stringtranslate.com

Órdenes de magnitud (longitud)

Objetos de tamaños en diferentes órdenes de magnitud (a intervalos inconsistentes)
Resumen gráfico de tamaños

Los siguientes son ejemplos de órdenes de magnitud para diferentes longitudes .

Descripción general

Lista detallada

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud, la siguiente lista describe varias longitudes entre  metros y metros.

Escala subatómica

De escala atómica a celular

De escala celular a escala humana

De escala humana a escala astronómica

Escala astronómica

1 quectometro y menos

Elquectómetro (SI:qm ) es unaunidaddelongituddelsistema métricoque equivale a10 −30  metros . Para ayudar a comparar diferentesórdenes de magnitud, en esta sección se enumeranlongitudesinferiores a 10−30 m(1 qm).

1 rontómetro

Elrontómetro (SI:rm ) es unaunidaddelongituden elsistema métricoigual a10 −27  metros .

10 rontómetros

1 yoctómetro

ElYoctómetro (símboloSIym ) es unaunidaddelongituden elsistema métricoigual a10 −24  metros .

1 zeptometro

Elzeptómetro (SI:zm ) es unaunidaddelongituddelsistema métricoque equivale a10 −21  metros . Para ayudar a comparar diferentesórdenes de magnitud, en esta sección se enumeranlongitudesentre 10−21 my 10−20m (1 zm y 10 zm).

10 zeptometros

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −20 m y 10 −19 m (10 zm y 100 zm).

100 zeptometros

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −19 m y 10 −18 m (100 zm y 1 am ).

1 atómetro

Elatómetro (SI:am ) es unaunidaddelongituddelsistema métricoque equivale a10 −18  metros . Para ayudar a comparar diferentesórdenes de magnitud, en esta sección se enumeranlongitudesentre 10−18 my 10−17m (1 am y 10 am).

10 attometros

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −17 m y 10 −16 m (10 am y 100 am).

100 attometros

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −16 m y 10 −15 m (100 am y 1 fm ).

1 femtómetro (o 1 fermi)

Elfemtómetro (símboloSIfm ) es unaunidaddelongituden elsistema métricoque equivale a10 −15  metros . Enfísica de partículas, a esta unidad a veces se la denominaFermi , también con la abreviatura "fm". Para ayudar a comparar diferentesórdenes de magnitud, en esta sección se enumeranlongitudesentre 10−15 metrosy 10−14metros (1 femtómetro y 10 fm).

10 femtómetros

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −14 m y 10 −13 m (10 fm y 100 fm).

100 femtómetros

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −13 m y 10 −12 m (100 fm y 1 pm ).

1 picómetro

ElEl picómetro (símboloSIpm) es unaunidaddelongitudenelsistema métricoigual a10−12 metros(1/1 000 000 000 000  m = 0,000 000 000 001 m  ) . Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud, esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −12 y 10 −11 m (1 pm y 10 pm).

10 picómetros

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud, esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −11 y 10 −10 m (10 pm y 100 pm).

100 picómetros

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud, esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −10 y 10 −9 m (100 pm y 1 nm; 1  Å y 10 Å).

1 nanómetro

Elnanómetro (SI:nm ) es unaunidaddelongituden elsistema métricoigual a10 −9  metros (1/1 000 000 000  m = 0,000 000 001 m  ) . Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −9 y 10 −8 m (1 nm y 10 nm).

10 nanómetros

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud, esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −8 y 10 −7 m (10 nm y 100 nm).

100 nanómetros

Comparación de tamaños de nodos de procesos de fabricación de semiconductores con algunos objetos microscópicos y longitudes de onda de luz visible. A esta escala, el ancho de un cabello humano es aproximadamente diez veces el de la imagen. [68]

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −7 y 10 −6 m (100 nm y 1  μm ).

1 micrómetro (o 1 micrón)

La seda de una telaraña mide entre 5 y 7 μm (0,00020 y 0,00028 pulgadas) de ancho.

Elmicrómetro (símboloSIμm ) es unaunidaddelongituden elsistema métricoigual a10 −6  metros (1/1 000 000  m = 0,000 001 m  ) . Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera algunos elementos con longitudes entre 10 −6 y 10 −5 m (entre 1 y 10 micrómetros o μm).

10 micrómetros

Las partículas de niebla miden alrededor de 10 a 50 μm (0,00039 a 0,00197 pulgadas) de largo.

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −5 m y 10 −4 m (10 μm y 100 μm).

100 micrómetros

Un paramecio mide alrededor de 300 μm (0,012 pulgadas) de largo.

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −4 m y 10 −3 m (100  μm y 1  mm ). El término miriómetro (abr. mom, equivalente a 100 micrómetros; frecuentemente confundido con el miriámetro , 10 kilómetros) [86] está en desuso; el prefijo métrico decimal myrio- [87] está obsoleto [88] [89] [90] y no se incluyó entre los prefijos cuando se introdujo el Sistema Internacional de Unidades en 1960.

1 milímetro

Una hormiga roja promedio mide alrededor de 5 mm (0,20 pulgadas) de largo.

Elmilímetro (SI:mm ) es unaunidaddelongituden elsistema métricoigual a10 −3  metros (1/1 000  m = 0,001 m ). Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −3 m y 10 −2 m (1 mm y 1 cm).

1 centímetro

Una uña humana promedio mide 1 cm (0,39 pulgadas) de ancho.

Elcentímetro (SI:cm ) es unaunidaddelongituden elsistema métricoigual a10 −2  metros (1/100  m = 0,01 m ). Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 −2 m y 10 −1 m (1 cm y 1 dm).

1 decímetro

Un pie humano adulto mide aproximadamente 28 cm (11 pulgadas) de largo.

Eldecímetro (SI:dm ) es unaunidaddelongituden elsistema métricoigual a10 −1  metros (1/10  m = 0,1 m ). Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , esta sección enumera longitudes entre 10 centímetros y 100 centímetros (10 −1 metro y 1 metro).

Conversiones

10 centímetros (abreviado como 10 cm) es igual a:

Longitudes de onda

Escalas y estructuras definidas por el ser humano

Naturaleza

Astronómico

1 metro

Leonardo da Vinci dibujó al Hombre de Vitruvio dentro de un cuadrado de 1,83 m de lado y un círculo de aproximadamente 1,2 m de radio.

Para ayudar a comparar diferentes órdenes de magnitud , en esta sección se enumeran longitudes entre un metro y diez metros. La luz, en el vacío, recorre un metro en 1299.792.458 , o 3,3356409519815E-9 de segundo.

Conversiones

1 metro es:

Escalas y estructuras definidas por el ser humano

Deportes

Naturaleza

Astronómico

1 decámetro

Se ha medido una ballena azul hasta alcanzar 33 m (108 pies) de largo; este dibujo compara su longitud con la de un buceador humano y la de un delfín.

Eldecámetro (SI:La presa es unaunidaddelongituddelsistema métricoque equivale a 10 metros(101 m). Para ayudar a comparar diferentesórdenes de magnitud, en esta sección se enumeran longitudes entre 10 y 100 metros.

