Las artes en Filipinas reflejan una variedad de influencias artísticas en la cultura del país, incluido el arte indígena. El arte filipino consta de dos ramas: el arte tradicional [1] y el arte no tradicional [2] . Cada rama se divide en categorías y subcategorías.
Descripción general
La Comisión Nacional de Cultura y Artes , la agencia cultural del gobierno filipino, ha clasificado las artes filipinas en tradicionales y no tradicionales. Cada categoría tiene subcategorías.
Arquitectura popular, que incluye casas sobre pilotes, terrestres y aéreas.
Transporte marítimo: casas flotantes, construcción de barcos y tradiciones marítimas.
Tejido, incluido el tejido en telar de cintura y otras formas de tejido relacionadas.
Tallado, incluyendo tallado en madera y esculturas populares sin arcilla.
Artes escénicas populares: incluye danzas, obras de teatro y dramas.
Literatura popular (oral), que incluye epopeyas, canciones y mitos.
Artes gráficas y plásticas populares, que incluyen caligrafía, tatuaje, escritura, dibujo y pintura.
Adornos, incluida la fabricación de máscaras, accesorios y artesanías ornamentales de metal.
Arte textil (fibroso), que incluye tejido de sombreros, cestería y aparejos de pesca.
Cerámica, que incluye cerámica, vasijas de barro y esculturas.
Otras expresiones artísticas de la cultura tradicional, incluidas las artesanías de metal no ornamentales, las artes marciales, las artes curativas sobrenaturales, las artes medicinales y las tradiciones de las constelaciones.
Artes no tradicionales: [2]
Danza: incluye coreografía, dirección y actuación.
Música, incluyendo composición, dirección e interpretación.
Teatro: incluye dirección, interpretación, diseño de producción, diseño de iluminación y sonido y escritura teatral.
Artes visuales, incluidas pintura, escultura no popular, grabado, fotografía, arte de instalación , obras de técnica mixta, ilustración, artes gráficas, arte escénico y creación de imágenes.
Literatura, incluida poesía, ficción, ensayos y crítica literaria o de arte.
Artes cinematográficas y televisivas, que incluyen dirección, escritura, diseño de producción, cinematografía, edición, animación, interpretación y nuevos medios.
Arquitectura y artes afines, incluida la arquitectura no popular, el diseño de interiores, la arquitectura paisajística y el diseño urbano.
Las artes tradicionales en Filipinas incluyen la arquitectura popular, el transporte marítimo, el tejido, la talla, las artes escénicas populares, la literatura popular (oral), las artes gráficas y plásticas populares, los adornos, el arte textil o de fibra, la cerámica y otras expresiones artísticas de la cultura tradicional. [1] Los artistas tradicionales o grupos de artistas reciben el Premio Nacional de Tesoros Vivientes (Premio Gawad Manlilikha ng Bayan (GAMABA)) por sus contribuciones al patrimonio cultural inmaterial del país.
La etnomedicina es una de las artes tradicionales más antiguas de Filipinas. Las tradiciones (y los objetos asociados a ellas) son realizadas por artesanos médicos y chamanes. Las prácticas, basadas en los elementos físicos, son una ciencia y un arte antiguos. Los remedios a base de hierbas, que complementan las técnicas mentales, emocionales y espirituales, también forman parte de muchas tradiciones. La categoría se agregó a GAMABA en 2020. [3]
Arquitectura popular
La arquitectura popular en Filipinas varía según el grupo étnico, y las estructuras están hechas de bambú , madera, roca , coral , ratán , hierba y otros materiales. Incluyen el estilo de cabaña bahay kubo , las casas de las tierras altas (conocidas como bale ) con cuatro a ocho lados, las casas de coral de Batanes que protegen de los fuertes vientos arenosos de la zona, el torogan real (grabado con un intrincado motivo okir ) y palacios como el Darul Jambangan (Palacio de las Flores), la residencia del sultán de Sulu antes de la colonización. La arquitectura popular también incluye edificios religiosos, generalmente llamados casas espirituales , que son santuarios para espíritus protectores o dioses. [4] [5] [6] La mayoría son edificios al aire libre, similares a casas, hechos de materiales nativos. [7] [4] Algunos eran originalmente como pagodas (un estilo continuado por los nativos que se convirtieron al Islam), y ahora son raros. [8] Otros edificios tienen motivos indígenas e hispanos ( arquitectura bahay na bato y sus prototipos). En Vigan , Patrimonio de la Humanidad , se encuentran numerosos edificios de bahay na bato . [9] Las estructuras populares van desde simples puestos de palos sagrados hasta castillos o fortalezas indígenas (como los ijangs de los batanes) y alteraciones geológicas como los Arrozales en Terrazas de las Cordilleras de Filipinas (otro Patrimonio de la Humanidad). [10] [11] [12] [13]
Pintura de chamanismo y etnomedicina, incluidos rituales
El transporte marítimo incluye casas flotantes, fabricación de barcos y tradiciones marítimas. Estas estructuras, tradicionalmente hechas de madera elegida por ancianos y artesanos, conectaban las islas. Aunque se cree que se han utilizado barcos en el archipiélago durante miles de años, la evidencia más antigua de fabricación de barcos se ha datado mediante carbono en el año 689 d. C.: los barcos de Butuan identificados como grandes balangays . [14] [15] [16] Además del balangay, las embarcaciones indígenas incluyen el armadahan pesquero de dos mástiles y doble estabilizador , [17] [18] el barco comercial avang , [19] las canoas awang , [20] el barco de vela con estabilizadores balación , [21] el bangka , [22] la canoa bangka anak-anak , [23] el basnigan elevador de salambáw , [24] el velero de doble estabilizador bigiw , [25] la canoa birau , [23] la canoa buggoh , [23] la barcaza casco , [26] el chinarem de un solo mástil y puntiagudo , [19] el chinedkeran de cubierta abierta para mar agitado , [19] el barco de tablones de doble estabilizador djenging , [23] el barco pirata garay , [27] el barco de vela con estabilizadores guilalo , [28] el barco de cubierta abierta falua , [19] la canoa junkun , [23] el junkung motorizado , [29] los barcos de guerra con estabilizadores karakoa y lanong , [30] [31] la casa flotante lepa , [32] la balsa ontang , [23] la canoa del lago owong , [33] el barco de pesca con cubierta abierta panineman , [19] el velero paraw de doble estabilizador , [34] la canoa de guerra salisipan , [35] el barco de pesca tataya , [19] el barco de pesca motorizadotempel , el bote tiririt , [36] y el velero vinta . [37] Entre 1565 y 1815, los artesanos filipinos construyeron galeones de Manila . [38]
Un gran buque de guerra con estabilizadores tipo Karakoa , 1711
El tejido es una forma de arte antigua y cada grupo étnico tiene una técnica de tejido distinta. [39] Las artes del tejido incluyen el tejido de cestas, el tejido en telar de cintura, el tejido de tocados y el tejido de redes de pesca.
