stringtranslate.com

Hanfu

Hanfu ( chino simplificado :汉服; chino tradicional :漢服; pinyin : Hànfú , lit. "ropa Han "), son los estilos tradicionales de ropa que usan los chinos Han desde el segundo milenio a. C. Hay varios estilos representativos de hanfu , como el ruqun (una prenda para la parte superior del cuerpo con una falda exterior larga), el aoqun (una prenda para la parte superior del cuerpo con una enagua larga), el beizi y el shenyi , [1] y el shanku (una prenda para la parte superior del cuerpo con pantalones ku ). [2] : 24 

Tradicionalmente, el hanfu consiste en una túnica paofu o una chaqueta ru que se usa como prenda superior y una falda qun que se usa comúnmente como prenda inferior. Además de la ropa, el hanfu también incluye varias formas de accesorios, como sombreros , calzado , cinturones , joyas , yupei y abanicos de mano . [1] Hoy en día, el hanfu está ganando reconocimiento como la vestimenta tradicional del grupo étnico Han, y ha experimentado un creciente renacimiento de la moda entre los jóvenes chinos Han en China y en la diáspora china en el extranjero . [1] [3] [4] [5]

Después de la dinastía Han , el hanfu se desarrolló en una variedad de estilos que utilizaban telas que abarcaban una serie de técnicas complejas de producción textil, particularmente con rápidos avances en la sericultura . [6] El hanfu ha influido en la vestimenta tradicional de muchas culturas vecinas , incluido el hanbok coreano , [7] el kimono japonés ( wafuku ), [8] [9] el ryusou de Ryukyuan , [10] [11] y el áo giao lĩnh vietnamita ( ropa vietnamita ). [12] [13] Los elementos del diseño del hanfu también han influido en la moda occidental , especialmente a través de la moda chinoiserie , debido a la popularidad de la chinoiserie desde el siglo XVII en Europa y en los Estados Unidos . [14]

Historia

Pieza de seda de la era Han de la tumba de Mawangdui , siglo II a. C.

Hanfu comprende todas las clasificaciones de vestimenta tradicional de los chinos Han con una historia registrada de más de tres milenios. [15] [16] Cada dinastía sucesiva produjo sus propios códigos de vestimenta distintivos, reflejando el entorno sociocultural de la época. [17] [18] La ropa hecha de seda se utilizó inicialmente con fines decorativos y ceremoniales. Sin embargo, el cultivo de la seda marcó el comienzo del desarrollo del tejido , y en la época de la dinastía Han , ya se habían desarrollado el brocado , el damasco , el satén y la gasa . [19]

Talla en la pared de una tumba de la dinastía Han que representa al legendario Emperador Amarillo , que se dice que vivió en el tercer milenio a. C.

Desde el comienzo de su historia, el hanfu (especialmente en los círculos de élite) fue inseparable de la seda y el arte de la sericultura , supuestamente descubierto por la consorte del Emperador Amarillo , Leizu , quien también era venerada como la Diosa de la sericultura. [20] [21] Incluso hay un dicho en el Libro del Cambio , que dice que: [22]

"Huang Di, Yao y Shun (simplemente) vestían sus prendas superiores e inferiores [衣裳; yī cháng ] (como modelos para el pueblo), y el buen orden estaba asegurado en todo bajo el cielo".

El Hanfu había cambiado y evolucionado con la moda de la época desde sus inicios, que se cree que fueron en la dinastía Shang . Muchos de los primeros diseños son más neutrales en cuanto al género y de corte más simple que los ejemplos posteriores. Las prendas posteriores incorporan múltiples piezas, y los hombres suelen llevar pantalones y las mujeres faldas. La ropa para mujeres suele acentuar las curvas naturales del cuerpo envolviendo las solapas de la prenda superior o atando fajas en la cintura. [ cita requerida ]

Desde la antigüedad, las prendas superiores ru del hanfu se usaban típicamente envueltas sobre el frente, en un estilo conocido como jiaoling youren ; el lado izquierdo cubre el lado derecho y se extiende hasta la cintura derecha del usuario. Inicialmente, el estilo se usó debido a la costumbre del usuario diestro de envolver primero el lado derecho. Más tarde, la gente de la llanura central china desaconsejó la zurdería, considerándola antinatural, bárbara, incivilizada y desafortunada. El cuello youren sigue la teoría del yin y el yang , en la que la solapa izquierda representa el yang (que simboliza la vida) suprime el yin (que simboliza la muerte); por lo tanto, youren es la vestimenta de los vivos, mientras que si se usa de manera opuesta en un estilo llamado zuoren , la ropa se convierte en ropa de entierro y, por lo tanto, se considera un tabú. [18] Zuoren también es utilizado por algunos grupos étnicos minoritarios en China. [23] [24]

Muchos factores han contribuido a la moda de la antigua China : creencias, religiones, guerras y el gusto personal del emperador. [25] Después de la dinastía Qin , los colores utilizados en las leyes suntuarias de los chinos Han tenían un significado simbólico, basado en la teoría de los cinco elementos taoístas y la teoría del yin y el yang; cada dinastía favorecía ciertos colores. [26] Algunos elementos del Hanfu también han sido influenciados por la vestimenta cultural vecina, especialmente por los pueblos nómadas del norte y las culturas de Asia central al oeste a través de la Ruta de la Seda . [nota 1] [27] : 44–46  [28] [29] : 312 

Dinastía Shang, segundo milenio a. C.

Hanfu en la dinastía Shang

En China, una estructura sistémica de vestimenta se desarrolló por primera vez durante la dinastía Shang , donde los colores, diseños y reglas que regían el uso se implementaron en todos los estratos sociales. [6] Solo se usaban colores primarios (es decir, rojo, azul y amarillo) y verde debido al grado de tecnología en ese momento. [30]

Los rudimentos del hanfu se desarrollaron en este período; la combinación de prendas superiores e inferiores, llamada yichang , generalmente se usaba con un bixi . [31] [32] [30] El jiaoling youren yi , un estilo de prenda superior, comenzó a usarse durante este período. [33] En invierno, se usaban chaquetas acolchadas. [30] El ku o jingyi , que eran pantalones hasta la rodilla atados a las pantorrillas pero dejaban los muslos expuestos, se usaban debajo del chang . [34] Durante este período, este estilo de ropa era unisex. [30] Solo las personas ricas usaban seda; las personas pobres continuaron usando camisas sueltas y ku hechos de cáñamo o ramio . [30] Un ejemplo de un atuendo de la dinastía Shang se puede ver en una estatuilla de jade antropomórfica excavada en la Tumba de Fu Hao en Anyang , que muestra a una persona que usa un yi largo de mangas estrechas con una banda ancha que cubre la cintura y una falda debajo. [35] [36] [37] Este atuendo yichang parece haber sido diseñado para la clase aristocrática. [35]

Dinastía Zhou, 1046-256 a. C.

Después de la dinastía Shang, la dinastía Zhou occidental estableció un nuevo sistema de etiqueta y ritos en la vestimenta, otorgándole un nuevo significado ceremonial, político y cultural a la vestimenta. Esto vinculó la moda a los ritos y la cultura de su gente, lo que se convirtió en la base de la ortodoxia Li (禮) del confucianismo que dominó la cultura del este de Asia durante 2000 años. En referencia a esto, escritos ruistas como "El verdadero significado de Chunqiu - Zuo zhuan " de Kong Yingda sugieren que el término huaxia (華夏) se refería tanto a las etiquetas ceremoniales de los estados centrales como a la vestimenta que usaban los habitantes de esos estados. [38] [39] [40] [41]

El principio de esta práctica fue la estandarización de un estilo de vestimenta llamado Shangyi Xiachang (上衣下裳, " prenda superior e inferior ", lo que significa separar las prendas superior e inferior en dos elementos). [42] [43] Aunque la moda evolucionó gradualmente y fue reemplazada por estilos como el shenyi , el Shangyi Xiachang todavía se mantuvo como la base para la vestimenta formal y ceremonial como el mianfu y el chaofu . [44]

Esto creó una sociedad jerárquica estricta que usaba la ropa como un meridiano de estatus e inevitablemente, la altura del rango de uno influyó en la ornamentación de un traje. Los trajes también se distinguirían por su uso ceremonial. Esto se convirtió en el antecedente del complejo sistema de vestimenta para todas las eras y dinastías posteriores. [23] [45] : 255–261  Por lo tanto, se le dio importancia a elementos como el guan y el mianfu , como se registra en Ritos de Zhou y Libro de Ritos . [46] El guan se usaba para distinguir rangos sociales; el uso del guan era una de las características distintivas del sistema Hanfu, y los hombres solo podían usarlo después de la ceremonia de la adultez conocida como Guan Li . [32] : 16  Otros marcadores de estatus incluían los materiales de la tela, la forma, el tamaño, el color de la ropa, el patrón decorativo, la longitud de una falda, el ancho de una manga y el grado de ornamentación. [45] : 255–261  Había regulaciones estrictas sobre la vestimenta del emperador, los duques feudales, los altos funcionarios, los soldados, los adoradores de los antepasados, las novias y los dolientes. [45] : 255–261  [47]

Gasa de seda del siglo IV a. C.; la industria serícola de la dinastía Zhou estaba muy avanzada.
Adorno de carro de bronce de la dinastía Zhou occidental (c. siglo IX a. C.) que representa a un hombre que viste una túnica juling (矩领, "cuello cuadrado") y un tipo temprano de guan .

El mianfu era el tipo de vestido formal más distinguido, usado para ceremonias de adoración y conmemorativas; tenía una estructura compleja y había varias decoraciones que tenían un significado simbólico; había seis tipos clasificados de mianfu que usaban emperadores, príncipes y funcionarios según sus títulos. [32] Los emperadores también usaban bianfu (solo superado por mianfu ) cuando se reunían con funcionarios o si tenían que trabajar en asuntos oficiales. [32] Cuando el emperador no estaba en la corte, usaban el xuanduan . [45] : 255–261  [48] Xuanduan también podía ser usado por príncipes durante ocasiones de sacrificio y por eruditos que iban a presentar sus respetos a sus padres por la mañana. [32] El mianfu , bianfu y xuanduan constaban de cuatro partes separadas: una falda debajo, una túnica en el medio, un bixi en la parte superior y un cinturón de tela largo dadai ( chino :大带). [32] De manera similar a la dinastía Zhou occidental, el código de vestimenta de la temprana dinastía Zhou oriental estaba regido por reglas estrictas que se utilizaban para mantener el orden social y distinguir las clases sociales. [35]

Además de estos desarrollos orientados a la clase, el hanfu diario en este período se volvió ligeramente más relajado, manteniendo la forma básica de la dinastía Shang [23] en el uso del yichang . [49] Las mangas anchas y estrechas coexistían. El yi se cerraba con una faja que se ataba alrededor de la cintura; a veces se colgaban decoraciones de jade de la faja. [23] [50] La longitud de las faldas y el ku podía variar desde la longitud de la rodilla hasta la longitud del suelo. [23] La gente común en la dinastía Zhou, incluidos los grupos minoritarios en el suroeste de China, usaba ropa a base de cáñamo . [19]

La dinastía Zhou también formalizó el uso del ji por parte de las mujeres con una ceremonia de mayoría de edad llamada Ji Li , que se realizaba después de que una niña estaba comprometida y el uso del ji mostraba que una niña ya estaba prometida en matrimonio. [51] Los hombres también podían usar el ji solo, sin embargo, lo más común era que los hombres usaran el ji con el guan para fijar el tocado. [52]

Período de primavera y otoño, período de los Estados Combatientes

Figura de auriga con paofu juling corto , dinastía Zhou del Este .

Durante el período de Primavera y Otoño y el período de los Reinos Combatientes , surgieron numerosas escuelas de pensamiento en China, incluido el confucianismo ; esas diferentes escuelas de pensamiento influyeron naturalmente en el desarrollo de la vestimenta. [50] Además, debido a las frecuentes guerras que ocurrieron durante el período de los Reinos Combatientes, varias reglas de etiqueta fueron revocadas lentamente. [53] El código de vestimenta de la dinastía Zhou oriental comenzó a erosionarse a mediados del período de los Reinos Combatientes. [35] Más tarde, muchas regiones decidieron no seguir el sistema de la dinastía Zhou; la vestimenta durante este período se diferenciaba entre los siete estados principales (es decir, los estados de Chu , Han , Qin , Wei , Yan , Qi y Zhao ). [6] [45] : 255–261  [53] Además, el año 307 a. C. también marcó un año importante con la primera reforma del uniforme militar implementada por el rey Wuling de Zhao . Esta reforma, comúnmente conocida como Hufuqishe , requería que todos los soldados Zhao usaran los uniformes de estilo Hufu de los pueblos Donghu , Linhu y Loufan en batalla para facilitar la capacidad de combate. [32] [45] : 257  [54] Luego se introdujo el hedangku con un tiro suelto. [32] [34] [55]

Ruqun
Representación del siglo VIII de Confucio vistiendo lo que se percibía como la moda típica de la China preimperial.

EspañolBasándose en los artefactos arqueológicos que datan de la dinastía Zhou del Este, los hombres comunes, campesinos y trabajadores, usaban un youren yi largo con mangas estrechas, con una estrecha banda de seda llamada sitao ( chino :丝套) anudada a la cintura sobre la parte superior. [35] [49] El youren yi también se usaba con ku (en un estilo generalmente conocido como shanku ) para permitir una mayor facilidad de movimiento, pero estaba hecho de tela simple en lugar de tela de seda. [35] El shanku de este período también influyó en el Hufu . [35] Sin embargo, las figuras aristocráticas no usaban ese tipo de ropa, usaban paofu largos de mangas más anchas que se ceñían a la cintura; un ejemplo se puede ver en las figuras de madera de una tumba del período de los Estados Combatientes de Xingyang . [nota 2] [35] [49] Los cierres youren se pueden encontrar en diferentes formas, como jiaoling youren y quju youren . [35]

También parece que se usaron faldas durante el período de los Reinos Combatientes según artefactos arqueológicos y figuras de bronce esculpidas, [56] y se usaban en el shanqun o ruqun . [nota 3] [57] Un ejemplo arqueológico de una figura de bronce que usa shanqun es el guerrero armado de bronce que sostiene campanas de la Tumba del Marqués Yi de Zeng . [57] También se encontró una falda de color amarillo oscuro, que data de finales del período de los Reinos Combatientes, en la Tumba Chu (M1) en el sitio de Mashan en el condado de Jiangling , provincia de Hubei . [58] [59] [60]

Shenyi

Durante el período de los Reinos Combatientes, también se desarrolló el shenyi . [61] : 9–14  [45] Se encontró que el qujupao , un tipo de shenyi que se envolvía en un efecto espiral y tenía mangas más anchas, era usado por figurillas de tumbas del mismo período. [2] : 24  [62] La ropa desenterrada de las tumbas muestra que el shenyi era usado por aristócratas en el estado de Chu. [63] La creciente popularidad del shenyi puede haberse debido en parte a la influencia del confucianismo. [23] El shenyi siguió siendo la forma dominante de Hanfu desde la dinastía Zhou hasta la dinastía Qin y más allá de la dinastía Han . [64] [45] : 255–261 

Dinastía Qin

Una figura arrodillada que lleva shenyi o jiaolingpao , dinastía Qin.

Aunque la dinastía Qin duró poco, estableció una serie de sistemas que impactaron en gran medida a las generaciones posteriores. Después de la unificación de los siete estados, el emperador Qin Shihuang ordenó a su gente, independientemente de la distancia y la clase, seguir una serie de regulaciones en todas las formas de aspectos culturales, incluida la vestimenta. [45] Por lo tanto, el estilo de vestimenta en Qin era unitario. [65] La dinastía Qin adoptó un sistema de vestimenta de colores, que estipulaba que las personas que ocupaban una posición más alta (funcionarios del tercer rango y superiores) usaban shenyi verde mientras que la gente común usaba shenyi blanco normal . [66] : 183  [32] Los chinos Han usaban el shenyi como un vestido formal y lo usaban junto con un guan y zapatos. [32] : 16  La dinastía Qin también abolió el sistema de clasificación mianfu de la dinastía Zhou, reemplazado por un tipo uniforme de shenyi negro llamado junxuan (袀玄) [後漢書 1] y tongtianguan en lugar del mianguan para el emperador, [67] [68] con los funcionarios siguiendo el ejemplo y vistiendo las mismas túnicas negras. [2] : 24  [66] : 183  En la corte, los funcionarios usaban sombreros, túnicas sueltas con cuchillos de trinchar colgando de la cintura, sosteniendo hu y pinceles de tinta pegados entre la cabeza y las orejas. [2] : 24  [66] : 183  Hubo un aumento en la popularidad de las túnicas con mangas grandes con cordones en los puños entre los hombres. [2] : 24  [66] : 183 

En tiempos ordinarios, los hombres usaban ruku mientras que las mujeres usaban ruqun . [32] : 16  A los comerciantes , independientemente de su riqueza, nunca se les permitía usar ropa hecha de seda . [69] Los plebeyos y los trabajadores usaban jiaolingpao con mangas estrechas, pantalones y faldas; trenzaban sus cabellos o simplemente usaban gorros y pañuelos. [2] : 23–33  [66] : 183  [58] La fabricación de diferentes tipos de qun (; 'falda'; llamado xie () en la dinastía Qin), shangru (上襦; 'chaqueta'), daru (大襦; 'ropa de abrigo') y ku -pantalones está registrada en una tira de bambú de la dinastía Qin llamada Zhiyi (制衣; 'Hacer ropa'). [58] [59] El ejército de terracota también muestra las diferencias entre la vestimenta de los soldados y los oficiales, donde las élites usaban túnicas largas mientras que todos los plebeyos usaban chaquetas más cortas; también usaban tocados que iban desde simples pañuelos para la cabeza hasta gorras oficiales formales. [70] Los jinetes de caballería también fueron representados con chaquetas de manga larga hasta la cadera y pantalones acolchados. [70]

Dinastía Han

Figuras de banquetes y bailes en estilo Han Shenyi , el colorido se ha deteriorado en gran medida; siglo II a. C.
La sericultura y el bordado de seda alcanzaron un nuevo máximo en la era Han.
Seda con intrincado motivo dibujado a mano; Mawangdui , siglo II a. C.

En la época de la dinastía Han , el shenyi siguió siendo popular y se desarrolló aún más en dos tipos: qujupao y zhijupao . [61] : 9–14  Las túnicas parecían ser similares, independientemente del género, en corte y construcción: un cierre envolvente, sujeto por un cinturón o una faja, con mangas grandes recogidas en un puño más estrecho; sin embargo, la tela, los colores y los adornos de las túnicas eran diferentes entre los géneros. [54] Sin embargo, más tarde, durante la dinastía Han oriental , muy pocas personas usaban shenyi . [71]

Al principio de la dinastía Han, no había restricciones sobre la vestimenta que usaba la gente común. [6] Durante la dinastía Han occidental , los edictos imperiales sobre el uso de la vestimenta general no eran lo suficientemente específicos como para ser restrictivos para la gente, y no se hicieron cumplir en gran medida. [6] La vestimenta simplemente se diferenciaba según las estaciones: azul o verde para la primavera, rojo para el verano, amarillo para el otoño y negro para el invierno. [6] [47] [61] : 4  Fue el emperador Ming de Han quien formalizó el código de vestimenta de la dinastía Han en el 59 d. C., durante la dinastía Han oriental, restaurando el uso ceremonial del sistema mianfu del junxuan anterior de la dinastía Qin. [45] : 255–261  [後漢書 2] Según el nuevo código de vestimenta, el emperador tenía que vestirse con una prenda superior de color negro y una prenda inferior de color amarillo ocre. [45] : 255–261  El ShangshuYiji《尚书益稷》 registra los 12 adornos utilizados en las prendas de sacrificio que se usaban para diferenciar los rangos sociales en los tiempos anteriores. [72] [73] Además, se especificaron las regulaciones sobre los adornos utilizados por emperadores, consejeros, duques, príncipes, ministros y funcionarios. [45] : 255–261  [72] Había distintos estilos de ropa basados ​​en los rangos sociales, estas regulaciones iban acompañadas de rituales confucianos. [65] También se usaban diferentes tipos de tocados, tejidos y materiales de tela, así como cintas unidas a los sellos de los funcionarios, para distinguir a los funcionarios. [32] : 16  [65] Luego, el sello oficial se colocaba en una bolsa de cuero, se colocaba en la cintura de su portador y la cinta, que venía en diferentes colores, tamaños y texturas para indicar el rango, colgaba fuera de la bolsa. [65]

A lo largo de los años, las mujeres de la dinastía Han también solían llevar ruqun de varios colores. [6] La combinación de prendas superiores e inferiores en el vestuario de las mujeres finalmente se convirtió en el modelo de vestimenta de la etnia Han de las generaciones posteriores. [61] : 4  Durante las dinastías Qin y Han, las mujeres usaban faldas que estaban compuestas de cuatro piezas de tela cosidas juntas; a menudo se adjuntaba un cinturón a la falda, pero a veces las mujeres usaban un cinturón separado. [50] : 36 