Conversiones

10 metros (muy raramente denominado decámetro , que se abrevia como presa) es igual a:

Escalas y estructuras definidas por el ser humano

Deportes

Naturaleza

Astronómico

1 hectómetro

La Gran Pirámide de Giza tiene 138,8 m (455 pies) de altura.
Señal de ubicación para conductores británicos y poste indicador de ubicación en la M27 en Hampshire . Los postes indicadores de ubicación están instalados a intervalos de 100 metros. [117]

Elhectómetro (símboloSIhm ) es unaunidaddelongituddelsistema métricoque equivale a 100 metros(102 m). Para comparar diferentesórdenes de magnitud,en esta sección se enumeran longitudes entre 100 metros y 1000 metros (1kilómetro).

Conversiones

100 metros (a veces denominado hectómetro) equivalen a:

Escalas y estructuras definidas por el ser humano

Deportes

Naturaleza

Astronómico

1 kilómetro

El monte Fuji tiene una altura de 3,776 kilómetros (2,346 millas).

Elkilómetro (SI:km ) es unaunidaddelongituddelsistema métrico que equivale a1000 metros(103 m). Para ayudar a comparar diferentesórdenes de magnitud, en esta sección se enumeranlongitudesentre 1 kilómetro y 10 kilómetros(103y 104 metros).

Conversiones

1 kilómetro (unidad de símbolo km) es igual a:

Escalas y estructuras definidas por el ser humano

Naturaleza

Geográfico

Astronomical

10 kilometres (1 myriametre)

The Strait of Gibraltar is 13 km (8.1 mi) wide.

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10 and 100 kilometres (104 to 105 metres). The myriametre[134] (sometimes also spelled myriometre; 10,000 metres) is a deprecated unit name; the decimal metric prefix myria-[87] (sometimes also written as myrio-[135][136][137]) is obsolete[88][89][90] and was not included among the prefixes when the International System of Units was introduced in 1960.

Conversions

10 kilometres is equal to:

Distance marker on the Rhine: 36 (XXXVI) myriametres from Basel. The stated distance is 360 km (220 mi); the comma is the decimal separator in Germany.

Sports

Human-defined scales and structures

Geographical

Astronomical

100 kilometres

The Suez Canal is 163 km (101 mi) long.

A length of 100 kilometres (about 62 miles), as a rough amount, is relatively common in measurements on Earth and for some astronomical objects. It is the altitude at which the FAI defines spaceflight to begin.

To help compare orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 100 and 1,000 kilometres (105 and 106 metres).

Conversions

A distance of 100 kilometres is equal to about 62 miles (or 62.13711922 miles).

Human-defined scales and structures

Geographical

Astronomical

1 megametre

Small planets, the Moon and dwarf planets in the Solar System have diameters from one to ten million metres. Top row: Mars (left), Mercury (right); bottom row: Moon (left), Pluto (center), and Haumea (right), to scale.

The megametre (SI symbol: Mm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1000000 metres (106 m). To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths starting at 106 m (1 Mm or 1,000 km).

Conversions

1 megametre is equal to:

Human-defined scales and structures

Sports

Geographical

Astronomical

10 megametres

Planets from Venus up to Uranus have diameters from ten to one hundred million metres. Top row: Uranus (left), Neptune (right); middle row: Earth (left), Sirius B (center), and Venus (right), to scale.

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths starting at 107 metres (10 megametres or 10,000 kilometres).

Conversions

10 megametres (10 Mm) is

Human-defined scales and structures

Geographical

Astronomical

100 megametres

The Earth-Moon orbit, Saturn, OGLE-TR-122b, Jupiter, and other objects, to scale. Click on image for detailed view and links to other length scales.
Scale model at megametres of the main Solar System bodies

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths starting at 108 metres (100 megametres or 100,000 kilometres or 62,150 miles).

1 gigametre

13 things in the gigametre group
Upper part: Gamma Orionis, Algol B, the Sun (centre), and other objects to scale

; lower part: their darker mirror images (artist's interpretation).

The gigametre (SI symbol: Gm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1000000000 metres (109 m). To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 109 metres (1 gigametre (Gm) or 1 billion metres).

10 gigametres

Rigel and Aldebaran (top left and right) compared to smaller stars, the Sun (very small dot in lower middle, with orbit of Mercury as yellow ellipse) and transparent sphere with radius of one light-minute

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1010 metres (10 gigametres (Gm) or 10 million kilometres, or 0.07 astronomical units).

100 gigametres

From largest to smallest: Jupiter's orbit, red supergiant star Betelgeuse, Mars' orbit, Earth's orbit, star R Doradus, and orbits of Venus, Mercury. Inside R Doradus's depiction are the blue supergiant star Rigel and red giant star Aldebaran. The faint yellow glow around the Sun represents one light-minute. Click image to see more details and links to their scales.

To help compare distances at different orders of magnitude this section lists lengths starting at 1011 metres (100 gigametre or 100 million kilometres or 0.7 astronomical units).

1 terametre

Eight things in the terametre group
Comparison of size of the Kuiper belt (large faint torus) with the star VY Canis Majoris (within Saturn's orbit), Betelgeuse (inside Jupiter's orbit) and R Doradus (small central red sphere) together with the orbits of Neptune and Uranus, to scale. The yellow ellipses represent the orbits of each planet and the dwarf planet Pluto.

The terametre (SI symbol: Tm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1000000000000 metres (1012 m). To help compare different distances, this section lists lengths starting at 1012 m (1 Tm or 1 billion km or 6.7 astronomical units).

10 terametres

Sedna's orbit (left) is longer than 100 Tm, but other lengths are between 10 and 100 Tm: Comet Hale-Bopp's orbit (lower, faint orange); one light-day (yellow spherical shell with yellow Vernal point arrow as radius); the heliosphere's termination shock (blue shell); and other arrows show positions of Voyager 1 (red) and Pioneer 10 (green). Click on image for larger view and links to other scales.

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1013 m (10 Tm or 10 billion km or 67 astronomical units).

100 terametres

The largest yellow sphere indicates one light month distance from the Sun. Click the image for larger view, more details and links to other scales.

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1014 m (100 Tm or 100 billion km or 670 astronomical units).

1 petametre

Largest circle with yellow arrow indicates one light-year from Sun; Cat's Eye Nebula on left and Barnard 68 in middle are depicted in front of Comet 1910 A1's orbit. Click image for larger view, details and links to other scales.

The petametre (SI symbol: Pm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1015 metres. To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1015 m (1 Pm or 1 trillion km or 6685 astronomical units (AU) or 0.11 light-years).

10 petametres

Objects with size order of magnitude 1e16m: Ten light-years (94.6 Pm) radius circle with yellow Vernal Point arrow; Bubble Nebula (NGC 7635), left; Dumbbell Nebula (NGC 6853), right; one light-year shell lower right with the smaller Cat's Eye Nebula (NGC_6543) and Barnard 68 adjacent.
1e16m lengths: Ten light-years (94.6 Pm) yellow shell; Sirius below right; BL Ceti below left; Proxima and Alpha Centauri upper right; light-year shell with Comet 1910 A1's orbit inside top right

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1016 m (10 Pm or 66,800 AU, 1.06 light-years).

