jewish American cultural sphere, Jewish Americans have also developed a strong culture of entrepreneurship, for excellence in entrepreneurship and engagement in business and commerce is highly prized in Jewish culture.[283] American Jews have also been drawn to various disciplines within academia such as physics, sociology, economics, psychology, mathematics, philosophy and linguistics (see Jewish culture for some of the causes), and have played a disproportionate role in numerous academic domains. Jewish American intellectuals such as Saul Bellow, Ayn Rand, Noam Chomsky, Thomas Friedman, Milton Friedman and Elie Wiesel have made a major impact within mainstream American public life. Of American Nobel Prize winners, 37 percent have been Jewish Americans (18 times the percentage of Jews in the population), as have been 61 percent of the John Bates Clark Medal in economics recipients (thirty-five times the Jewish percentage).[284]

In the business world, it was found in 1995 that while Jewish Americans constituted less than 2.5 percent of the U.S. population, they occupied 7.7 percent of board seats at various U.S. corporations.[285] American Jews also have a strong presence in NBA ownership. Of the 30 teams in the NBA, there are 14 Jewish principal owners. Several Jews have served as NBA commissioners including prior NBA commissioner David Stern and current commissioner Adam Silver.[283]

Since many careers in science, business, and academia generally pay well, Jewish Americans also tend to have a somewhat higher average income than most Americans. The 2000–2001 National Jewish Population Survey shows that the median income of a Jewish family is $54,000 a year ($5,000 more than the average family) and 34% of Jewish households report income over $75,000 a year.[286]

Food

Jewish American people have had a large effect on the cuisine of the United States. Common foods eaten by Jewish Americans are bagels, knish, gefilte fish, kreplach, matzoh ball soup, hamantash, lox, kugel, pastrami, and brisket. Companies specializing in Jewish American foods include Manischewitz and Streit's.

Notable people

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Percentage of the state population that identifies itself as Jewish.
  2. ^ /ˌæʃ-, ɑːʃkəˈnɑːzɪm/ ASH-, AHSH-kə-NAH-zim;[136] Hebrew: אַשְׁכְּנַזִּים, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: [ˌaʃkəˈnazim], singular: [ˌaʃkəˈnazi], Modern Hebrew: [(ʔ)aʃkenaˈzim, (ʔ)aʃkenaˈzi]; also יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז‎, Y'hudey Ashkenaz,[137]
  3. ^ Hebrew: סְפָרַדִּים, Modern Hebrew: Sefaraddim, Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm, also יְהוּדֵי סְפָרַד‎, Ye'hude Sepharad, lit. "The Jews of Spain", Spanish: Judíos sefardíes (or sefarditas), Portuguese: Judeus sefarditas

References

  1. ^ a b c Mitchell, Travis (May 11, 2021). "1. The size of the U.S. Jewish population". Pew Research Center. Retrieved June 9, 2024.
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  3. ^ "Israel versus the Jews". The Economist. July 7, 2017. Archived from the original on July 9, 2017. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
  4. ^ Sheskin, Ira M. (2000). "American Jews". In McKee, Jesse O. (ed.). Ethnicity in Contemporary America: A Geographical Appraisal. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-7425-0034-1. [The 1990 National Jewish Population Survey] showed that only five percent of American Jews consider being Jewish solely in terms of being a member of a religious group. Thus, the vast majority of American Jews view themselves as members of an ethnic group and/or a cultural group, and/or a nationality.
  5. ^ a b Pew Research Center (May 11, 2021), Jewish Americans in 2020, archived from the original on November 26, 2022, retrieved November 13, 2023
  6. ^ Sheskin, Dashefsky, Ira, Arnold (December 22, 2021). American Jewish Year Book 2020 The Annual Record of the North American Jewish Communities Since 1899. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 9783030787059.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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