Los textiles valiosos se hacen con un telar de cintura . [40] Fibras como algodón, abacá , fibra de plátano, hierba y palma se utilizan en el tejido filipino. [41] Hay varios tipos de tela tejida. Pinilian es una tela de algodón ilocano tejida con un pangablan , utilizando estilos binakul , binetwagan o tinumballitan . El tejido Bontoc enfatiza el concepto de centrado, clave para la cultura del pueblo Bontoc . El tejido comienza con los lados ( langkit ), seguido de pa-ikid (paneles laterales), fatawil ( bandas de urdimbre ) y shukyong (flechas). Luego comienza el tejido sinamaki , incorporando un tinagtakho (figura humana), minatmata (rombo) y tinitiko (zigzag). El último es el centro ( pa-khawa ), con el kan-ay (trama suplementaria). Los textiles Kalinga contienen diseños geométricos; Un motivo es un patrón de rombos conocido como inata-ata . Piña se considera el mejor textil indígena filipino. Los textiles Aklanon se utilizan en los trajes nacionales. Hablon es el textil de los pueblos Karay-a e Hiligaynon. El tapiz tejido por el pueblo Yakan utiliza el tejido de trama suplementaria bunga-sama , el patrón de urdimbre flotante siniluan , la técnica de trama suplementaria inalaman y el patrón de trama-banda pinantupan . El tejido Blaan representa cocodrilos y rizos. Los Mandaya utilizan una técnica de teñido con barro. Los textiles Meranaw se utilizan para el malong y otras prendas Maranao. T'nalak es un textil Tboli. [42] El textil ikat más antiguo conocido en el sudeste asiático es la tela Banton , que data de los siglos XIII al XIV. [43]
A diferencia del tejido de tela con telar, las esteras se tejen a mano. Se tejen en un lugar fresco y a la sombra, y se mantienen frescas para preservar su integridad. Un ejemplo es el banig de Basey, donde sus tejedores suelen trabajar en una cueva. Las fibras que se utilizan incluyen plátano, hierba y palma. [44]
Panel elaborado con seda, piña e hilos metálicos (década de 1800)
Tejido del norte de Luzón utilizado en faldas
Cestería
Las cestas tienen diseños, estilos y formas intrincados para propósitos específicos, como la cosecha, el almacenamiento de arroz, los viajes y el almacenamiento de espadas. Se cree que el tejido de cestas llegó con la migración humana de norte a sur. Algunas de las mejores cestas fabricadas son de Palawan , en el suroeste. Los materiales varían según el grupo étnico e incluyen bambú, ratán, pandan, borlas de algodón, cera de abejas, abacá , corteza y tintes. Los patrones de cestería incluyen un tejido inferior cruzado cerrado, un tejido de sarga doble de bambú cerrado y un patrón de pentágono de ratán espaciado. Los productos incluyen el tupil (fiambrera), el bukug (cesta), el kabil (cesta de transporte), el uppig (cesta de almuerzo), el tagga-i (cesta de arroz), el bay'ung (bolsa de cesta), el lig-o (bandeja para aventar) y el binga (bolsa). [45] [46] Las tradiciones de tejido han sido influenciadas por las demandas modernas. [47]
Los tocados tejidos son comunes y las culturas utilizan una variedad de fibras para crear tocados como el vakul de Ivatan y el tocado de serpiente de los Bontoc . [48] Las trampas tejidas para peces son una especialidad del pueblo Ilocano . [49] El tejido de escobas es otra tradición, ejemplificada por el pueblo Kalinga . [50]
Filipinas tiene artefactos budistas [51] [52] con influencia Vajrayāna, [53] [54] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] [55] la mayoría de los cuales datan del siglo IX y reflejan la iconografía del imperio Śrīvijayan. Fueron producidos desde el área de Agusan-Surigao en Mindanao hasta Cebú , Palawan y Luzón .