100 petametres

Lengths with order of magnitude 1e17m: yellow Vernal Point arrow traces hundred light-year radius circle with smaller ten light-year circle at right; globular cluster Messier 5 in background; 12 light-year radius Orion Nebula middle right; 50-light-year-wide view of the Carina Nebula bottom left; Pleiades cluster and Bubble nebula with similar diameters each around 10 light-years bottom right; grey arrows show distances from Sun to stars Aldebaran (65 light-years) and Vega (25 light-years)

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths between 1017 m (100 Pm or 11 light-years) and 1018 m (106 light-years).

1 exametre

Lengths with order of magnitude 1e18m: thousand light-year radius circle with yellow arrow and 100 light-year circle at right with globular cluster Messier 5 within and Carina Nebula in front; globular cluster Omega Centauri to left of both; part of the 1,400-light-year-wide Tarantula Nebula fills the background

The exametre (SI symbol: Em) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1018 metres. To help compare different distances this section lists lengths between 1018 m (1 Em or 105.7 light-years) and 1019 m (10 Em or 1,057 light-years).

10 exametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 10 Em (1019 m or 1,100 light-years).

100 exametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 100 Em (1020 m or 11,000 light-years).

1 zettametre

The zettametre (SI symbol: Zm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1021 metres.[56] To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 1 Zm (1021 m or 110,000 light-years).

10 zettametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 10 Zm (1022 m or 1.1 million light-years).

100 zettametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 100 Zm (1023 m or 11 million light-years).

1 yottametre

The yottametre (SI symbol: Ym) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1024 metres.[56]

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 1 Ym (1024 m or 105.702 million light-years).

10 yottametres

The universe within one billion light-years of Earth

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 10 Ym (1025 m or 1.1 billion light-years). At this scale, expansion of the universe becomes significant. Distance of these objects are derived from their measured redshifts, which depends on the cosmological models used.

100 yottametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 100 Ym (1026 m or 11 billion light-years). At this scale, expansion of the universe becomes significant. Distance of these objects are derived from their measured redshifts, which depend on the cosmological models used.

1 ronnametre

The ronnametre (SI symbol: Rm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1027 metres.[56]