Los agricultores, trabajadores, empresarios y eruditos varones vestían de manera similar durante la dinastía Han; los trabajadores varones usaban chaquetas , delantales y dubikun o polainas. [34] [71] [54] Las chaquetas que usaban los hombres que realizaban trabajos físicos se describen como una versión más corta del zhijupao y se usaban con pantalones. [50] [54] El jingyi continuó usándose en el período temprano de la dinastía Han; otras formas de pantalones en este período fueron el dakouku y el dashao ; ambos se desarrollaron a partir del tiro suelto hedangku introducido por el rey Wuling. [34] Los hombres de la dinastía Han también usaban un pañuelo o un guan en la cabeza. [66] : 181–203  El guan se usaba como símbolo de estatus superior y solo podía ser usado por personas de origen distinguido. [66] : 181–203  [32] : 16  Los emperadores usaban tongtianguan (通天冠) cuando se reunían con sus súbditos imperiales, yuanyouguan (遠遊冠) lo usaban los duques y príncipes; jinxianguan (進賢冠) lo usaban los funcionarios civiles mientras que los oficiales militares usaban wuguan (武冠). [32] : 16  El pañuelo era una prenda de vestir que se envolvía alrededor de la cabeza y simbolizaba el estado de adultez en los hombres. [66] : 181–203  Una forma de pañuelo era ze (帻); era una banda para la cabeza que mantenía la cabeza caliente durante el clima frío. Con el tiempo, el ze se unió con una bufanda para cubrir la cabeza, o jin (巾), y se convirtió en una gorra completa llamada jinze (巾帻). [後漢書 3] El jinze se generalizó y lo usaban comúnmente el personal militar y la gente común. El jinze militar era de color rojo, también llamado chize (赤帻). Otra variante con una parte superior en forma de techo llamada jieze (介帻) es usada por los funcionarios públicos, generalmente de color negro verdoso hasta las temporadas de verano. [74] [後漢書 4] Los hombres y las mujeres también usaban una túnica larga y forrada llamada paofu . [61] : 12–13 

Cuando el budismo llegó a China durante el último período de la dinastía Han, comenzaron a producirse túnicas de monjes budistas. [25] [70] La vestimenta usada en la dinastía Han sentó las bases para el desarrollo de la vestimenta en las dinastías siguientes. [50]

Adornos y joyas, como anillos, aretes, pulseras, collares y horquillas , y palillos para el cabello eran comunes en China en la época de la dinastía Han. [76] : 384–417  [77] Los palillos para el cabello originales ji evolucionaron a zanzi con más decoraciones. [78] Y un nuevo tipo de adorno para el cabello de mujer inventado durante la dinastía Han fue el buyao , que era un zanzi agregado con decoraciones colgantes que se balanceaban cuando el usuario caminaba y era exclusivo de las mujeres chinas Han. [76] : 384–417  [79] [後漢書 7]

Tres reinos, dinastía Jin

El paofu usado en la dinastía Han continuó evolucionando. Durante este período, 220-589 d. C., la túnica se aflojó en el cuerpo del usuario, por lo que se usó una banda ancha que funcionaba como cinturón para organizar el ajuste, y las mangas de la túnica cambiaron a "ampliamente abiertas" en lugar de ceñidas en la muñeca; este estilo se conoce como bao yi bo dai , y generalmente se usa con camisa interior y pantalones. [61] [29] : 312–330  [54] En algunos casos, la parte superior de la túnica estaba suelta y abierta sin ninguna prenda interior usada; los hombres que usaban este estilo de túnica aparecieron en la pintura Siete sabios del bosque de bambú . [29] : 312–330  El estilo bao yi bo dai parece haber sido un estilo chino Han del norte, y la popularidad de la túnica fue el resultado del taoísmo extendido . [29] : 312–330  [50] En la dinastía Jin , en particular, mientras que muchas prendas de la dinastía Han se mantuvieron, los eruditos y seguidores del neotaoísmo rechazaron la vestimenta tradicional de la corte y se alejaron del rígido sistema confuciano; esto se mostró en cómo se vestían. [80] El estilo del paofu de los hombres cambió gradualmente a un estilo más simple e informal, mientras que el estilo del paofu de las mujeres aumentó en complejidad. [61] Durante los Tres Reinos y el período Jin, especialmente durante el período Jin del Este (317 - 420 d. C.), las mujeres aristocráticas buscaron un estilo de vida despreocupado después del colapso del código ético de la dinastía Han del Este ; este tipo de estilo de vida influyó en el desarrollo de la ropa de las mujeres, que se volvió más elaborada. [61] La vestimenta típica de las mujeres durante este período es el guiyi , un paofu de mangas anchas adornado con xian (髾; largas cintas de seda en espiral) y shao (襳; un tipo de piezas triangulares de tela bordada decorativa) en el dobladillo inferior de la túnica que colgaban como estandartes y formaban un "efecto de capas". [81] [61] [82] [83] La túnica continuó siendo usada en las dinastías del Norte y del Sur tanto por hombres como por mujeres, como se ve en la pantalla lacada encontrada en la tumba Wei del Norte de Sima Jinlong (ca. 483 d. C.); sin embargo, hubo algunas alteraciones menores en la túnica, como una cintura más alta y las mangas generalmente se dejan abiertas en un vuelo dramático. [54]

Los zapatos usados ​​durante este período incluían (履; zapatos regulares para ocasiones formales), ji (屐; zuecos altos de madera para ropa informal) y zapatos con puntas que se curvaban hacia arriba. [29] : 312–330  [77] Los zapatos con las puntas curvadas hacia arriba luego se convertirían en una moda muy popular en la dinastía Tang. [77] Las botas de cuero (靴, xue ), quekua (缺胯; una túnica de cuello abierto con mangas ajustadas; no puede cubrir la camiseta interior), capucha y conjunto de capa fueron introducidos por los nómadas del norte en China. [29] : 312–330  Los inventarios de tumbas encontrados durante este período incluyen: fangyi (方衣; prenda cuadrada), shan (衫; camisa), qun , hanshan (汗衫; sudadera), ru (襦; chaqueta forrada), ku (裤), kun (裈), liangdang (两裆; chaleco), ao (袄; chaqueta forrada de varias capas), xi (褶; un tipo de chaqueta), bixi ; mientras que el estilo de ropa de las mujeres era generalmente ruqun (chaqueta forrada con falda larga) y shanqun (衫裙; camisa con falda larga), los estilos de ropa de los hombres son túnicas, shanku y xiku (褶裤; chaqueta con pantalones). [29] : 312–330  Durante este período, aparecieron los sombreros de gasa negra con la parte superior plana y una oreja a cada lado y eran populares tanto para hombres como para mujeres. [50]

Aunque tenían su propia identidad cultural, las dinastías Cao Wei (220-266 d. C.) y Jin Occidental (266-316 d. C.) continuaron el legado cultural de la dinastía Han. [76] : 384–417  La vestimenta durante la era de los Tres Reinos y la vestimenta en la dinastía Jin (266-420 d. C.) tenían aproximadamente las mismas formas básicas que la dinastía Han con características especiales en sus estilos; la vestimenta principal usada durante esos tiempos es: ruqun (chaqueta y falda), ku y qiu (裘; un abrigo de piel). [85] Durante este período, las élites generalmente usaban paofu mientras que los campesinos usaban shanku que consistía en chaquetas cortas y ku. [2] : 23–33  Los plebeyos varones usaban vestimenta similar a la de los plebeyos varones de la dinastía Han; los artefactos arqueológicos de este período representan a plebeyos varones vistiendo una chaqueta youren de manga larga hasta la rodilla ; El peinado masculino suele ser un moño o una gorra plana que se usa para cubrir la cabeza. [29] : 312–330  Las mujeres plebeyas vestían de manera similar a sus contrapartes masculinas, pero a veces su chaqueta se representaba más larga; también usaban faldas o pantalones largos. Por otro lado, los asistentes (que no deben confundirse con los sirvientes) se representan con dos capas de ropa y vestían una falda larga que llegaba hasta el suelo con una chaqueta de mangas largas y sueltas. [29] : 312–330  La chaqueta a veces se cierra con un cinturón o un broche. [29] : 312–330  El color blanco era el color que usaba la gente común durante los Tres Reinos y el período Jin. [85] La ropa de estilo plebeyo de este período se puede ver en la pintura de ladrillos de Jiayuguan . [29] : 312–330 

El dakouku siguió siendo popular. [34] Los dakouku que se ataban con cuerdas en las rodillas también se llamaban fuku . Durante el Jin occidental , era popular usar una cuerda de fieltro para atar el dakouku. [29] : 312–330  [54] Se usaba con una túnica ajustada y acolchada de algodón hasta la rodilla como un conjunto de atuendo llamado kuzhe . [34] El kuzhe era un estilo de ropa muy popular durante las dinastías del Norte y del Sur y era un Hanfu creado mediante la asimilación de culturas chinas no Han. [34] También se diseñaron nuevas formas de cinturones con hebillas, denominadas "estilo Jin", durante el Jin occidental. [76] : 384–417  Los cinturones de "estilo Jin" se exportaron más tarde a varias etnias extranjeras (incluidos los Murong Xianbei , el Reino de Buyeo , los primeros Türks y los Avars euroasiáticos ); Estos cinturones fueron posteriormente imitados por Murong Xianbei y Buyeo antes de evolucionar hacia los cinturones de desfile dorados con correas de metal colgantes de Goguryeo y Silla . [76] : 384–417 

Dieciséis reinos, dinastías del norte y del sur

Ruqun, de una antigua tumba de Qin

Debido a las frecuentes guerras en esta era, se produjo una migración masiva que resultó en que varias etnias vivieran juntas e intercambiaran comunicaciones; como tal, este período marcó un momento importante de integración cultural y mezcla cultural, incluido el intercambio cultural de vestimenta. [66] : 181–203  [86] Los chinos Han que vivían en el sur favorecían la vestimenta de conducir de las minorías del norte, pantalones y xi (褶; una chaqueta larga ajustada con mangas ajustadas, que llegaba por debajo de la entrepierna y por encima de las rodillas), mientras que los gobernantes de las minorías del norte favorecían la vestimenta de la corte de los chinos Han. [32] Cerca de las áreas del río Amarillo , la popularidad del hufu de las minorías étnicas era alta, casi igual a la vestimenta de los chinos Han, en los Dieciséis Reinos y el período de las dinastías del Norte y del Sur . [45]

Liangdang (两裆;兩襠) es un tipo de camiseta o chaleco usado en el norte de China durante el período de los Dieciséis Reinos; [87] [88] no debe confundirse con un tipo de armadura de coraza de doble cara , también llamada liangdang , que se usó durante este período. [29] : 333–334 

Durante las dinastías del Norte y del Sur, el estilo de vestir seguía el estilo de los Tres Reinos y la dinastía Jin; se usaban túnicas, faldas, pantalones, chaquetas cortas, chaquetas sin mangas, mientras que los abrigos de piel, especialmente los abrigos de marta, eran muy raros. [89] A los jóvenes les gustaba vestir pantalones; sin embargo, no estaba bien visto que las mujeres usaran pantalones; las mujeres usaban faldas. [89] Con base en figuras de tumbas que datan de las dinastías del Sur, se sabe que las túnicas usadas durante ese período continuaron la tradición de las mangas largas y anchas, y la apertura del youren . [77] Las túnicas continuaron estando sujetas con un cinturón y se usaban sobre una prenda interior de cuello recto. [77] Las figuras de las tumbas representadas como sirvientes en este período también se muestran usando faldas, delantales, pantalones y prendas superiores con abertura vertical o abertura youren . [77] Los sirvientes usaban prendas superiores de mangas estrechas, mientras que los asistentes tenían mangas más anchas que se podían anudar por encima de la muñeca. [77] El vestido de la corte todavía era xuanyi (玄衣; tela oscura); sin embargo, había regulaciones en términos de los materiales de tela utilizados. [89]

En las dinastías del norte (386 - 581 d. C.), las mujeres comunes siempre usaban chaquetas y abrigos cortos. [89] Los xianbei étnicos fundaron la dinastía Wei del norte en 398 d. C. y continuaron usando su ropa nómada tribal tradicional para denotarse como miembros de la élite gobernante hasta c. 494 d. C. cuando el emperador Xiaowen de Wei del norte decretó la prohibición de la ropa xianbei entre muchas otras prohibiciones a la cultura xianbei (por ejemplo, el idioma, los apellidos xianbei) como una forma de políticas de sinización y permitió el matrimonio entre xianbei y las élites chinas. [17] [23] [91] [92] El Wei shu incluso afirmó que los gobernantes xianbei eran descendientes del Emperador Amarillo , al igual que los chinos Han, a pesar de no ser chinos. [92] El Wei shu también registra que el emperador Xiaowen de Wei del Norte promovió túnicas largas de estilo chino y coronas oficiales en la corte para mostrar el rango del usuario y su posición jerárquica en la corte y las funciones rituales. [93] Por ejemplo, tanto los patrones masculinos como femeninos aparecieron en atuendos de estilo Xianbei durante el siglo V d. C., esto se puede ver particularmente en los templos de las cuevas de Yungang cerca de Datong y en las primeras tallas en Longmen , mientras que en el primer tercio del siglo VI, los patrones tienden a aparecer en ropa de estilo chino en la mayoría de las cuevas de Wei del Norte en Longmen; se ha sugerido que este cambio en el estilo de la ropa es el resultado de las políticas de sinización con respecto a la adopción de ropa de estilo chino en la corte de Wei del Norte. [54] [76] : 384–417  Las primeras imágenes de la vestimenta nómada de estilo Xianbei en China tienden a ser representadas como una túnica hasta la rodilla con mangas estrechas, con una abertura frontal, que normalmente puede ser sin cuello, de cuello redondo y, a veces, con cuello en V; los hombres y las mujeres tienden a usar esa túnica hasta la rodilla sobre pantalones para los hombres y faldas largas hasta el suelo para las mujeres. [54] [92] [94] Cuando sus túnicas tenían solapas, la abertura de la solapa era típicamente zuoren. [76] : 384–417  [95] La gente Xianbei también usaba capas de estilo Xianbei y sombrero xianbei (鮮卑帽; xianbei mao). [29] : 312–330  [92]

A pesar de las políticas de sinización intentadas por la corte Wei del Norte , la vestimenta de estilo nómada continuó existiendo en China hasta la dinastía Tang . [29] : 312–330  [97] Por ejemplo, las mangas estrechas y ajustadas, que se adaptaban bien al estilo de vida nómada, comenzaron a ser favorecidas y fueron adoptadas por los chinos Han. [29] : 424  En el templo Shuiyusi de las cuevas de Xiangtangshan que se remonta a las dinastías del norte, los adoradores masculinos generalmente visten atuendos de estilo Xianbei, mientras que las mujeres visten atuendos de estilo chino Han con faldas y túnicas de cintura alta, estilo envolvente y mangas anchas. [54] Además, después de la caída del Wei del Norte, las tensiones comenzaron a aumentar entre el Wei occidental (que estaba más sinizado) y el Wei oriental (que estaba menos sinizado y resentía a la corte sinizada del Wei del Norte). [97] Debido al cambio en la política, surgieron tensiones étnicas entre los chinos Han y no Han entre los estados sucesores de Wei del Norte; [97] y reapareció la vestimenta estilo Xianbei; sin embargo, su vestimenta tuvo cambios menores. [76] : 384–417 

Al final de las dinastías del Norte y del Sur, los inmigrantes extranjeros comenzaron a establecerse en China; la mayoría de esos inmigrantes extranjeros eran comerciantes y misioneros budistas de Asia Central . [98] La diversidad cultural también fue la característica más llamativa en China en el siglo VI d. C. [97] De las pinturas murales encontradas en la Tumba de Xu Xianxiu del Qi del Norte , se representan varios tipos de atuendos que reflejan el internacionalismo y el multiculturalismo del Qi del Norte; muchos de los estilos de vestimenta se derivan de Asia Central o diseños nómadas. [99] La esposa de Xu Xianxiu está representada con un moño de pájaro volador ; lleva un atuendo chino Han de cuello cruzado y mangas anchas que tiene el diseño de ropa básico derivado del atuendo de la dinastía Han con algunos diseños alterados, como una cintura alta y un cuello alto ancho. [54] [99] Xu Xianxiu está representada con un abrigo de estilo centroasiático, túnica de estilo Xianbei, pantalones y botas. [54] [99] Algunas de las sirvientas representadas en los murales de la tumba de Xu Xianxiu llevan lo que parecen ser vestidos sogdianos, que tienden a asociarse con bailarinas y artistas de bajo estatus durante este período, mientras que las damas de compañía de la esposa de Xu Xianxiu llevan ropa de mangas estrechas que parece más relacionada con la ropa de estilo Xianbei o de estilo de Asia Central; sin embargo, este estilo de vestimenta Xianbei es diferente de las representaciones de la vestimenta de estilo Xianbei usada antes del 500 d. C. [54] [99] Los hombres (es decir, soldados, novios y asistentes masculinos) en las pinturas murales de la tumba de Xu Xianxiu están representados con botas altas negras o marrones, cinturones, tocados y ropa que sigue el estilo Xianbei, es decir, cuello en V, túnica larga que está por debajo de la rodilla, con la solapa izquierda del frente cubriendo la derecha; También se representan túnicas de mangas estrechas que se usan sobre prendas interiores de cuello redondo. [54] [99] El estilo de falda de cintura alta, que probablemente vino de Asia Central, también fue introducido a los chinos Han durante la dinastía Wei del Norte. [100]

Cabe destacar que se produjeron cambios significativos en la forma de las prendas que originalmente habían sido introducidas por los Xianbei y otros pueblos turcos que se habían establecido en el norte de China después de la caída de la dinastía Han ; por ejemplo, en las artes y la literatura que datan del siglo V, su ropa masculina parecía representar la etnicidad de su portador, pero en el siglo VI, la vestimenta perdió su significado étnico y no denotaba a su portador como Xianbei o no chino. [54] En cambio, la vestimenta nómada se había convertido en un tipo de vestimenta masculina ordinaria en las dinastías Sui y principios de Tang , independientemente de la etnicidad. [54] [101] Por otro lado, las mujeres Xianbei abandonaron gradualmente su ropa étnica Xianbei y adoptaron la ropa de estilo chino Han y de Asia Central hasta el punto de que para la dinastía Sui, las mujeres en China ya no usaban ropa de estepa . [101]

Periodo Sui, Tang, de las Cinco Dinastías y de los Diez Reinos

Las dinastías Sui y Tang desarrollaron el pinsefu (品色服), que era un sistema de clasificación de colores para la ropa que permitía diferenciar la jerarquía social; este sistema de clasificación de colores para la ropa continuó desarrollándose en las dinastías posteriores. [102] [103]

Dinastía Sui

Tras la unificación de China bajo la dinastía Sui , la corte Sui abolió los rituales Zhou del Norte y adoptó los rituales, prácticas e ideas de las dinastías Han y Cao Wei , y se restauró el código de vestimenta de la dinastía Han. [61] [97] El sistema Sui también se basó en el sistema de Jin Occidental y Qi del Norte . [104] El primer emperador de Sui, el emperador Gaozu , usaría tongtianfu en grandes ocasiones, gunyi (衮衣; túnica de dragón ) en ritos suburbanos y visitas al templo ancestral. [104] También estableció el color rojo como el color autorizado de las túnicas imperiales de la corte; esto incluía la vestimenta de los emperadores y la vestimenta ceremonial de los príncipes. [105] El carmesí era el color de la ropa marcial (es decir, guardias de cámara, guardias marciales, generales y generales duques), mientras que los sirvientes usarían ropa púrpura, que consistía en capucha y pantalones sueltos. [105] Durante la época del emperador Gaozu, la vestimenta oficial de la corte era similar a la vestimenta de los plebeyos, excepto que era de color amarillo. [104] Los censores de la corte durante el emperador Gaozu usaban el quefeiguan . [104]

El emperador Yangdi más tarde reformó el código de vestimenta de acuerdo con las antiguas costumbres y se hicieron nuevos conjuntos de ropa imperial. [104] En 605 d. C., se decretó que los funcionarios por encima del quinto rango tenían que vestir de carmesí o púrpura, y en 611 d. C., cualquier funcionario que siguiera al emperador en expedición juntos tenía que usar ropa marcial. [105] En 610 d. C., el atuendo kuzhe usado por los funcionarios asistentes usado durante las expediciones imperiales fue reemplazado por el atuendo rongyi (戎衣). [104] El emperador Yangdi también usó varios tipos de tocados imperiales, como wubian , baishamao (白紗帽; gorro de gasa blanca ) y wushamao . [104] Los funcionarios civiles usaban jinxianguan , y el wushamao era popular y lo usaban desde los funcionarios de la corte hasta los plebeyos. [104] El quefeiguan también fue reemplazado por el xiezhiguan , que también podía usarse para indicar el rango del censor según el material utilizado. [104]

Durante la dinastía Sui, un decreto imperial que regulaba el color de la ropa establecía que la clase baja solo podía usar ropa azul o negra apagada; la clase alta, por otro lado, podía usar colores más brillantes, como el rojo y el azul. [106] Las mujeres usaban ruqun que consistía en chaquetas cortas y faldas largas. [61] Las faldas de las mujeres se caracterizaban por una cintura alta que creaba una silueta que parecía similar a los vestidos del Imperio de la Francia napoleónica ; sin embargo, la construcción del conjunto difería de los que se usaban en los países occidentales, ya que el conjunto de las mujeres chinas Han consistía en una falda separada y una prenda superior que mostraba un escote bajo. [2] : 23–33  En este período, los hombres comunes ya no usaban faldas. [107]

Pergamino de los trece emperadores (歷代帝王圖), que representa a los emperadores con sus galas completas que abarcan varias dinastías antes y después de la dinastía Sui.

Dinastía Tang y período de las Cinco Dinastías y los Diez Reinos

El emperador Taizong de la dinastía Tang, con influencias de la dinastía Xianbei, era mitad Xianbei .