La imagen de Agusan es una estatuilla de oro de 21 quilates y 2 kg (4,4 lb) encontrada en 1917 en el río Wawa cerca de Esperanza , Agusan del Sur , Mindanao , [56] que data del siglo IX o X. La imagen se conoce comúnmente como Tara dorada, una alusión a su identidad [57] reportada como una imagen de una Tara budista . La figura, de aproximadamente 178 mm (7,0 pulgadas) [58] de alto, es de una deidad hindú o budista femenina sentada con las piernas cruzadas y con un tocado y otros adornos. Está en exhibición en el Museo Field de Historia Natural en Chicago. [58] [59] [60] Se encontró una estatua de bronce de Lokesvara en Isla Puting Bato en Tondo, Manila . [61]
En el municipio de Calatagan se moldeó una imagen de Buda en un medallón de arcilla en bajorrelieve. Se dice que se parece a las representaciones iconográficas de Buda en Siam , India y Nepal : en una pose de tribhanga [62] dentro de un nimbo ovalado . Los eruditos han notado una orientación mahayánica en la imagen, ya que también se muestra al bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara . [63]
Otro artefacto de oro, de las cuevas de Tabon en la isla de Palawan , es una imagen de Garuda , el pájaro que es el monte de Vishnu . Las imágenes hindúes y los artefactos de oro en las cuevas se han relacionado con los de Oc Eo , en el delta del Mekong en el sur de Vietnam . Henry Otley Beyer encontró estatuas de bronce toscas de la deidad hindú Ganesha en 1921 en Puerto Princesa , Palawan, y en Mactan , Cebú . Las estatuas fueron producidas localmente. [61] Beyer también excavó ese año una estatua de bronce de Avalokiteśvara en Mactan. [61] Se encontró un Kinnara de oro en Surigao. Otras reliquias de oro incluyen anillos (algunos con imágenes de Nandi ), cadenas de joyería , láminas de oro inscritas y placas de oro con imágenes repujadas de deidades hindúes. [64] [65]
Tallado
La talla incluye la talla en madera y la creación de esculturas populares sin arcilla. [66] [67]
Talla de madera
Las tallas de madera indígenas realizadas por algunos grupos étnicos datan de antes de la llegada hispana; las más antiguas pueden ser fragmentos de un barco de madera que datan del año 320 d. C. [68] Se utilizan diversas maderas para hacer artesanías de madera, que incluyen bululs. [69] [70] Estas figuras de madera, conocidas por varios nombres, se encuentran desde el norte de Luzón hasta el sur de Mindanao. [71] El okir de madera es elaborado por grupos étnicos en Mindanao y el archipiélago de Sulu. [72] [73] Las artesanías de madera de objetos como empuñaduras de espadas e instrumentos musicales representan seres antiguos y míticos. [74] [75] Las técnicas indígenas de elaboración de madera se han utilizado en tallas de madera hispánicas después de la colonización, como en Paete . [76] [77]
Las tallas de madera religiosas hispánicas se introdujeron con el cristianismo y son una fusión de estilos indígenas e hispánicos. Paete es un centro de talla de madera religiosa hispánica. [76] Dichas tallas de madera también existen en muchos municipios, donde la mayoría de las artesanías representan la vida de Jesús y la Virgen María . [78]
Talla de Tboli de un macaco y una tortuga en el museo del lago Sebu
Talla que representa a un granjero filipino y un carabao
Marcadores de tumbas del archipiélago de Sulu
Diversas artesanías realizadas con okir
Virgen de madera
Tambores gigantes de madera
Varios escudos de madera.
Piedra, marfil y otras tallas
Las tallas de piedra son anteriores a la colonización occidental. [79] Las tallas pueden representar a un antepasado o una deidad que ayuda al espíritu de un ser querido a entrar en la otra vida. [80] Se han encontrado urnas funerarias antiguas talladas en muchas áreas, especialmente en la región de Cotabato. [81] Se cree que las tumbas de piedra caliza de Kamhantik , en la provincia de Quezón, inicialmente tenían cubiertas de roca y eran sarcófagos. Se cree que originalmente estaban techadas, como lo evidencian los agujeros donde se han colocado vigas. [82] Las marcas de tumbas de piedra están talladas con motivos okir para ayudar a los muertos. [83] Las laderas de las montañas están talladas para formar cuevas funerarias, especialmente en las tierras altas del norte de Luzón; las momias de Kabayan son un ejemplo. [84] Las tallas de mármol se centran en Romblon , y la mayoría (principalmente estatuas budistas y obras relacionadas) se exportan. [85] Con la llegada del cristianismo, las tallas de piedra se generalizaron; La mayoría son fachadas de iglesias o estatuas, o estatuas y otras artesanías para altares personales. [86] Una notable talla de piedra es la fachada de la Iglesia de Miagao . [87]
La talla de marfil se practica en Filipinas desde hace un milenio; su artefacto de marfil más antiguo conocido es el Sello de Marfil de Butuan , que data de los siglos IX al XII. [88] Las tallas religiosas de marfil (conocidas localmente como garing ) se generalizaron después de que el marfil se importara a Filipinas desde Asia, donde las tallas se centraban en temas cristianos como la Virgen y el niño, el niño Jesús y la Madre Dolorosa. [89] Muchas de las tallas de marfil de Filipinas tienen diseños de oro y plata. [89] El comercio de marfil filipino ha experimentado un auge debido a la demanda de tallas, [90] pero el gobierno ha tomado medidas enérgicas contra el comercio ilegal. En 2013, Filipinas fue el primer país en destruir su stock de marfil; el comercio de marfil ha diezmado las poblaciones de elefantes y rinocerontes del mundo. [91] Los cuernos de carabaos muertos han sustituido al marfil en el país durante siglos. [92]
El limado de dientes está presente en algunos grupos étnicos del país
Un likha que representa a un dios, uno de los dos únicos likha que sobrevivieron a la persecución y destrucción española.