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 1 Rm (1027 m or 105.7 billion light-years). At this scale, expansion of the universe becomes significant. Distance of these objects are derived from their measured redshifts, which depend on the cosmological models used.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The diameter of human hair ranges from 17 to 181 μm Ley, Brian (1999). Elert, Glenn (ed.). "Diameter of a human hair". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 8 December 2018.
  2. ^ a b The exact category (asteroid, dwarf planet, or planet) to which particular Solar System objects belong, has been subject to some revision since the discovery of extrasolar planets and trans-Neptunian objects
  3. ^ 10115 is 1 followed by 115 zeroes, or a googol multiplied by a quadrillion. 1010115 is 1 followed by a quadrillion googol zeroes. 101010122 is 1 followed by 1010122 (a googolplex10 sextillion) zeroes.
  4. ^ But not cloud or high-level fog droplets; droplet size increases with altitude. For a contradictory study indicating larger drop sizes even in ground fog, see Eldridge, Ralph G. (October 1961). "A Few Fog Drop-Size Distributions". Journal of Meteorology. 18 (5): 671–6. Bibcode:1961JAtS...18..671E. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1961)018<0671:AFFDSD>2.0.CO;2.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Burgess, Cliff; Quevedo, Fernando (November 2007). "The Great Cosmic Roller-Coaster Ride". Scientific American. 297 (5): 55. Bibcode:2007SciAm.297e..52B. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1107-52 (inactive 13 March 2024). PMID 17990824. Retrieved 1 May 2017.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 (link)
  2. ^ Nave, Carl R. "Cowan and Reines Neutrino Experiment". HyperPhysics. Retrieved 4 December 2008. (6.3 × 10−44 cm2, which gives an effective radius of about 1.42 × 10−22 m)
  3. ^ Nave, Carl R. "Neutron Absorption Cross-sections". HyperPhysics. Retrieved 4 December 2008. (area for 20 GeV about 10 × 10−42 m2 gives effective radius of about 2 × 10−21 m; for 250 GeV about 150 × 10−42 m2 gives effective radius of about 7 × 10−21 m)
  4. ^ Abbott, B. P.; et al. (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Physical Review Letters. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. PMID 26918975. S2CID 124959784. On 14 September 2015 at 09:50:45 UTC the two detectors of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory simultaneously observed a transient gravitational-wave signal. The signal sweeps upwards in frequency from 35 to 250 Hz with a peak gravitational-wave strain of 1.0×10−21.
  5. ^ Pohl, R.; et al. (July 2010). "The size of the proton". Nature. 466 (7303): 213–6. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..213P. doi:10.1038/nature09250. PMID 20613837. S2CID 4424731.
  6. ^ a b c d Strassler, Matt (30 May 2013). "The strength of the known forces". profmattstrassler.com.
  7. ^ a b c d Kolena. "The four forces: The strong interaction". Astrophysics Dept website. Duke University.
  8. ^ Nave, Carl R. "Scattering cross section". Retrieved 10 February 2009.(diameter of the scattering cross section of an 11 MeV proton with a target proton)
  9. ^ "CODATA Value: classical electron radius". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST.
  10. ^ H. E. Smith. "The Scale of the Universe". UCSD. Retrieved 10 February 2009. ~10−13cm
  11. ^ Winter, Mark (2008). "WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements / Sulfur / Radii". Retrieved 6 December 2008.
  12. ^ Flahaut E, Bacsa R, Peigney A, Laurent C (June 2003). "Gram-scale CCVD synthesis of double-walled carbon nanotubes" (PDF). Chemical Communications. 12 (12): 1442–3. doi:10.1039/b301514a. PMID 12841282. S2CID 30627446.
  13. ^ "The world's smallest transistor is 1nm long, physics be damned". 6 October 2016.
  14. ^ Stewart, Robert. "Dr". Radiobiology Software. Archived from the original on 30 June 2010. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
  15. ^ Langevin, Dominique (2008). "Chapter 10: DNA-Surfactant/Lipid Complexes at Liquid Interfaces". In Dias, Rita S; Lindman, Bjorn (eds.). DNA Interactions with Polymers and Surfactants. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 265. doi:10.1002/9780470286364.ch10. ISBN 978-0-470-25818-7. DNA has 20 elementary charges per helical turn over the corresponding length of 3.4nm
  16. ^ Mai-Prochnow, Anne (9 December 2016). "Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria differ in their sensitivity to cold plasma". Scientific Reports. 6. Nature: 38610. Bibcode:2016NatSR...638610M. doi:10.1038/srep38610. PMC 5146927. PMID 27934958.
  17. ^ F., Adnan (17 October 2016). "Samsung announces industry-first mass production of System-on-Chip with 10nm FinFET technology". SamMobile.
  18. ^ "Hard drive basics – Capacities, RPM speeds, interfaces, and mechanics". helpwithpcs.com. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
  19. ^ Cohn, J. University of California, Berkeley Lyman alpha systems and cosmology. Retrieved 21 February 2009.
  20. ^ Seth, S.D.; Seth, Vimlesh (2009). Textbook of Pharmacology (3rd ed.). Elsevier. p. X111. ISBN 978-81-312-1158-8.
  21. ^ Nave, Carl R (2016). "Color". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University.
  22. ^ "Size of bacteria". What are bacteria?. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
  23. ^ Ko, Frank K.; Kawabata, Sueo; Inoue, Mari; Niwa, Masako; Fossey, Stephen; Song, John W. "Engineering properties of spider silk" (PDF). web.mit.edu.
  24. ^ Doohan, Jim. "Blood cells". biosbcc.net. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
  25. ^ a b c d According to The Physics Factbook, the diameter of human hair ranges from 17 to 181 μmLey, Brian (1999). "Width of a Human Hair". The Physics Factbook.
  26. ^ a b Liu Z, Huang AJ, Pflugfelder SC (July 1999). "Evaluation of corneal thickness and topography in normal eyes using the Orbscan corneal topography system". The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 83 (7): 774–8. doi:10.1136/bjo.83.7.774. PMC 1723104. PMID 10381661.
  27. ^ a b Order Siphonaptera – Fleas – BugGuide.Net Accessed 29 April 2014
  28. ^ a b "Official Rules". MLB. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
  29. ^ Bohun B. Kinloch Jr; William H. Scheuner. "Pinus lambertiana". Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
  30. ^ a b "What is a rapier – Renaissance swords Rapiers". 2-Clicks Swords.
  31. ^ a b "Robert Wadlow: Tallest man ever". Guinness World Records.
  32. ^ "Animal Records". Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Archived from the original on 23 August 2004.
  33. ^ a b "Niagara Falls Geology Facts & Figures". Niagara Parks Commission. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
  34. ^ a b "Three Gorges Dam". encyclopedia.com. Cengage Learning.
  35. ^ "Exploring Chinese History :: Special Reports :: The Three Gorges Dam Project". www.ibiblio.org.
  36. ^ a b Thomas PC, Parker JW, McFadden LA, Russell CT, Stern SA, Sykes MV, Young EF (September 2005). "Differentiation of the asteroid Ceres as revealed by its shape". Nature. 437 (7056): 224–6. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..224T. doi:10.1038/nature03938. PMID 16148926. S2CID 17758979.
  37. ^ Weintrit, Adam (2013). "So, What is Actually the Distance from the Equator to the Pole? – Overview of the Meridian Distance Approximations". TransNav, the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation. 7 (2): 259–272. doi:10.12716/1001.07.02.14. ISSN 2083-6473.
  38. ^ "Volvo owner Irv Gordon, who drove 3.2M miles in his P1800, has died". autoblog.com. 16 November 2018. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
  39. ^ Starr, Barry (2 February 2009). "A Long and Winding DNA". KQED. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
  40. ^ "Spacecraft escaping the Solar System". Heavens Above. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2018.
  41. ^ "Twin Keck telescopes probe dual dust disks". (e) Science News. 24 September 2009.