Muchos elementos de las tradiciones de vestimenta de la dinastía Tang fueron heredados de la dinastía Sui. [66] : 181–203  Durante la dinastía Tang, las túnicas y camisas de color amarillo estaban reservadas para los emperadores; una tradición que se mantuvo hasta la dinastía Qing . [66] : 181–203  Además, a los súbditos de la dinastía Tang se les prohibió usar el color amarillo ocre , ya que el emperador Gaozu usó este color para su vestimenta informal. [66] : 181–203  [105] El guan fue reemplazado por futou . [32] Los eruditos y funcionarios usaban el futou junto con el panling lanshan . [108] Los colores de la ropa y los materiales de las telas continuaron desempeñando un papel en la diferenciación de rangos; por ejemplo, los funcionarios de los tres niveles superiores y los príncipes tenían que usar túnicas moradas; los funcionarios por encima del quinto nivel tenían que usar túnicas rojas; los funcionarios del sexto y séptimo nivel tenían que usar túnicas verdes; y los funcionarios de octavo y noveno nivel tenían que usar túnicas cian. [32] [66] : 181–203  Los emblemas de dragones con tres garras también comenzaron a representarse en la ropa de los funcionarios de la corte por encima del tercer rango y en la ropa de los príncipes; estas túnicas de dragón se documentaron por primera vez en 694 d. C. durante el reinado de la emperatriz Wu Zetian . [109] : 33  La gente común vestía de blanco y los soldados de negro. [32]

Damas de la corte con tocados de flores, siglo VII

La vestimenta común de las mujeres en la dinastía Tang incluía shan (衫; un abrigo largo o blusa larga), ru (襦; un suéter corto), banbi , pibo (披帛) y qun (裙; falda generalmente ancha y suelta que llegaba casi hasta los tobillos). El pibo (披帛), también conocido como pei (帔) en la dinastía Tang, es una bufanda de seda larga; sin embargo, no se usa para cubrir el cuello, a veces cubre los hombros y otras veces solo cuelga del codo. [45] [110] [111] [112] Independientemente del estatus social, las mujeres en la dinastía Tang tienden a vestirse con ropa de 3 partes: la prenda superior, la falda y el pibo (披帛). [45] Durante la dinastía Tang, había 4 tipos de cintura para las faldas de mujer: cintura natural; cintura baja; cintura alta que llegaba hasta el busto; y cintura alta por encima del busto, que podía crear diferentes tipos de siluetas de mujeres y reflejaba las imágenes ideales de las mujeres de este período. [113] Este conjunto al estilo de la dinastía Tang reaparecería varias veces incluso después de la dinastía Tang, especialmente durante la dinastía Ming . [70] Uno de los conjuntos de la dinastía Tang, que consistía en chaquetas muy cortas de mangas ajustadas y una falda de cintura imperio atada justo debajo de la línea del busto con cintas, también influyó fuertemente en el Hanbok coreano . [70]

La vestimenta de las mujeres en la dinastía Tang temprana era bastante similar a la vestimenta de la dinastía Sui; la prenda superior era una chaqueta corta de manga corta con un escote bajo; la prenda inferior era una falda ajustada que se ataba generalmente por encima de la cintura, y a veces incluso hasta las axilas, y una bufanda se envolvía alrededor de sus hombros. [2] : 23–33  [114] [115] El banbi se usaba comúnmente sobre una blusa sencilla y se usaba junto con una falda de cintura alta, a rayas o de un solo color en forma de A en el siglo VII. [112] Las faldas de color rojo fueron muy populares durante la dinastía Tang. [6] : 5 

Damas de la corte del siglo VIII preparando seda

A mediados de la dinastía Tang, las mujeres que tenían una apariencia regordeta eran favorecidas; y así, la ropa se volvió más suelta, las mangas se hicieron más largas y anchas, la prenda superior se volvió sin tirantes y se usó una prenda superior de seda sin forro; usaban "vestidos de pecho" . [116] Este cambio en la forma corporal ideal del cuerpo de las mujeres se ha atribuido a una consorte amada del emperador Xuanzong de Tang , llamada Yang Guifei , aunque la evidencia arqueológica muestra que esta forma ideal del cuerpo femenino había surgido antes del ascenso de Yang Guifei al poder en la corte imperial. [117]

Dama con sirvientes atribuida a Zhou Fang, siglo VIII d.C.

Otra forma de moda popular en el atuendo de las mujeres durante la dinastía Tang es el uso de ropa masculina; estaba de moda que las mujeres se vistieran con atuendos masculinos en público y en la vida cotidiana, especialmente durante los períodos Kaiyuan y Tianbao (742-756 d. C.); esta moda comenzó entre los miembros de la nobleza y las doncellas de la corte y se extendió gradualmente en la comunidad. [118] [116] El atuendo de los hombres durante la dinastía Tang generalmente incluía túnicas que se usaban con pantalones, yuanlingpao , cinturón usado en la cintura, futou y botas de cuero oscuro. [1] [34] [61] [119] La dinastía Tang heredó todas las formas de cinturones que se usaban en las dinastías Wei, Jin, del Norte y del Sur y los adoptó en los trajes oficiales de los funcionarios militares y civiles. [76] : 384–417  En algunos casos, sin embargo, la túnica de estilo chino Han continuó representándose en las artes que mostraban a los funcionarios de la corte. [54] En la dinastía Tang, el yuanlingpao era usado tanto por hombres como por mujeres. [1]

Los zapatos que usaban los chinos Han eran (履) , xi (zapatos con suelas gruesas), botas de mujer y ji (屐; zuecos de madera) con dos clavos que se usaban para caminar al aire libre por caminos fangosos; en el sur, se desarrolló el xueji (靴屐; un tipo de zueco con forma de bota). [119] Algunos zapatos eran comúnmente curvados en la parte delantera y tenían forma de fénix. [6] : 5 

La dinastía Tang representa una época dorada en la historia de China, donde las artes, las ciencias y la economía prosperaban. La vestimenta femenina y los adornos personales en particular reflejaban las nuevas visiones de esta era, que vio un comercio y una interacción sin precedentes con culturas y filosofías ajenas a las fronteras chinas. Aunque todavía continúa la vestimenta de sus predecesoras, como las dinastías Han y Sui, la moda durante la dinastía Tang también estuvo influenciada por su cultura y artes cosmopolitas. Donde anteriormente las mujeres chinas habían estado restringidas por el antiguo código confuciano a atuendos bien envueltos y ocultos, la vestimenta femenina en la dinastía Tang gradualmente se volvió más relajada, menos restrictiva e incluso más reveladora. [120] La dinastía Tang también vio la fácil aceptación y sincretización con la práctica china, de elementos de la cultura extranjera por parte de los chinos Han. Las influencias extranjeras prevalecientes durante la China Tang incluyeron culturas de Gandhara , Turkestán , Persia y Grecia . Las influencias estilísticas de estas culturas se fusionaron en la vestimenta de estilo Tang sin que ninguna cultura en particular tuviera especial prominencia. [70] [121]

Mujer vistiendo fanlingpao , dinastía Tang.
Mujer vistiendo hufu estilo kuapao , dinastía Tang.

Un ejemplo de la influencia extranjera en la vestimenta de las mujeres Tang es el uso de prendas con escotes pronunciados. [45] A las mujeres también se les permitía vestirse con hufu . [nota 4] [122] [123] [112] La ropa masculina popular, como las túnicas de cuello redondo de estilo persa con mangas ajustadas y una banda central decorada con flores en el frente, también era popular entre las mujeres de la dinastía Tang; [100] esta túnica de cuello redondo de estilo persa es diferente del yuanlingpao que se usa localmente . Las mujeres también usaban pantalones y bragas persas largos como resultado de los intercambios culturales y económicos que tuvieron lugar. [34] También se usaban pantalones a rayas. [113] Los pantalones chinos durante este período eran estrechos en comparación con el dashao y el dakouku que se usaban en las dinastías anteriores. [34] En los siglos VII y VIII, el kuapao , que se originó en Asia Central, podía ser usado por hombres y también se usaba como prenda principal para los asistentes travestidos o podía colocarse sobre los hombros como una capa. [100] : 311  [124] Los tocados de las mujeres en la dinastía Tang también demuestran evidencia de la inclusión de ropa extranjera en su atuendo. En la era de Taizong, las mujeres usaban un mili parecido a una burka que ocultaba todo el cuerpo cuando montaban a caballo; la tendencia cambió al uso de weimao durante el reinado del emperador Gaozong de Tang y Wu Zetian; y después de eso, durante el reinado temprano del emperador Xuanzong de Tang , las mujeres comenzaron a usar un sombrero sin velo llamado humao ; las mujeres finalmente dejaron de usar sombreros cuando montaban a caballo, y en la década de 750, las mujeres que se vestían con prendas de hombre se volvieron populares. [122] [119] [125] Las mujeres nobles de la dinastía Tang usaban el velo, y después del reinado de Yonghui se usó el velo con sombrero. [126] [127] [128] Después de mediados del siglo VII, la expectativa social de que las mujeres tenían que ocultar sus rostros en público desapareció. [101]

También estaba de moda que las mujeres nobles usaran Huihuzhuang después de la Rebelión de An Lushan . [129] [112] [117] [130] Otra tendencia que surgió después de la Rebelión de An Lushan es la apariencia triste y deprimida mientras se ve exquisita que reflejaba la inestabilidad de la situación política en este período. [131] Cabe destacar que, al igual que las mujeres en el período de la dinastía Tang incorporaron estilos de Asia Central en su vestimenta, las mujeres de Asia Central también usaban ropa de estilo Hanfu de la dinastía Tang y/o combinaban elementos del atuendo de estilo chino Han y la estética ornamental en su atuendo étnico. [132] : 74  [133] En 840 d. C., el imperio uigur colapsó, los refugiados uigures huyeron a Xinjiang y al sureste de la frontera Tang para buscar refugio, y en 843 d. C., todos los uigures que vivían en China tuvieron que usar ropa de estilo chino. [134]

La influencia del hufu finalmente se desvaneció después del período Tang Alto , y la ropa de las mujeres gradualmente recuperó un ajuste amplio y suelto, y se restauró la ropa de estilo Han más tradicional. [123] [114] El ancho de las mangas de las prendas de mujer para las mujeres comunes era de más de 1,3 metros. [123] El daxiushan , por ejemplo, estaba hecho de una seda fina y casi transparente; presentaba un hermoso diseño y patrón y sus mangas eran tan anchas que medían más de 1,3 metros. [50] Basado en la pintura, " Damas de la corte adornando su cabello con flores " (簪花仕女圖; Zanhua shinü tu ), una pintura atribuida al pintor Zhou Fang , la ropa de las mujeres se representaba como un vestido sin mangas que se usaba debajo de una túnica con mangas anchas, con el uso de un chal como adorno; algunas de las mujeres pintadas están confeccionadas con faldas, mientras que otras se ven usando una sobrefalda encima de una enagua; Se especula que los chales y capas durante este período estaban hechos de un material de tela de gasa transparente con red de seda. [117] [112]

Dinastía Song

Emperador Zhezong (1077-1100); de acuerdo con la filosofía de gobierno de Song , sus emperadores vestían la misma ropa que sus ministros.

El sistema de vestimenta de la dinastía Song se estableció a principios de la dinastía Song del Norte . La ropa se podía clasificar en dos tipos principales: prendas de los funcionarios (que se diferenciaban además entre la ropa de la corte y la ropa de uso diario) y la ropa para la gente común. [45] [135] : 1–7  Algunas características de la vestimenta de la dinastía Tang se trasladaron a la dinastía Song, como el vestido de la corte. [136]

La vestimenta de la corte de la dinastía Song a menudo usaba el color rojo, con accesorios hechos de diferentes colores y materiales, zapatos y sombreros de cuero negro. [45] [136] Los funcionarios tenían vestimenta específica para diferentes ocasiones: (1) la vestimenta de sacrificio, una prenda de color bermellón que se usaba cuando asistían al templo ancestral o a grandes ceremonias, que tenían que usar con los sombreros adecuados, es decir, jinxianguan , diaochanguan y xiezhiguan ; (2) la vestimenta de la corte, que se usaba cuando se asistía a las reuniones de la corte celebradas por el Emperador y, a veces, durante los rituales de sacrificio; y (3) la túnica oficial, que usaban diariamente los funcionarios que tenían rangos. [135] : 1–7 

La forma de los vestidos diarios de los funcionarios tenía el mismo diseño independientemente del rango: yuanlingpao con mangas largas y sueltas; sin embargo, los funcionarios estaban obligados a usar diferentes colores según los rangos. [45] [66] : 181–203  [135] : 1–7  Como la dinastía Song siguió el sistema de vestimenta de la dinastía Tang, los funcionarios de tercer rango y superiores usaban túnicas púrpuras; los funcionarios de quinto rango usaban túnicas bermellón; los funcionarios de séptimo rango y superiores usaban túnicas verdes; y los funcionarios de noveno rango y superiores usaban túnicas negras. [135] : 1–7  Sin embargo, después del período Yuanfeng , se impusieron cambios en el sistema de colores de las túnicas oficiales: los funcionarios de cuarto rango y superiores usaban túnicas púrpuras, los de sexto rango y superiores usaban túnicas carmesí; y los funcionarios de noveno rango y superiores usaban túnicas verdes; esto señaló la eliminación del color negro como color para la vestimenta oficial. [135] : 1–7  Los funcionarios también usaban cinturones de cuero y pañuelos como adornos. [45] [135] : 1–7  Si a los altos funcionarios se les permitía usar prendas oficiales de color púrpura o carmesí, tenían que usar una bolsa plateada o dorada en forma de pez como adorno. [45] [135] : 1–7  La túnica oficial se usaba con diferentes estilos de futou y guan . Por ejemplo, jinxianguan era usado por oficiales generales; diaochanguan era usado por altos funcionarios; y xiezhiguan era usado por oficiales de cumplimiento. [32] [135] : 1–7  La colocación de flores con alfileres era una costumbre muy apreciada en la dinastía Song; las personas, independientemente de su edad, género y rango social, se colocaban flores con alfileres; estas flores podían ser flores artificiales (es decir, hechas de seda, flores de papel de arroz, flores de esmalte de colores, etc.) o flores frescas naturales. [135] : 645–648  Desde principios de la dinastía Song, el Emperador otorgaba flores valiosas a sus funcionarios. [135] : 645–648  Los eunucos de la corte colocaban flores en los futou de los príncipes y los grandes consejeros, mientras que otros funcionarios también adornaban sus futou con flores. [135] : 645–648  Esta costumbre se desarrolló y extendió hasta la dinastía Song del Sur, cuando se establecieron regulaciones sobre la cantidad de flores que se podían usar en función del rango del funcionario. [135] : 645–648  Estas reglas sobre estos adornos florales en los futou no se podían romper sin permiso. [135] : 645–648 La vestimenta para las reuniones de la corte en la dinastía Song era el tongtianguanfu ; lo usaban los funcionarios de mayor rango que servían directamente al emperador; era la vestimenta más importante después de la vestimenta que usaba el emperador. [130]

Las prendas que usaban los emperadores de la dinastía Song se denominan colectivamente vestimenta tianzi (天子服饰; vestimenta del emperador). [135] : 1–7  Las prendas que se usaban para asistir a ceremonias de sacrificio y adoración eran daqiumian (大裘冕; un tipo de mianfu ), gunmian (衮冕; un tipo de mianfu) y lüpao (履袍). [135] : 1–7  Las prendas diarias del emperador eran shanpao (衫袍) y zhaipao (窄袍). El yuyue fu (御阅服) era el uniforme militar formal que usaban los emperadores de la dinastía Song y solo apareció en la dinastía Song del Sur . [135] : 1–7  El príncipe heredero usaría el gunmian (衮冕) cuando acompañara al emperador a ceremonias sacrificiales, y usaría yuanyouguanfu (远游冠服) y zhumingfu (朱明衣) en ocasiones menos formales pero importantes, como concesiones y nombramientos de la nobleza, cuando visitara el templo del antepasado fundador y cuando asistiera a reuniones de la corte celebradas por el Emperador. [135] : 1–7  El príncipe heredero también usaba un vestido oficial púrpura, un cinturón de oro y jade, y llevaba una bufanda de muselina negra plegable en la cabeza. [135] : 1–7 

Aunque algunas de las vestimentas de la dinastía Song tienen similitudes con dinastías anteriores, algunas características únicas las separan del resto. [66] : 181–203  [136] Mientras que la mayoría de ellas siguen el estilo de la dinastía Tang, [66] : 181–203  el resurgimiento del confucianismo influyó en la vestimenta de las mujeres de la dinastía Song; los confucianos de la dinastía Song veneraban la antigüedad y querían revivir algunas ideas y costumbres antiguas y animaban a las mujeres a rechazar la extravagancia de la moda de la dinastía Tang. [137] Debido al cambio en el pensamiento filosófico, la estética de la vestimenta de la dinastía Song mostró simplicidad y se volvió más tradicional en estilo. [50] Las damas de palacio buscaron orientación en los Ritos de Zhou sobre cómo vestirse de acuerdo a los eventos ceremoniales y eligieron cuidadosamente adornos que se clasificaban para cada ocasión según los rituales clásicos. [137] Mientras que a las mujeres de la dinastía Tang les gustaba la ropa que enfatizaba las curvas del cuerpo y a veces revelaba el escote, las mujeres de la dinastía Song percibían tales estilos como obscenos y vulgares y preferían una figura corporal esbelta. [137] Vestirse con ropa que pareciera simple y humilde en lugar de extravagante se interpretaba como una expresión de virtud sobria. [137] El sistema de vestimenta de la dinastía Song también especificaba cómo debían vestirse las mujeres de la corte imperial y esto incluía a las emperatrices Song, las concubinas imperiales y las damas con título; su vestimenta también cambiaba según las ocasiones. [135] : 1–7, 31  Las emperatrices de la dinastía Song usan el huiyi ; [50] a menudo tenían de tres a cinco marcas distintivas similares a joyas en la cara (dos a los lados de la mejilla, otras dos al lado de las cejas y una en la frente). [138] La vestimenta cotidiana de las emperatrices y concubinas imperiales incluía: faldas largas, prendas de mangas sueltas, capas con borlas y beizi . [135] : 1–7, 31  A las concubinas imperiales les gustaba el color amarillo y rojo; la falda de color granada también era popular en la dinastía Song. [45] [6] : 5  Los bordes de los cuellos y los bordes de las mangas de todas las prendas que se han excavado estaban decorados con encajes o patrones bordados. Dichas prendas estaban decoradas con patrones de peonías , camelias , flores de ciruelo y lirios , etc. [136] Se introdujeron las faldas plisadas y se convirtieron en las faldas características de la clase social alta. [6] : 5 

Según las regulaciones de la dinastía Song, a la gente común solo se le permitía usar ropa blanca; pero en algún momento, las regulaciones cambiaron y la gente común, así como los empleados administrativos e intelectuales, pudieron usar ropa negra. [45] : 272, 275  Sin embargo, en realidad, la ropa que usaban los civiles era mucho más colorida de lo estipulado, ya que se usaban muchos colores en las prendas y faldas. [45] La gente común también se vestía de manera diferente de acuerdo con su estatus social y ocupaciones. [50]

Uno de los estilos de vestimenta comunes para las mujeres durante la dinastía Song era el beizi , que generalmente se consideraba una camisa o chaqueta y podía combinarse con el ru , que era una vestimenta necesaria para la vida diaria de los plebeyos, un qun (裙; falda) o un ku (袴; pantalones). [45] [135] : 32–59  Hay dos tamaños de beizi : el corto llega hasta la coronilla y el largo se extiende hasta las rodillas. [138] Según el sistema de vestimenta ceremonial y sacrificial elaborado por Zhu Xi , las mujeres deben usar un abrigo, una falda larga y el beizi . [135] : 32–59  Las mujeres también usaban el liangpian qun (两片裙), una falda cruzada que consta de dos piezas de tela cosidas a una pretina única separada con lazos. [56] [139]

A painting, called Sericulture, by the painter Liang Kai in Southern Song dynasty depicts rural labourers in the process of making silk.[141] Foot binding also became popular in the Song dynasty at the end of the dynasty.[45][137]

Other casual forms of clothing included: the pao (袍; the gown which could be broad or narrow-sleeved), ao (襖; a necessary coat for commoner in their daily lives), duanhe (短褐; a short, coarse cloth jacket worn by people of low socioeconomic status), lanshan, and zhiduo.[136]

Su shi, also known as Su Dongpo, wearing the Confucian shenyi, Song dynasty.

In addition, Neo-Confucian philosophies also determined the conduct code of the scholars.[66]: 181–203  The Neo-Confucians re-constructed the meaning of the shenyi, restored, and re-invented it as the attire of the scholars.[142] Some Song dynasty scholars, such as Zhu Xi and Shaoyong, made their own version of the scholar gown, shenyi, based on The book of Rites, while scholars such as Jin Lüxiang promoted it among his peers.[135]: 15  However, the shenyi used as a scholar gown was not popular in the Song dynasty and was even considered as "strange garment" despite some scholar-officials appreciated it.[142][135]: 15 

Zaju actresses in theatrical clothing playing men, wearing headscarf with ring, Xiku and Waku trousers and leggings, Song dynasty.

In the capital of Southern Song, clothing-style from Northern China were popular.[6]: 5  The Song dynasty court repeatedly banned people (i.e. common people, literati, and women) from wearing clothing and ornaments worn by Khitan people, such as felt hats, and from the wearing of exotic clothing.[135]: 32–59  They also banned clothing with colours which was associated to Khitan clothing; such as aeruginous or yellowish-black.[135]: 32–59  They also banned people, except for drama actors, from wearing Jurchen and Khitan diaodun (釣墩; a type of lower garment where the socks and trousers were connected to each other) due to its foreign ethnic nature.[135]: 32–59 [143] Song dynasty women also wore the Song-dynasty gaitou, when they would ride animals, such as horses and donkeys, in order to relieve embarrassment and to conceal their bodies.[125] These veils originated from the Tang dynasty women's weimao which covered the head and upper body; they were revived in Song after they fell out of fashion in Tang dynasty and were worn despite its masculine and barbarian origin, probably because Song women were unaware of its origins.[125] Many of Song dynasty clothing was later adopted in the Yuan and Ming dynasties.

