Perú , oficialmente República del Perú , es un país del oeste de América del Sur . Limita al norte con Ecuador y Colombia , al este con Brasil , al sureste con Bolivia , al sur con Chile y al sur y oeste con el océano Pacífico. Perú es un país megadiverso con hábitats que van desde las llanuras áridas de la región costera del Pacífico en el oeste hasta los picos de la cordillera de los Andes que se extienden desde el norte hasta el sureste del país hasta la selva tropical de la cuenca del Amazonas en el este con el río Amazonas . [11] Perú tiene una población de más de 32 millones, y su capital y ciudad más grande es Lima . Con 1.285.216 km² ( 496.225 millas cuadradas), Perú es el decimonoveno país más grande del mundo y el tercero más grande de América del Sur .
El territorio peruano fue el hogar de varias culturas durante los períodos antiguo y medieval, y tiene una de las historias de civilización más largas de cualquier país, rastreando su herencia hasta el décimo milenio a. C. Las culturas y civilizaciones precoloniales notables incluyen la civilización Caral-Supe (la civilización más antigua de América y considerada una de las cunas de la civilización ), la cultura Nazca , los imperios Wari y Tiwanaku , el Reino del Cusco y el Imperio Inca , el estado más grande conocido en las Américas precolombinas . El Imperio español conquistó la región en el siglo XVI y Carlos V estableció un virreinato con el nombre oficial de Reino del Perú que abarcaba la mayor parte de sus territorios sudamericanos, con capital en Lima . [12] La educación superior comenzó en América con el establecimiento oficial de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos en Lima en 1551.
Perú proclamó formalmente su independencia de España en 1821, y tras las campañas militares de Bernardo O'Higgins , José de San Martín y Simón Bolívar , así como la decisiva batalla de Ayacucho , completó su independencia en 1824. En los años siguientes, el país sufrió primero inestabilidad política hasta que comenzó un período de relativa estabilidad económica y política debido a la explotación del guano que terminó con la Guerra del Pacífico (1879-1884). A lo largo del siglo XX, Perú lidió con la inestabilidad política y social, incluido el conflicto interno entre el Estado y los grupos guerrilleros, intercalado con períodos de crecimiento económico. La implementación del Plan Verde [13] [14] llevó a Perú hacia una economía neoliberal bajo el gobierno autoritario de Alberto Fujimori y Vladimiro Montesinos en la década de 1990, y la ideología política del fujimorismo del primero dejó una huella duradera en la gobernanza del país que continúa hasta nuestros días. [15] [16] La década de 2000 marcó una expansión económica y una reducción de la pobreza, pero la década posterior reveló vulnerabilidades sociopolíticas existentes desde hace mucho tiempo , exacerbadas por una crisis política instigada por el Congreso y la pandemia de COVID-19 , que precipitó el período de disturbios que comenzó en 2022. [ 17]
El Estado soberano del Perú es una república democrática representativa dividida en 25 regiones . Sus principales actividades económicas incluyen la minería , la manufactura , la agricultura y la pesca, junto con otros sectores en crecimiento como las telecomunicaciones y la biotecnología . [18] El país forma parte de Los Pumas del Pacífico , una agrupación política y económica de países a lo largo de la costa del Pacífico de América Latina que comparten tendencias comunes de crecimiento positivo, bases macroeconómicas estables, mejor gobernanza y una apertura a la integración global. Perú ocupa un lugar destacado en libertad social ; [19] es un miembro activo de la Cooperación Económica Asia-Pacífico , la Alianza del Pacífico , el Acuerdo Integral y Progresivo de Asociación Transpacífico y la Organización Mundial del Comercio ; y es considerado como una potencia media . [20]
La población peruana está compuesta por mestizos , amerindios , europeos , africanos y asiáticos . El idioma hablado principal es el español , aunque un número significativo de peruanos habla lenguas quechuas , aimara u otras lenguas indígenas . Esta mezcla de tradiciones culturales ha dado como resultado una amplia diversidad de expresiones en campos como el arte , la gastronomía , la literatura y la música .
El nombre del país puede derivar de Birú , el nombre de un gobernante local que vivió cerca de la Bahía de San Miguel , Ciudad de Panamá, a principios del siglo XVI. [21] Los conquistadores españoles , que llegaron en 1522, creían que esta era la parte más al sur del Nuevo Mundo . [22] Cuando Francisco Pizarro invadió las regiones más al sur, pasaron a denominarse Birú o Perú . [23]
El escritor contemporáneo Inca Garcilaso de la Vega , hijo de una princesa inca y un conquistador, nos ofrece una historia alternativa: dijo que el nombre Birú era el de un amerindio común que fue encontrado por la tripulación de un barco en una misión de exploración para el gobernador Pedro Arias Dávila y continuó relatando más casos de malentendidos debido a la falta de un idioma común. [24]
La corona española le dio al nombre estatus legal con la Capitulación de Toledo de 1529 , que designó al recién encontrado Imperio Inca como provincia del Perú. [25] En 1561, el rebelde Lope de Aguirre se declaró a sí mismo el "Príncipe" de un Perú independiente, lo que se vio truncado por su arresto y ejecución. Bajo el dominio español, el país adoptó la denominación de Virreinato del Perú , que se convirtió en la República Peruana desde su independencia hasta 1979 , cuando adoptó su nombre actual de República del Perú . [26]
Las primeras evidencias de presencia humana en territorio peruano datan de aproximadamente 12.500 a. C. en el asentamiento de Huaca Prieta . [27] Las sociedades andinas se basaban en la agricultura, utilizando técnicas como el riego y las terrazas ; la cría de camélidos y la pesca también eran importantes. La organización dependía de la reciprocidad y la redistribución porque estas sociedades no tenían noción de mercado o dinero. La sociedad compleja más antigua conocida en Perú, la civilización Caral/Norte Chico , floreció a lo largo de la costa del océano Pacífico entre 3000 y 1800 a. C. Estos primeros desarrollos fueron seguidos por culturas arqueológicas que se desarrollaron principalmente alrededor de las regiones costeras y andinas en todo Perú. La cultura Cupisnique , que floreció alrededor de 1000 a 200 a. C. [28] a lo largo de lo que ahora es la costa del Pacífico de Perú, fue un ejemplo de la cultura preincaica temprana .
La cultura Chavín , que se desarrolló entre 1500 y 300 a. C., fue probablemente un fenómeno más religioso que político, con su centro religioso en Chavín de Huántar . [29] Después de la decadencia de la cultura Chavín a principios del siglo I d. C., una serie de culturas localizadas y especializadas surgieron y cayeron, tanto en la costa como en las tierras altas, durante los siguientes mil años. En la costa, estas incluían las civilizaciones de Paracas , Nazca , Wari y las más destacadas Chimú y Moche .