  42. ^ Shiga, David. "Sun's 'twin' an ideal hunting ground for alien life". New Scientist. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
  43. ^ Christian, Eric; Samar, Safi-Harb. "How large is the Milky Way?". Archived from the original on 2 February 1999. Retrieved 14 November 2008.
  44. ^ Duncan, Martin (2008). "16" (PDF). Physics 216 – Introduction to Astrophysics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2008.
  45. ^ "Milky Way fatter than first thought". The Sydney Morning Herald. Australian Associated Press. 20 February 2008. Archived from the original on 28 April 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2008.
  46. ^ M. López-Corredoira, C. Allende Prieto, F. Garzón, H. Wang, C. Liu and L. Deng (2018). "Disk stars in the Milky Way detected beyond 25 kpc from its center". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 612: L8. arXiv:1804.03064. Bibcode:2018A&A...612L...8L. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832880. S2CID 59933365.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ Freeman, David (25 May 2018). "The Milky Way galaxy may be much bigger than we thought" (Press release). CNBC.
  48. ^ Martialay, Mary L. (11 March 2015). "The Corrugated Galaxy—Milky Way May Be Much Larger Than Previously Estimated" (Press release). Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015.
  49. ^ Hall, Shannon (4 May 2015). "Size of the Milky Way Upgraded, Solving Galaxy Puzzle". Space.com. Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
  50. ^ "The Horologium Supercluster". Atlas of the Universe.
  51. ^ Gott, J. Richard; Jurić, Mario; Schlegel, David; Hoyle, Fiona; Vogeley, Michael; Tegmark, Max; Bahcall, Neta; Brinkmann, Jon (2005). "A Map of the Universe". The Astrophysical Journal. 624 (2): 463. arXiv:astro-ph/0310571. Bibcode:2005ApJ...624..463G. doi:10.1086/428890. S2CID 9654355.
  52. ^ Scott, Douglas; Zibin, J.P. (2006). "How Many Universes Do There Need To Be?". International Journal of Modern Physics D. 15 (12): 2229–2233. arXiv:astro-ph/0605709. Bibcode:2006IJMPD..15.2229S. doi:10.1142/S0218271806009662. S2CID 119437678.
  53. ^ Tegmark, M. (2003). "Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations". Scientific American. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID 12701329.
  54. ^ Tegmark M (May 2003). "Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations". Scientific American. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID 12701329.
  55. ^ Page, Don N.; Allende Prieto, C.; Garzon, F.; Wang, H.; Liu, C.; Deng, L. (18 October 2006). "Susskind's challenge to the Hartle Hawking no-boundary proposal and possible resolutions". Journal of Cosmology and Astro-Particle Physics. 2007 (1): 004. arXiv:hep-th/0610199. Bibcode:2007JCAP...01..004P. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/004. S2CID 17403084.
  56. ^ a b c d e "SI Brochure: The International System of Units (SI)". International Committee for Weights and Measures. Organisation Intergouvernementale de la Convention du Mètre. Retrieved 11 October 2014.
  57. ^ Christman, J. (2001). "The Weak Interaction" (PDF). Physnet. Michigan State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011.
  58. ^ Raya, Khépani; Bedolla, Marco A.; Cobos-Martínez, J. J.; Bashir, Adnan (31 October 2017). "Heavy quarkonia in a contact interaction and an algebraic model: mass spectrum, decay constants, charge radii and elastic and transition form factors". Few-Body Systems. 59 (6): 16. arXiv:1711.00383. Bibcode:2018FBS....59..133R. doi:10.1007/s00601-018-1455-y. S2CID 254061694.
  59. ^ Castelvecchi, Davide (11 November 2019). "How Big Is the Proton? Particle-Size Puzzle Leaps Closer to Resolution". Scientific American. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
  60. ^ "proton rms charge radius". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty.
  61. ^ ISO 1683:2015
  62. ^ "Buckminsterfullerene: Molecule of the Month". www.chm.bris.ac.uk. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
  63. ^ Annis, Patty J. October 1991. Kansas State University. Fine Particle POLLUTION. Figure 1. (tobacco smoke: 10 to 1000 nm; virus particles: 3 to 50 nm; bacteria: 30 to 30000 nm; cooking oil smoke: 30 to 30000 nm; wood smoke: 7 to 3000 nm)
  64. ^ Stryer, Lubert (1988). Biochemistry. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-1843-7.
  65. ^ "Through the Microscope". www.microbiologytext.com. Archived from the original on 12 June 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
  66. ^ "Moore's Law Marches on at Intel". Physorg.com. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
  67. ^ "Hard drive basics – Capacities, RPM speeds, interfaces and mechanics". www.helpwithpcs.com.
  68. ^ Smith, Graham T. (2002). Industrial metrology. Springer. p. 253. ISBN 978-1-85233-507-6.
  69. ^ Eninger, Robert M.; Hogan, Christopher J.; Biswas, Pratim; Adhikari, Atin; Reponen, Tiina; Grinshpun, Sergey A. (2009). "Electrospray versus Nebulization for Aerosolization and Filter Testing with Bacteriophage Particles". Aerosol Science and Technology. 43 (4): 298–304. Bibcode:2009AerST..43..298E. doi:10.1080/02786820802626355. S2CID 93465533.
  70. ^ "Air Pollution [Control] Technology Fact Sheet" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
  71. ^ Seth (18 November 2009). Textbook Of Pharmacology. Elsevier India. ISBN 9788131211588 – via Google Books.
  72. ^ "New Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) and the Safety Margins of Plasma Protein Therapies – Plasma Protein Therapeutics Association (PPTA)". Archived from the original on 2 June 2020. Retrieved 30 May 2020.
  73. ^ "NIOSH Guide to the Selection and Use of Particulate Respirators". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1996. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
  74. ^ Spencer RC (March 2003). "Bacillus anthracis". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 56 (3): 182–7. doi:10.1136/jcp.56.3.182. PMC 1769905. PMID 12610093.
  75. ^ Walker K, Skelton H, Smith K (November 2002). "Cutaneous lesions showing giant yeast forms of Blastomyces dermatitidis". Journal of Cutaneous Pathology. 29 (10): 616–8. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0560.2002.291009.x. PMID 12453301. S2CID 39904013.
  76. ^ Smith, D.J. (2009). "Human sperm accumulation near surfaces: a simulation study" (PDF). Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 621: 295. Bibcode:2009JFM...621..289S. doi:10.1017/S0022112008004953. S2CID 3942426. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 November 2013. Retrieved 20 May 2012.
  77. ^ "NAC Audio Cassette Glossary – Cassetro". nactape.com. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
  78. ^ "Genes are real things :: DNA from the Beginning". www.dnaftb.org.
  79. ^ Ramel, Gordon. "Spider Silk". Archived from the original on 4 December 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2008. garden spider silk has a diameter of about 0.003 mm ... Dragline silk (about 0.00032 inch (0.008 mm) in Nephila)
  80. ^ Wise, R.R.; Hoober, J.K. (2007). The Structure and Function of Plastids. Springer. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-4020-6570-5.
  81. ^ Zak, J. Allen (April 1994). Drop Size Distributions and Related Properties of Fog for Five Locations Measured From Aircraft (PDF) (Report). Hampton, VA: NASA – Langley Research Center. 4585.
  82. ^ a b IST – Innovative Sintering Technologies Ltd. "Fibreshape applications". Retrieved 4 December 2008. Histogram of cotton thickness
  83. ^ "Company Profile, page 20" (PDF). The Lego Group. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 December 2012.
  84. ^ Lippmann, Morton (2000). Environmental Toxicants: Human Exposures and Their Health Effects. John Wiley and Sons. p. 453. ISBN 978-0-471-29298-2. Retrieved 4 December 2008. 20 μm .. 5 μm