Liao, Western Xia, and Jin dynasties

Liao dynasty

The rulers of the Liao dynasty adopted a clothing system which allowed the coexistence of Han Chinese and Khitan clothing.[135]: 32–59  The Khitan court adopted both the guofu (國服; Khitan National garments) and hanfu, which the Khitan inherited from the Later Jin dynasty and were actually clothing from the Tang dynasty.[132]: 15 [144] The guofu of the Liao dynasty was also heavily influenced by the Hanfu system.[135]: 57 

The Han Chinese men living in the Liao dynasty were not required to wear the shaved Khitan hairstyle which Khitan men wore to distinguish their ethnicity, unlike the Qing dynasty which mandated wearing of the Manchu hairstyle for men.[145] In Han Chinese tombs dating from Liao dynasty, there are tombs murals which depicts purely Chinese customs and Chinese clothing.[146] Tombs in haner families, for example the Zhang and Hann families, often depicts men dressed in Khitan clothing in corridors and antechambers while inner culture shows haner culture.[note 5][147] Some Han Chinese or Haner men adopted and/or combined Hanfu with Khitan clothing and boots, wore Hanfu or wore Khitan clothes. Han women on the other hand did not adopt Khitan dress and continued wearing Hanfu.[147]: 48, 52–53 [148] For example, the tomb of Hann Shixun (a man from distinguished haner families) who died in the early 12th century during the late Liao dynasty depict Khitan-style clothing in the antechamber whereas women in Hanfu-style clothing is seen in the painting found in the inner chamber.[147]: 44–45  Another example can be seen in a mural painting found in the tomb of Zhao Wenzao, where children and servants are depicted wearing Khitan hairstyles and Khitan-style clothing, while the woman who is standing behind the table is depicted in Han Chinese clothing.[147]: 46–47  Han Chinese women living in the Southern Division and Haner women were culture bearers, who generally preserved Han Chinese culture and continued to wear Hanfu which was worn prior to the conquest.[147] Both Khitan women and Han Chinese women in the Liao wore Han style Tang-Song dress.[132]

Jin dynasty

The Jin dynasty rulers imitated the Song dynasty and decided to establish their own carriages and apparel system.[135]: 32–59  In the early period of the Jin dynasty, the Jin dynasty court first attempted to impose Jurchen hairstyle and clothes on the Han Chinese population in 1126 AD and in 1129 AD.[149]: 281  The Hanfu-style clothing was prohibited and the people had to wear a short scarf and left-lapelled clothing; if they did not obey, they were put to death.[135]: 32–59  The Jurchen queue and shaving hairstyle was not enforced on the Han Chinese in the Jin after an initial attempt to do so which was a rebuke to Jurchen values.[145][150] However, the rules were not observed and the order was taken back under the Emperor Wanyan Liang who was Pro-Chinese allowing the Han Chinese to wear their Han clothing by lifting the ban in 1150 AD.[149]: 281  After the occupation of the Northern Song territories by the Jurchens in 1127 AD, the Han Chinese who were living in Northern Song territories became the majority while the Jurchen became an ethnic minority; this led the Jurchens to make political concessions allowing the Han Chinese to practice Han Chinese culture.[151][147] In 1138 AD, the Jin court adopted the Chinese robes for the emperor and the officials.[151]

In 1161-1189 AD, many Jurchens appear to have begun adopting Han Chinese behavior and forgetting their own traditions and languages; therefore, the Emperor Shizong of Jin prohibited the Jurchens from dressing like the Han Chinese in 1191 AD as he wanted to revitalize the old Jurchen culture.[147][149]: 281 [151] However, despite his efforts, the influence of the Han Chinese living in the Northern Song territories had a significant influence and by the mid-twelve century, the Jurchens were sinicized so much that they were almost indistinguishable from the Han Chinese in terms of dress, literacy and social customs.[147] Based on Han Chinese tombs of the Jin dynasty, it appears that ordinary Jurchen clothing may have been a symbol of lower class status as servants and lower-class women tend to be portrayed as wearing modified Jurchen-style clothing whereas women from the upper class wear Hanfu-style clothing.[147] Yet despite the Han Chinese influence on Jurchens, travellers from the Southern Song dynasty who visited the former territories of the Song dynasty noted that there have been changes in the people's culture and that the Han Chinese's clothing style had also been influenced by the Jurchens in terms of adoption of items; they also noted that the only thing which had not changed much was the women's clothing style.[135]: 32–59 [147] However, the clothing-style of the Han Chinese women living the Jin dynasty was outdated compared to those living in the Southern Song territories.[147] The yunjian was worn in the Jin dynasty and was adopted in the Yuan dynasty as a signature pattern on men's and women's clothing.[132]: 51 

Western Xia

Emperor Jingzong, the first emperor of Western Xia, rejected Han Chinese silk clothing over the leather and wool clothing of the nomadic people from the Steppe; he argued that the Tanguts had traditionally worn leather-based and wool clothing and since the Tanguts men were military, they also had no use for silk materials.[132]: 15  Yet, silk clothing was still worn in Western Xia during his reign.[132]: 15  The Hanfu-style and the Tangut-style clothing were distinguished from each other, but both were used in the Western Xia.[132]: 15  The Hanfu-style clothing was worn by officials whereas the Tangut-style clothing was worn by the military.[132]: 15  Civil officials wore futou, boots, purple or crimson gown.[135]: 32–59  Emperor Jingzong also ordered that every people in Western Xia must be shaved in an attempt to restore old Xianbei customs, and disobedience was death penalty.[135]: 32–59  However, in 1061 AD, Emperor Yizong, the son of Emperor Jingzong, decided to replace Tangut clothing with Hanfu in his court.[152] In his wish list to the Song dynasty court, Emperor Yizong asked permission to use Han Chinese rites and clothing to greet Song dynasty envoys and seek permission to buy Chinese official clothing; both of these requests were granted.[152]

Yuan dynasty

Textile with dragon design, 13th century. Dragon and phoenix motifs were strictly reserved for the top members of the Imperial family throughout China's history.

During the Yuan dynasty, Mongol dress was the clothing of elite for both genders.[153] The Mongol attire for both men and women worn in the 13th-14th century was completely different from the Hanfu which had been worn in the Tang dynasty and Song dynasty.[154] The Mongol attire was shared by people of different social ranking due to its practicality which contrasted with the dress code of the Han Chinese; as such, Mongol attire was popular.[154] The Mongols never imposed Mongol customs on the Han Chinese.[17]

Many Han Chinese and other ethnicities readily adopted Mongol clothing in Northern China to show their allegiance to the Mongols; however, in Southern China, Mongol clothing was rarely seen as both men and women continued to dress in Song-style garments.[153][132] In the tomb of a woman from a Southern Song site, dating from the late-Yuan dynasty in Fuzhou, Fujian, the two-pieces system of Southern Song clothing (i.e., ruqun) has been found instead of the Mongol women's one-piece robe.[153] Burial clothing and tomb paintings in the southern territories of the Yuan dynasty also show that women wore the Song-style attire, which looked slimmer when compared to the Mongol court robe. The Song-style clothing is also depicted as consisting of jackets, which were open in the front and had long, narrow and thin sleeves, and sometimes women are depicted as wearing a sleeveless vest-type jackets with front openings.[132] For example, in the Yuan dynasty mural paintings from Dongercun from 1269 AD in Shaanxi and in the mural painting in tomb M2 at Kangzhuangcun in Tunliu from 1276 AD, maids and servants are seen wearing Song-style attire.[132]

The type of clothing worn in the Yuan dynasty may have also served as a political statement; for example, despite not being the clothing of the ruling elite, the Tang-Song style clothing worn in multiple layers continued to be worn by families who showed that they were resisting the rule of the Mongols.[132] A form of skirts worn in the Yuan dynasty is a skirt which consist of two parts sewn to a separate single waistband which may also be pleated.[56]

Ming dynasty

Ban of hufu, return to hanfu, and cultural integration

A gathering of government officials in Changfu in front of the emperor.
Ming tomb figurines
Ming dynasty painting depicting Han Chinese clothing and Mongolian-style clothing, unknown author

The Ming dynasty had many Mongol clothes and cultural aspects abolished and enforced Tang dynasty style Han Chinese clothing.[143]

As soon as the Hongwu Emperor conquered the Yuan dynasty, he decried the "barbarian customs" of the Yuan dynasty and how people imitated the Mongols for personal gains; and so, he called for the restoration of Han Chinese traditions, which included the proper forms of dress, hairstyles, and attires.[155][156][157] According to the Veritable Records of Hongwu Emperor (太祖實錄), a detailed official account of daily activities of Hongwu Emperor written by court historians, he restored the entire clothing system to the standard of the Tang dynasty shortly after the founding of Ming dynasty:

"On the Renzi day in the second month of the first year of Hongwu era (Feb 29th, 1368 CE), Hongwu emperor decreed that all fashions of clothing and headwear shall be restored to the standard of Tang, all citizens shall gather their hairs on top of their heads, and officials shall wear the Wu Sha Mao (black-cloth hats), round-collar robes, belts, and black boots." ("洪武元年二月壬子...至是,悉命復衣冠如唐制,士民皆束髮於頂,官則烏紗帽,圓領袍,束帶,黑靴。")

The attempt was to signified the Han Chinese cultural identity after defeating the Yuan dynasty.[27]: 44–46 [155][156] The new clothing system that the Hongwu Emperor formulated was based on the dress code of the previous dynasties, which included the dress codes of the Zhou, Han, Tang, and Song dynasties.[66]: 181–203  He also promulgated several decrees to ban Mongol and nomadic clothing style.[154] However, fashionable Mongol attire, items and hats were still sometimes worn by early Ming royals, such as Hongwu Emperor himself and Zhengde Emperor.[28][158] Thus, many Ming dynasty clothing styles absorbed elements of both Han Chinese and Mongol clothing.[143]

The Jinyiwei, also known "Brocade-clad guards", dressed in their uniforms (jisün and feiyufu) to guard the Emperor's treasures, Ming dynasty.
Tianqi Emperor in court dress
Lady wearing a bijia, which extends down the knees, Ming dynasty

The Ming dynasty developed a new attire from Yuan dynasty's terlig: tieli; it is a cross-collared, long sleeved robe with dense and narrow pleats all around the lower hem.[159][160] The tieli was mainly worn by the upper class and rarely worn by the lower class.[159] In the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, tieli were recorded as ch'obli (帖裡), bestowed as present by the Ming dynasty from the year 1424; however, the terlig-style attires found in both countries differed from each other in terms of form and historical development.[160] The jisün that had been popular in the Yuan dynasty was also worn by the court bodyguards, the xiaowei (校尉; guards of honour), the brocade guards, and by court servants.[154] The yesa robe, which mixed Han and Mongol elements was worn as an informal attire by emperors, princes, ministers, and officials in early Ming dynasty; it was worn as a formal uniforms during the middle period of the Ming dynasty; it was worn as a casual dress worn by scholar-officials during the mid-to-late period of the Ming dynasty; and eventually it was worn by Ming court eunuchs, servants and commoners in the late Ming.[154]

The boli hat worn by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty influenced the Han Chinese and continued to be used widely in the Ming dynasty in the form of the damao, which was worn by the government clerks and family servants. The use of the damao by the family servants of the Ming officials and the imperial family contributed popularity spread of that hat which eventually become a symbol of low-ranking servants.[154]

Other new Ming dynasty attires influenced by the Yuan dynasty include the small hat (小帽; xiaomao) or liuheyitong mao (六合一統帽), the dahu.[159] Archeological evidence from the tombs of Ming dynasty princes show that the Mongol-style attire continued to exist well until the 16th century.[155] The Ming dynasty also adopted bijia, humao, and a waistcoat with buttons at the front from Yuan dynasty.[27]: 44–46 [161]: 31 [159]

Establishing new dress regulations

Early Ming dynasty officials of the 1300-1400s, as painted by Xie Huan.

The founder of the Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, saw the fundamentality of making a new dress code to consolidate his rule; he spent almost all his reigning years developing and institutionalizing dressing regulations, which were recorded in various compilation of texts, such as the Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty.[155][156] The dressing regulations were based on the dressing system of the Tang and Song dynasties.[155][159] Moreover, the Ming dynasty dressing regulations were strongly related to the ritual system; the Confucian codes and ideals that were popularized during the Ming dynasty also had a significant effect on those regulations.[162] The dressing regulations determined what attire and ornaments could be worn depending on one's social ranks.[155][156][162] For example, the Ming dynasty's basic dressing principles, announced in 1392, included the following:[156]

"Officials’ robes should fit their bodies. The length of those worn by civil officials is one inch from the ground. The sleeves should be long enough to reach the elbows when they are folded back from the end of the hands; they should be one foot wide, with cuffs of nine inches wide. The sizes of nobles (gonghou), and imperial sons-in-law's robes are the same as civil officials’. So are the sizes of seniors and primary degree holders’ robe, except for the sleeves, which are three inches from the elbow when folded from the hands. A commoners’ robe is five inches from the ground. So is a military official's; their sleeves should be seven inches over their hands, with cuffs as broad as their fists. Soldiers’ clothes are seven inches from the ground, with sleeves five inches longer than their hands, and seven inches wide. Their cuffs are wide enough only for their fists to stretch out".

In the Ming dynasty, the inner garment that people wore were called neidan (内单).[162] The fabric material of the outer garment are determined by one's social status.[155] The emperors tend to wear yellow satin gown with dragon designs, jade belts, and yishanguan (翼善冠; philanthropy crown, with wings folded upwards).[32] The yishanguan were only worn by emperors and other members of the royal family on formal occasions.[32]: 18  Officials wore different wore robes of various colours and patterns; they also wore gauze hats.[32] Civil and military officials wore different types of guanfu (官服), depending on occasions and events: chaofu (朝服; court dress), the jifu (祭服; sacrificial ceremony dress), the gongfu (公服; public service dress), the changfu (常服; everyday dress), and the yanfu (燕服; casual or leisure clothing).[155][156] The officials' robes are usually patched with embroidered square pattern of animals on the back and the front; the patches are called the Mandarin square, and were differentiated between officials' ranks. Minor differences can be observed between the Mandarin squares decreed by the Hongwu Emperor and the Jiajing Emperor.[32][155]

Ten Officials Who Passed The Imperial Examination In The Same Year of 1464 (甲申十同年圖), painted in 1503 during one of their reunions. The presence of yapai (牙牌; lit. 'Tusk Card'; the rectangular ornaments, that hanged from each official's left waist, are ivory plaques that engraved with the wearer's department, position, rank and instructions; Yapai were visitor's badge that granted passage into the Forbidden City for officials to have an audience with the emperor) implies that this scene was painted shortly after a court meeting. During the Ming dynasty, both civil and military officials were divided into nine Ranks (品), each Rank was further subdivided into Primary (正) and Secondary (從) so there were technically eighteen Ranks, with First Rank Primary (正一品) being the highest and the Ninth Rank Secondary (從九品) the lowest. Officials of the upper four Ranks (from First Rank Primary to Fourth Rank Secondary) were entitled to wear the red robes; mid-Ranks (Fifth Rank Primary to Seventh Rank Secondary) to wear blue robes and the lower Ranks (Eighth Rank Primary to Ninth Rank Secondary) to wear green robes. In addition, each exact Rank was indicated by a picture of unique animal (either real or legendary) sewn in a Mandarin square on both the front and back of the robe, so fellow officials could identify someone's Rank from afar.

The Ming dynasty empresses appeared to be wearing similar dress as their Song dynasty counterparts.[156] The queens wore crown with decorations of dragons and phoenixes, and wore a red large-sleeves upper garments also decorated with dragon and phoenixes.[32] The dressing of officials' wives and mothers who were bestowed the title of "appointed lady" (mingfu; 命妇) were also strictly regulated.[156] The Emperors could bestow special types of robes to people that he favoured, such as the mangfu, the douniufu (斗牛服; "fighting bull" robe; the "fighting bull" is a two-horned dragon-like creature), and the feiyufu.[72][155][156] The illegal use and production of those special robes were prohibited by imperial decree and could result to severe punishment or death.[155]

The Jiajing Emperor was the last ruler of the Ming dynasty; he made significant changes to the Ming dynasty dressing code in order to consolidate his imperial authority.[155] The Jiajing Emperor was very focused in reforming the yanfu (燕服; casual or leisure clothing), as he found his own yanfu too vulgar and too common to befit his imperial status.[155] At the end of 1528 AD, yanfu's new statutes, adjusted from the ancient xuanduan, were decreed. The yanbian guanfu (燕弁冠服; "Dress of the Casual Hat"), designed for the emperor, was in colour black bordered with a green trim and featured 143 dragons, with a dragon medallion on the front of the clothing.[155] The zhongjing guanfu (忠靜冠服 or 忠靖冠服; "Dress of Loyalty and Tranquility"), designed for the ranked officials, was dark green in colour; while cloud patterns were granted to the robe for third-rank and above officials, fourth-rank and below officials had to wear plain robes.[155] The baohe guanfu (保和冠服; "Dress of Preserving Harmony"), designed for the royal princes), was in colour green and bordered with a green trim, and had two rank badges that showed dragon designs.[155]

The shenyi suddenly made a comeback among Han Chinese and became the formal scholar official robe when the Ming dynasty was founded in 1368 AD.[142] The scholar officials wore chengziyi (程子衣) as leisure clothing.[162][163] Hats worn by the scholars and literati were: the sifang pingding jin (四方平定巾; flat-top square hat), the dongpo jin (東坡巾; "Dongpo hat"), and the fangjin (方巾).[163][108] The daopao was worn as a casual dress by all levels of society, including the External officials and eunuchs.[163][156] The zhishen was also worn by eunuchs sometimes to show their superiority.[156] Commoner men usually wore plain-coloured clothing while commoner women wore upper garments and skirts of light colours.[32]

Though the Ming dynasty restored Hanfu, the dynasty also brought many changes.[159] For example, the formal robes of the early Ming emperors had close-fitting sleeves instead of the Song dynasty's voluminous sleeves.[153] The collar of the Ming dynasty clothing changed from the symmetrical type of the Song dynasty to the circular type.[159] Moreover, under the influence of the Yuan dynasty's court dress, the xiongbei (胸背; central badges) found on the official cloths became square in shape, different from Song dynasty's round shape.[132]: 51  Compared with the clothing of the Tang dynasty, the proportion of the upper outer garment to lower skirt in the Ming dynasty was significantly inverted.[159] Since the upper garment was shorter and the lower garment was longer, the jacket gradually became longer to cover the exposed skirt.[159]

The Ming dynasty implemented the use of gold and silver interlocking buckles to close clothing and collars.[159][164] In the middle of the Ming dynasty, the interlocking buttons were often paired with the upper garment with standing collar; it was commonly used by women partially because they wanted to cover their bodies to show modesty and preserve their chastity and because of the cold climate period.[164] Skirts with pleats became very popular and the skirt colour tended to be light.[159] Another form of skirt which was worn in the Ming dynasty is a skirt with two pieces which was deeply pleated and was sewn to a separate, single waistband.[56] In the late Ming dynasty, Ming dynasty women wore the pifeng daily, the ru (short jacket) with a skirt and a short over skirt (yaoqun), the ao (袄; a long jacket) which is worn with a skirt, and the bijia.[27]: 48–51  The shuitianyi was also worn in the late Ming dynasty.[27]: 48–51  Han Chinese women also wore dudou as an underwear.[165]

While clothing regulation were strictly enforced in the early Ming dynasty; it started to weaken in the Mid-Ming dynasty (around the early 16th century) which has been attributed to the failing of ritual practice and the expansion of commercialization which has led to a weakened state control over the clothing system, and thus to an eventual dress code transgression.[156] In the late Ming, the dress code was widely transgressed by sons of officials and eunuchs who clothes which did not denote their real social status.[155][156] Fashion changed quickly relatively to the earlier years during the late Ming which caused distress to the literati.[155][156] The literati were also concerned about the wives of the elites who would parade and show off their clothing and ornaments without having anyone to reproach them.[155][156] Despite the attempts of Confucians scholars to urge the ban of illegal and/or improper dress, the dressing code was not enforced by the imperial court.[156]

When Han Chinese ruled the Vietnamese in the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam due to the Ming dynasty's conquest during the Ming–Hồ War they imposed the Han Chinese style of men wearing long hair on short haired Vietnamese men. Vietnamese were ordered to stop cutting and instead grow their hair long and switch to Hanfu in only a month by a Ming official. Ming administrators said their mission was to civilized the unorthodox Vietnamese barbarians.[166] The Ming dynasty only wanted the Vietnamese to wear long hair and to stop teeth blackening so they could have white teeth and long hair like Chinese.[167] A royal edict was issued by Vietnam in 1474 forbidding Vietnamese from adopting foreign languages, hairstyles and clothes like that of the Lao, Champa or the "Northerners" which referred to the Ming. The edict was recorded in the 1479 Complete Chronicle of Dai Viet of Ngô Sĩ Liên in the Later Lê dynasty.[168] The Vietnamese had adopted the Chinese political system and culture during the 1,000 years of Chinese rule so they viewed their surrounding neighbours like Khmer Cambodians as barbarians and themselves as a small version of China (the Middle Kingdom).[169] By the Nguyen dynasty the Vietnamese themselves were ordering Cambodian Khmer to adopt Han Chinese culture by ceasing "barbarous" habits like cropping hair and ordering them to grow it long besides making them replace skirts with trousers.[170]