Casco moro, exterior realizado en cuerno de carabao tallado (siglo XVIII)
Artes escénicas populares
Se representan danzas folclóricas, obras de teatro y dramas. Cada grupo étnico tiene su propia herencia y las artes escénicas folclóricas filipinas también tienen influencias españolas y americanas. Algunos bailes están relacionados con los de los países vecinos austronesios y otros países asiáticos. [93] Las artes escénicas populares incluyen banga, manmanok, ragragsakan, tarektek, uyaoy (o uyauy), [94] pangalay , asik, singkil , sagayan , kapa malong malong, [95] binaylan, sugod uno, dugso, kinugsik kugsik, engendrando, pagdiwata, maglalatik , tinikling , subli , cariñosa , kuratsa y pandanggo sa ilaw. [96] [97] [98] [99] Los dramas y obras de teatro populares se basan en epopeyas populares como Hinilawod , [100] y el Senakulo es un drama popular entre grupos hispanos. [101] [102]
La literatura folclórica (oral) incluye las epopeyas, canciones, mitos y otra literatura oral de los grupos étnicos filipinos. La poesía del país es rica en metáforas. [103] La poesía tanaga tiene un recuento de 7777 sílabas y sus formas de rima varían desde rimas duales hasta ninguna. [103] La poesía awit tiene cuartetos de 12 sílabas, con rimas similares al Pasyon [104] [105] cantado en el pabasa . [106] Otro awit es el Florante at Laura de 1838. [107] La poesía dalit contiene cuatro líneas de ocho sílabas cada una. [ 108] La poesía ambahan consta de líneas de siete sílabas con sílabas finales rítmicas, a menudo cantadas y a veces escritas en bambú. [109] Balagtasan es un debate en verso. [110] Otros poemas incluyen A la juventud filipina , [111] y Ako'y may alaga . [112] [113]
Los poemas épicos incluyen el Darangen de Maranao [114] de 17 ciclos y 72.000 líneas y el Hinilawod . [115] Otros incluyen Biag ni Lam-Ang , Ibalon , Hudhud , Alim , el ciclo Ulalim , Lumalindaw , Kudaman , el ciclo Agyu , Tulelangan , Gumao de Dumalinao , Ag Tubig Nog Keboklagan , Keg Sumba Neg Sandayo y Tudbulul . [116] La lengua de signos filipina se utiliza para transmitir literatura oral a las personas con discapacidad auditiva. [117] La literatura popular está documentada por académicos en manuscritos, cintas y grabaciones de vídeo. [118] [119]
Un hogang, una estatua hecha con un tronco de helecho, de un dios que protege las fronteras en Ifugao
Representación en el Kaamulan , que representa a dioses y héroes de las antiguas religiones del pueblo.
Artes gráficas y plásticas populares
Se trata de tatuajes, escrituras populares y dibujos y pinturas populares.
Escritura popular (caligrafía)
Filipinas tiene una serie de escrituras indígenas conocidas colectivamente como suyat , cada una de las cuales tiene su propia caligrafía . Desde la colonización española del siglo XVI, los grupos etnolingüísticos han utilizado las escrituras en una variedad de medios. Al final de la era colonial, solo cuatro escrituras suyat sobrevivieron y continúan utilizándose: las escrituras hanunó'o y buhid y las de los pueblos tagbanwa y palawan . Las cuatro fueron inscritas en el Programa Memoria del Mundo de la UNESCO como paleografías filipinas (hanunoo, buid, tagbanua y pala'wan) en 1999. [120]
Escritura jawi, utilizada en el archipiélago de Sulu
El Corán de Bayang, escrito en escritura kirim sobre papel, es un tesoro cultural nacional; el kirim se utiliza en la parte continental de Mindanao, en la religión musulmana.
Ejemplo de guión de Eskaya
Páginas de la Doctrina Christiana , un libro paleocristiano en español, tagalo en escritura latina y en baybayin (1593)
Escritura indígena en el pasaporte del país
Caligrafía Tagbanwa sobre bambú
Dibujo y pintura popular
Los dibujos populares se conocen desde hace miles de años. Los dibujos populares más antiguos son dibujos rupestres y grabados que incluyen los petroglifos de Angono en Rizal , creados durante el Neolítico (6000 a 2000 a. C.). Los dibujos se han interpretado como religiosos, con dibujos infantiles para aliviar enfermedades en los niños. [132] Otro petroglifo está en Alab (Bontoc), datado a más tardar en 1500 a. C. y contiene símbolos de fertilidad como el pudenda . También se encuentran petrografías antiguas; las de Peñablanca y Singnapan están dibujadas con carbón, y las de Anda (Bohol) están dibujadas con hematita roja . [133] Las petrografías descubiertas recientemente en Monreal (Ticao) incluyen dibujos de monos, rostros humanos, gusanos (o serpientes), plantas, libélulas y pájaros. [134]
Hay pruebas de que los filipinos indígenas llevan miles de años pintando y esmaltando cerámica. Los pigmentos utilizados para pintar van desde el dorado, el amarillo, el violeta rojizo, el verde, el blanco y el azul verdoso hasta el azul. [135] También se han pintado estatuas y otras creaciones con una variedad de colores. La pintura sobre la piel es una práctica habitual, especialmente entre los yakan. [136]
El tatuaje fue introducido por los pueblos austronesios hace miles de años, y se convirtió en símbolos culturales en varios grupos étnicos. [137] [138] [139] Se documentó por primera vez en el siglo XVI, siendo los más valientes Pintados (pueblos de las Visayas centrales y orientales) los más tatuados. Pueblos tatuados similares fueron los Bicolanos de Camarines y los Tagalogs de Marinduque . [140] [141] [142] Las personas tatuadas en Mindanao incluyen a los Manobo , cuya tradición de tatuajes se conoce como pang-o-túb . [143] [144] Los T'boli también se tatúan la piel con la creencia de que los tatuajes brillan después de la muerte, guiando al alma en su viaje al más allá. [145] Las personas tatuadas más conocidas pueden haber sido los Igorot de las tierras altas de Luzón. Solo Tinglayan en Kalinga tiene artistas del tatuaje tradicionales que elaboran batok ; Estaban encabezados por el maestro tatuador y matriarca Kalinga Whang-od . [146] [147] El tatuaje tradicional ha experimentado un renacimiento después de siglos de declive. [148]