Los moche, que alcanzaron su apogeo en el primer milenio d.C., eran famosos por su sistema de irrigación que fertilizaba su terreno árido, su sofisticada cerámica, sus altos edificios y su ingeniosa metalistería. [30] Los chimú fueron los grandes constructores de ciudades de la civilización preincaica; como una confederación flexible de ciudades amuralladas esparcidas a lo largo de la costa del norte de Perú, los chimú florecieron desde aproximadamente 1140 hasta 1450. [31] Su capital estaba en Chan Chan en las afueras de la actual Trujillo . [31] En las tierras altas, tanto la cultura Tiahuanaco , cerca del lago Titicaca en Perú y Bolivia, [32] como la cultura Wari, cerca de la actual ciudad de Ayacucho , desarrollaron grandes asentamientos urbanos y sistemas estatales de amplio alcance entre 500 y 1000 d.C. [33]
En el siglo XV, los incas surgieron como un estado poderoso que, en el lapso de un siglo, formó el imperio más grande de las Américas precolombinas con su capital en Cusco . Los incas del Cusco representaban originalmente uno de los grupos étnicos pequeños y relativamente menores, los quechuas . Gradualmente, ya en el siglo XIII, comenzaron a expandirse e incorporar a sus vecinos. La expansión inca fue lenta hasta aproximadamente mediados del siglo XV, cuando el ritmo de la conquista comenzó a acelerarse, particularmente bajo el gobierno del emperador Pachacuti . [34] Bajo su gobierno y el de su hijo, Topa Inca Yupanqui , los incas llegaron a controlar la mayor parte de la región andina, con una población de 9 a 16 millones de habitantes bajo su gobierno. Pachacuti también promulgó un código integral de leyes para gobernar su extenso imperio, al tiempo que consolidaba su autoridad temporal y espiritual absoluta como el Dios del Sol que gobernaba desde un Cusco magníficamente reconstruido. [35] De 1438 a 1533, los incas utilizaron una variedad de métodos, desde la conquista hasta la asimilación pacífica, para incorporar una gran porción del oeste de América del Sur, centrada en las cordilleras andinas , desde el sur de Colombia hasta el norte de Chile, entre el océano Pacífico en el oeste y la selva amazónica en el este. El idioma oficial del imperio era el quechua , [36] aunque se hablaban cientos de idiomas y dialectos locales. Los incas se referían a su imperio como Tawantinsuyu que puede traducirse como "Las Cuatro Regiones" o "Las Cuatro Provincias Unidas". Muchas formas locales de culto persistieron en el imperio, la mayoría de ellas relacionadas con las huacas sagradas locales , pero el liderazgo inca alentó el culto a Inti , el dios sol e impuso su soberanía por encima de otros cultos como el de la Pachamama . [37] Los incas consideraban a su Rey, el Sapa Inca , como el " niño del sol ". [38]
.jpg/1280px-thumbnail.jpg)
Atahualpa (también Atahuallpa), el último Sapa Inca , se convirtió en emperador cuando derrotó y ejecutó a su medio hermano mayor Huáscar en una guerra civil provocada por la muerte de su padre, [39] Inca Huayna Capac. En diciembre de 1532, un grupo de conquistadores (apoyados por los chankas , huancas , cañaris y chachapoyas como auxiliares indígenas ) liderados por Francisco Pizarro derrotó y capturó al emperador inca Atahualpa en la batalla de Cajamarca . [40] Después de años de exploración preliminar y conflictos militares, fue el primer paso de una larga campaña que tomó décadas de lucha pero terminó en la victoria española y la colonización de la región conocida como el Virreinato del Perú con su capital en Lima , que entonces era conocida como "La Ciudad de los Reyes". La conquista del Perú dio lugar a campañas complementarias en todo el virreinato, así como a expediciones hacia la cuenca amazónica, como en el caso de los esfuerzos españoles por sofocar la resistencia amerindia. La última resistencia inca fue reprimida cuando los españoles aniquilaron el Estado neoinca en Vilcabamba en 1572.
La población indígena colapsó dramáticamente de manera abrumadora debido a las enfermedades epidémicas introducidas por los españoles, así como a la explotación y el cambio socioeconómico. [41] El virrey Francisco de Toledo reorganizó el país en la década de 1570 con la minería de oro y plata como su principal actividad económica y el trabajo forzado amerindio como su principal fuerza laboral. Con el descubrimiento de las grandes vetas de plata y oro en Potosí (actual Bolivia) y Huancavelica , el virreinato floreció como un importante proveedor de recursos minerales. El lingote peruano proporcionó ingresos a la Corona española y alimentó una compleja red comercial que se extendió hasta Europa y Filipinas. Los intercambios comerciales y de población entre América Latina y Asia realizados a través de los galeones de Manila que transitaban por Acapulco, tenían al Callao en Perú como el punto final más lejano de la ruta comercial en las Américas. [42] En relación con esto, Don Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera , gobernador de Panamá, también fue responsable de asentar la ciudad de Zamboanga en Filipinas empleando soldados y colonos peruanos. [43] Los esclavos africanos se sumaron a la población activa para ampliar la fuerza laboral. La expansión de un aparato administrativo y burocrático colonial fue paralela a la reorganización económica.
Con la conquista se inició la expansión del cristianismo en América del Sur; La mayoría de la gente se convirtió a la fuerza al catolicismo , y los clérigos españoles creían, como los teólogos puritanos de las colonias inglesas más tarde, que los pueblos nativos "habían sido corrompidos por el diablo, que estaba trabajando "a través de ellos para frustrar" sus fundamentos". [44] Solo tomó una generación convertir a la población. Construyeron iglesias en todas las ciudades y reemplazaron algunos de los templos incas con iglesias, como el Coricancha en la ciudad de Cusco. La iglesia empleó la Inquisición , haciendo uso de la tortura para asegurarse de que los católicos recién convertidos no se desviaran hacia otras religiones o creencias, y escuelas de monasterio, educando a las niñas, especialmente de la nobleza y la clase alta inca, "hasta que tuvieran la edad suficiente para profesar [convertirse en monjas] o dejar el monasterio y asumir el papel ('estado') en la sociedad cristiana que sus padres planeaban erigir" en Perú. [45] El catolicismo peruano sigue el sincretismo que se encuentra en muchos países latinoamericanos, en los que los rituales nativos religiosos se han integrado con las celebraciones cristianas. [46] En este esfuerzo, la Iglesia llegó a desempeñar un papel importante en la aculturación de los nativos, atrayéndolos a la órbita cultural de los colonos españoles.
En el siglo XVIII, la declinación de la producción de plata y la diversificación económica disminuyeron en gran medida los ingresos reales. En respuesta, la Corona promulgó las Reformas borbónicas , una serie de edictos que aumentaron los impuestos y dividieron el Virreinato . Las nuevas leyes provocaron la rebelión de Túpac Amaru II y otras revueltas, todas las cuales fueron reprimidas. Como resultado de estos y otros cambios, los españoles y sus sucesores criollos llegaron a monopolizar el control sobre la tierra, apoderándose de muchas de las mejores tierras abandonadas por la despoblación nativa masiva. Sin embargo, los españoles no resistieron la expansión portuguesa de Brasil a través del meridiano. El Tratado de Tordesillas quedó sin sentido entre 1580 y 1640 mientras España controlaba Portugal . La necesidad de facilitar la comunicación y el comercio con España llevó a la división del virreinato y a la creación de nuevos virreinatos de Nueva Granada y Río de la Plata a expensas de los territorios que formaban el Virreinato del Perú ; Esto redujo el poder, la prominencia y la importancia de Lima como capital virreinal y desplazó el lucrativo comercio andino a Buenos Aires y Bogotá , mientras que la caída de la producción minera y textil aceleró la decadencia progresiva del Virreinato del Perú.
Finalmente, el virreinato se disolvería, como sucedió con gran parte del imperio español, cuando fue desafiado por los movimientos de independencia nacional a principios del siglo XIX. Estos movimientos llevaron a la formación de la mayoría de los países actuales de América del Sur en los territorios que en un momento u otro habían constituido el Virreinato del Perú. [47] La conquista y la colonia trajeron una mezcla de culturas y etnias que no existían antes de que los españoles conquistaran el territorio peruano. Aunque muchas de las tradiciones incas se perdieron o se diluyeron, se agregaron nuevas costumbres, tradiciones y conocimientos, creando una rica cultura peruana mixta. [46] Dos de las rebeliones indígenas más importantes contra los españoles fueron la de Juan Santos Atahualpa en 1742 y la Rebelión de Túpac Amaru II en 1780 en las tierras altas cercanas al Cuzco. [48]
.jpg/1280px-Batalla_de_Ayacucho_by_Mart%C3%ADn_Tovar_y_Tovar_(1827_-_1902).jpg)
A principios del siglo XIX, mientras la mayoría de las naciones sudamericanas se veían azotadas por guerras de independencia , Perú seguía siendo un bastión realista . Mientras la élite oscilaba entre la emancipación y la lealtad a la monarquía española, la independencia se logró solo después de la ocupación por las campañas militares de José de San Martín y Simón Bolívar .
Las crisis económicas, la pérdida de poder de España en Europa, la guerra de independencia en América del Norte y los levantamientos indígenas contribuyeron a crear un clima favorable para el desarrollo de las ideas emancipadoras entre la población criolla de América del Sur. Sin embargo, la oligarquía criolla en Perú gozó de privilegios y se mantuvo leal a la Corona española. El movimiento de liberación comenzó en Argentina, donde se crearon juntas autónomas como resultado de la pérdida de autoridad del gobierno español sobre sus colonias.