Hanbok was influenced by the Hanfu of the Ming dynasty. The Joseon dynasty monarchy looked to Ming China for cultural inspiration. The upper classes and the court of Joseon wore Ming-style clothing but also made a few modifications to make the clothing look distinctively Korean; this led to the formation of the women's hanbok style.[171][172] The lower class of Joseon imitated the clothing of the upper class.[171]

Qing dynasty

Development of Qing imperial court clothing

In the Liao, Jin, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, Jurchen people mainly wore Zuojun gowns. The robes and clothes of the Manchus before entering the customs are called "yijie" in Manchu. They are clothes worn by men, women and children throughout the year. Each gown is cut from a whole piece of clothing. The basic structure is a round neck, a large flap, a left gusset, four-sided slits, a waistband and horseshoe sleeves.[173]

It was mistakenly thought that the hunting ancestors of the Manchus skin clothes became Qing dynasty clothing, due to the contrast between Ming dynasty clothes unshaped cloth's straight length contrasting to the odd-shaped pieces of Qing dynasty longpao and chaofu.[174]: 103  Scholars from the west initially wrongly thought these clothing were purely Manchu as the early Manchu rulers wrote several edicts stressing on maintaining their traditions and clothing.[174]: 103  However, there is evidence from excavated tombs which indicates that China had a long tradition of garments that led to the development of the Qing chaofu, and it was not invented or introduced by Manchus in the Qing dynasty or Mongols in the Yuan dynasty. In some cases, the Qing dynasty went further than the Ming dynasty in imitating ancient China to display legitimacy with resurrecting ancient Chinese rituals to claim the Mandate of Heaven after studying Chinese classics. Qing sacrificial ritual vessels deliberately resemble ancient Chinese ones even more than Ming vessels.[174]: 106  Tungusic people on the Amur river like Udeghe, Ulchi and Nanai adopted Chinese influences in their religion and clothing with Chinese dragons on ceremonial robes, scroll and spiral bird and monster mask designs, Chinese New Year, using silk and cotton, iron cooking pots, and heated house from China during the Ming dynasty.[175]

Moreover, the Manchus originally did not have their own dragon robes or weave textiles and they had to obtain Ming dragon robes, Chaofu and cloth when they paid tribute to the Ming or traded with the Ming.[165] Therefore, Manchu clothes were modified the Hanfu of Ming China to form their court costume, making it easier to use while hunting.[165] The development of Manchu clothing in the late Ming Dynasty mainly imitated Mongolian clothing, and the arrow sleeves are obviously characteristics of Mongolian clothing.[176] The Ming dragon robes were simply modified, cut, and tailored by Manchus at the sleeves and waist to make them narrow around the arms and waist instead of wide and added a new narrow cuff to the sleeves;[177]: 157  they also made slits in the skirt to make it suitable for falconry, horse riding and archery.[177]: 158  The new cuff was made out of fur. The robe's jacket waist had a new strip of scrap cloth put on the waist while the waist was made snug by pleating the top of the skirt on the robe.[177]: 159  The Manchus added sable fur skirts, cuffs and collars to Ming dragon robes and trimming sable fur all over them before wearing them.[161]: 25  However, some denied that the popular Manchu jackets in the Qing Dynasty originated from the Hanfu in the Ming Dynasty.[178][179] Han Chinese court costume (chaofu) was modified by the Manchu by adding a ceremonial big collar (daling) or shawl collar (pijianling); the clothing was also reduced in bulk, the sleeves made narrower, and the side-fastening changed from cross-collared to a curved overlapping right front.[165][180] The clothing was fastened with loops and buttons.[165] The Manchu also decorated their early Qing robes with dragons similarly to the Ming chaofu.[165]

The Spencer Museum of Art has six longpao robes that belonged to Han Chinese nobility of the Qing dynasty which shows the diversity of the late 18th and 19th century non-imperial dragon robes.[174]: 115  Ranked officials and Han Chinese nobles had two slits in the skirts while Manchu nobles and the Imperial family had 4 slits in skirts. All first, second and third rank officials as well as Han Chinese and Manchu nobles were entitled to wear 9 dragons by the Qing Illustrated Precedents. Qing sumptuary laws only allowed four clawed dragons for officials, Han Chinese nobles and Manchu nobles while the Qing Imperial family, emperor and princes up to the second degree and their female family members were entitled to wear five clawed dragons. However officials violated these laws all the time and wore 5 clawed dragons and the Spencer Museum's 6 long pao worn by Han Chinese nobles have 5 clawed dragons on them.[174]: 117 

Lady in a red robe, with a xiapei on top of her robe, and a coronet, Qing dynasty.

Wives of Han Chinese noblemen and high-ranking officials had to wear semi-official formal dresses on ceremonial events; their clothing consisted of a mang ao (a four-clawed dragon loose fitting jacket with wide sleeves), a xiapei, a mang chu (a dragon skirt which was embroidered with dragons and phoenixes on the front and back skirt panels), a jiao dai (a rigid hooped belt which was worn around the jacket) and a phoenix coronet.[165] The women mang ao was red in colour if the wearer was a man's principle wife; it was originally undecorated but started to be decorated with dragon by the 18th century.[165] The xiapei was developed from the xiapei worn in Ming dynasty; the xiapei in Qing was first worn when the wedding day of a woman; after the wedding, she would wear it for special important events which were connected with her husband's status.[165]

Clothing reform by Qianlong

The Qing dynasty court continued to reform and regulate the clothing of its subjects, but discussion on ethnic clothing was a sensitive topic even after the Qing dynasty had consolidated its rule.[143] By 1759 AD, the Qianlong Emperor commissioned the Illustrated Precedents for the Ritual Paraphernalia of the Imperial Court (Huangchao Liqi Tushi) which was published and enforced by 1766; this publication covered several aspects including the dressing and accessories of the emperors, princes, noblemen and their consorts, Manchu officials, their wives and daughters, and the dress codes for Han Chinese men officials who had reached the rank of mandarin and were employed and their wives; as well as Han Chinese men who were waiting for an official appointment.[109]: 2–3 [165] The aim of this edict was made to preserve the Manchu identity once again, but at the same time, it also attempted to align the image of the emperor with Confucian ideas and codes of behaviours and manners.[181] The dress code designed in the Huangchao Liqi Tushi continued to be used as the standard for the court attire until the end of the Qing dynasty.[109]: 2–3  The Manchu continued to use the five colours symbolism in their clothing which was in line with the previous Han Chinese dynasties; however, they chose the colour blue as their dynasty colour and generally avoided the use of red colour in their clothing because red was the dynasty colour of Ming dynasty.[165] On the other hand, Han Chinese continued to view red as a lucky colour because of its connection with rulers of Ming dynasty, and used it extensively in celebratory events and at weddings.[165]

Ban of Chinese clothing and hairstyle

Coexistence of Hanfu and Manchu clothing, Qing dynasty
Hanfu, early Qing dynasty

When the Manchus established the Qing dynasty, the authorities issued decrees having Han Chinese men to adopt Manchu hairstyle by shaving their hair on the front of the head and braiding the hair on the back of the head into pigtails. The resistances against the hair shaving policy were suppressed.[182] Han Chinese did not object to wearing the queue braid on the back of the head as they traditionally wore all their hair long, but fiercely objected to shaving the forehead so the Qing government exclusively focused on forcing people to shave the forehead rather than wear the braid. Han rebels in the first half of the Qing who objected to Qing hairstyle wore the braid but defied orders to shave the front of the head. One person was executed for refusing to shave the front but he had willingly braided the back of his hair.[183]

Hanfu worn by men and women, from A Night Banquet at Peach and Plum Garden in Spring painting, Qing dynasty, before 1772

The Qing imposed the shaved head hairstyle on men of all ethnicities under its rule even before 1644 like upon the Nanai people in the 1630s who had to shave their foreheads.[184][185] In 1645, tifayifu edict was issued;[186] however it was strongly opposed by the Han Chinese, in particular those who belonged to the late Ming dynasty scholars class and literati.[187] Qing Manchu prince Dorgon initially canceled the order for all men in Ming territories south of the Great wall (post 1644 additions to the Qing) to shave. It was a Han official from Shandong, Sun Zhixie and Li Ruolin who voluntarily shaved their foreheads and demanded Qing Prince Dorgon impose the queue hairstyle on the entire population which led to the queue order.[188][189] Even after a decade following tifayifu policy implementation, Han Chinese still resisted against the order of shaving the hair and changing into Manchu clothing frequently.[187] Even during emperor Kangxi's reign, a large number of ordinary people continued to wear Ming dynasty hairstyles and clothing; however, the Han Chinese officials and military generals had to wear the queue and Manchu clothing.[187] The men of certain ethnicities who came under Qing rule later like Salar people and Uyghur people already shaved all their heads bald so the shaving order was redundant.[190] However, the shaving policy was not enforced in the Tusi autonomous chiefdoms in Southwestern China where many minorities lived. There was one Han Chinese Tusi, the Chiefdom of Kokang populated by Han Kokang people.

Han Chinese general Zhang Zhiyuan wearing Manchu-style military outfit.[177]: 149 

During the Qianlong reign, Liu Zhenyu was executed for urging the return of presumably Ming dynasty clothing.[191] However, during this period, Manchu style clothing was only required for scholar-official elite, such as the Eight Banners members and Han men serving as government officials, but not the entire male population; therefore, Han Chinese men were allowed to continue to dress in Ming dynasty clothing.[191] But as time passed, Han civilian men eventually voluntarily adopted Manchu clothing like changshan and the magua.[191][192] In the beginning of the Mid-Qing period, the discourses and resistance against the Manchu clothing regulations gradually disappeared.[143] By the late Qing dynasty, not only officials and scholars, but a great many commoners as well, started to wear Manchu attire.[191][192]

In the Edo period, the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan passed orders for Japanese men to shave the pate on the front of their head (the chonmage hairstyle) and shave their beards, facial hair and side whiskers.[193]: 217  This was similar to the Qing dynasty queue order imposed by Dorgon making men shave the pates on the front of their heads.[193]: 214  During the late Qing dynasty, the Vietnamese envoy to Qing were still wearing the official attire in Ming dynasty style. Some of the locals recognized their clothing, yet the envoy received both amusement and ridicule from those who did not.[194]

Tifayifu exemptions

The implementation of tifayifu policy, the early Qing dynasty court also prohibited Han Chinese from wearing some specific Manchu items and prohibited banner-women from dressing as Han Chinese women in order to maintain ethnic distinction.[195] The early Qing dynasty policies also mainly applied to Han Chinese men.[195][191] Those who were exempted from such policies were women, children, Buddhist and Taoist monks, and Qing dynasty rebels; moreover, men in their living had to wear Manchu-clothing, but they could be buried in Hanfu after their death.[195][191][196]

Rebellion and resistance to Qing

Han Chinese rebels who went against the Qing dynasty, like the Taiping rebels, even retained their queue braids on the back but the symbol of their rebellion against the Qing was the growing of hair on the front of the head, causing the Qing government to view shaving the front of the head as the primary sign of loyalty to the Qing rather than wearing the braid on the back which did not violate Han customs and which traditional Han did not object to.[196][197] Koxinga insulted and criticized the Qing hairstyle by referring to the shaven pate looking like a fly.[198]: 77  Koxinga and his men objected to shaving when the Qing demanded they shave in exchange for recognizing Koxinga as a feudatory.[198]: 86 The Qing demanded that Zheng Jing and his men on Taiwan shave in order to receive recognition as a fiefdom. His men and Ming prince Zhu Shugui fiercely objected to shaving.[198]: 187 His men and the last Ming dynasty prince, Zhu Shugui (1617 – 1683 AD), fiercely objected to the shaving decree.[198]: 187 

Dragon robe, Taiping Kingdom

In the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the clothing system was based on the clothing of Qing dynasty, but they change the clothing by establishing their own clothing system.[199] The kings and princes of the Heavenly Kingdom were the only people allowed to wear yellow dragon robe.[199] As a result, Ming dynasty style clothing was even retained in some places in China during the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 AD.[200]

During the Taiping rebellion (1850-1864 AD), the rebels let their hair grow while others kept their queues hidden under red turbans.[201] In the late Qing dynasty, some members of the White Lotus sect cut down their queues in an act of defiance while most of them only remove a hair strand or unbraided their hair and let it loose.[201] After the Qing dynasty was toppled in the 1911 Xinhai revolution, the Taoist dress and topknot was adopted by the ordinary gentry and "Society for Restoring Ancient Ways" (Fuguhui) on the Sichuan and Hubei border where the White Lotus and Gelaohui operated.[202] It was only later westernized revolutionaries, influenced by western hairstyle who began to view the braid as backward and advocated adopting short haired western hairstyles.[183]

Taoist and buddhist priests/monks
Portrait of a lama or a bonze, drawing by William Alexander, draughtsman of the Macartney Embassy to China in 1793.
Wang Chanyue (?-1680 AD), seventh patriarch of the Longmen branch of the taoist school Quanzhen Dao, Qing dynasty.

Neither Taoist priests nor Buddhist monks were required to wear the queue by the Qing; they continued to wear their traditional hairstyles, completely shaved heads for Buddhist monks, and long hair in the traditional Chinese topknot for Taoist priests.[191][203][204][183]

Taoist priests also continued to wear Taoist traditional dress and did not adopt Qing Manchu dress. Remains of the Ming dynasty subjects also invented various ways to preserve their hairstyle and their Han-style clothing (for example, in remote places).[143] To avoid wearing the queue and shaving the forehead, the Ming loyalist Fu Shan became a Daoist priest after the Qing took over Taiyuan.[205]

Burial practices

After death, their hair could also be combed into a topknot similar to the ones worn by the Han Chinese in Ming; a practice which was observed by the Europeans;[201] men who were wealthy but held no official rank were allowed to be buried in a deep-blue silk shenyi which was edged with bright blue or white band.[165] Men who were in mourning were also exempted;[191] however, since the mourners were not allowed to wear topknot in accordance to the Confucian rites, the men simply untied their queues and left their loose hair dishevelled.[201] Women from wealthy families could also be buried in a variation of shenyi called the bai shou yi (lit. "longevity jacket"), a deep blue or black ao with the character shou for longevity embroidered in gold all over the ao.[165] The bai shou yi was worn with a white pleated skirt which was edged with blue satin; the skirt was embroidered with the many blue shou character.[165]

Chinese opera and drama performers

The ban of Hanfu also did not apply to performers who wore and displayed Hanfu-style costumes when performing dramas.[195]

Women's clothing

For women's clothing, Manchu and Han fashions of clothing coexisted.[191][6]: 7  The Han Chinese women carefully maintained their pure Han Chinese ethnicity and did not wear Manchu clothing.[165] Throughout the Qing dynasty, Han women continued to wear clothing from Ming dynasty; however, with time, the Ming dynasty customs started to be forgotten and influence from the Manchu started to influence the women's clothing.[165][206] Yet, Manchu women and Han Chinese women never emulated each other's clothing; and as a result, by the end of the nineteenth century, Manchu and Han Chinese women had maintained distinctive clothing.[191]

At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, Han Chinese women were expected to continue the Han Chinese clothing of the Ming dynasty.[165] Manchu women wore a long, one-piece robe with a curving robe whereas Han Chinese women continued to wear the combination upper and lower garment.[191][6]: 7 [207][2]: 31  As Han Chinese women were not forced to change in to Manchu clothing, most of the clothing elements of the Han Chinese women in the Qing dynasty continued to follow the style of the Ming dynasty's ao coat.[208] Following the Ming dynasty customs, Han Chinese women would wear ruqun and aoqun,[191][2]: 31  which was a popular fashion in the Qing dynasty.[209] Trousers were sometimes worn under the skirts if they were commoners or unmarried.[56][2]: 31  Han Chinese women, who were unmarried or were peasants, would wear shanku without any overskirt.[2]: 31  Wearing skirts were generally considered a symbol of maturity and was reserved for married women.[165]

In the middle of the Qing dynasty, Manchu and Han Chinese women started to influence each other's clothing; however, they still maintain the uniqueness of their respective clothing styles.[6]: 7  The late Qing dynasty, Han Chinese women in the gentry and aristocratic classes started to imitate the clothing of the Manchu; similarly, the Manchu women started to imitate the clothing of the Han Chinese women; and thus, they influenced each other.[187][6]: 7 

In the late Qing dynasty, Han Chinese's ao continued to share some similarities with the ao worn in the Ming dynasty.[208] However, the clothing worn by the Han Chinese women was also influenced by Manchu culture to some degree; for example, in terms of clothing colour, embroidery and binding.[208] The late Qing dynasty ao had large sleeves, a slant opening and was waist-length.[165][208] Elderly Chinese women wore an ao with round standing collar, which had a planket by the right, flat sleeves, sleeves which were wrist-length and had a wide cuff.[208] The collar of the Han Chinese ao may be standing collar or low collar stand, and there were slits on both sides of the ao.[208] The waist-length ao could also have narrow sleeves and a front opening.[208] Women clothing in the late Qing dynasty also had piped edges.[32]

The silk skirts which are indigenous to Han Chinese women are a representative garment of the Qing dynasty clothing.[56] A popular form of skirts during the Qing dynasty was the mamianqun, a skirt made of two separate pieces of fabric which are not sewn together from the waistline to the hemline; this skirt allowed women with bounded feet to walk with greater ease.[56][210] The mamianqun had very subtle changes in both the cut and decorations throughout the Qing dynasty.[56] Other Han Chinese women skirts which were popular in the Qing dynasty were the baijianqun (百襇裙; hundred pleated skirt), the yuehuaqun (月華裙; moonlight skirt) which was popular in the early Qing, the phoenix tail skirt which was popular during the reign of Kangxi and Qianlong,[61]: 80–83  and the ‘fish-scale’ skirt.[210] At the end of the Qing dynasty, a skirt decorated with sword-shaped ribbons with bells hanging at the sharp corner appear.[61]: 80–83  Han Chinese women also wore dudou, which was developed from the Ming dynasty dudou.[165]

Outside China in 1911, the magazine Vogue recommended shopping for a set of attire called "boudoir set" which consisted of the Qing dynasty aoqun with wide hems and wide sleeves, and shoes.[211] However, by the Xinhai revolution in 1911, the wide hemmed and wide sleeved Qing dynasty aoqun was no more popular among urban Han Chinese women in China; instead they started to make their clothing narrower.[211] Ready-to-wear Western clothing had little popularity among Chinese consumers as due to proportion misfit of Western clothing.[211]

Children

Infants would wear dudou, which was embroidered with luck charms, as their only clothing in hot summer months until they reach the age of two to three years old.[165] Han Chinese children were spared from the tifayifu policy and could be dressed in Hanfu;[195] their clothing was fastened to the right side in the Ming dynasty-style.[165] Their daily clothing was made of silk, and they would wear satin and silk clothing for special occasions; the colours of the clothing were brights and the clothing were typically red and pink as these were auspicious colours.[165]

They also wore a baijiayi in the Qing dynasty to wish a child good fortune and as an evil protection.[165]

They also wore different style of hats, such as the "rice bowl hat", the "tiger head hat", the "dog head hat", which aim to protect against evil spirit and later on to attract good fortunes when they have to take important examinations.[165][6]

20th century

In 1912, the republic was established and government ministers were required to western-style clothing.[165] Official attire for both men and women were regulated and published in the government gazettes; the men had to wear western-style clothing on formal days and evening, and in informal time, they could Western suit or changshan magua. Women had to wear Qing style aoqun[165] Women started to wear more western-style clothing, Foot binding was legally abolished.[165]

In 1914 AD during the early years of the republic, cutting off the queue was a pre-requisite for provincial election votes, and in the 1914, policemen cut off the queue of any anyone arrested wearing queues.[201]

After the fall of the Qing dynasty, Yuan Shikai revived the Sacrifice at the Temple of Heaven ceremony; he also proclaimed himself as Emperor Hongxian and the beginning of a new dynasty; the robe and hat which specially designed for him to wear on the day of this ceremony was based on the ceremonial dress worn by the Han and Ming dynasty emperors on sacrificial ceremonies.[212][165] However, Yuan Shikai did not adhere to the Han dynasty and Ming dynasty fashion completely and these gowns showed differences in design, i.e. the use of roundels.[212] A manual, called the Jisi guanfutu (祭祀冠服圖; The Illustrated Manual of Dress for Ritual Sacrifices), was specially prepared and produced in 1914 AD by the Zhengshitang lizhiguan (政事堂禮制館; Bureau of Rites of the Executive Affairs department); this manual provided a detailed description of the attire worn by Yuan Shikai and the participants of the ceremony on this 1914 public, ceremonial event.[212] Yuan Shikai's ceremonial gown was jiaoling youren (i.e. fastened over the right side), made of black satin which was bordered with gold brocade and was decorated with twelve roundels which depicted the full twelve Imperial symbols (shier zhang; 十二章).[212][165] Officials gowns were also designed for officials who had to participate in the ceremony; the officials gown were made of black satin and the edges were made with blue brocade.[165] Laws regarding the official dress were also decreed: (1) First-rank officials had to wear nine roundels with nine symbols on their gowns; (2) second-rank officials had to wear seven roundels with seven symbols; (3) Third-rank officials had to wear five roundels with five symbols; (4) fourth-rank officials had to wear three roundels with three symbols; and (5) fifth-rank officials and below had to wear a robe without any borders and without any roundels.[212][165] Those imperial emblems which were used in the roundels originated from the twelve emblems which were documented in the Shangshu.[212] This ceremonial gown was worn over a purple satin apron skirt which would be edged with either blue or gold brocade; a belt of matching colour was also worn around the waist.[165] They also wore flat hats, and some of them had string of pearls which hung over their faces just like the hats which were worn by the Han Chinese emperors of the earlier dynasties.[165] Yuan Shikai's deliberate way of dressing up to pay respect to Heaven was not only made in accordance to the old imperial traditions, but it can also be considered as a public declaration to the Chinese people and to the world that the old Chinese customs were still relevant in modern society.[212] When Yuan Shikai died in 1916, he was buried in imperial gown which was decorated with nine golden dragons.[212] However, since his reign was short-lived, the attempts at restoring ancient Chinese ceremonial and official gowns failed and gradually disappeared.[165]