  85. ^ Rossi, Massimiliano (27 November 2017). "Kinematics of flagellar swimming in Euglena gracilis: Helical trajectories and flagellar shapes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 114 (50): 13085–13090. Bibcode:2017PNAS..11413085R. doi:10.1073/pnas.1708064114. hdl:11384/84166. PMC 5740643. PMID 29180429.
  86. ^ Gyllenbok, Jan (2018). Encyclopedia of Historical Metrology, Weights, and Measures. Birkhäuser. ISBN 9783319575988.
  87. ^ a b "La Loi Du 18 Germinal An 3 – Décision de tracer le mètre, unité fondamentale, sur une règle de platine. Nomenclature des "mesures républicaines". Reprise de la triangulation" (in French). histoire.du.metre.free.fr. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
  88. ^ a b Comité International des Poids et Mesures (1935), Procès-Verbaux des Séances (in French), vol. 17 (2 ed.), Paris, France: Gauthier-Villars, imprimeur-libraire du Bureau des Longitudes, de l'École Polytechnique, p. 76
  89. ^ a b Roberts, Richard W. (1 June 1975). Metric System of Weights and Measures – Guidelines for Use. US: Director of the National Bureau of Standards. Federal Register FR Doc.75-15798 (18 June 1975). Accordingly, the following units and terms listed in the table of metric units in section 2 of the act of 28 July 1866, that legalized the metric system of weights and measures in the United States, are no longer accepted for use in the United States: myriameter, stere, millier or tonneau, quintal, myriagram, kilo (for kilogram).
  90. ^ a b Judson, Lewis V. (1 October 1976) [1963]. "Appendix 7" (PDF). In Barbrow, Louis E. (ed.). Weights and Measures Standards of the United States, a brief history. Derived from a prior work by Louis A. Fisher (1905). US: US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards. p. 33. LCCN 76-600055. NBS Special Publication 447; NIST SP 447; 003-003-01654-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
  91. ^ Popiolek, Kim. "Dr. Charles Lindemann's Lab: Sperm Facts". Oakland University.
  92. ^ Santoso, Alex (17 June 2006). "World's Biggest Sperm Belongs to a Tiny Fly". Neatorama.
  93. ^ House Dust Mites HYG-2157-97. Retrieved 4 December 2008
  94. ^ Rodgers, Steven. "Designing and Operating Electrostatically Driven Microengines" (PDF). Sandia National Laboratory. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
  95. ^ "CNN – Scientists discover biggest bacteria ever – April 15, 1999". www.cnn.com. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  96. ^ "World's Smallest Frog Found—Fly-Size Beast Is Tiniest Vertebrate". 13 January 2017. Archived from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  97. ^ NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization, Per G. Arvidsson, ChairmanWeapons & Sensors Working GroupLand Capability Group 1 – Dismounted Soldier NATO Army Armaments Group Archived 1 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 29 April 2014
  98. ^ "World's smallest vertebrate has a big secret". New Scientist. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  99. ^ Lindstrom, Hannah. "The Smallest Salamander". Mongabay.com. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  100. ^ "Comparing quail eggs". BackYard Chickens. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  101. ^ "Why the Moon is getting further away from Earth". BBC News. 1 February 2011. Retrieved 5 November 2021.
  102. ^ "USGA: Guide to the Rules on Clubs and Balls". USGA. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
  103. ^ "CR80 Card Specification". CardLogix Corporation. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
  104. ^ Kinloch, Bohun B. Jr. & Scheuner, William H. "Pinus lambertiana". Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
  105. ^ "HTwins.net – The Scale of the Universe". htwins.net. Archived from the original on 29 November 2010. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  106. ^ a b Laws of the Game (PDF), FIFA, 1 June 2017, archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2017, retrieved 21 March 2018
  107. ^ IAAF International Association of Athletics Federations – IAAF.org - Statistics - Top Lists, archived from the original on 16 January 2008, retrieved 9 April 2010
  108. ^ IAAF International Association of Athletics Federations – IAAF.org - Past Results, archived from the original on 4 June 2011, retrieved 9 April 2010
  109. ^ Dagg, A. I. (1971), Mammalian Species 5 (Giraffa camelopardalis ed.), pp. 1–8
  110. ^ "Fossil of 'largest flying bird' identified". BBC News. 7 July 2014. Retrieved 19 July 2022.
  111. ^ Plait, P. (6 October 2008). "Incoming!!!". Bad Astronomy. Archived from the original on 7 October 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2008.
  112. ^ "Rule 1.04 The Playing Field" (PDF). Official Baseball Rules. Major League Baseball. 25 January 2010. pp. 1–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2011. See especially Diagram No. 1, page 3.
  113. ^ "Law 7 (The pitch)". Laws of Cricket. Marylebone Cricket Club. October 2010. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2011.
  114. ^ "Animal Records". Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Archived from the original on 28 March 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2007.
  115. ^ Curtice, Brian (2021). "New Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry Supersaurus vivianae (Jensen 1985) axial elements provide additional insight into its phylogenetic relationships and size, suggesting an animal that exceeded 39 meters in length" (PDF).
  116. ^ "Longest Animal". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 15 June 2019.
  117. ^ "Driver Location Signs – Frequently Asked Questions". Highways Agency. Archived from the original on 10 August 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2010.
  118. ^ "Kingda Ka (Six Flags Great Adventure)". Archived from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
  119. ^ "Eiffel Tower grows six metres after new antenna attached". Reuters. 15 March 2022.
  120. ^ Campbell, Marilyn (17 February 2018). "How Tall is the CN Tower?". TripSavvy. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
  121. ^ "Burj Dubai all set for 09/09/09 soft opening". Emirates Business 24-7. Archived from the original on 19 January 2009. Retrieved 17 January 2009.
  122. ^ "Tallest tree in the world: coast redwood". Monumental Trees, an inventory of big and old trees worldwide.
  123. ^ Fujiwara A, Kawaguchi J, Yeomans DK, Abe M, Mukai T, Okada T, Saito J, Yano H, Yoshikawa M, Scheeres DJ, Barnougin-Jha O, Cheng AF, Demura H, Gaskell RW, Hirata N, Ikeda H, Kominato T, Miyamoto H, Nakamura AM, Nakamura R, Sasaki S, Uesugi K (June 2006). "The rubble-pile asteroid Itokawa as observed by Hayabusa". Science. 312 (5778): 1330–4. Bibcode:2006Sci...312.1330F. doi:10.1126/science.1125841. PMID 16741107. S2CID 206508294.
  124. ^ "long wave". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 1 March 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2011. wavelength above one kilometre (and a frequency below 300 kHz)
  125. ^ "Bridge Design and Construction Statistics". Golden Gate Bridge. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 10 June 2012.
  126. ^ "nautical mile". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 12 March 2011.
  127. ^ Akashi Kaikyo Bridge @ Everything2.com, Everything2, 9 September 2002, retrieved 19 April 2009
  128. ^ Friedl, Jeffrey (9 December 2008), Supporting the Longest Suspension Bridge in the World, archived from the original on 3 March 2009, retrieved 19 April 2009
  129. ^ New height of world's railway born in Tibet, Xinhua News Agency, 24 August 2005, archived from the original on 3 June 2009, retrieved 19 April 2009
  130. ^ "Aucanquilcha 6176m". Andes. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
  131. ^ "Russians in landmark Baikal dive". BBC News. 29 July 2008. Retrieved 12 March 2011. current record of 1,637m was set in Lake Baikal in the 1990s
  132. ^ "Kosciuszko National Park lookouts and scenery". Office of Environment & Heritage: NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service.