El arte ornamental incluye arte en vidrio, accesorios y artesanías en metal. [1]
Arte en vidrio
El arte en vidrio se puede encontrar en lugares como Pinagbayanan. [149] Las vidrieras han sido una característica de muchas iglesias desde la colonización española. Los artesanos europeos inicialmente producían vidrieras, y los filipinos comenzaron a sumarse a la artesanía durante el siglo XX. [150] La Catedral de Manila contiene varias vidrieras. [151] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] Otras obras de arte en vidrio incluyen candelabros y esculturas. [152]
El tabungaw , hecho con calabazas, de la región de Abra e Ilocos es un ejemplo de fabricación de sombreros. [153] Los sombreros indígenas se usaron ampliamente hasta el siglo XX (cuando fueron reemplazados por estilos occidentales) y actualmente se usan para festivales, rituales o teatro. [48] [154]
La fabricación de máscaras es una tradición indígena e importada; algunas comunidades fabricaban máscaras antes de la colonización, y otras tradiciones de fabricación de máscaras se introdujeron mediante el comercio con Asia y Occidente. Estas máscaras se usan principalmente durante los festivales de Moriones y MassKara . [155] [156] [157] La fabricación de marionetas es un arte relacionado cuyos productos se utilizan en obras de teatro y festivales como el Festival de Higantes . [158] La mayoría de las máscaras indígenas están hechas de madera, y las máscaras de oro (hechas para los muertos) eran comunes en la región de Visayas antes de la colonización española. Las máscaras hechas de bambú y papel, utilizadas en Lucban , representan a la típica familia de agricultores filipinos. Las máscaras en Marinduque se utilizan en pantomima; las de Bacolod representan valores igualitarios, independientemente de los estándares económicos. Las máscaras se usan en epopeyas teatrales, especialmente las relacionadas con el Ramayana y el Mahabharata . [159]
Los accesorios se usan generalmente con la ropa, y algunos son accesorios para casas, altares y otros objetos. De los más de 100 grupos étnicos de Filipinas, el que más accesorios usa es el pueblo Kalinga. [160] El pueblo Gaddang también usa muchos accesorios. [161] El accesorio más conocido es el lingling-o , un colgante o amuleto usado desde Batanes en el norte hasta Palawan en el sur. [162] [163] El lingling-o más antiguo conocido data del 500 a. C. y está hecho de nefrita . [163] Las conchas también se han usado tradicionalmente como accesorios. [164]
El oro es elaborado por grupos étnicos filipinos, y los orfebres más conocidos del país provienen de Butuan . Se han encontrado insignias , joyas, armas ceremoniales, adornos dentales y objetos rituales y funerarios hechos de oro de alta calidad en varios sitios, y la cultura del oro del archipiélago floreció entre los siglos X y XIII. Algunas técnicas de elaboración del oro se perdieron en la colonización, pero los orfebres filipinos han adoptado técnicas influenciadas por otras culturas. [165] [166]
Collar filipino de oro y coral (siglos XVII-XVIII)
Joyas de oro (siglos XII-XV)
Accesorio Itneg
Adorno para el pelo ilongot
Cinturón Bontoc
Collar de nácar
Accesorio pectoral ifugao
Collares de oro, piedras semipreciosas y cristal (siglos XII-XV)
Collar de oro y coral (siglos XVII-XIX)
Adornos de metal
Las artesanías de metal ornamentales son productos a base de metal que se utilizan para embellecer algo más, metálico o no metálico, y las que fabrican los maranao en Tugaya son muy valoradas. Las artesanías de metal del pueblo moro decoran una variedad de objetos y están inscritas con el motivo okir . [167] Las artesanías de metal también decoran objetos religiosos como altares, estatuas cristianas y vestimentas . Apalit , en Pampanga , es un centro de la artesanía. [168] El oro se ha utilizado en una serie de adornos, y la mayoría de los que sobreviven son accesorios humanos con diseños antiguos y elaborados. [165]
Armadura indígena de Sulu, hecha de metal, cuerno de carabao y plata.
Hierro forjado en la iglesia de Malolos
Cinturón de metal del norte de Luzón
Artes de la cerámica
La cerámica (cerámica, arcilla y esculturas populares de arcilla) ha sido parte de la cultura filipina durante unos 3500 años. [169] Los artefactos notables incluyen el tarro Manunggul (890-710 a. C.) [170] y la cerámica antropomórfica Maitum (5 a. C.-225 d. C.). [171] La cerámica de alta temperatura se fabricó por primera vez hace unos 1000 años, lo que dio lugar a una era cerámica en Filipinas. [135] La cerámica se comerciaba y se han encontrado cerámica y fragmentos del mundo árabe (posiblemente Egipto) y del este de Asia. [135] También se comercializaban jarras específicas directamente con Japón. [172] Antes de la colonización durante el siglo XVI, la porcelana extranjera era popular en varias comunidades; según la tradición oral de Cebú , la porcelana indígena se producía en la época de los primeros gobernantes de Cebú. [173] Sin embargo, la porcelana indígena más antigua conocida se ha datado en la década de 1900; La porcelana encontrada en los yacimientos arqueológicos filipinos fue etiquetada como "importada", lo que se ha convertido en un tema de controversia. Los filipinos trabajaron como artesanos de porcelana en Japón a finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX, reintroduciendo la artesanía en Filipinas. Todos los artefactos de porcelana de la época, excepto uno, sobrevivieron a la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [174] El arte popular notable de la arcilla incluye El triunfo de la ciencia sobre la muerte (1890) [175] y La venganza de la madre (1894), [176] y la cerámica popular incluye el tapayan y el palayok . La fabricación de cerámica ha recibido recientemente atención de los medios. [177] [178]
Cerámica filipina (100-1400 d. C.)