In 1919, women aoqun evolved; the ao became slimmer and longer until it reached below the narrow; the sleeves became narrower to the wrists, and the side slits were shortened; the collars became very high with some corners turning down sometimes and other collars reaching up to the ears.[165] The edges of the ao became narrow contrasting to the wide bands of embroidery which was popular in the past.[165] The ao was worn with a one-piece ankle length skirt.[165]

In the early 1920s, the ao became more fitted and was shortened reaching only the top of the hip with a rounded hem, the sleeves were also shortened to three quarter of its length. The skirt became plainer, cut with a simple flared style, and wide waistband was replaced by narrow band in which a cord or elastic was threaded.[165] The qipao, also known as cheongsam, was eventually created in the middle of 1920s.[165]

In 1927, changshan and magua was established as the formal, official wear for men, and they were worn for important ceremonies, such as weddings, temple and ancestral halls worship.[165] Women's formal wear was either a black ao and blue skirt with the same style as the earlier outfit or the cheongsam.[165]

In the mid-1930s as men started to adopt more Western clothing. Under the Japanese occupation, more men started to wear even more Western suits and ties, and the men traditional clothing was worn on informal occasions.[165] In 1932, the Nationalist government began to force Miao, Yao, and Kam people to wear hanfu.[213]

During the Cultural Revolution, traditional Chinese clothing, as a broad term, was considered as being part of one of the "four olds" and the Mao suit was popularized for both genders.[165] Skirts also disappeared as they were considered being both impractical for manual work and ideologically inappropriate during this time period.[165] In 1974, Jiang Qing, the fourth wife of Mao Zedong, wanted to make an attire, known as the Jiang Qing dress, as the national dress for the Chinese women.[27]: 248–255 [214] The Jiang Qing dress, which she personally designed, consisted of pleated skirts instead of trousers, the sleeves were nearly elbow-length, there was a central opening, and the neckline was V-shaped and was delineated by a wide, white band; the skirt was based on the pleated skirts (i.e. the "one hundred pleats" skirt) worn by the court ladies worn in Tang dynasty paintings.[27]: 248–255 [214] The earliest form of Jiang Qing dress is documented and appear in the 1974 Asian Games photos.[27]: 248–255  Jiang Qing tried to popularize the dress in diverse ways through public and foreign avenues; however, her dress failed to win popularity and was disliked.[27]: 248–255  Since the late 1970s, skirts and dresses reappeared and western-style clothing became popular in daily lives.[27]: 257–265 

Hanfu in popular media and opera (20th century – present)

Since the 20th century, hanfu and hanfu-style clothing has been used frequently as ancient costumes in Chinese and foreign television series, films and other forms of entertainment media, and was widely popularized since the late 1980s dramas.[23][215][24][216] One example of historically inaccurate hanfu-style costume is the costume worn by Disney's Mulan, where the wide sleeves of the hanfu were reduced to narrow sleeves reflecting modern fashion and to reflect the character of Disney's Mulan.[216]

Many elements and costumes styles worn in Chinese opera are derived from the Ming dynasty clothing and may be blended with the clothing style from the Tang to Qing dynasty.[217] The opera costumes worn in Kunqu opera is primarily based on the clothing worn in Ming dynasty.[218] And, most of the style of costumes depicted in Cantonese opera are also derived from the clothing of the Ming dynasty, with a few exception being derived from the Qing dynasty clothing.[219][220] Costumes of Cantonese opera uses the Ming-style clothing for opera which are set in all dynasties, except for the ones set in the Qing dynasty; those costumes follow the Qing-style.[221][222]

Hanfu in modern Taoism (20th century – present)

Modern Taoist monks and Taoism practitioners continue to style their long hair into a touji (頭髻; a topknot hairstyle) and wear traditional clothing.[223][224][225][226] Some modern taoist abbess and priests also wear cross-collared jiaoling youren robes and hats.[227][228]

21st century

Hanfu Movement

The Hanfu Movement is an ongoing social movement which aims at popularizing hanfu and integrating traditional Chinese elements into the design of modern clothing, as a way to promote traditional Chinese culture.

On 22 November 2003, a man named Wang Letian wore a DIY shenyi in public; his hanfu story was published in Lianhe Zaobao newspaper and attracted the public attention. This is commonly perceived as the beginning of the modern Hanfu Movement.[142][229]

Growing popularity and market trend

Han Chinese wearing hanfu in streets

Entering the 21st century, hanfu has become a fashion trend and lucrative business sector. In 2018, it was estimated that the hanfu market consisted of 2 million potential consumers.[1] The estimated revenue sales for 2019 was 1.4 billion yuan (US$199.3 million).[1] According to the iiMedia 2018 survey, women make up 88.2% of the hanfu enthusiasts and 75.8% of the hanfu stores on Taobao and Tmall platforms only sell hanfu for women.[1]

In 2019, it was estimated that there were 1,188 online hanfu stores on Tmall and Taobao which shows an increase of 45.77% over the previous year.[1] The hanfu stores Chong Hui Han Tang ranked third on Tmall in 2019 after the hanfu store Hanshang Hualian and Shisanyu.[1] In the 2019 edition of the Xitang Hanfu Culture Week, it was estimated that it attracted 40,000 Hanfu enthusiast participants.[1]

A study done by Forward Industry Research Institute (a Chinese research institute) shows that by 2020, the number of hanfu enthusiasts in China has reached 5.163 million, creating a market size equivalent to 6.36 billion yuan (US$980 million), a proportional increase of over 40% compared to the previous year. Meanwhile, it is projected that by the end of 2021, the total number of hanfu enthusiasts across China will exceed 7 million, and that the market size of hanfu will exceed 9 billion yuan (US$1.39 billion).[230]

Modern hanfu

The 21st century hanfu is still referred as hanfu within the Hanfu cultural community for ease of expression.[18] On March 8, 2021, the magazine Vogue published an article on modern hanfu defining it as a "type of dress from any era when Han Chinese ruled" and reported that the styles based on the Tang, Song, Ming periods were the most popular.[231]

According to some contemporary scholars, modern day hanfu can be classified into three categories:

These reproductions are made strictly following the styles depicted on ancient paintings, murals, and/or archaeological finds.

  1. "Contemporary Hanfu" (also known as modern hanfu, new hanfu, restored hanfu[18] and improved hanfu[232]) which refers to those that are developed based on historical styles of hanfu, and largely retain the ancient styles (can still be classified into existing categories of historical hanfu, such as ruqun, beizi etc.), but with modern aesthetics and technologies introduced into their designs.[232]
  2. "Hanyuansu" (漢元素), or "Clothes with Hanfu Elements", refers to modern/everyday clothing with hanfu style features and/or elements in their design, but cannot be classified into existing categories of ancient hanfu.[233]

Characteristics and design

Most modern hanfu are based on sculptures, paintings, art objects, historical records, and historical clothing.Ming dynasty Han Chinese robes given by the Ming Emperors to the Chinese noble Dukes Yansheng descended from Confucius are still preserved in the Confucius Mansion after over five centuries. Robes from the Qing emperors are also preserved there.[234][235][236][237] The Jurchens in the Jin dynasty and Mongols in the Yuan dynasty continued to patronize and support the Confucian Duke Yansheng.[238] Around the year 2007 or 2008, a group of young people from Minghang district, Shanghai, started a project to restore Chinese clothing from ancient dynasties based on rigorous research, spending their days reading ancient documents and looking at paintings to find detailed information about the styles, materials, colours and patterns used in ancient times; this group is called the Ancient Chinese Clothing Restoration Team Archived 15 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine.[239]

It is also worth noting that an important feature of the modern hanfu (regardless of the three categories it belongs to) is its jiaoling youren characteristic. In fact, this design bear special cultural moral and ethical values. It is said the left collar covering the right represents the perfection of human culture on human nature and the overcoming of bodily forces by the spiritual power of ethical ritual teaching; the expansive cutting and board sleeve represents a moral, concordant relation between nature and human creative power; the use of the girdle to fasten the garment over the body represents the constraints of Han culture to limit human's desire that would incur amoral deed.[240] As a result, jiaoling youren has become an inseparable part of modern hanfu design.

The modern hanfu also changes to a style that can be worn daily, and these styles combined with western clothing or even clothing from other cultures.[241] For example, the recent emergence of Christmas-theme hanfu trend (which occurred especially for Christmas season) on social media and online shops combines hanfu with Christmas elements and Christmas colour hues.[242][243] Another trend is the incorporation of (western-style) lace elements to the hanfu; however, those designs are not considered as authentic hanfu but are considered being clothing with Han elements (or hanyuansu).[1]

Garments

The style of historical Han clothing can be summarized as containing garment elements that are arranged in distinctive and sometimes specific ways. A complete set of garment is assembled from several pieces of clothing into an attire:

There is differences between traditional garment of Han ethnic and other ethnic groups in China, most notably the Manchu-influenced clothes, qipao, which is popularly considered to be the de facto traditional Han Chinese garb. A general comparison of the two styles can be seen as the following provides:[244]

Footwear

There were many etiquettes which rule people's daily lives, and this included the use and etiquettes of shoes and socks wearing.[245] The rules of Zhou stipulated that shoes had to be removed before entering a house; shoes and socks had to be removed at banquets, and ministers who had to meet with the emperor had to remove both their shoes and socks.[245] Being barefoot was considered a taboo on ceremonial worship occasions.[245]

Headwear and hairstyles

Ways of tying the topknot seen on Qin Terracotta soldiers. Hairs were partially tied at the back of the head with braids, sometimes having no topknot at all.
Han dynasty pottery figure showing topknot partially folded into a tail with braid behind the back of the head.

On top of the garments, hats (for men) or hairpieces (for women) may be worn. One can often tell the profession or social rank of someone by what they wear on their heads. The typical types of male headwear are called jin (巾) for soft caps, mao (帽) for stiff hats and guan for formal headdress. Officials and academics have a separate set of hats, typically the putou, the wushamao, the si-fang pingding jin (四方平定巾; or simply, fangjin: 方巾) and the Zhuangzi jin (莊子巾). A typical hairpiece for women is the hairpin called ji (笄) that appeared since Neolithic time, and there are more elaborate hairpieces.

In addition, managing hair was also a crucial part of ancient Han people's daily life. Commonly, males and females would stop cutting their hair once they reached adulthood. This was marked by the Chinese coming of age ceremony Guan Li, usually performed between ages 15 to 20. They allowed their hair to grow long naturally until death, including facial hair. This was due to Confucius' teaching "Shenti fa fu, shou zhu fumu, bu gan huishang, xiaozhi shi ye (身體髮膚,受諸父母,不敢毀傷,孝之始也)" – which can be roughly translated as 'My body, hair and skin are bestowed by my father and mother, I dare not damage any of them, as this is the least I can do to honor and respect my parents'. In fact, cutting one's hair off in ancient China was considered a legal punishment called 'Kun (髡)',[195] designed to humiliate criminals, as well as applying a character as a facial tattoo to notify one's criminality, the punishment is referred to as 'Qing (黥)', since regular people wouldn't have tattoos on their skin attributed to the same philosophy.

Mural of two women with Han hairstyles, Dahuting Tomb

Children were exempt from the above commandment; they could cut their hair short, make different kinds of knots or braids, or simply just let them hang without any care, especially because such a decision was usually made by the parents rather than the children themselves; therefore, parental respect was not violated. However, once they entered adulthood, every male was obliged to tie his long hair into a bun called ji (髻) either on or behind his head and always cover the bun up with different kinds of headdresses (except Buddhist monks, who would always keep their heads completely shaved to show that they're "cut off from the earthly bonds of the mortal world"; and Taoist monks, who would usually just use hair sticks called zan to hold the buns in place without concealing them). Thus the 'disheveled hair', a common but erring depiction of ancient Chinese male figures seen in most modern Chinese period dramas or movies with hair (excluding facial hair) hanging down from both sides and/or in the back are historically inaccurate.[246] Females on the other hand, had more choices in terms of decorating their hair as adults. They could still arrange their hair into as various kinds of hairstyles as they pleased. There were different fashions for women in various dynastic periods.

Such strict "no-cutting" hair tradition was implemented all throughout Han Chinese history since Confucius' time up until the end of Ming dynasty (1644 CE), when the Qing Prince Dorgon forced the male Han people to adopt the hairstyle of Manchu men, which was shave their foreheads bald and gather the rest of the hair into the queue to show that they submitted to Qing authority, the so-called "Queue Order" (薙髮令). Han children and females were spared from this order, also Taoist monks were allowed to keep their hair and Buddhist monks were allowed to keep all their hair shaven. Han defectors to the Qing like Li Chengdong and Liu Liangzuo and their Han troops carried out the queue order to force it on the general population. Han Chinese soldiers in 1645 under Han General Hong Chengchou forced the queue on the people of Jiangnan while Han people were initially paid silver to wear the queue in Fuzhou when it was first implemented.[183]

Accessories

Hanfu also consists of many forms of accessories, such as jewelry, waist ornaments, ribbons, shawls, scarves, and other hand-held items.