Tras luchar por la independencia del Virreinato del Río de la Plata, José de San Martín creó el Ejército de los Andes y cruzó la cordillera en 21 días . Una vez en Chile, unió fuerzas con el general del ejército chileno Bernardo O'Higgins y liberó al país en las batallas de Chacabuco y Maipú en 1818. [49] El 7 de septiembre de 1820, una flota de ocho buques de guerra llegó al puerto de Paracas al mando del general José de San Martín y Thomas Cochrane , que prestaba servicios en la Armada chilena. Inmediatamente, el 26 de octubre, tomaron el control de la localidad de Pisco . San Martín se instaló en Huacho el 12 de noviembre, donde estableció su cuartel general mientras Cochrane navegaba hacia el norte y bloqueaba el puerto de Callao en Lima. Al mismo tiempo, en el norte, Guayaquil era ocupada por fuerzas rebeldes al mando de Gregorio Escobedo. Como Perú era el bastión del gobierno español en Sudamérica, la estrategia de San Martín para liberar al país fue utilizar la diplomacia. Envió representantes a Lima para instar al virrey a que se le concediera la independencia al Perú; sin embargo, todas las negociaciones resultaron infructuosas.
El virrey del Perú, Joaquín de la Pazuela, nombró a José de la Serna comandante en jefe del ejército leal para proteger a Lima de la amenaza de invasión de San Martín. El 29 de enero, de la Serna organizó un golpe de estado contra de la Pazuela, que fue reconocido por España y fue nombrado virrey del Perú. Esta lucha interna por el poder contribuyó al éxito del ejército libertador. Para evitar una confrontación militar, San Martín se reunió con el recién nombrado virrey, José de la Serna, y le propuso crear una monarquía constitucional , propuesta que fue rechazada. De la Serna abandonó la ciudad y el 12 de julio de 1821, San Martín ocupó Lima y declaró la independencia peruana el 28 de julio de 1821. Creó la primera bandera peruana. El Alto Perú (actual Bolivia) permaneció como bastión español hasta que el ejército de Simón Bolívar lo liberó tres años después. José de San Martín fue declarado Protector del Perú. La identidad nacional peruana se forjó durante este período, mientras los proyectos bolivarianos para una Confederación Latinoamericana fracasaban y una unión con Bolivia resultaba efímera. [50]
Simón Bolívar lanzó su campaña desde el norte, liberando el Virreinato de Nueva Granada en las Batallas de Carabobo en 1821 y Pichincha un año después. En julio de 1822, Bolívar y San Martín se reunieron en la Conferencia de Guayaquil . Bolívar quedó a cargo de la liberación total del Perú mientras que San Martín se retiró de la política después de que se reunió el primer parlamento. El recién fundado Congreso peruano nombró a Bolívar dictador del Perú, otorgándole el poder de organizar el ejército.
Con la ayuda de Antonio José de Sucre , derrotaron al ejército español en la batalla de Junín el 6 de agosto de 1824 y en la decisiva batalla de Ayacucho el 9 de diciembre del mismo año, consolidando la independencia del Perú y del Alto Perú. El Alto Perú fue establecido más tarde como Bolivia. Durante los primeros años de la República, las luchas endémicas por el poder entre los líderes militares causaron inestabilidad política. [51]
Proclamada la independencia, San Martín asumió el mando político-militar de los departamentos libres del Perú, bajo el título de Protector, según decreto dado el 3 de agosto de 1821.74 Las obras del Protectorado contribuyeron a la creación de la Biblioteca Nacional (a favor del saber), la aprobación del Himno Nacional y la abolición de la mita (a favor de los indígenas). El 27 de diciembre de 1821, San Martín creó tres ministerios: Ministerio de Estado y Relaciones Exteriores, encargando a Juan García del Río; Ministerio de Guerra y Marina , a Bernardo de Monteagudo; y Ministerio de Hacienda, a Hipólito Unanue.
Desde la década de 1840 hasta la de 1860 el Perú disfrutó de un período de estabilidad bajo la presidencia de Ramón Castilla , a través del aumento de los ingresos estatales provenientes de las exportaciones de guano . [52] En 1864, una expedición española ocupó las islas Chincha (productoras de guano) y desató un incidente internacional con grandes consecuencias en la política interna peruana, que desembocó en un golpe de Estado contra el presidente Juan Antonio Pezet , el gobierno de Mariano. Perú, con la ayuda de Bolivia , Chile y Ecuador , envió una declaración de guerra a España. Tras la batalla del Callao el 2 de mayo de 1866, la Armada española se retiró del Perú. El gobierno de José Balta fue pródigo en obras de infraestructura (construcción del Ferrocarril Central) aunque ya se percibían los primeros signos de exceso de gasto gubernamental. Para la década de 1870 los recursos de guano se habían agotado, el país estaba muy endeudado y las luchas políticas internas estaban nuevamente en aumento. [53]
Para 1859, unos 41.000 peruanos habían muerto en las constantes guerras civiles que sacudieron al país desde 1829. Gracias al dinero de la venta del guano, el Perú comenzó a modernizarse con diferentes obras públicas como los ferrocarriles; la burocracia civil y militar creció; los indígenas dejaron de pagar tributo y los esclavos lograron su libertad; se inició la política migratoria de alemanes, austríacos, irlandeses e italianos.
El 5 de abril de 1879 Chile declaró la guerra al Perú, desatando la Guerra del Pacífico. El casus belli fue el enfrentamiento entre Bolivia y Chile por un problema tributario en el que el Perú estaba comprometido por el Tratado de Alianza Defensiva firmado con Bolivia en 1873. Sin embargo, la historiografía peruana es unánime en sostener que la causa profunda de esta guerra fue la ambición de Chile de apoderarse de los territorios salitreros y guaneros del sur del Perú.92 En la primera etapa de la guerra, la campaña naval, la marina peruana repelió el ataque chileno hasta el 8 de octubre de 1879, día en el que se libró el combate naval de Angamos, donde la armada chilena con sus buques Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa y Covadonga acorraló al monitor Huáscar, principal buque de la marina peruana comandado por el almirante AP Miguel Grau, quien murió en la refriega y se convirtió desde entonces en el máximo héroe del Perú.
En 1879 Perú entró en la Guerra del Pacífico , que duró hasta 1884. Bolivia invocó su alianza con Perú contra Chile. El Gobierno peruano intentó mediar en la disputa enviando un equipo diplomático para negociar con el gobierno chileno, pero el comité concluyó que la guerra era inevitable. La historiografía peruana es unánime en sostener que la causa profunda de esta guerra fue la ambición de Chile de apoderarse de los territorios salitreros y guaneros del sur de Perú y Bolivia.
En la primera etapa de la guerra, la campaña naval, la armada peruana repelió el ataque chileno hasta el 8 de octubre de 1879, día en que se libró el combate naval de Angamos, donde la armada chilena con sus buques Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa y Covadonga acorraló al monitor Huáscar , principal buque de la armada peruana, comandado por el almirante AP Miguel Grau, quien murió en la refriega y desde entonces se convirtió en el máximo héroe del Perú. Casi cinco años de guerra terminaron con la pérdida del departamento de Tarapacá y las provincias de Tacna y Arica , en la región de Atacama. Francisco Bolognesi y Miguel Grau son ambos reconocidos héroes de la guerra. Originalmente Chile se comprometió a un referéndum para las ciudades de Arica y Tacna a realizarse años después, para autodeterminar su filiación nacional. Sin embargo, Chile se negó a aplicar el Tratado, y ninguno de los países pudo determinar el marco estatutario. La Guerra del Pacífico fue la guerra más sangrienta en la que participó el Perú. Después de la Guerra del Pacífico, se inició un extraordinario esfuerzo de reconstrucción. El gobierno comenzó a poner en marcha una serie de reformas sociales y económicas para recuperarse de los daños de la guerra. La estabilidad política se logró recién a principios del siglo XX.