Olla Calatagan con caligrafía suyat (siglos XIV-XV)
Vasijas funerarias, con la derecha con diseños de ondas
El fragmento de la olla de Intramuros, con una inscripción en él
La venganza de la madre (1894), un tesoro cultural nacional
Varias cabezas de arcilla utilizadas como tapas para jarras funerarias, cada una con una cara única
Un antiguo minijarrón y una copa
Una antigua cabeza de jarra funeraria
Porcelana encontrada en Filipinas
Jarra de porcelana encontrada en Filipinas (siglo XI)
Porcelana encontrada en Palawan (siglo XV)
Porcelana encontrada en Filipinas (siglos XI-XII)
Otras artes tradicionales
Other traditional arts, including non-ornamental metal crafts, martial arts, supernatural healing arts, medicinal arts, and constellation traditions, cannot be specifically categorized.
Non-ornamental metal crafts
Non-ornamental metal crafts are metal products with simple, utilitarian designs. The Moro people are known for their metalwork, which is usually decorated with the okir motif.[179]Baguio is also a center for metalwork.[180] Hispanic metal crafts are common in the lowlands. They include large bells, and Asia's largest bell is at Panay Church.[181] Metal deities, notably of gold, are also found.[165][182]
Filipino martial arts vary by ethnic group. The best-known is arnis (also known as kali and eskrima) (the country's national sport and martial art), which has weapon-based fighting styles with sticks, knives, bladed and improvised weapons and open-hand techniques. Arnis has changed over time, and was also known as estoque, estocada, and garrote during Spanish colonization. The Spanish recorded it as called paccalicali-t by the Ibanags, didya (or kabaroan) by the Ilocanos, sitbatan or kalirongan by the Pangasinenses, sinawali ("to weave") by the Kapampangans, calis or pananandata ("use of weapons") by the Tagalogs, pagaradman by the Ilonggos, and kaliradman by the Cebuanos.[185]
Unarmed martial-arts techniques include pangamot (the Bisaya), suntukan (the Tagalogs), sikaran (the Rizal Tagalogs), dumog (the Karay-a), buno (the Igorot people), and yaw-yan. Martial-arts weapons include the baston (or olisi), bangkaw (or tongat), dulo-dulo, and tameng. Edged weapons include the daga (or cuchillo), gunong, punyal and barung (or barong), balisong, karambit (with blades resembling tiger claws), espada, kampilan, ginunting, pinuti, talibong, itak, kalis, kris, golok, sibat, sundang, lagaraw, ginunting, and pinunting. Flexible weapons include latigo, buntot pagi, lubid, sarong, cadena (or tanikala), and tabak-toyok. Projectile weapons include the pana, sibat, sumpit, bagakay, tirador (or pintik or saltik), kana, lantaka, and luthang.[186][187][188] Related martial arts include kuntaw and silat.[189][full citation needed][190][page needed][191]
Sagayan, a war dance depicting the martial arts used in the Darangen
Filipino cuisine encompasses the country's more than 100 ethnolinguistic groups. Most mainstream dishes are from the Bikol, Chavacano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Kapampangan, Maranao, Pangasinan, Cebuano (or Bisaya), Tagalog, and Waray groups. The style of cooking and the associated foods have evolved over centuries from their Austronesian origins to a mixed cuisine with Indian, Chinese, Spanish, and American influences.[193] Dishes range the simple, such as fried salted fish and rice, to complex paellas and cocidos for Spanish fiestas. Popular dishes include lechón[194] (whole roasted pig), longganisa (Philippine sausage), tapa (cured beef), torta (omelette), adobo (chicken or pork braised in garlic, vinegar, oil and soy sauce, or cooked until dry), kaldereta (meat stewed in tomato sauce), mechado (fatty beef in a soy-tomato sauce), puchero (beef in a banana-and-tomato sauce), afritada (chicken or pork simmered in tomato sauce with vegetables), kare-kare (oxtail and vegetables cooked in peanut sauce), pinakbet (kabocha squash, eggplant, beans, okra, and tomato stew flavored with shrimp paste), crispy pata (deep-fried pig's leg), hamonado (pork sweetened in pineapple sauce), sinigang (meat or seafood in a sour broth), pancit (noodles), and lumpia (fresh or fried spring rolls).[195]
Shell crafts are common, due to the variety of mollusk shells available. The country's shell industry emphasizes crafts made of capiz shells, which are seen in a variety of products including capiz-shell windows, statues, and lamps.[164] Lantern-making is also a traditional art form which began after the introduction of Christianity, and many lanterns (locally known as parol) are in Filipino streets and in front of houses for the Christmas season (which begins in September and ends in January, the world's longest Christmas season). The Giant Lantern Festival, which also celebrates Christmas, features large lanterns made by Filipino artisans.[196]Pyrotechnics are popular during the New Year celebrations and the Christmas season. The Philippines has hosted the Philippine International Pyromusical Competition, the world's largest pyrotechnic competition (previously known as the World Pyro Olympics) since 2010.[197]
Lacquerware is a less-common art form. Filipino researchers are studying the possibility of turning coconut oil into lacquer.[198][199][200] Paper arts are common in many communities; examples include the taka papier-mâché of Laguna and the pabalat of Bulacan.[201] A form of leaf-folding art is puni, which uses palm leaves to create forms such as birds and insects.[201]
Bamboo art is also common, with products including kitchen utensils, toys, furniture, and musical instruments such as the Las Piñas Bamboo Organ (the world's only organ made of bamboo).[202] In bulakaykay, bamboo is bristled to create large arches.[201]Floristry is popular for festivals, birthdays, and Undas.[203] Leaf speech (language and meaning) is popular among the Dumagat people, who use leaves to express themselves and send secret messages.[204]
Shamanism and its related healing arts are found throughout the country, with each ethnic group having its unique concepts of shamanism and healing. Philippine shamans are regarded as sacred by their ethnic groups. The introduction of Abrahamic religions (Islam and Christianity) suppressed many shamanitic traditions, with Spanish and American colonizers demeaning native beliefs during the colonial era. Shamans and their practices continue in some parts of the Philippines.[205] The art of constellation and cosmic reading and interpretation is a fundamental tradition among all Filipino ethnic groups, and the stars are used to interpret for communities to conduct farming, fishing, festivities, and other important activities. Notable constellations include Balatik and Moroporo.[206] Another cosmic reading is the utilization of earthly monuments, such as the Gueday stone calendar of Besao, which locals use to see the arrival of kasilapet (the end of the current agricultural season and the beginning of the next one).[207]
Non-traditional arts include dance, music, theater, visual arts, literature, film and broadcast arts, architecture and allied arts, and design.[2] A distinguished artist is inducted as a National Artist of the Philippines.