Influences and derivatives

Gallery

See also

Sub-categories of hanfu

Traditional Chinese clothing and culture

Notes

  1. ^ see Hufu.
  2. ^ For wooden figures from a Xingyang warring-state period tomb, see external links.
  3. ^ In this context, the shanqun refers to the upper garment covering the skirt, while ruqun refers to the covering of upper garment by the skirt.
  4. ^ Hufu in the Tang dynasty included clothing styles from the Tartars or clothing of the people who lived in the Western Regions during this period.
  5. ^ The term 'haner' refers to Han Chinese of mixed origins or who have adopted some Khitan customs.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Wang, Xinyi; Colbert, François; Legoux, Renaud (2020). "From Niche Interest to Fashion Trend: Hanfu Clothing as a Rising Industry in China". International Journal of Arts Management. 23 (1). Retrieved 1 February 2021.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Steele, Valerie (1999). China chic : East meets West. John S. Major. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07930-3. OCLC 40135301.
  3. ^ China Daily (4 September 2019). "Hanfu market grows across China". China Daily. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
  4. ^ Zhang, Tianwei (25 November 2020). "Putting China's Traditional Hanfu on the World Stage". Women's Wear Daily [WWD]. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
  5. ^ Wright, Julia (17 August 2019). "Traditional Chinese clothing inspires a budding fashion in Saint John". CBC News. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Yang, Shaorong (2004). Traditional Chinese clothing : costumes, adornments & culture (1st ed.). San Francisco: Long River Press. ISBN 9781592650194. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  7. ^ "National Museum of Korea: Quarterly Magazine, vol.47 by National Museum of Korea - Issuu". issuu.com. 20 May 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2024.
  8. ^ Stevens, Rebecca (1996). The kimono inspiration: art and art-to-wear in America. Pomegranate. pp. 131–142. ISBN 978-0-87654-598-0.
  9. ^ Dalby, Liza (2001). Kimono: Fashioning Culture. Washington, USA: University of Washington Press. pp. 25–32. ISBN 978-0-295-98155-0.
  10. ^ "Traditional Costume that Represents Okinawa's Culture and National Features, the "Ryusou". | Features | Okinawa Travel Info". okinawatravelinfo.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
  11. ^ Nordquist, Barbara K. (1 January 1978). "The Ryūkyū Islands: Some Notes on Dress". Dress. 4 (1): 66–75. doi:10.1179/036121178805298829. ISSN 0361-2112.
  12. ^ 《大南實錄・正編・第一紀・世祖實錄》,越南阮朝,國史館
  13. ^ 《大南实录・正编・第一纪・卷五十四・嘉隆十五年七月条》,越南阮朝,國史館
  14. ^ Rovai, Serena (2016). Luxury the Chinese way : new competitive scenarios. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire. ISBN 978-1-137-53775-1. OCLC 946357865.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ^ Sandra Lee Evenson (30 October 2014). "Hanfu Chinese robes". In Annette Lynch; Mitchell D. Strauss (eds.). Ethnic Dress in the United States A Cultural Encyclopedia. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-0-7591-2150-8.
  16. ^ Brown, John (2006). China, Japan, Korea: Culture and Customs. Createspace Independent Publishing (published 7 September 2006). p. 79. ISBN 978-1419648939.
  17. ^ a b c Bulag, Uradyn E. (2010), "Wearing Ethnic Identity: Power of Dress", East Asia, vol. 6, Oxford: Berg Publishers, pp. 75–80, doi:10.2752/bewdf/edch6014, ISBN 9781847888556, retrieved 28 February 2021
  18. ^ a b c d Shi, Songge (2021). Travelling With Hanfu: A Social Media Analysis of Contemporary Chinese Travelling for Artistic Photographs (Master of International Tourism Management thesis). Auckland University of Technology.
  19. ^ a b Peterson, Barbara Bennett (2015). Notable women of China : Shang dynasty to the early twentieth century. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781315702063. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  20. ^ China National Silk Museum. "中国丝绸博物馆". www.chinasilkmuseum.com. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  21. ^ Travel China Guide. "Celebrities of Yangtze Area". Travel China Guide. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  22. ^ "Book of Changes : Xi Ci II – Chinese Text Project". ctext.org (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h Ho, Wei; Lee, Eun-Young (2009). "Modern Meaning of Han Chinese Clothing" (PDF). Journal of the Korea Fashion & Costume Design Association. 11 (1): 99–109.
  24. ^ a b Ma, Xiaofang (2018). "Study on the Aesthetics of Han Chinese Clothing Culture in the TV Play qNirvana in Fireq". Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Contemporary Education, Social Sciences and Humanities (ICCESSH 2018). Vol. 233. Atlantis Press. pp. 639–643. doi:10.2991/iccessh-18.2018.143. ISBN 978-94-6252-528-3.
  25. ^ a b Gardner, Eric; Lin, Shuning; Tan, Qiuye; Ma, Antonia. "Ancient China | Chinese Culture: Communicating through Fashion". you.stonybrook.edu. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  26. ^ Sim, Cheryl (2019). Wearing the cheongsam : dress and culture in a Chinese diaspora. London. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-350-10987-2. OCLC 1109390790.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  27. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Finnane, Antonia (2008). Changing clothes in China : fashion, history, nation. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14350-9. OCLC 84903948.
  28. ^ a b "Ancestors, The Story of China – BBC Two". BBC.
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Dien, Albert E. (2007). Six dynasties civilization. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07404-8. OCLC 72868060.
  30. ^ a b c d e Lüsted, Marcia Amidon (2017). Ancient Chinese daily life (1 ed.). New York: New York : Rosen Publishing. pp. 14–22. ISBN 978-1-4777-8889-9. OCLC 957525459.
  31. ^ Styling Shanghai. Christopher Breward, Juliette MacDonald. London, UK: Bloomsbury. 2020. pp. 47–50, 54. ISBN 978-1-350-05114-0. OCLC 1029205918.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  32. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Feng, Ge; Du, Zhengming (2015). Traditional Chinese rites and rituals. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443887830. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  33. ^ Zhao, Yin (2014). Snapshots of Chinese culture. Xinzhi Cai. Los Angeles: Bridge21 Publications. ISBN 978-1-62643-003-7. OCLC 912499249. Archived from the original on 24 May 2021. Alt URL
  34. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Xu, Rui; Sparks, Diane (2011). "Symbolism and Evolution of Ku-form in Chinese Costume". Research Journal of Textile and Apparel. 15 (1): 11–21. doi:10.1108/rjta-15-01-2011-b002. ISSN 1560-6074.
  35. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sheng, Angela (1995). "The Disappearance of Silk Weaves with Weft Effects in Early China". Chinese Science (12): 41–76. ISSN 0361-9001. JSTOR 43290485.
  36. ^ The National Museum of China. "Xia, Shang, and Western Zhou Dynasties : II Economy". The National Museum of China. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  37. ^ "Shang Dynasty (1600 B. C. — 1046 B. C.) — Empire of Bronze Age and Scripts on Oracle Bones". chinafetching.com. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
  38. ^ Zuozhuan, "Duke Ding - 10th year - zhuan"
  39. ^ Chunqiu Zuozhuan Zhengyi, "vol. 56" quote: "夏,大也。中國有禮儀之大,故稱夏;有服章之美,謂之華。華、夏一也。" p. 70 of 118
  40. ^ Liu, Xuediao [劉學銚] (2005). 中國文化史講稿 (in Chinese). Taipei: 知書房出版集團. p. 9. ISBN 978-986-7640-65-9. 古時炎黃之胄常自稱,「華夏」有時又作「諸夏」《左傳》定公十年(西元前 500 年)有:裔不謀夏,夷不亂華。對於此句其疏曰:中國有禮儀之大,故稱夏;有服章之美,謂之華。
  41. ^ Zhu, Ruixi; Zhang, Bangwei; Liu, Fusheng; Cai, Chongbang; Wang, Zengyu (2016). A Social History of Medieval China. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-16786-5. To quote an ancient text, "there is grand ceremonial etiquette so it is called xia (), and there is the beauty of apparel which is called hua ()."[1] (And that's how China is also called huaxia [华夏].) [...] [1] 'The Tenth Year of Duke Ding of Lu' (定公十年), Zuo Qiuming's Commentary on Spring and Autumn Annals (左傳), explained by Yan Shigu (顏師古, 581–645).
  42. ^ 阮衛萍 (1992). "從今话古談襦裙". 紫禁城 (5): 26–30. ISSN 1003-0328.
  43. ^ (“所以称深衣者,以余服则,上衣下裳不相连,此深衣衣裳相连,被体深邃,故谓之深衣。”) Liji Zhengyi (礼记正义·深衣) vol. 65, of Wujing Zhengyi (五经正义).
  44. ^ 故宮博物院《紫禁城》(1992年第05期),紫禁城雜誌編輯部,第28-32頁
  45. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Zhang, Qizhi (2015). An introduction to Chinese history and culture. Heidelberg: Heidelberg Springer. ISBN 978-3-662-46482-3. OCLC 909065833. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  46. ^ Book of Rites, "vol. 43" 冠義 quote: "凡人之所以為人者,禮義也。禮義之始,在於正容體、齊顏色、順辭令。容體正,顏色齊,辭令順,而後禮義備。以正君臣、親父子、和長幼。君臣正,父子親,長幼和,而後禮義立。故冠而後服備,服備而後容體正、顏色齊、辭令順。故曰:冠者,禮之始也。是故古者聖王重冠。" 1 of 4
  47. ^ a b Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2015). World Clothing and Fashion : an Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Social Influence. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. pp. 121–122. ISBN 978-1-317-45167-9. OCLC 910448387.
  48. ^ Milburn, Olivia; Yan, Ying (2015). The Spring and autumn annals of Master Yan. Leiden: Brill. p. 319. ISBN 978-90-04-30966-1. OCLC 933295487.
  49. ^ a b c Wang, Ningning (2019). A HISTORY OF ANCIENT CHINESE MUSIC AND DANCE. American Academic Press. p. 139. ISBN 9781631816345.
  50. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Zang, Yingchun; 臧迎春. (2003). Zhongguo chuan tong fu shi. 李竹润., 王德华., 顾映晨. (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Wu zhou chuan bo chu ban she. ISBN 7-5085-0279-5. OCLC 55895164. Alt URL
  51. ^ "2". Li yi. 女子許嫁,笄而醴之,稱字。
  52. ^ "2". Li yi. 皮弁笄,爵弁笄,緇組紘,纁邊,同篋。
  53. ^ a b China Style. "Garments during the Spring & Autumn and Warring States Period – – China Style". www.chinastyle.cn. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  54. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q LINGLEY, KATE A. (2010). "NATURALIZING THE EXOTIC: On the Changing Meanings of Ethnic Dress in Medieval China". Ars Orientalis. 38: 50–80. ISSN 0571-1371. JSTOR 29550020.
  55. ^ Havliček, Christine M. (1 December 2015). "Innovation Transfer during the Warring States Period: Considering the Importance of Early China's Relationship with the Steppes". Vienna Journal of East Asian Studies. 7 (1): 103–128. doi:10.2478/vjeas-2015-0004. S2CID 134772057.[permanent dead link]
  56. ^ a b c d e f g h Hays, Mary V (1989). "Chinese Skirts of the Qing dynasty" (PDF). The Bulletin of the Needle and Bobbin Club. 72: 4–42.
  57. ^ a b Wang, Yiwen; Luo, Ronglei (2020). "江陵马山一号楚墓襦裙形制及结构研究". Journal of Silk. 57 (6): 52–57. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1001-7003.2020.06.009.
  58. ^ a b c Hao Peng; Zhang Ling (2018). "On "Skirts" and "Trousers" in the Qin Dynasty Manuscript Making Clothes in the Collection of Peking University". Chinese Cultural Relics. 5 (1): 248–268.
  59. ^ a b Zhang Ling (2016). "A study on skirt construction in Qin dynasty" (PDF). The International Foundation of Fashion Technology Institutes. 18: 198–205.
  60. ^ "湖北江陵马山一号墓出土的衣被(下)". 中国考古网.
  61. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Hua, Mei; 华梅 (2004). Zhongguo fu shi (Di 1 ban ed.). Beijing: Wu zhou chuan bo chu ban she. ISBN 7-5085-0540-9. OCLC 60568032.
  62. ^ HunanChangsha. "The great mount of Chen, the Grave of Chu's Late Zhou Silk Painting 陈家大山楚墓出土的《人物龙凤帛画》". Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  63. ^ Dan, Zhou; Wang, Yunjiao (2021). "Research on Translation of Costume Terms in Chu Ci" (PDF). Academic Journal of Humanities & Social Sciences. 4 (2). Francis Academic Press, UK: 83–88. doi:10.25236/AJHSS.2021.040218. S2CID 233704568.
  64. ^ Hunan Museum. "Plain Gauze Gown". Hunan Museum. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
  65. ^ a b c d Howard, Michael C. (2016). Textiles and clothing of Viet Nam : a history. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4766-6332-6. OCLC 933520702.
  66. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Introduction to Chinese culture : cultural history, arts, festivals and rituals. Guobin Xu, Yanhui Chen, Lianhua Xu, Kaiju Chen, Xiyuan Xiong, Wenquan Wu. Singapore. 2018. ISBN 978-981-10-8156-9. OCLC 1030303372.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  67. ^ "25". Book of Jin. "通天冠,本秦制。高九寸,正竖,顶少斜却,乃直下,铁为卷梁,前有展筒,冠前加金博山述,乘舆所常服也。 "
  68. ^ Feng, Ge (2015). Traditional Chinese rites and rituals. Zhengming Du. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-1-4438-8783-0. OCLC 935642485.
  69. ^ van Someren, Taco C. R. van; Someren-Wang, Shuhua (2013). "Chinese Culture, Strategy, and Innovation". Innovative China : innovation race between East and West. Shuhua Someren-Wang. Berlin: Springer. pp. 27–56. ISBN 978-3-642-36237-8. OCLC 842903195.
  70. ^ a b c d e f "China: History of Dress | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
  71. ^ a b "Costume in the Han Dynasty – - China Style". www.chinastyle.cn. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  72. ^ a b c Zhao, Feng (2015). Lu, Yongxiang (ed.). A History of Chinese Science and Technology. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 391–392. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44166-4. ISBN 978-3-662-44165-7. S2CID 106930105.
  73. ^ "Shang Shu : Yu Shu : Yi and Ji – Chinese Text Project". ctext.org. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
  74. ^ "26". 晋书. "介帻服文吏,平上帻服武官也"
  75. ^ 禽经. "鹖,毅鸟也,毅不知死。状类鸡,首有冠,性敢于斗,死犹不置,是不知死也。《左传》:鹖冠,武土戴之,象其勇也。 "
  76. ^ a b c d e f g h i Müller, Shing (2019). The Cambridge history of China. Vol. 2. Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. OCLC 2424772.
  77. ^ a b c d e f g Kieser, Annette (2019). The Cambridge history of China. Vol. 2. Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 418–442. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. OCLC 2424772.
  78. ^ "15". Shiming. 簪珥。珥。耳珰垂珠也。簪以玳瑁为擿,长一尺,端为华胜,上为凤皇爵,以翡翠为毛羽,下有白珠,垂黄金镊。左右一横簪之,以安蔮结。诸簪珥皆同制,其擿有等级焉。
  79. ^ "15". Shiming. 步搖,上有垂珠,步則搖也。
  80. ^ Laursen, Sarah (2019). "10 Dressing the Dead in Jin China". The art and archaeology of bodily adornment : studies from Central and East Asian mortuary contexts. Sheri Lullo, Leslie V. Wallace. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 176–195. ISBN 978-1-351-26832-5. OCLC 1090702934.
  81. ^ Zhou, Fang; Bian, Xiangyang (2018). "LUO GUI XU ZHUAN HONG XIU YANG: – some questions about GUIYI". China Silk Information Center. Retrieved 11 February 2021.[dead link] Alt URL
  82. ^ Lullo, Sheri A. (2019). "Trailing Locks and Flowing Robes: Dimensions of Beauty during China's Han dynasty (206 bc–ad 220)". Edinburgh University Press. 53 (2): 231–255. doi:10.3366/cost.2019.0122. ISSN 0590-8876. S2CID 204710548.
  83. ^ Duong, Nancy. "Evolution of Chinese Clothing and Cheongsam". Nancy Duong Art. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
  84. ^ "25". Book of Jin. "通天冠,本秦制。高九寸,正竖,顶少斜却,乃直下,铁为卷梁,前有展筒,冠前加金博山述,乘舆所常服也。 " "武冠,一名武弁,一名大冠,一名繁冠,一名建冠,一名笼冠,即古之惠文冠。或曰赵惠文王所造,因以为名。亦云,惠者蟪也,其冠文轻细如蝉翼,故名惠文。或云,齐人见千岁涸泽之神,名曰庆忌,冠大冠,乘小车,好疾驰,因象其冠而服焉。汉幸臣闳孺为侍中,皆服大冠。天子元服亦先加大冠,左右侍臣及诸将军武官通服之。侍中、常侍则加金珰,附蝉为饰,插以貂毛,黄金为竿,侍中插左,常侍插右。"
  85. ^ a b Chinastyle. "Costume of Wei and Jin Periods – - China Style". www.chinastyle.cn. Retrieved 10 February 2021.
  86. ^ Zhang, Qizhi (2015), "The Rich and Colorful Social Life in Ancient China", An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture, China Academic Library, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 249–282, doi:10.1007/978-3-662-46482-3_9, ISBN 978-3-662-46481-6, retrieved 14 February 2021
  87. ^ "Hanfu History of Ancient Chinese Underwear – 2021". www.newhanfu.com. 15 January 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  88. ^ Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. (2011). The Complete Costume Dictionary. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-4004-1.
  89. ^ a b c d "Costume in the Northern and Southern Dynasties – - China Style". www.chinastyle.cn. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  90. ^ Kieser, Annette (2019). The Cambridge history of China. Vol. 2. Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 436–439. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. OCLC 2424772.
  91. ^ Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). China between empires : the northern and southern dynasties. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 81, 167. ISBN 978-0-674-04015-1. OCLC 432671549.
  92. ^ a b c d Holcombe, Charles (2013). "The Xianbei in Chinese History". Early Medieval China. 2013 (19): 1–38. doi:10.1179/1529910413Z.0000000006. ISSN 1529-9104. S2CID 162191498.
  93. ^ Tsiang, Katherine R. (1 June 2002). "Changing Patterns of Divinity and Reform in the Late Northern Wei". The Art Bulletin. 84 (2): 222–245. doi:10.1080/00043079.2002.10787019. ISSN 0004-3079. S2CID 154208315 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  94. ^ "Northern Wei Tomb in Yunboli Road, Datong, Shanxi. Tomb M1". dla.library.upenn.edu. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
  95. ^ "Northern Wei Tombs, Yanbei Teacher College, Datong, Shanxi. Tomb M2". dla.library.upenn.edu. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
  96. ^ Müller, Shing (2019). "Chapter 18 Northern Material Culture". The Cambridge History of China Volume 2: Six dynasties. Cambridge University Press. p. 408. ISBN 9781139107334.
  97. ^ a b c d e Wright, Arthur F. (1979). Sui and T'ang China, 589–906. Part 1. Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–55, 58, 73, 81. ISBN 1-139-05594-1. OCLC 317592780.
  98. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art : Department of Asian Art (2002). "Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386–581)". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
  99. ^ a b c d e Lingley, Kate A (2014). "Silk Road Dress in a Chinese Tomb: Xu Xianxiu and sixth-century cosmopolitanism" (PDF). The Silk Road. 12: 1–13.
  100. ^ a b c China : dawn of a golden age, 200–750 AD. James C. Y. Watt, Prudence Oliver Harper, Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004. ISBN 1-58839-126-4. OCLC 55846475.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  101. ^ a b c Hinsch, Bret (2019). Women in Tang China. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 149. ISBN 978-1-5381-3489-4. OCLC 1122686753.
  102. ^ Han, Jing; Quye, Anita (2 January 2018). "Dyes and Dyeing in the Ming and Qing Dynasties in China: Preliminary Evidence Based on Primary Sources of Documented Recipes". Textile History. 49 (1): 44–70. doi:10.1080/00404969.2018.1440099. ISSN 0040-4969. S2CID 192360196.
  103. ^ "2. Clothing – The Influence of Chang-An Culture to Korea and Japan". you.stonybrook.edu. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
  104. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cunrui, Victor Xiong (2006). Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty : His Life, Times, and Legacy. State University of New York Press. pp. 132–134. ISBN 978-0-7914-8268-1. OCLC 1042816832.
  105. ^ a b c d Lang, Qing (2017). "The qRedq Finery System in the Sui and Tang Dynasties". Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Education, Management, Arts, Economics and Social Science (ICEMAESS 2017). Vol. 172. Atlantis Press. pp. 551–557. doi:10.2991/icemaess-17.2017.121. ISBN 978-94-6252-425-5.
  106. ^ Croy, Anita (2015). Everyday life: Inside ancient China (1 ed.). Armonk, N.Y.: Routledge, 2015. p. 27. ISBN 978-1317470939. OCLC 907525912.
  107. ^ Ma, Boying (2020). History Of Medicine In Chinese Culture, A (In 2 Volumes). Singapore: World Scientific. p. 40. ISBN 978-981-323-799-5. OCLC 1147841857.
  108. ^ a b Ka Shing, Charles (1 January 2014). "The Development of Academic Dress in China". Transactions of the Burgon Society. 14 (1): 60–68. doi:10.4148/2475-7799.1119. ISSN 2475-7799.
  109. ^ a b c Vollmer, John E. (2007). Dressed to rule : 18th century court attire in the Mactaggart Art Collection. Mactaggart Art Collection. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press. ISBN 978-1-55195-705-0. OCLC 680510577.
  110. ^ Wang, Qiao-ling (2008). "Women Fashion of Tang Dynasty and Foreign Cultural Communication". Journal of Zhejiang Wanli University. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  111. ^ Cao, Zhe (2006). "Women's Common Dress in Tang Dynasty and Its Features at Different Stages". Journal of Wuhan University of Science and Engineering. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  112. ^ a b c d e Chen, BuYun (2017). "Material Girls: Silk and Self-Fashioning in Tang China (618–907)". Fashion Theory. 21 (1): 5–33. doi:10.1080/1362704X.2016.1138679. ISSN 1362-704X. S2CID 155949571.
  113. ^ a b Bao, Mingxin (1991). "THE WAISTLINE OF WOMEN'S COSTUMES IN TANG DYNASTY AND ITS AESTHETIC EFFECTS--《中国纺织大学学报》1991年Z1期". en.cnki.com.cn. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
  114. ^ a b Wan, Li (2016). "The Implicit Beauty and Open Beauty of Tang Dynasty's Aesthetic Taste from Tang Dynasty Noble Women's Clothing Features". Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Contemporary Education, Social Sciences and Humanities. Paris, France: Atlantis Press. pp. 352–355. doi:10.2991/iccessh-16.2016.90. ISBN 978-94-6252-215-2.
  115. ^ Lin, Lin (2018). "Design Comparison of Creative Tang Suit and European Imperial Costume". Proceedings of the International Conference on Contemporary Education, Social Sciences and Ecological Studies (CESSES 2018). Vol. 283. Paris, France: Atlantis Press. pp. 488–493. doi:10.2991/cesses-18.2018.109. ISBN 978-94-6252-606-8.
  116. ^ a b Deng, Qionghua (2016). "Research of Women Dresses in the Tang Dynasty and the Modern Dresses Under the Perspective of Postmodernism". Proceedings of the International Conference on Electronics, Mechanics, Culture and Medicine. Vol. 45. Paris, France: Atlantis Press. pp. 672–677. doi:10.2991/emcm-15.2016.100. ISBN 978-94-6252-163-6.
  117. ^ a b c Chen, Buyun (2013). Toward a definition of "fashion" in Tang China (618–907 CE): BuYun Chen (PhD thesis). Columbia University. doi:10.7916/D8KK9B6D. ISBN 978-3-631-60975-0.
  118. ^ Xv, Zhaofang (2014). "An Attempt to Analyze the Implicitness of the Aesthetic Features of Chinese Art Taking the Aesthetic Features of Women's Clothing in the Flourishing Period of Tang Dynasty as an Example". Proceedings of the International Conference on Education, Language, Art and Intercultural Communication. Vol. 3. Atlantis Press. pp. 628–631. doi:10.2991/icelaic-14.2014.158. ISBN 978-94-6252-013-4.
  119. ^ a b c Hsu, Cho-yun (2012). China : A new cultural history. Columbia University Press. p. 220. ISBN 9780231528184.
  120. ^ Costume in the Tang Dynasty Archived 5 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine chinaculture.org retrieved 7 January 2010
  121. ^ Yoon, Ji-Won (2006). "Research of the Foreign Dancing Costumes: From Han to Sui-Tang Dynasty". The Korean Society of Costume. pp. 57–72.
  122. ^ a b Yang, Shao-yun (2017). "Changing Clothes in Chang'an". China Review International. 24 (4). University of Hawai'i Press: 255–266. doi:10.1353/cri.2017.0064. JSTOR 26892132. S2CID 217042987 – via JSTOR.
  123. ^ a b c Chinaculture.org. "Woman's costume in the Tang Dynasty". China Daily. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
  124. ^ Chen, Buyun (2019). Empire of style : silk and fashion in Tang China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-295-74531-2. OCLC 1101879641.
  125. ^ a b c Xu, Man (2016). Crossing the Gate: Everyday Lives of Women in Song Fujian (960–1279). SUNY Press. pp. 70–72. ISBN 978-1438463223.
  126. ^ 马, 承源; 岳, 峰, eds. (1998). 新疆维吾尔自治区絲路考古珎品, Volume 1. 上海博物館. 上海译文出版社. pp. 297, 298. ISBN 9787532721450. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
  127. ^ 郑, 重 (1991). Xie Zhiliu yi shu sheng ya. 中华书局(新)有限公司. p. 87. ISBN 9789971615215.
  128. ^ Behind the veil of the Forbidden City. Panda books. Yuehua Guan, Liangbi Zhong (illustrated ed.). Chinese Literature Press. 1996. pp. 43, 44, 146. ISBN 0835131785.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  129. ^ Benn, Charles D. (2002). Daily Life in Traditional China: The Tang Dynasty. Greenwood Press "Daily life through history" series (illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 106. ISBN 0313309558. ISSN 1080-4749.
  130. ^ a b 臧, 迎春 (2003). 臧, 迎春 (ed.). 中国传统服饰. 臧迎春, 李竹润. 五洲传播出版社. ISBN 7508502795.
  131. ^ Ding, Ying (2016). "The Effects of Foreign Cultures to the Women Clothes in the Tang Dynasty". Proceedings of the International Conference on Electronics, Mechanics, Culture and Medicine. Vol. 45. Atlantis Press. pp. 497–502. doi:10.2991/emcm-15.2016.94. ISBN 978-94-6252-163-6.
  132. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Shea, Eiren L. (2020). Mongol Court Dress, Identity Formation, and Global Exchange. Routledge Research in Art History (illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1000027891.
  133. ^ Russell-Smith, Lilla Bikfalvy (2003). "Wives and Patrons: Uygur Political and Artistic Influence in Tenth-Century Dunhuang". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 56 (2/4): 401–428. doi:10.1556/AOrient.56.2003.2-4.20. ISSN 0001-6446. JSTOR 23659378.
  134. ^ Dardess, John W. (2010). Governing China, 150-1850. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-60384-447-5. OCLC 669127176.
  135. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Zhu, Ruixi; 朱瑞熙 (2016). A social history of middle-period China : the Song, Liao, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. Bangwei Zhang, Fusheng Liu, Chongbang Cai, Zengyu Wang, Peter Ditmanson, Bang Qian Zhu (Updated ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 978-1-107-16786-5. OCLC 953576345.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  136. ^ a b c d e Costume in the Song Dynasty Archived 5 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine chinaculture.org retrieved 7 January 2010
  137. ^ a b c d e Hinsch, Bret (2021). Women in Song and Yuan China. Lanham, Maryland. pp. 127–129. ISBN 978-1-5381-4492-3. OCLC 1184122156.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  138. ^ a b Chou XiBao (2011). History of Chinese Ancient Clothing.
  139. ^ "Guide to Traditional Chinese Clothing – Hanfu". Newhanfu. 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
  140. ^ 贾玺增 (2011). "巾环、玉屏花、玉逍遥与玉结子——宋元明时期巾帽类首服的固定和装饰用具". 紫禁城 (1): 86.
  141. ^ BLANCHARD, LARA C. W. (2009). "Huizong's New Clothes". Ars Orientalis. 36: 111–135. ISSN 0571-1371. JSTOR 40646246.
  142. ^ a b c d Hu, Minghui (2016). "The Scholar's Robe: Material Culture and Political Power in Early Modern China". Frontiers of History in China. 11 (3): 339–375. doi:10.3868/s020-005-016-0020-4. ISSN 1673-3401.
  143. ^ a b c d e f Wang, Guojun (2020). Staging Personhood: Costuming in Early Qing Drama. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231549578.
  144. ^ Kuhn, Dieter (2000). ""Liao Architecture": Qidan Innovations and Han-Chinese Traditions?". T'oung Pao. 86 (4/5): 325–362. doi:10.1163/15685320051072744. ISSN 0082-5433. JSTOR 4528851.
  145. ^ a b Tackett, Nicolas (2017). The Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order. Cambridge University Press. p. 241. ISBN 978-1108186926.
  146. ^ Rorex, Robert Albright (1984). "Some Liao Tomb Murals and Images of Nomads in Chinese Paintings of the Wen-Chi Story". Artibus Asiae. 45 (2/3): 174–198. doi:10.2307/3249729. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3249729.
  147. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Johnson, Linda Cooke (2011). Women of the conquest dynasties : gender and identity in Liao and Jin China. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-6024-0. OCLC 794925381.
  148. ^ China Review International, Volume 19. University of Hawaii at Manoa. Center for Chinese Studies. University of Hawaiʻi, Center for Chinese Studies and University of Hawaii Press. 2012. p. 101.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  149. ^ a b c Franke, Herbert; Twitchett, Denis C. (2008). Alien regimes and border states, 907–1368. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-05474-4. OCLC 317592785.
  150. ^ Keay, John (2011). China: A History (reprint ed.). Basic Books. p. 335. ISBN 978-0465025183.
  151. ^ a b c Khun, Dieter (2011). The Age of Confucian Rule: The Song Transformation of Chin. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674244344.
  152. ^ a b Dunnell, Ruth W. (1996). The great state of white and high : Buddhism and state formation in eleventh-century Xia. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-585-34402-7. OCLC 47010540.
  153. ^ a b c d Watt, James C. Y. (2010). The world of Khubilai Khan : Chinese art in the Yuan Dynasty. Maxwell K. Hearn, Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-1-58839-402-6. OCLC 606786260.
  154. ^ a b c d e f Wei, Luo (2 January 2018). "A Preliminary Study of Mongol Costumes in the Ming Dynasty". Social Sciences in China. 39 (1): 165–185. doi:10.1080/02529203.2018.1414417. ISSN 0252-9203. S2CID 149138176.
  155. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Chen, BuYun (2019), Riello, Giorgio; Rublack, Ulinka (eds.), "Wearing the Hat of Loyalty: Imperial Power and Dress Reform in Ming Dynasty China", The Right to Dress: Sumptuary Laws in a Global Perspective, c.1200–1800, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 416–434, doi:10.1017/9781108567541.017, ISBN 978-1-108-47591-4, S2CID 165356490, retrieved 16 February 2021
  156. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Yuan, Zujie (1 January 2007). "Dressing for power: Rite, costume, and state authority in Ming Dynasty China". Frontiers of History in China. 2 (2): 181–212. doi:10.1007/s11462-007-0012-x. ISSN 1673-3401. S2CID 195069294.
  157. ^ Serruys, Henry (1 January 1957). "Remains of Mongol Customs in China During the Early Ming Period". Monumenta Serica. 16 (1–2): 137–190. doi:10.1080/02549948.1957.11730961. ISSN 0254-9948.
  158. ^ Robinson, David (2008). "Culture, Courtiers, and Competition The Ming Court (1368-1644)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2016.
  159. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Clothing in the Ming Dynasty Archived 5 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine chinaculture.org retrieved 7 January 2010
  160. ^ a b Cho, Woohyun; Yi, Jaeyoon; Kim, Jinyoung (2015). "The dress of the Mongol Empire: Genealogy and diaspora of the Terlig" (PDF). Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 68 (3): 22–29. doi:10.1556/062.2015.68.3.2. ISSN 0001-6446.[permanent dead link]
  161. ^ a b Schlesinger, Jonathan (2017). A world trimmed with fur : wild things, pristine places, and the natural fringes of Qing rule. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-0068-3. OCLC 949669739.
  162. ^ a b c d Wang, Chen (1 September 2014). "Conservation study of Ming dynasty silk costumes excavated in Jiangsu region, China". Studies in Conservation. 59 (sup1): S177–S180. doi:10.1179/204705814X13975704319154. ISSN 0039-3630. S2CID 191384101.
  163. ^ a b c Weststeijn, Thijs; Gesterkamp, Lennert (22 October 2016). "A new identity for Rubens's 'Korean man': Portrait of the Chinese merchant Yppong". Netherlands Yearbook for History of Art / Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek Online. 66 (1): 142–169. doi:10.1163/22145966-90000784. ISSN 2214-5966.
  164. ^ a b Hao, Xiao’ang; Yin, Zhihong (7 September 2020). "Research on Design Aesthetics and Cultural Connotation of Gold and Silver Interlocking Buckle in the Ming Dynasty". Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Art Studies: Science, Experience, Education (ICASSEE 2020). Atlantis Press. pp. 166–171. doi:10.2991/assehr.k.200907.030. ISBN 978-94-6239-051-5. S2CID 221756137.
  165. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at Garrett, Valery M. (2007). Chinese dress : from the Qing Dynasty to the Present. Tokyo: Tuttle Pub. ISBN 978-0-8048-3663-0. OCLC 154701513.
  166. ^ The Vietnam Review: VR., Volume 3. Vietnam Review. 1997. p. 35.
  167. ^ Baldanza, Kathlene (2016). Ming China and Vietnam: Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-1316531310.
  168. ^ Dutton, George; Werner, Jayne; Whitmore, John K., eds. (2012). Sources of Vietnamese Tradition. Introduction to Asian Civilizations (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-0231511100.
  169. ^ Chanda, Nayan (1986). Brother Enemy: The War After the War (illustrated ed.). Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 53, 111. ISBN 9780151144204.
  170. ^ Chandler, David (2018). A History of Cambodia (4 ed.). Routledge. p. 153. ISBN 978-0429964060.
  171. ^ a b Welters, Linda (2018). Fashion history : a global view. Abby Lillethun. London, UK. ISBN 978-1-4742-5363-5. OCLC 1004424828.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  172. ^ Clark, Donald N. (2000). Culture and customs of Korea. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. pp. 9–10. ISBN 0-313-00727-6. OCLC 51432263.
  173. ^ 顧凡穎 (2018). 歷史的衣櫥. 北京日報出版社.
  174. ^ a b c d e Dusenbury, Mary M.; Bier, Carol (2004). Helen Foresman Spencer Museum of Art (ed.). Flowers, Dragons & Pine Trees: Asian Textiles in the Spencer Museum of Art (illustrated ed.). Hudson Hills. ISBN 1555952380.
  175. ^ Forsyth, James (1994). A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ISBN 0521477719.
  176. ^ 劉菲 (2017). 清前期皇室及貴族服飾研究. 山東大學出版社.
  177. ^ a b c d Keliher, Macabe (2020). The Board of Rites and the making of Qing China. Oakland, California. ISBN 978-0-520-97176-9. OCLC 1090283580.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  178. ^ 梁啟超 (1989). 飲冰室合集·論不變法之害. 中華書局. 上觀百世,下觀百世,經世大法,惟本朝為善變。入關之初,即下剃髮之令,頂戴翎枝,端罩馬褂,古無有也,則變服色矣。
  179. ^ 章太炎 (1996). 中國現代學術經典.章太炎卷.訄書.訂礼俗第五十一. 河北教育出版社. 滿洲之服,其筩袖鎧之緒也。軍容入國,以便趨走,亡咎。若其右方重衽,溫暖不均。於左削袂上起而合手者,如拼矣。嬰絡以效桑門,絳繩以被氈笠,比是觀之,將相驚以精鬽。物極而移,異服者眾,猶曰西服者,苟以隨時。諸解辮有常刑,幸其若是,胡漢猶彌以相惡。蒙古朝祭以冠幞,私燕以質孫,胡服隱也。滿洲遊學以短衣,常居以嬰絳,胡服箸也。
  180. ^ Chung, Young Yang Chung (2005). Silken threads: a history of embroidery in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam (illustrated ed.). Harry N. Abrams. p. 148. ISBN 9780810943308. Retrieved 4 December 2009.
  181. ^ Yao, Felicia (2020). "Of Silk and Statecraft:Dowager Empress Cixi (1835–1908) and Power Dressing in Late Qing Dynasty China, 1860–1911" (PDF). The Journal of Dress History. 4 (1): 111–136. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  182. ^ 呤唎 (February 1985). 《太平天國革命親歷記》. 上海古籍出版社.
  183. ^ a b c d Godley, Michael R. (September 2011). "The End of the Queue: Hair as Symbol in Chinese History". China Heritage Quarterly (27). China Heritage Project, ANU College of Asia & the Pacific (CAP), The Australian National University. ISSN 1833-8461.
  184. ^ Forsyth, James (1994). A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 0521477719.
  185. ^ Majewicz, Alfred F., ed. (2011). Materials for the Study of Tungusic Languages and Folklore. Vol. 15 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter. p. 21. ISBN 978-3110221053.
  186. ^ Wang, Yi (2022). "Contesting the past on the Chinese Internet: Han-centrism and mnemonic practices". Memory Studies. 15 (2): 304–317. doi:10.1177/1750698019875996. ISSN 1750-6980. S2CID 204374195.
  187. ^ a b c d Wang, Anita Xiaoming (2018). "The Idealised Lives of Women: Visions of Beauty in Chinese Popular Prints of the Qing Dynasty". Arts Asiatiques. 73: 61–80. doi:10.3406/arasi.2018.1993. ISSN 0004-3958. JSTOR 26585538.
  188. ^ Wakeman, Frederic E. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China, Volume 1. Vol. 2 of Great Enterprise (illustrated ed.). University of California Press, l. p. 868. ISBN 0520048040.
  189. ^ Lui, Adam Yuen-chung (1989). Two Rulers in One Reign: Dorgon and Shun-chih, 1644-1660. Faculty of Asian Studies monographs // The Australian National University (illustrated ed.). Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. p. 37. ISBN 0731506545. Dorgon did not want to see anything go wrong in a province and this might be the main reason why the government ... When the Chinese were ordered to wear the queue, Sun and Li took the initiative in changing their Ming hairstyle to ...
  190. ^ Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007). Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1. Vol. 37 of Turcologica Series (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 22. ISBN 978-3447040914.
  191. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000). Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press. pp. 60–62. ISBN 978-0-295-98040-9.
  192. ^ a b Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K. (2008) Cambridge History of China Volume 9 Part 1 The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, p87-88
  193. ^ a b Toby, Ron P. (2019). Engaging the Other: 'Japan' and Its Alter-Egos, 1550–1850. Brill's Japanese Studies Library. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004393516.
  194. ^ Trần Quang Đức (2013). Ngàn năm áo mũ (PDF). Nhã Nam. p. 31. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2018. 清朝承平日久…唯衣服之製度不改,滿俗終乏雅觀…自清朝入帝中國,四方薙髮變服,二百年來,人已慣耳目[…]不曾又識初來華夏樣矣。我國使部來京,穿戴品服,識者亦有竊羨華風,然其不智者,多群然笑異,見襆頭網巾衣帶,便皆指為倡優樣格,胡俗之移人,一至浩歎如此
  195. ^ a b c d e f Wang, Guojun (2019). "Absent Presence: Costuming and Identity in the Qing Drama A Ten-Thousand Li Reunion". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 79 (1–2): 97–130. doi:10.1353/jas.2019.0005. ISSN 1944-6454. S2CID 228163567.
  196. ^ a b Justus Doolittle (1876). Social Life of the Chinese: With Some Account of Their Religious, Governmental, Educational, and Business Customs and Opinions. With Special But Not Exclusive Reference to Fuhchau. Harpers. pp. 241–246.
  197. ^ Meyer-Fong, Tobie (2013). What Remains: Coming to Terms with Civil War in 19th Century China (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0804785594.
  198. ^ a b c d Hang, Xing (2016). Conflict and commerce in maritime East Asia : the Zheng family and the shaping of the modern world, c. 1620-1720. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1316453841. OCLC 1021375081.
  199. ^ a b Kim, Sun; Cho, Woo Hyun (30 June 2015). "Ideological symbols of Heavenly Kingdom's Dress". International Journal of Costume and Fashion. 15 (1): 39–49. doi:10.7233/ijcf.2015.15.1.039. ISSN 2233-9051.
  200. ^ 千志, 魏 (1998). 《明清史概論》. 中國社會科學出版社. pp. 358–360.
  201. ^ a b c d e "The End of the Queue | China Heritage Quarterly". www.chinaheritagequarterly.org. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  202. ^ Hair: Its Power and Meaning in Asian Cultures (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. 1998. p. 137. ISBN 0791437418.
  203. ^ Robert van Gulik (15 November 2010). Poets and Murder: A Judge Dee Mystery. University of Chicago Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-226-84896-9.
  204. ^ East Asian History. Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University. 1994. p. 63.
  205. ^ Bai, Qianshen (2003). Fu Shan's World: The Transformation of Chinese Calligraphy in the Seventeenth Century. Vol. 220 of Harvard East Asian monographs (illustrated ed.). Harvard University Asia Center. p. 85. ISBN 0674010922. ISSN 0073-0483.
  206. ^ 周, 锡保 (1 January 2002). 《中国古代服饰史》. 中国戏剧出版社. p. 449. ISBN 9787104003595..
  207. ^ "The collection of Chinese clothing from the Qing Dynasty – National Museum in Krakow". mnk.pl. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  208. ^ a b c d e f g Jiang, Wanyi; Li, Zhaoqing (6 January 2021). "Analysis on Evolution, Design and Application of Women's Traditional Coats in Beijing in the Late Qing Dynasty and the Early Republic of China: Based on the Collection of Ethnic Custom Museum of Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology". Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Arts, Design and Contemporary Education (ICADCE 2020). Atlantis Press. pp. 641–648. doi:10.2991/assehr.k.210106.123. ISBN 978-94-6239-314-1. S2CID 234293619.
  209. ^ "Skirt that comes with a black silk satin full embroidered top worn for wedding tea ceremony". www.roots.gov.sg. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  210. ^ a b "Skirt (China), 19th century". Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum. Retrieved 2 March 2021.
  211. ^ a b c Chan, Heather (2017). "From Costume to Fashion: Visions of Chinese Modernity in Vogue Magazine, 1892 – 1943". Ars Orientalis. 47 (20210122). doi:10.3998/ars.13441566.0047.009. hdl:2027/spo.13441566.0047.009. ISSN 2328-1286.
  212. ^ a b c d e f g h Wong, Aida Yuen (2018), Pyun, Kyunghee; Wong, Aida Yuen (eds.), "Monarchist Ambition in China's New Republic: Illustrated Manual of Dress for Ritual Sacrifice for Yuan Shikai's Presidency", Fashion, Identity, and Power in Modern Asia, East Asian Popular Culture, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 69–89, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97199-5_4, ISBN 978-3-319-97199-5, retrieved 4 March 2021
  213. ^ Yang Zhuhui (May 2012). 中国侗族 (in Chinese (China)). Ningxia People's Press. p. 42. ISBN 9787227047520.
  214. ^ a b Finnane, Antonia (1 March 2005). "Looking for the Jiang Qing Dress: Some Preliminary Findings". Fashion Theory. 9 (1): 3–22. doi:10.2752/136270405778051518. ISSN 1362-704X. S2CID 192596770.
  215. ^ Lanying, Guo; Jianxia, Jiang (20 December 2019). "The Market Effect of Cultural Transmission in Chinese Costume Dramas: A Case Study of the Untamed". Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Economic Management and Cultural Industry (ICEMCI 2019). Atlantis Press. pp. 617–620. doi:10.2991/aebmr.k.191217.112. ISBN 978-94-6252-866-6. S2CID 213417134.
  216. ^ a b Zang, Na (2019). "The Application of National Elements in Animation Costume Design". Proceedings of the 2019 5th International Conference on Humanities and Social Science Research (ICHSSR 2019). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Atlantis Press. pp. 189–192. doi:10.2991/ichssr-19.2019.33. ISBN 978-94-6252-730-0. S2CID 198990188.
  217. ^ "Effects of Clothing in the Ming Dynasty on Modern Theatrical Costume". 2017 International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2017). Francis Academic Press. 2017. doi:10.25236/ssah.2017.39. ISBN 978-1-912407-42-2.
  218. ^ Chen, Gen-Fang (1 April 2014). "Intangible cultural heritage preservation: An exploratory study of digitization of the historical literature of Chinese Kunqu opera librettos". Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage. 7 (1): 4:1–4:16. doi:10.1145/2583114. ISSN 1556-4673. S2CID 17997272.
  219. ^ "Cantonese Opera Robe". JSTOR community.12835591.
  220. ^ Cheung, Gam Leuhn. "Cantonese Opera Underwear". JSTOR community.12739312.
  221. ^ Artstor. "Cantonese Opera Skirt 1920–1930". JSTOR community.12906877.
  222. ^ Artstor. "Cantonese Opera Skirts: "five colour skirt"". JSTOR community.12567210.
  223. ^ Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (2010). Religions of the world : a comprehensive encyclopedia of beliefs and practices (2 ed.). Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 856. ISBN 978-1-59884-204-3. OCLC 711782366.
  224. ^ "Daoist Topknot". American Wudang. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  225. ^ "The Hidden Meaning of the Daoist Topknot | Daoist Gate". Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  226. ^ "Growing Up Daoist On Wudang Mountain". Spirit of Change Magazine | Holistic New England. 22 November 2017. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
  227. ^ Johnson, Ian (5 November 2010). "The Rise of the Tao". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  228. ^ "Who wears what at Chinese funeral ceremonies – and why". South China Morning Post. 26 September 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  229. ^ Mo, Zhiying (2017). The Hanfu Movement and Intangible Culture Heritage: Considering the past to know the future (Master of International Business Law thesis). University of Macau.
  230. ^ 杨, 玮圆. "2021年中国汉服市场发展现状分析 国潮风推动汉服盛行". 前瞻经济学人. 深圳前瞻资讯股份有限公司. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
  231. ^ Wang, Meng-Yun (8 March 2021). "Meet Shiyin, the Fashion Influencer Shaping China's Hanfu Style Revival". Vogue. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  232. ^ a b Dong, Jingsi (2020). "중국 전통 복식의 패턴 해체를 통한 한푸 디자인 개발" [Development of Hanfu Design by Pattern Deconstruction on Traditional Chinese Clothing]. 이화여자대학교 대학원: 95–96.
  233. ^ Xing, Wen (2018). "The most traditional not always the most practical". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
  234. ^ Zhao, Ruixue (14 June 2013). "Dressed like nobility". China Daily.
  235. ^ "Confucius family's secret legacy comes to light". Xinhua. 28 November 2018.
  236. ^ Wang, Guojun (December 2016). "The Inconvenient Imperial Visit: Writing Clothing and Ethnicity in 1684 Qufu". Late Imperial China. 37 (2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 137–170. doi:10.1353/late.2016.0013. S2CID 151370452. Archived from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
  237. ^ Kile, S.E.; Kleutghen, Kristina (June 2017). "Seeing through Pictures and Poetry: A History of Lenses (1681)". Late Imperial China. 38 (1). Johns Hopkins University Press: 47–112. doi:10.1353/late.2017.0001.
  238. ^ Sloane, Jesse D. (October 2014). "Rebuilding Confucian Ideology: Ethnicity and Biography in the Appropriation of Tradition". Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. 14 (2): 235–255. doi:10.21866/esjeas.2014.14.2.005. ISSN 1598-2661.
  239. ^ Li, Qing (14 May 2020). "Restoring period clothing helps people learn about Chinese history and culture-- Beijing Review". Beijing Review. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  240. ^ "Top 5 Styles of Traditional Chinese Dress & Clothing". Newhanfuz. 2020.
  241. ^ Hu, Shaoying (25 June 2014). "Hanfu Elements in Modern Fashion Design and Innovation". Asian Social Science. 10 (13). doi:10.5539/ass.v10n13p89.
  242. ^ Li, You (24 December 2020). "Ho-Ho-Ho or No? China's Fashionistas Defend Christmas 'Hanfu'". Sixth Tone. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
  243. ^ Zhang, Phoebe (25 December 2020). "Christmas colours and themes for traditional Chinese clothing". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
  244. ^ 崔榮榮、牛犁. 明代以來漢族民間服飾變革與社會變遷(1368–1949年). 武漢理工大學出版社.
  245. ^ a b c "Ancient Chinese shoes: Etiquette". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
  246. ^ The Modern Hanfu – China Fashion Guide. Newhanfu.
  1. ^ "120". Book of Later Han. "秦以戰國即天子位,滅去禮學,郊祀之服皆以袀玄。漢承秦故。"
  2. ^
    "120". Book of Later Han. 显宗遂就大业,初服旒冕,衣裳文章,赤舄絇屦,以祠天地,养三老五更于三雍,于时致治平矣。