  133. ^ "Carstensz Pyramid details". Carstensz Pyramid Site. Archived from the original on 16 December 2014.
  134. ^ Appell, Wolfgang (16 September 2009) [2002]. "Königreich Frankreich" [Kingdom of France]. Amtliche Maßeinheiten in Europa 1842 [Official units of measure in Europe 1842] (in German). Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. (Website based on Alte Meß- und Währungssysteme aus dem deutschen Sprachgebiet, ISBN 3-7686-1036-5)
  135. ^ Brewster, David (1830). The Edinburgh Encyclopædia. Vol. 12. Edinburgh, UK: William Blackwood, John Waugh, John Murray, Baldwin & Cradock, J. M. Richardson. p. 494. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
  136. ^ Brewster, David (1832). The Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. Vol. 12 (1st American ed.). Joseph and Edward Parker. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
  137. ^ Dingler, Johann Gottfried (1823). Polytechnisches Journal (in German). Vol. 11. Stuttgart, Germany: J.W. Gotta'schen Buchhandlung. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
  138. ^ Haugen, Einar, Norwegian English Dictionary, 1965, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget and Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, s.v. mil
  139. ^ "What is a farsakh or farsang?". sizes.com.
  140. ^ "IAAF Competition Rules 2008" (PDF). IAAF. p. 195. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
  141. ^ Kennedy, Gregory. "Stratolab, an Evolutionary Stratospheric Balloon Project".
  142. ^ Wise, Jeff (1 October 2009). "Turkey Building the World's Deepest Immersed Tube Tunnel". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
  143. ^ "Facts and History about the Panama Canal". Archived from the original on 14 March 2016.
  144. ^ Highest and lowest points on Mars Archived 31 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine NASA
  145. ^ Plescia, Jeff (1 October 1997). "Height of Martian vs. Earth mountains". Questions and Answers about Mars terrain and geology. Archived from the original on 14 October 2008. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
  146. ^ "High Speed 1 Project Hoem". www.betchel.com. Betchel Corporation. Retrieved 8 February 2015.
  147. ^ "Bordeaux-Paris | the event". www.bordeauxparis.com. Archived from the original on 28 March 2017. Retrieved 30 April 2017.
  148. ^ "FAQ-Alaska Highway Facts". The MILEPOST. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 25 August 2007. 1,390 miles ... Alaska Route 2 and often treated as a natural extension of the Alaska Highway
  149. ^ Downward, R.J.; Bromell, J.E. (March 1990). "The development of a policy for the management of dingo populations in South Australia". Proceedings of the Fourteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference 1990. University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Archived from the original on 24 May 2024. Retrieved 31 August 2009.
  150. ^ "China's Great Wall far longer than thought: survey". AFP. 20 April 2009. Archived from the original on 27 April 2009. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
  151. ^ CIS railway timetable, route No. 002, Moscow-Vladivostok. Archived 3 December 2009.
  152. ^ CIS railway timetable, route No. 350, Kyiv-Vladivostok. Archived 3 December 2009.
  153. ^ McGourty, Christine (14 December 2005). "Hubble finds mass of white dwarf". BBC News. Retrieved 13 October 2007.
  154. ^ NASA Staff (10 May 2011). "Solar System Exploration – Earth's Moon: Facts & Figures". NASA. Archived from the original on 7 November 2011. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
  155. ^ "Sun Fact Sheet". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov.
  156. ^ Akeson, Rachel; Beichman, Charles; Kervella, Pierre; Fomalont, Edward; Benedict, G. Fritz (2021). "Precision Millimeter Astrometry of the α Centauri AB System". The Astronomical Journal. 162 (1): 14. arXiv:2104.10086. Bibcode:2021AJ....162...14A. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abfaff.
  157. ^ Liebert, James; Young, Patrick A.; Arnett, David; Holberg, J. B.; Williams, Kurtis A. (2005). "The Age and Progenitor Mass of Sirius B". The Astrophysical Journal. 630 (1): L69–L72. arXiv:astro-ph/0507523. Bibcode:2005ApJ...630L..69L. doi:10.1086/462419. S2CID 8792889.
  158. ^ Neuroscience: The Science of the Brain"IBRO Brain Campaign". Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011. p.44
  159. ^ Yoon, Jinmi; Peterson, Deane M.; Kurucz, Robert L.; Zagarello, Robert J. (2010). "A New View of Vega's Composition, Mass, and Age". The Astrophysical Journal. 708 (1): 71–79. Bibcode:2010ApJ...708...71Y. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/708/1/71. S2CID 120986935.
  160. ^ Tkachenko, A.; et al. (May 2016), "Stellar modelling of Spica, a high-mass spectroscopic binary with a β Cep variable primary component", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 458 (2): 1964–1976, arXiv:1601.08069, Bibcode:2016MNRAS.458.1964T, doi:10.1093/mnras/stw255, S2CID 26945389
  161. ^ a b Baines, Ellyn K.; Armstrong, J. Thomas; Schmitt, Henrique R.; Zavala, R. T.; Benson, James A.; Hutter, Donald J.; Tycner, Christopher; Belle, Gerard T. van (2017). "Fundamental Parameters of 87 Stars from the Navy Precision Optical Interferometer". The Astronomical Journal. 155 (1): 30. arXiv:1712.08109. Bibcode:2018AJ....155...30B. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa9d8b.
  162. ^ a b Howes, Louise M.; Lindegren, Lennart; Feltzing, Sofia; Church, Ross P.; Bensby, Thomas (1 February 2019). "Estimating stellar ages and metallicities from parallaxes and broadband photometry: successes and shortcomings". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 622: A27. arXiv:1804.08321. Bibcode:2019A&A...622A..27H. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833280. ISSN 0004-6361.
  163. ^ Ramírez, I.; Allende Prieto, C. (2011). "Fundamental Parameters and Chemical Composition of Arcturus". The Astrophysical Journal. 743 (2): 135. arXiv:1109.4425. Bibcode:2011ApJ...743..135R. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/743/2/135. S2CID 119186472.
  164. ^ Richichi, A.; Roccatagliata, V.; Shultz, Matt; Williamson, Michael H.; Moya, Andres (2005). "Aldebaran's angular diameter: How well do we know it?". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 433 (1): 305–312. arXiv:astro-ph/0502181. Bibcode:2005A&A...433..305R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041765. S2CID 119414301. They derived an angular diameter of 20.58±0.03 milliarcsec, which given a distance of 65 light-years yields a diameter of 61 million km.
  165. ^ Kallinger, T.; Beck, P. G.; Hekker, S.; Huber, D.; Kuschnig, R.; Rockenbauer, M.; Winter, P. M.; Weiss, W. W.; Handler, G.; Moffat, A. F. J.; Pigulski, A.; Popowicz, A.; Wade, G. A.; Zwintz, K. (April 2019). "Stellar masses from granulation and oscillations of 23 bright red giants observed by BRITE - Constellation". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 624: A35. arXiv:1902.07531. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834514. ISSN 0004-6361.
  166. ^ McDonald, Iain; Zijlstra, Albert A.; Watson, Robert A. (11 October 2017). "Fundamental parameters and infrared excesses of Tycho-Gaia stars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 471 (1): 770–791. arXiv:1706.02208. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1433. ISSN 0035-8711.
  167. ^ Chesneau, O.; Dessart, L.; Mourard, D.; Bério, Ph.; Buil, Ch.; Bonneau, D.; Borges Fernandes, M.; Clausse, J. M.; Delaa, O.; Marcotto, A.; Meilland, A.; Millour, F.; Nardetto, N.; Perraut, K.; Roussel, A.; Spang, A.; Stee, P.; Tallon-Bosc, I.; McAlister, H.; Ten Brummelaar, T.; Sturmann, J.; Sturmann, L.; Turner, N.; Farrington, C.; Goldfinger, P. J. (2010). "Time, spatial, and spectral resolution of the H α line-formation region of Deneb and Rigel with the VEGA/CHARA interferometer". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 521: A5. arXiv:1007.2095. Bibcode:2010A&A...521A...5C. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014509. S2CID 10340205.