Las luchas internas posteriores a la guerra fueron seguidas por un período de estabilidad bajo el Partido Civilista , que duró hasta el inicio del régimen autoritario de Augusto B. Leguía . La Gran Depresión provocó la caída de Leguía, una renovada agitación política y el surgimiento de la Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (APRA). [54] La rivalidad entre esta organización y una coalición de la élite y los militares definió la política peruana durante las siguientes tres décadas. Un tratado de paz final en 1929, firmado entre Perú y Chile llamado Tratado de Lima , devolvió Tacna a Perú. Entre 1932 y 1933, Perú se vio envuelto en una guerra de un año con Colombia por una disputa territorial que involucraba al Departamento de Amazonas y su capital Leticia .
En 1941 Perú y Ecuador se enfrentaron en la Guerra peruano-ecuatoriana , tras la cual el Protocolo de Río buscó formalizar la frontera entre esos dos países. En un golpe militar el 29 de octubre de 1948, el general Manuel A. Odría se convirtió en presidente. La presidencia de Odría fue conocida como el Ochenio . Fue duro con el APRA, complaciendo momentáneamente a la oligarquía y a todos los demás en la derecha, pero siguió un curso populista que le ganó un gran favor con los pobres y las clases bajas. Una economía próspera le permitió disfrutar de políticas sociales costosas pero complacientes con las masas. Al mismo tiempo, sin embargo, los derechos civiles fueron severamente restringidos y la corrupción era rampante en todo su régimen. Odría fue sucedido por Manuel Prado Ugarteche . Sin embargo, las acusaciones generalizadas de fraude llevaron al ejército peruano a deponer a Prado e instalar una junta militar, a través de un golpe de estado encabezado por Ricardo Pérez Godoy . Godoy dirigió un breve gobierno de transición y celebró nuevas elecciones en 1963, que ganó Fernando Belaúnde Terry , quien asumió la presidencia hasta 1968. Belaúnde fue reconocido por su compromiso con el proceso democrático.
El 3 de octubre de 1968 un nuevo golpe de Estado encabezado por un grupo de oficiales encabezados por el general Juan Velasco Alvarado llevó al ejército al poder con el objetivo de aplicar una doctrina de "progreso social y desarrollo integral", nacionalista y reformista, influida por las tesis de la CEPAL sobre la dependencia y el subdesarrollo. Seis días después del golpe, Velasco procedió a nacionalizar la International Petroleum Corporation (IPC), la empresa norteamericana que explotaba el petróleo peruano, y luego emprendió una reforma del aparato estatal, una reforma agraria. Fue la mayor reforma agraria jamás realizada en América Latina: abolió el sistema latifundista y modernizó la agricultura mediante una redistribución más equitativa de la tierra (el 90% de los campesinos formaron cooperativas o sociedades agrícolas de interés social). La tierra pasó a ser propiedad de quienes la cultivaban y los grandes terratenientes fueron expropiados. Las únicas grandes propiedades permitidas fueron las cooperativas. Entre 1969 y 1976, 325.000 familias recibieron del Estado tierras de una superficie media de 29,8 hectáreas. El "gobierno revolucionario" también planeó inversiones masivas en educación, elevó la lengua quechua -hablada por casi la mitad de la población pero hasta entonces despreciada por las autoridades- a un estatus equivalente al español y estableció la igualdad de derechos para los hijos naturales. Perú deseaba liberarse de toda dependencia y llevó a cabo una política exterior tercermundista. Estados Unidos respondió con presiones comerciales, económicas y diplomáticas. En 1973, Perú pareció triunfar sobre el bloqueo financiero impuesto por Washington al negociar un préstamo del Banco Internacional de Desarrollo para financiar su política de desarrollo agrícola y minero. Las relaciones con Chile se volvieron muy tensas después del golpe de Estado del general Pinochet . El general Edgardo Mercado Jarrín (primer ministro y comandante en jefe del ejército) y el almirante Guillermo Faura Gaig (ministro de Marina) escaparon a intentos de asesinato con pocas semanas de diferencia. En 1975 el general Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti tomó el poder y rompió con las políticas de su predecesor. Su régimen participó ocasionalmente en la Operación Cóndor en colaboración con otras dictaduras militares estadounidenses. [55] [56]
Perú se vio envuelto en un conflicto de dos semanas con Ecuador durante la Guerra de Paquisha a principios de 1981 como resultado de una disputa territorial entre los dos países. La política económica del presidente Alan García distanció aún más a Perú de los mercados internacionales, lo que resultó en una menor inversión extranjera en el país. [57] Después de que el país experimentara una inflación crónica , la moneda peruana, el sol , fue reemplazada por el inti a mediados de 1985, que a su vez fue reemplazado más tarde por el nuevo sol en julio de 1991, momento en el que el nuevo sol tenía un valor acumulado de mil millones de viejos soles. El ingreso anual per cápita de los peruanos cayó a $ 720 (por debajo del nivel de 1960) y el PBI de Perú cayó un 20%, momento en el que las reservas nacionales eran de $ 900 millones negativos. La turbulencia económica de la época agravó las tensiones sociales en Perú y contribuyó en parte al surgimiento de violentos movimientos insurgentes rurales rebeldes, como Sendero Luminoso y el MRTA , que causaron grandes estragos en todo el país. [58] [59] Sendero Luminoso había aparecido en las universidades en los años 70. Estos estudiantes, muchos de ellos de origen campesino, regresaron luego a sus comunidades y organizaron comités locales del partido. El abandono por parte del Estado de ciertas regiones rurales favoreció la creación del partido. En junio de 1979, las manifestaciones en favor de la educación gratuita fueron duramente reprimidas por el ejército: 18 personas fueron asesinadas según el informe oficial, pero las estimaciones no gubernamentales elevan el número de muertos a varias decenas. Este acontecimiento provocó una radicalización de las protestas políticas en el campo y, finalmente, el estallido de la lucha armada. Tras el inicio de la lucha armada, los nuevos reclutas de Sendero Luminoso eran, en general, campesinos con poca formación política, más que militantes verdaderamente políticos. [60]
Las fuerzas armadas peruanas se sintieron frustradas por la incapacidad de la administración de García para manejar las crisis de la nación y redactaron el Plan Verde , que implicaba el genocidio de los peruanos empobrecidos e indígenas, el control o la censura de los medios de comunicación en Perú y el establecimiento de una economía neoliberal controlada por una junta militar en Perú, como un esfuerzo por derrocar a su gobierno. [61] [62] [63] [64] Alberto Fujimori asumió la presidencia en 1990 y, según Rospigliosi, el jefe del Servicio de Inteligencia Nacional (SIN), el general Edwin "Cucharita" Díaz y Vladimiro Montesinos desempeñaron un papel clave para hacer que el presidente Fujimori acatara las demandas de los militares, mientras que "se estableció un entendimiento entre Fujimori, Montesinos y algunos de los oficiales militares" involucrados en el Plan Verde antes de la toma de posesión de Fujimori. [65] [66] Fujimori adoptaría muchas de las políticas delineadas en el Plan Verde. [64] [66] Las políticas de Fujimori, prescritas por Hernando de Soto , llevaron al sufrimiento inmediato de los peruanos pobres que vieron cómo los precios no regulados aumentaban rápidamente, y los que vivían en la pobreza vieron cómo los precios aumentaban tanto que ya no podían permitirse los alimentos. [67] De Soto abogó por el colapso de la sociedad peruana, y el economista dijo que era necesaria una crisis civil para apoyar las políticas de Fujimori. [68] Estas medidas drásticas hicieron que la inflación cayera del 7.650% en 1990 al 139% en 1991 y al 57% en 1992. [58] [59] La descripción de los logros económicos de Fujimori como un "milagro peruano" fue exagerada y la desigualdad persistió después de su presidencia. [69]
Debido a su controvertido gobierno, Fujimori enfrentó oposición a sus esfuerzos de reforma y utilizó propuestas golpistas del Plan Verde, disolviendo el Congreso, suspendiendo el poder judicial, arrestando a varios líderes de la oposición y asumiendo plenos poderes en el autogolpe del 5 de abril de 1992. [70] [64] [71] Luego revisó la constitución; convocó nuevas elecciones al Congreso; e implementó una reforma económica sustancial, incluida la privatización de numerosas empresas estatales, la creación de un clima favorable a la inversión y una gestión sólida de la economía. La administración de Fujimori fue perseguida por grupos insurgentes , en particular Sendero Luminoso, que llevó a cabo ataques en todo el país durante las décadas de 1980 y 1990. Fujimori tomó medidas enérgicas contra los insurgentes y logró sofocarlos en gran medida a fines de la década de 1990, pero la lucha se vio empañada por atrocidades cometidas tanto por las fuerzas de seguridad peruanas como por los insurgentes: la masacre de Barrios Altos y la masacre de La Cantuta por grupos paramilitares del gobierno, y los atentados con bombas en Tarata y Frecuencia Latina por Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori también ampliaría la definición de terrorismo en un esfuerzo por criminalizar tantas acciones como fuera posible para perseguir a los oponentes políticos de izquierda. [15] Usando el terruqueo , una táctica de alarmismo que se utilizó para acusar a los oponentes de terrorismo, Fujimori estableció un culto a la personalidad al retratarse a sí mismo como un héroe e hizo de las ideologías de izquierda un enemigo eterno en Perú. [15] Esos incidentes posteriormente llegaron a simbolizar las violaciones de los derechos humanos cometidas en los últimos años de violencia. [72] Su Programa Nacional de Población –una implementación de una de las propuestas del Plan Verde para el “exterminio total” de los peruanos empobrecidos que posiblemente simpatizaran con los grupos insurgentes– también resultó en la esterilización forzada de al menos 300.000 mujeres pobres e indígenas. [65] [73] [74]