    "2". Book of Later Han. "二年春正月辛未,宗祀光武皇帝於明堂,帝及公卿列侯始服冠冕、衣裳、玉佩、絇屨以行事

  3. ^ "120". Book of Later Han. 古者有冠無幘,其戴也,加首有頍,所以安物。故詩曰「有頍者弁」,此之謂也。三代之世,法制滋彰,下至戰國,文武並用。秦雄諸侯,乃加其武將首飾為絳袙,以表貴賤,其後稍稍作顏題。漢興,續其顏,卻摞之,施巾連題,卻覆之,今喪幘是其制也。名之曰幘。幘者,賾也,頭首嚴賾也。至孝文乃高顏題,續之為耳,崇其巾為屋,合後施收,上下群臣貴賤皆服之。文者長耳,武者短耳,稱其冠也。尚書幘收,方三寸,名曰納言,示以忠正,顯近職也。迎氣五郊,各如其色,從章服也。
  4. ^ "120". Book of Later Han. 皁衣群吏春服青幘,立夏乃止,助微順氣,尊其方也。武吏常赤幘,成其威也。未冠童子幘無屋者,示未成人也。入學小童幘也句卷屋者,示尚幼少,未遠冒也。喪幘卻摞,反本禮也。升數如冠,與冠偕也。期喪起耳有收,素幘亦如之,禮輕重有制,變除從漸,文也。
  5. ^ "120". Book of Later Han. 武冠,俗谓之大冠,环缨无蕤,以青系为绲,加双鹖尾,竖左右,为鹖冠云"
  6. ^ "120". Book of Later Han. 进贤冠,古缁布冠也,文儒者之服也。前高七寸,后高三寸,长八寸。公侯三梁,中二千石以下至博士两梁,自博士以下至小史私学弟子,皆一梁。宗室刘氏亦两梁冠,示加服也。
  7. ^ "120". Book of Later Han. 步摇以黄金为山题,贯白珠为桂枝相缪...

Bibliography

External links