  168. ^ Woodruff, H. C.; Eberhardt, M.; Driebe, T.; Hofmann, K.-H.; Ohnaka, K.; Richichi, A.; Schertl, D.; Schoeller, M.; Scholz, M.; Weigelt, G.; Wittkowski, M.; Wood, P. R. (July 2004). "Interferometric observations of the Mira star o Ceti with the VLTI/VINCI instrument in the near-infrared". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 421 (2): 703–714. arXiv:astro-ph/0404248. Bibcode:2004A&A...421..703W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20035826. ISSN 0004-6361.
  169. ^ Lau, R. M.; Herter, T. L.; Morris, M. R.; Adams, J. D. (2014). "Nature Versus Nurture: Luminous Blue Variable Nebulae in and Near Massive Stellar Clusters at the Galactic Center". The Astrophysical Journal. 785 (2): 120. arXiv:1403.5298. Bibcode:2014ApJ...785..120L. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/785/2/120. S2CID 118447462.
  170. ^ Anugu, Narsireddy; Baron, Fabien; Monnier, John D.; Gies, Douglas R.; Roettenbacher, Rachael M.; Schaefer, Gail H.; Montargès, Miguel; Kraus, Stefan; Bouquin, Jean-Baptiste Le (5 August 2024). "CHARA Near-Infrared Imaging of the Yellow Hypergiant Star $\rho$ Cassiopeiae: Convection Cells and Circumstellar Envelope". arXiv:2408.02756v2 [astro-ph.SR].
  171. ^ Joyce, Meridith; Leung, Shing-Chi; Molnár, László; Ireland, Michael; Kobayashi, Chiaki; Nomoto, Ken'Ichi (2020). "Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: New Mass and Distance Estimates for Betelgeuse through Combined Evolutionary, Asteroseismic, and Hydrodynamic Simulations with MESA". The Astrophysical Journal. 902 (1): 63. arXiv:2006.09837. Bibcode:2020ApJ...902...63J. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abb8db.
  172. ^ Gull, Theodore R.; Hillier, D. John; Hartman, Henrik; Corcoran, Michael F.; Damineli, Augusto; Espinoza-Galeas, David; Hamaguchi, Kenji; Navarete, Felipe; Nielsen, Krister; Madura, Thomas; Moffat, Anthony F. J.; Morris, Patrick; Richardson, Noel D.; Russell, Christopher M. P.; Stevens, Ian R. (July 2022). "Eta Carinae: An Evolving View of the Central Binary, Its Interacting Winds and Its Foreground Ejecta". The Astrophysical Journal. 933 (2): 175. arXiv:2205.15116. Bibcode:2022ApJ...933..175G. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac74c2. ISSN 0004-637X.
  173. ^ Montargès, M.; Homan, W.; Keller, D.; Clementel, N.; Shetye, S.; Decin, L.; Harper, G. M.; Royer, P.; Winters, J. M.; Le Bertre, T.; Richards, A. M. S. (2019). "NOEMA maps the CO J = 2 − 1 environment of the red supergiant μ Cep". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 485 (2): 2417–2430. arXiv:1903.07129. Bibcode:2019MNRAS.485.2417M. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz397. S2CID 119423161.
  174. ^ Table 4 in Emily M. Levesque; Philip Massey; K. A. G. Olsen; Bertrand Plez; Eric Josselin; Andre Maeder & Georges Meynet (2005). "The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not As Cool As We Thought". The Astrophysical Journal. 628 (2): 973–985. arXiv:astro-ph/0504337. Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..973L. doi:10.1086/430901. S2CID 15109583.
  175. ^ van Genderen, A. M.; Lobel, A.; Nieuwenhuijzen, H.; Henry, G. W.; De Jager, C.; Blown, E.; Di Scala, G.; Van Ballegoij, E. J. (2019). "Pulsations, eruptions, and evolution of four yellow hypergiants". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 631: A48. arXiv:1910.02460. Bibcode:2019A&A...631A..48V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834358. S2CID 203836020.
  176. ^ Bauer, W. H.; Gull, T. R.; Bennett, P. D. (2008). "Spatial Extension in the Ultraviolet Spectrum of Vv Cephei". The Astronomical Journal. 136 (3): 1312. Bibcode:2008AJ....136.1312H. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/3/1312. S2CID 119404901.
  177. ^ Shenoy, Dinesh; Humphreys, Roberta M.; Jones, Terry J.; Marengo, Massimo; Gehrz, Robert D.; Helton, L. Andrew; Hoffmann, William F.; Skemer, Andrew J.; Hinz, Philip M. (2016). "SEARCHING FOR COOL DUST IN THE MID-TO-FAR INFRARED: THE MASS-LOSS HISTORIES OF THE HYPERGIANTS μ Cep, VY CMa, IRC+10420, AND ρ Cas". The Astronomical Journal. 151 (3): 51. arXiv:1512.01529. Bibcode:2016AJ....151...51S. doi:10.3847/0004-6256/151/3/51.
  178. ^ Wittkowski, M.; Hauschildt, P.H.; Arroyo-Torres, B.; Marcaide, J.M. (5 April 2012). "Fundamental properties and atmospheric structure of the red supergiant VY CMa based on VLTI/AMBER spectro-interferometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 540: L12. arXiv:1203.5194. Bibcode:2012A&A...540L..12W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219126. S2CID 54044968.
  179. ^ Parthasarathy, M. (2000). "Birth and early evolution of planetary nebulae". Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 28: 217–224. Bibcode:2000BASI...28..217P.
  180. ^ radius = distance times sin(angular diameter/2) = 0.2 light-year. Distance = 3.3 ± 0.9 kly; angular diameter = 20 arcseconds (Reed et al. 1999)
  181. ^ Reed, Darren S.; Balick, Bruce; Hajian, Arsen R.; Klayton, Tracy L.; Giovanardi, Stefano; Casertano, Stefano; Panagia, Nino; Terzian, Yervant (1999). "Hubble Space Telescope Measurements of the Expansion of NGC 6543: Parallax Distance and Nebular Evolution". Astronomical Journal. 118 (5): 2430–2441. arXiv:astro-ph/9907313. Bibcode:1999AJ....118.2430R. doi:10.1086/301091. S2CID 14746840.
  182. ^ Szpir, Michael (May–June 2001). "Bart Bok's Black Blobs". American Scientist. Archived from the original on 29 June 2003. Retrieved 19 November 2008. Bok globules such as Barnard 68 are only about half a light-year across and weigh in at about two solar masses
  183. ^ Sandstrom, Karin M; Peek, J. E. G.; Bower, Geoffrey C.; Bolatto, Alberto D.; Plambeck, Richard L. (1999). "A Parallactic Distance of 389+24
    −21
    parsecs to the Orion Nebula Cluster from Very Long Baseline Array Observations". The Astrophysical Journal. 667 (2): 1161–1169. arXiv:0706.2361. Bibcode:2007ApJ...667.1161S. doi:10.1086/520922. S2CID 18192326.
  184. ^ diameter=sin(65 arcminutes)*1270 light-years=24; where "65.00 × 60.0 (arcmin)" sourced from Revised NGC Data for NGC 1976
  185. ^ distance × sin( diameter_angle ), using distance of 5kpc (15.8 ± 1.1 kly) and angle 36.3', = 172 ± 12.5 ly.
  186. ^ van de Ven, G.; van den Bosch, R. C. E.; Verolme, E. K.; de Zeeuw, P. T. (2006). "The dynamical distance and intrinsic structure of the globular cluster ω Centauri". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 445 (2): 513–543. arXiv:astro-ph/0509228. Bibcode:2006A&A...445..513V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053061. S2CID 15538249. best-fit dynamical distance D=4.8±0.3 kpc ... consistent with the canonical value 5.0±0.2 kpc obtained by photometric methods
  187. ^ a b van Leeuwen, F. (2007). "Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 474 (2): 653–664. arXiv:0708.1752. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..653V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20078357. S2CID 18759600. Vizier catalog entry
  188. ^ Neuhäuser, R; Torres, G; Mugrauer, M; Neuhäuser, D L; Chapman, J; Luge, D; Cosci, M (29 July 2022). "Colour evolution of Betelgeuse and Antares over two millennia, derived from historical records, as a new constraint on mass and age". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 516 (1): 693–719. arXiv:2207.04702. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac1969. ISSN 0035-8711.
  189. ^ Harris, Hugh C.; Dahn, Conard C.; Canzian, Blaise; Guetter, Harry H.; et al. (2007). "Trigonometric Parallaxes of Central Stars of Planetary Nebulae". The Astronomical Journal. 133 (2): 631–638. arXiv:astro-ph/0611543. Bibcode:2007AJ....133..631H. doi:10.1086/510348. S2CID 18261027.
  190. ^ Reid, M. J.; et al. (2009). "Trigonometric Parallaxes of Massive Star Forming Regions: VI. Galactic Structure, Fundamental Parameters and Non-Circular Motions". Astrophysical Journal. 700 (1): 137–148. arXiv:0902.3913. Bibcode:2009ApJ...700..137R. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/700/1/137. S2CID 11347166.

External links