A principios de 1995, Perú y Ecuador volvieron a enfrentarse en la Guerra del Cenepa , pero en 1998 los gobiernos de ambas naciones firmaron un tratado de paz que demarcaba claramente la frontera internacional entre ellos. En noviembre de 2000, Fujimori renunció a su cargo y se exilió voluntariamente, evitando inicialmente ser procesado por violaciones de los derechos humanos y cargos de corrupción por parte de las nuevas autoridades peruanas. [75]
En el nuevo siglo, Perú intentó luchar contra la corrupción mientras sostenía el crecimiento económico, [75] aunque el fujimorismo mantuvo el poder sobre gran parte de la sociedad peruana al mantener el control de las instituciones y la legislación creada en la constitución de 1993, que fue escrita por Fujimori y sus partidarios sin participación de la oposición. [15] A pesar del progreso de los derechos humanos desde la época de la insurgencia, muchos problemas aún son visibles y muestran la continua marginación de quienes sufrieron la violencia del conflicto peruano. [76] Un gobierno interino presidido por Valentín Paniagua asumió la responsabilidad de realizar nuevas elecciones presidenciales y del Congreso. Posteriormente, Alejandro Toledo se convirtió en presidente entre 2001 y 2006. El 28 de julio de 2006, el ex presidente Alan García se convirtió en presidente de Perú después de ganar las elecciones de 2006. En 2006, la hija de Alberto Fujimori, Keiko Fujimori , entró en la arena política del Perú para continuar el legado de su padre y abrazar el fujimorismo. [77] [78] [79] En mayo de 2008, Perú se convirtió en miembro de la Unión de Naciones Suramericanas . En abril de 2009, el ex presidente Alberto Fujimori fue declarado culpable de violaciones de los derechos humanos y sentenciado a 25 años de prisión por su papel en asesinatos y secuestros cometidos por el escuadrón de la muerte Grupo Colina durante la batalla de su gobierno contra las guerrillas izquierdistas en la década de 1990. [80]
Durante las presidencias de Ollanta Humala , Pedro Pablo Kuczynski y Martín Vizcarra , el Congreso de derecha liderado por Keiko Fujimori obstruyó gran parte de las acciones realizadas por los presidentes. [81] [82] El 5 de junio de 2011, Ollanta Humala fue elegido presidente, y su gabinete fue censurado con éxito por el Congreso fujimorista. [83] A partir de Pedro Pablo Kuczynski , el Congreso utilizó una redacción de juicio político ampliamente interpretada en la Constitución del Perú de 1993 que permitía el juicio político del presidente sin causa [84] [85] [86] [87] para presionar al presidente, lo que lo obligó a renunciar en 2018 en medio de varias controversias en torno a su administración. El vicepresidente Martín Vizcarra asumió el cargo en marzo de 2018 con índices de aprobación generalmente favorables mientras lideraba el movimiento de referéndum constitucional anticorrupción . [88] [89] La pandemia de COVID-19 resultó en que Perú experimentara la tasa de mortalidad por COVID-19 más alta del mundo, exponiendo gran parte de la desigualdad que persistía desde la administración de Fujimori [69] y desencadenando una crisis económica que llevó a la destitución de Vizcara de la presidencia por parte del Congreso . [90] Ampliamente visto como un golpe de Estado por el Congreso, su jefe, el recién nombrado presidente Manuel Merino , enfrentó protestas en todo el país y, después de cinco días, Merino renunció a la presidencia. [91] Merino fue reemplazado por el presidente Francisco Sagasti , quien dirigió un gobierno provisional y centrista, e hizo cumplir muchas de las políticas anteriores de Vizcarra. [92] Las elecciones se celebraron el 11 de abril de 2021 y Pedro Castillo , del partido Perú Libre , ganó la primera vuelta, seguido de cerca por Keiko Fujimori, y los partidos de derecha aliados con Fujimori mantuvieron posiciones en el Congreso. [93]
.jpg/1280px-Protestas_Lima_Diciembre_2022_(18).jpg)
On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo was sworn in as the new president of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election.[94] That same year, Peru celebrated the bicentenary of independence.[95] Castillo faced multiple impeachment votes during his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin a third impeachment effort, Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting to dissolve the opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice President Dina Boluarte. She became the country's first female president.[96][97] Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to the Mexican embassy and was charged with the crime of rebellion.[98]
The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents.[17][99] This resentment led to the 2022–2023 Peruvian political protests, which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with the Ayacucho massacre and Juliaca massacre occurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades.[17] The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish an authoritarian or civilian-military government.[17][99][100]
Peru is a unitary semi-presidential republic with a multi-party system.[2][3] The country has maintained a liberal democratic system under its 1993 Constitution, which replaced a constitution that leaned the government to a federation to authorize more power to the president.[101][102] It is also a unitary republic, in which the central government holds the most power and can create administrative divisions. The Peruvian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United States (a written constitution, an autonomous Supreme court, and a presidential system) and the People's Republic of China (a unicameral congress, a premier and ministry system).[103]
The Peruvian government is separated into three branches:
Under its constitution, the president of Peru is both head of state and government and is elected to a five-year term without immediate reelection.[105] The president appoints ministers who oversee the 18 ministries of the state, including the prime minister, into the Cabinet.[106] The constitution designates minimal authority to the prime minister, who presides over cabinet meetings in which ministers advise the president and acts as a spokesperson on behalf of the executive branch.[107] The president is also able to pose questions of confidence to the Congress of Peru, and consequently order the dissolution of congress, done in 1992 by Alberto Fujimori and in 2019 by Martín Vizcarra.[108]
In the Congress of Peru there are 130 members, from 25 administrative divisions, determined by respective population and elected to five-year terms.[109] Bills are proposed by the executive and legislative powers and become law through a plurality vote in Congress.[110] The judiciary is nominally independent,[111] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history.[112] The Congress of Peru can also pass a motion of no confidence, censure ministers, as well as initiate impeachments and convict executives.[113][114] Due to broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru, the legislative branch can impeach the president without cause, effectively making the executive branch subject to Congress.[84][85][86][87] In recent times, the legislative body has passed semi-successful impeachment and two successful impeachments; Alberto Fujimori resigned prior to removal in 2000, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski resigned in 2018, Martín Vizcarra was removed from office in 2020 and Pedro Castillo was removed in 2022.[115] Following a ruling in February 2023 by the Constitutional Court of Peru, whose members are elected by Congress, judicial oversight of the legislative body was also removed by the court, essentially giving Congress absolute control of Peru's government.[116][117]
Peru's electoral system uses compulsory voting for citizens from the age of 18 to 70, including dual-citizens and Peruvians abroad.[118] Members of Congress are directly elected by constituents in respective districts through proportional voting. The president is elected in a general election, along with the vice president, through a majority in a two-round system.[119] Elections are observed and organized by the National Jury of Elections, National Office of Electoral Processes, and the National Registry of Identification and Civil Status.[120]
Peru uses a multi-party system for congressional and general elections. Major groups that have formed governments, both on a federal and legislative level, are parties that have historically adopted economic liberalism, progressivism, right-wing populism (specifically Fujimorism), nationalism, and reformism.[121]
The most recent general election was held on 11 April 2021 and resulted in Free Peru winning the most seats in Congress, although it fell well short of a majority.[122] A presidential runoff between Pedro Castillo and Keiko Fujimori took place on 5 June 2021 and resulted in the victory of Castillo.[123]
Many presidents of Peru have been ousted from office or imprisoned on allegations of corruption from the 1990s into the 21st century. Alberto Fujimori is serving a 25-year prison sentence for commanding death squads that killed civilians in a counterinsurgency campaign during his tenure (1990–2000). He was later also found guilty of corruption. Former president Alan García (1985–1990 and 2006–2011) killed himself in April 2019 when Peruvian police arrived to arrest him over allegations he participated in the Odebrecht bribery scheme. Former president Alejandro Toledo is accused of allegedly receiving bribes from Brazilian construction firm Odebrecht during his government (2001–2006). Former president Ollanta Humala (2011–2016) is also under investigation for allegedly receiving bribes from Odebrecht during his presidential election campaign. Humala's successor Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018) remains under house arrest while prosecutors investigate him for favoring contracts with Odebrecht. Former president Martín Vizcarra (2018–2020) was controversially ousted by Congress after media reports alleged he had received bribes while he was a regional governor years earlier.[124][125]