Dance
Dance in the Philippines includes choreography, direction, and performance. Philippine dance is influenced by the country's folk performing arts and its Hispanic traditions; a number of styles also have global influences. Igorot dances such as banga,[94] Moro dances such as pangalay and singkil,[95]Lumad dances such as kuntaw, kadal taho and lawin-lawin, and Hispanic dances such as maglalatik and subli have been incorporated into contemporary Filipino dance.[96][97][98][99] Ballet has been popular since the early 20th century.[208]Pinoy hip hop music has influenced dances, a number of which have adopted global standards of hip hop and break dances.[209] Filipinos choreograph traditional and Westernized dances, with some companies focusing on Hispanic and traditional dance.[210][211]
Theater has a long history, and includes direction, performance, production design, light and sound design, and playwriting are the focal arts. It is Austronesian in character, evidenced by ritual, mimetic dances. Spanish culture has influenced Filipino theater and drama: the komedya, sinakulo, playlets, and sarswela. Puppetry, such as carrillo, is another theater art.[221] Anglo-American theater has influenced bodabil. Modern, original plays by Filipinos have also influenced the country's theater.[222][223][224]
Promotion for the opera, Sangdugong Panaguinip (1902)
Visual arts include painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, installation art, mixed-media works, illustration, graphic arts, performance art, and imaging.
Painting
Folk painting has always been part of Filipino culture.[133][225] Petroglyphs and petrographs, the earliest known folk drawings and paintings, originated during the Neolithic.[226] Human figures, frogs, lizards, and other designs were depicted. They may have been primarily symbolic, associated with healing and sympathetic magic.[227]
Other Asian and Western cultures influenced the art of painting. From the 16th century to the end of the colonial period, religious paintings were used to spread Catholicism. Most were part of churches, such as ceilings and walls. Non-religious paintings were also known.[228] Notable works include Nuestra Senora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga (1692)[229] and paintings at Camarin de da Virgen (1720).[230] Wealthy, educated Filipinos introduced secular art during the 19th century. The number of watercolour paintings increased, and subjects began to include landscapes, Filipino people and fashion, and government officials. Portraits included self-portraits, Filipino jewelry, and native furniture. Landscape paintings depicted ordinary Filipinos participating in daily life. The paintings, often ornately signed, were made on canvas, wood, and a variety of metals.[228] Watercolours were painted in the Tipos del País[231] or Letras y figuras style.[232]
Notable 19th-century oil paintings include Basi Revolt paintings, Sacred Art of the Parish Church of Santiago Apostol (1852), Spoliarium (1884), La Bulaqueña (1895), and The Parisian Life (1892).[230] A notable modern painting s The Progress of Medicine in the Philippines (1953).[230] After World War II, paintings were influenced by the effects of war. Common themes included battle scenes, destruction, and the suffering of the Filipino people.[233] Nationalistic themes included International Rice Research Institute (1962) and the Manila Mural (1968)[230] Twentieth- and 21st-century paintings have showcased native Filipino cultures as part of the spread of nationalism.[234] Notable paintings during the era include Chickens (1968)[235] and Sarimanok series (late 20th century).[236] Some works have criticized lingering colonial viewpoints such as discrimination against darker-skinned people and the negative effects of colonialism; examples are Filipina: A racial identity crisis (1990s)[237][238] and The Brown Man's Burden (2003).[239] A number of works have protested against state authoritarian rule, human-rights violations, and fascism.[240][241][242]
Printmaking began in the Philippines after the country's religious orders – the Dominicans, Franciscans and Jesuits – began printing prayer books and inexpensive religious images (such as the Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ, or the saints) to spread Roman Catholicism. Maps were also printed, including the 1734 Velarde map. Printmaking has diversified to include woodblock printing and other forms.[251] Photography began during the 1840s, and photos were used during the colonial era as media for news, tourism, anthropology and other documentation, and as colonial propaganda.[252] After independence, photography became popular for personal and commercial use.[253]
Religious print used for colonialism in the Philippines, 1896
Third frame of the Filipino comic, The Monkey and The Turtle (1886)
Literature
Poetry, fiction, essays, and literary and art criticism are usually influenced by folk literature, which focuses on epics, ethnic mythology, and related stories and traditions. Calligraphy on a variety of media was used to create literary works; an example is Mangyanambahan poetry.[254] Colonial literature focused first on Spanish-language works, and then English-language works. From 1593 to 1800, most literature in the Philippines consisted of Spanish-language religious works; examples are Doctrina Christiana (1593)[255] and a Tagalog rendition of the Pasyon (1704).[256] Colonial literature was also written in native languages, primarily religious and governmental works promoting colonialism.[252] Non-colonial Filipino literature was written by local authors as well; oral traditions were incorporated into works by Filipino writers, such as the 17th-century manuscript of the ancient Ilocano epic Biag ni Lam-ang.[257]Florante at Laura was published in 1869, combining fiction with Asian and European themes.[258][unreliable source?][259] In 1878[260] or 1894,[261]Ang Babai nga Huaran (the first modern play in any Philippine language) was written in Hiligaynon. Spanish literature evolved into a nationalist stage from 1883 to 1903; Nínay, the first novel written by a Filipino, was published at this time. Literature critical of colonial rulers was published, such as the 1887 Noli Me Tángere and the 1891 El filibusterismo.[262] The first novel in Cebuano, Maming, was published in 1900.[263] The golden age of Spanish-language literature was from 1903 to 1966, and works in native languages and English were also popular. Banaag at Sikat, a 1906 novel, explores socialism, capitalism, and organized labor.[264] The first Filipino book written in English, The Child of Sorrow, was published in 1921. Early English literature is characterized by melodrama, figurative language, and an emphasis on local color.[265] A later theme was the search for Filipino identity, reconciling Spanish and American influence with the Philippines' Asian heritage.[266] Portions of Sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag were published in 1966 and 1967, and were combined in a 1986 novel.[267] During the martial-law era, works such as Dekada '70 (1983)[268] and Luha ng Buwaya (1983) criticizing human-rights violations by those in power were published.[269][270] Twenty-first-century Filipino literature has explored history, global outlooks, equality, and nationalism. Major works include Smaller and Smaller Circles (2002),[271]Ladlad (2007),[272]Ilustrado (2008),[273] and Insurrecto (2018).[274]
The film and broadcast arts focus on direction, writing, production design, cinematography, editing, animation, performance, and new media. Filipino cinema began in 1897, with the introduction of moving pictures in Manila. Foreign filmmakers worked in the country until 1919, when filmmaker José Nepomuceno made the first Filipino film, Country Maiden.[275] Interest in film as art had begun by the 1930s, with theatre an important influence. Films made during the 1940s were realistic, due to the occupation years of World War II. More artistic, mature films were produced a decade later.[276][277] The 1960s were a decade of commercialism, fan movies, soft porn films, action films, and western spin-offs, leading to a golden age during the 1970s and 1980s under dictatorship. These films were overseen by the government, and a number of filmmakers were arrested. One notable film made at that time was Himala, which addressed religious fanaticism. The period after martial law dealt with more serious topics, and independent films were popular. The 1990s saw the emergence of Western-themed films and the continued popularity of films focusing on poverty; examples of the latter include Manila in the Claws of Light, The Flor Contemplacion Story, Oro, Plata, Mata, and Sa Pusod ng Dagat.[277] Twenty-first-century Filipino films have examined human equality, poverty, self-love, and history.[278] Notable films include The Blossoming of Maximo Oliveros,[279]Caregiver,[280]Kinatay,[281]Thy Womb,[282]That Thing Called Tadhana,[283]The Woman Who Left,[284] and the film version of the novel Smaller and Smaller Circles.[285]
Allied arts of architecture include interior design, landscape architecture, and urban design. Interior design has been influenced by indigenous Filipino culture, Hispanic, American and Japanese styles, modern design, the avant-garde, tropical design, neo-vernacular, international style, and sustainable design. Interior spaces, expressive of culture, values and aspirations, have been extensively researched by Filipino scholars.[291] Common interior design styles have been Tropical, Filipino, Japanese, Mediterranean, Chinese, Moorish, Victorian and Baroque, and Avant Garde Industrial, Tech and Trendy, Metallic Glam, Rustic Luxe, Eclectic Elegance, Organic Opulence, Design Deconstructed, and Funk Art have become popular.[292] Landscape architecture initially mirrored a client's opulence, but presently emphasizes ecosystems and sustainability.[293] Urban planning is a key economic and cultural issue because of the country's large population and problems with infrastructure such as transportation. Urban planners have proposed raising some urban areas, especially in congested and flood-prone Metro Manila.[294][295]
Industrial design has been a factor in improving the Philippine economy. Many artistic creations are through research and development, which attracts customers. The packaging of food and other products and the aesthetics of gadgets are examples of industrial design with the aesthetics of mass-produced vehicles, kitchen equipment and utensils, and furniture.[296][297] Design Week has been held during the third week of March and October since 2011.[298]
Various jewelries
Earth-tone bags
Angel ornament made of capiz shell, silver, and metal
Candle holder inspired by the Philippine cherry blossom, balayong[299]
Rattan rocking chair
Fashion design
Fashion is one of the Philippines' oldest artistic crafts, and each ethnic group has an individual fashion sense. Indigenous fashion uses materials created with the traditional arts, such as weaving and the ornamental arts. Unlike industrial design (which is intended for objects and structures), fashion design is a bodily package. Filipino fashion is based on indigenous fashion and aesthetics introduced by other Asian peoples and the West through trade and colonization. Ilustrado fashion was prevalent during the last years of the Hispanic era, and many people wore Hispanized outfits; this slowly changed as American culture was imported.[300] Budget-friendly choices prevail in modern Filipino fashion, although expensive fashions are available for the wealthy.[301] Outfits using indigenous Filipino textiles, without cultural appropriation, have become popular in the country.[302]
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