Corruption is also widespread throughout Congress as legislators use their office for parliamentary immunity and other benefits,[126] with the large majority of Peruvians disapproving of Congress and its behavior.[127]
.svg/1280px-Peru_-_Regions_and_departments_(labeled).svg.png)
Peru is divided into 26 units: 24 departments, the Constitutional Province of Callao and the Province of Lima (LIM) – which is independent of any region and serves as the country's capital.[128] Under the constitution, the 24 departments plus Callao Province have an elected "regional"[g] government composed of the regional governor and the regional council.[129][130]
The governor constitutes the executive body, proposes budgets, and creates decrees, resolutions, and regional programs.[131] The Regional Council, the region's legislative body, debates and votes on budgets, supervises regional officials, and can vote to remove the governor, deputy governor, or any member of the council from office. The regional governor and the Regional Council serve a term of four years, without immediate reelection. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[132][133]
Provinces such as Lima are administered by a municipal council, headed by a mayor.[134] The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in the decentralization process and still influence local politics.[135][136]
Some areas of Peru are defined as metropolitan areas which overlap district areas. The largest of them, the Lima metropolitan area, is the seventh-largest metropolis in the Americas.
Over recent decades, Peru's foreign relations has historically been dominated by close ties with the United States and Asia,[137] particularly through the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the World Trade Organization, the Pacific Alliance, Mercosur, and the Organization of American States (OAS).[138][139]Peru is an active member of several regional trade blocs and is one of the founding members of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a member of international organizations such as the OAS and the United Nations.[140] Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, a celebrated Peruvian diplomat, served as United Nations Secretary General from 1981 to 1991.
Peru planned to be fully integrated into the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) by 2021, attributing its economic success and efforts to strengthen institutions as meeting factors to be a part of the OECD.[141][142] Peru is a member of the World Trade Organization, and has pursued multiple major free trade agreements, most recently the Peru–United States Free Trade Agreement, the China–Peru Free Trade Agreement, the European Union Free Trade Agreement, free trade agreements with Japan, and many others.[143][144]
Peru maintains an integrated relationship with other South American nations, and is a member of various South American intergovernmental agreements, more recently the Organization of American States, Mercosur, the Andean Community of Nations, the Pacific Alliance, and the APEC. Peru has historically experienced stressed relations with Chile, including the Peru v Chile international court resolution and the Chilean-Peruvian maritime dispute, but the two countries have agreed to work in improving relations.[145]
Peru has participated in taking a leading role in addressing the crisis in Venezuela through the establishment of the Lima Group.[146]
Peru is the 99th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.[147]
Peru has the fourth largest military in Latin America. Peru's armed forces – the Armed Forces of Peru – comprise the Peruvian Navy (MGP), the Peruvian Army (EP), and the Peruvian Air Force (FAP), in total numbering 392,660 personnel (including 120,660 regulars and 272,000 reservists) as of 2020.[148] Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[149]
Their functions are separated by branch:
The military is governed by both the commander in chief, Ministry of Defense, and Joint Command of the Armed Forces (CCFFAA). The CCFFAA has subordinates to the Operational Commands and Special Commands, with which it carries out the military operations that are required for the defense and the fulfillment of the tasks that the executive power provides.[150] Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.[151] The National Police of Peru is often classified as a part of the armed forces. Although in fact it has a different organization and a wholly civil mission, its training and activities over more than two decades as an anti-terrorist force have produced markedly military characteristics, giving it the appearance of a virtual fourth military service with significant land, sea and air capabilities and approximately 140,000 personnel. The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Ministry of Interior.[152][149]
Since the end of the crisis in Peru in 2000, the federal government has significantly reduced annual spending in defense.[153] In the 2016–2017 budget, defense spending has constituted 1.1% of GDP ($2.3 billion), the second lowest spending relative to GDP in South America following Argentina.[154] More recently, the Armed Forces of Peru have been used in civil defense. In 2020, Peru used its military personnel and even reservists to enforce the strict quarantine measures placed during the COVID-19 pandemic.[155]
Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in the Southern Hemisphere, its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of the equator, covers 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically.[156]
The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.[157] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region.[158] The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are the endorheic basin of Lake Titicaca, and the Amazon basin, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon River, which at 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater.
Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[159] Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.[160]
The largest lake in Peru, Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America.[161]The largest reservoirs, all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos, Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs.[162]
Although Peru is located entirely in the tropics, the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents (Humboldt and El Niño) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. Elevations above sea level in the country range from −37 to 6,778 m (−121 to 22,238 ft) and precipitation ranges from less than 20 mm (0.79 in) annually in desert areas to more than 8,000 mm (310 in) in tropical rainforest areas.
Due to its geography, Peru can be divide into three main climates. The unbroken and relatively slim coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[163] In the mountain region, which covers almost a third of the country, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[164] The Peruvian Amazon, covering more than half of the total area of Peru, is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[165]
_(13995875991).jpg/1280px-Rupicola_peruvianus_Gallito_de_roca_andino_Andean-Cock-of-the-Rock_(male)_(13995875991).jpg)
Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic,[166] and is one of the megadiverse countries.
Peru has over 1,800 species of birds (120 endemic), over 500 species of mammals, over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwater fishes.[167][168] The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the puma, jaguar and spectacled bear. The Birds of Peru produce large amounts of guano, an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of sea bass, flounder, anchovies, tuna, crustaceans, and shellfish, and is home to many sharks, sperm whales, and whales.[169] The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru.[170]
Peru also has an equally diverse flora. The coastal deserts produce little more than cacti, apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life.[171]The Highlands above the tree-line known as puna is home to bushes, cactus, drought-resistant plants such as ichu, and the largest species of bromeliad – the spectacular Puya raimondii.
The cloud-forest slopes of the Andes sustain moss, orchids, and bromeliads, and the Amazon rainforest is known for its variety of trees and canopy plants.[169] Peru had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 14th globally out of 172 countries.[172]
The economy of Peru is the 48th largest in the world (ranked by Purchasing power parity),[173] and the income level is classified as upper middle by the World Bank.[174] Peru is, as of 2011[update], one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to an economic boom experienced during the 2000s.[175] It has an above-average Human Development Index of 0.77 which has seen steady improvement over the last 25 years.[clarify][176] Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.[177] Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.[178] According to 2015 data, 19.3% of its total population is poor, including 9% that lives in extreme poverty.[179] Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; as of 2014[update] it stands at 2.5%.[180] and 8,6 in 2023.[181] The unemployment rate has fallen steadily in recent years,[clarify] and as of 2012[update] stands at 3.6%.
Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades.[clarify] The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.[182]
Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.[183]
As of 2010[update] Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[184] Recent economic growth had been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.[185] Trade was expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on 12 April 2006.[186] Peru's main exports were copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners were the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[187] Peru was ranked 76th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[188]
Informal workers represent, in 2019, 70% of the labour market according to the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI). In 2016, almost three million children and adolescents worked in the informal sector.[189]
The country is heavily dependent on mining for the export of raw materials, which represented 61.3% of exports in 2023.[190] In 2019, the country was the second world producer of copper,[191] silver[192] and zinc,[193] eighth world producer of gold,[194] third world producer of lead,[195] the world's fourth largest producer of tin,[196] the fifth world's largest producer of boron[197] and the world's fourth largest producer of molybdenum.[198] – not to mention gas and of oil. The country has an expectant competitive position in global mining, maintaining mining leadership in Latin America and a solid mining history and trajectory little industrialized, Peru suffers from the international variation of commodity prices.[199]
The Yanacocha mine in Cajamarca is the main source of gold extraction in Peru. It is considered the largest gold mine in South America and the second largest in the world. In 2005, 3,333,088 ounces of gold were produced. An indicator of mining growth can be seen in mining exports, having grown from US$1,447 million in 1990[200] to US$39,639 million in 2023.[190]
Peru is the world's largest producer of quinoa, and maca one of the 5 largest producers of avocado, blueberry, artichoke and asparagus, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of coffee and cocoa, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of potato and pineapple, also having a considerable production of grape, sugarcane, rice, banana, maize and cassava; its agriculture is considerably diversified. In livestock, Peru is one of the 20 largest producers of chicken meat in the world.[201]
According to a report by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) published in August 2022, half of Peru's population is moderately food insecure (16.6 million people), and more than 20% (6.8 million people), are severely food insecure: they go without food for a whole day, or even several days.[202][203]
The director of FAO Peru stresses that "this is the great paradox of a country that has enough food for its population. Peru is a net producer of food and one of the major agro-exporting powers in the region. Food insecurity is due to high social inequality and low wages, with Peru's minimum wage being one of the lowest in South America and a large informal sector. According to the FAO, the small farmers themselves suffer from hunger. Poorly paid, they also suffer from the impacts of climate change and face the problem of drug trafficking on their land and mining activity that exhausts the soil."[202][203]
.jpg/1280px-Sacred_Valley_of_the_Incas,_Peru_(7195471302).jpg)
Tourism constitutes the third largest industry in Peru, behind fishing and mining. Tourism is mainly directed towards archaeological monuments, as it has more than one hundred thousand archaeological sites. According to a study by the Peruvian government, the satisfaction rate of tourists after visiting Peru is 94%. It is the fastest growing industry in the country, growing annually at a rate of 25% over the last five years, the highest growth rate of any other country in South America.
Tourism has an impact of 7% of Peru's GDP, it is regulated and stimulated by the Commission for the Promotion of Peru for Exports and Tourism of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism. For this reason, in 2011 Marca Perú was created, which is an initiative of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism in association with Peruvian companies and startups to promote the purchase and consumption of products created in the country. The pillars of this initiative are: exports, tourism and investments. Tourism employs 11% of the country's economically active population (484 000 direct jobs and 340,000 indirect jobs), most of them in hospitality and transportation. Peru is known to be prefect for cultural, eco, adventure, gastronomic, beach, and luxury travel.
The places most visited by tourists are the cities of Lima and its historic center, Cusco, which is characterized by its Inca and colonial architecture but its main attractions are the Sacred Valley of the Incas and Machu Picchu. Arequipa is also a large tourist destination, for the historic center, also for the Colca Canyon and finally Puno through Lake Titicaca. The main tourist circuit of the country is the southern circuit, which includes cities such as; Ica, Nazca, Pisco, Paracas, Ayacucho, Puerto Maldonado and others with architectural, cultural and natural attractions. The second most important route is the Callejón de Huaylas, in the department of Áncash, headquarters of adventure tourism and the main point of reference for New Andean gastronomy. Peru has 14 World Heritage Sites and 11 national parks.
Peru has many other tourist routes. Among these are those of the Mantaro River valley with the city of Huancayo as one of its axis, and the Tarma Valley as another axis, which in turn is the entrance to the central jungle and the northern city of Trujillo where Chan Chan is located, the largest adobe citadel in the world, the traditional spa of Huanchaco and the Huacas del Sol and de la Luna belonging to the Chimú culture. Chiclayo, Piura and the rainforest city Iquitos are also very popular destinations. According to the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism, the visit of foreign tourists increased by 7% during 2015 and would have generated US$3.5 billion in foreign currency for the country.
The World Bank lists the top producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. By the 2019 list, Peru has the 50th most valuable industry in the world ($28.7 billion).[204]
In 2011 and 2016 Peru was the world's largest supplier of fishmeal.[205] It is also the world's leading producer of alpaca wool, and the most important exporter of cotton textile garments in Latin America, and due to its natural wealth, it is an excellent place for the development of the polymer industry worldwide. The country is in a stage of economic growth and it is expected, in light of the agreements and treaties signed in free trade areas, to become one of the most attractive South American nations for developing business.
Peru's road network in 2021 consisted of 175,589 km (109,106 mi) of highways, with 29,579 km (18,380 mi) paved.[206] Some highways in the country that stand out are the Pan American Highway and Interoceanic Highway. In 2016, the country had 827 km (514 mi) of duplicated highways, and was investing in more duplications: the plan was to have 2,634 km (1,637 mi) in 2026.[207] The country's rail network is small: in 2018, the country only had 1,939 km (1,205 mi) of railways.[208]
Peru has important international airports such as Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa. The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina) and Minas Gerais (Brazil).[209] Multiple airport expansions are currently under construction across Peru, the two main ones being the Jorge Chávez International Airport and Chinchero International Airport. Jorge Chávez International Airport, the largest in Peru, is undergoing an expansion which includes the construction of a new runway, control tower and a new terminal, along with new hotels, logistical buildings and cargo sector. Altogether, they make up the Ciudad Aeropuerto, Airport City. It will allow transit of 40 million passengers every year and will be completed in December 2024. Another ambitious airport project is the Chinchero International Airport in Cusco. The new airport is set to replace the old, Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport and help passengers bypass a stop in Lima by introducing international routes.
Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani. The 15 most active ports in South America in 2018 were: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).[210] The Port of Callao is currently the largest port in Peru, but will soon be overtaken by the Chancay Port Terminal, a joint project between China and Peru in Chancay, north of Lima. When completed, the port will become the largest in Latin America.[211] The first stage of construction is expected to be complete in late 2024.[212]
The electricity sector has experienced notable improvements in recent years. The number of homes with electric lighting grew from 82% in 2007 to 94.2% in 2016. while the quality and effectiveness of service provision improved. Current electricity generation capacity is evenly divided between thermal energy and hydroelectric energy sources. The National Interconnected Electrical System supplies 85% of the connected population, with several isolated systems that cover the rest of the country. Peruvian electricity production totalled 5.1 TWh in the month of October 2022. Of these, 52% came from hydroelectric plants, 38.3% from thermoelectric plants (which use oil, gas and coal) and 9.7% of renewable energy plants like: wind, solar, and others.[213]
In 2021, Peru had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 5,490 MW in hydropower (34th largest in the world), 409 MW in wind power (49th largest in the world), 336 MW in solar power (62nd largest in the world), and 185 MW in biomass.[214]
According to the Pan American Health Organization, life expectancy for men is 72.6 years, while for women it is 77.9 years. Infant mortality is eighteen per thousand births, having been reduced 76% from 1990 to 2011.[216] The main causes of death of Peruvians are neoplasm, influenza and pneumonia, bacterial diseases, ischemic heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases. According to the 2017 Population and Housing Censuses, 75.5% of the population has some type of health insurance, that is, 22,173,663 people, despite this, 24.5% of the population does not have any type of insurance.[217]
.jpg/1280px-Peru_Population_Density,_2000_(6171916181).jpg)
With a population of 33,396,698 inhabitants according to estimates and projections of the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics until the year 2022, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America.[218] Its population density is 25.79 inhabitants per square kilometer and its annual growth rate is 1.1%. 58.8% of the Peruvian population lives on the coast, 27% in the mountains, and 14.2% in the jungle. In 2020, 27 million Peruvians lived in urban areas, which represents 80% of the population.The demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[219] According to the 1940 Peruvian census, Peru had a population of seven million residents.[220]
As of 2017[update], 79.3% lived in urban areas and 20.7% in rural areas.[221] Major cities include the Lima metropolitan area (home to over 9.8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.[222] Arequipa is Perus second largest city, with an estimated population of 1,177,000, while Trujillo is the third largest city with 1,048,000. There are 15 known uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.[223] Peru has a life expectancy of 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from the World Bank.[224]
The economically active population is equivalent to 53.78% of the total population, that is, 17,830,500 inhabitants. The largest cities are located on the coast, such as Sullana, Piura, Chiclayo, Trujillo, Chimbote, Lima and Ica. In the mountains, the cities of Arequipa, Cusco, Huancayo, Cajamarca and Juliaca stand out. Finally, in the jungle, Iquitos is the most important, followed by Pucallpa, Tarapoto, Moyobamba and Tingo María.
Ethnicity in Peru (2017)[226]
Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by successive waves of different peoples over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish conquest in the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook, their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.[227]
The 2017 census for the first time included a question on ethnic self-identification. According to the results, 60.2% of the people identified themselves as mestizo, 22.3% identified themselves as Quechua, 5.9% identified themselves as white, 3.6% identified themselves as black, 2.4% identified themselves as Aymara, 2.3% identified themselves as other ethnic groups, and 3.3% did not declare their ethnicity.[228] In the different stages of Peru's history, ethnic composition has varied, with a continuous decline in the Amerindian proportion, due to multiple socioeconomic and sociocultural factors, birth controls, high mortality rates, exclusion, among others. The country tends towards a slow generalized miscegenation of all ethnic segments that began from the beginning of the colonial period to the present day. Because the majority of the Peruvian population has become mestizo, some feel a superiority complex towards the natives of the mountains and the jungle, either because they do not pronounce a word properly, or simply because they do not know how to read a text well, leading to a kind of racism towards them.
During the Viceroyalty of Peru, Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers, mixing widely with each other and with the native population, mainly on the coast (the mountains and the jungle maintained a very little mixed indigenous majority). After independence there was European immigration from Spain, Italy, England, France, and Germany, along with the Middle East. [229] Peru freed its black slaves in 1854.[230] Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.[231] The first Croatian immigrants came to Peru in 1573 from Dubrovnik.[232]
In recent decades, Peruvian emigration figures have shown a marked growth and currently more than 10% of Peruvians are residing outside the country. This migratory movement has been accentuated since the year 2000, the official figure of Peruvian emigrants is 2,444,634 from 1990 to 2011. This without considering the descendant population, and the illegal floating population that is essentially found in neighboring countries. It is estimated that in the last 82 years, more than 3.5 million Peruvians emigrated from the country. With respect to the main countries of destination for Peruvian emigrants between 1990 and 2011, these were: the United States (31.5%), Spain (16%), Argentina (14.3%), Italy (10.1%), Chile (8.8%), Japan (4.1%) and Venezuela (3.8%).75% of Peruvian emigrants are between 19 and 49 years old, with a slight majority of women. For the most part, Peruvian emigration is a labor migration.
Throughout its history, Peru has received migrations from Europe (mainly Spain and Italy; and to a lesser extent from France, United Kingdom, and from other Central European countries and Southern), sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia (China and Japan). It currently receives a large number of Venezuelan immigrants, who are escaping the economic crisis that their country is suffering.
From 2016, the flow of Venezuelans to Peru increased, going from 6615 residents in that year to around 820,000 until mid-June 2019, being the most important migratory wave of the 21st century in the country. Peru is home to the second largest number of Venezuelan immigrants after Colombia.[233]
.jpg/1280px-Last_look_arounjd_Lima_(8444763943).jpg)
According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages are Spanish and, in areas where they predominate, Quechua and other Indigenous languages. Spanish is spoken natively by 82.6% of the population, and coexists with several native languages, of which the most important is the Quechuan languages, spoken by 16.92% of the population, 1.7% Aymara and 0.8% speaking another native language. In the urban areas of the country, especially in the coastal region, monolingualism of Spanish predominates; while in many rural areas of the country, particularly in the Amazon, multilingual populations dominate. [234]
Spanish language is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse Indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin.[235]
Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The Indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional Indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous Indigenous languages are spoken, including Asháninka, Bora, and Aguaruna.[235]
Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit religious practices have a high degree of syncretism with Indigenous traditions.[citation needed] Two of its universities, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru and Universidad Católica San Pablo, are among the country's five top universities.[236] As of the 2017 census, 76% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic; 14.1% as Evangelical; 4.8% as Protestant, Jewish, Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah's Witnesses; and 5.1% as nonreligious.[237]
Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities like Corpus Christi, Holy Week and Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Pre-Columbian Amerindian festivities remain widespread; Inti Raymi, an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities.
The majority of towns, cities, and villages have their own official church or cathedral and patron saint. The two saints of Peru are Rose of Lima, the first Saint of the Americas, and Martin de Porres. The largest cathedral in Peru is the Lima Metropolitan Cathedral. Other notable churches and cathedrals are the Cusco Cathedral Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa and the Basilica of Santo Domingo.
In Peru, education is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, which is in charge of formulating, implementing and supervising the national education policy. According to the Political Constitution of Peru, education is mandatory and free in public schools for the initial, primary and secondary levels.. It is also free in public universities for students who have satisfactory academic performance and pass the admission exams. Most of the schools in Peru are private and religious.
Education is divided into different levels: Initial education corresponds to the period between zero and five years of age, and is in charge of cribs whose purpose is to provide children with the stimulation required for their comprehensive development and the gardens that offer technical-pedagogical activities. Primary education begins with the first cycle, made up of the first and second grades. The entry age for children is six years old. This level begins in the first grade and ends in the sixth grade of primary school. Secondary education consists of five years, from first to fifth year. Then comes higher education that can be technical, productive, technological or university. To enter universities it is essential to take an admission exam, although the difficulty of this depends on the requirements of the university.
Peru's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9% as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[238] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.[239][240]
Peru is home to one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the New World. The National University of San Marcos, founded on 12 May 1551, during the Viceroyalty of Peru, is the first officially established and the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas.[citation needed] The University of San Marcos is known to be the best in Peru and among the best in South America.
Many of the Peruvian toponyms have Indigenous sources. In the Andes communities of Ancash, Cusco and Puno, Quechua or Aymara names are overwhelmingly predominant. Their Spanish-based orthography, however, is in conflict with the normalized alphabets of these languages. According to Article 20 of Decreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC (Supreme Decree) which approves the Regulations to Law 29735, published in the official newspaper El Peruano on 22 July 2016, adequate spellings of the toponyms in the normalized alphabets of the Indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the naming used by the National Geographic Institute (Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN). The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru.[241]
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Iberian and Andean traditions,[243] though it has also been influenced by various European, Asian, and African ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by Native traditions.[244]
During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cusco School are representative.[245] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.[246] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.
Peruvian art has its origin in the Andean civilizations. These civilizations arose in the territory of modern Peru before the arrival of the Spanish. Peruvian art incorporated European elements after the Spanish conquest and continued to evolve throughout the centuries up to the modern day.
Peru's earliest artwork came from the Cupisnique culture, which was concentrated on the Pacific coast, and the Chavín culture, which was largely north of Lima between the Andean mountain ranges of the Cordillera Negra and the Cordillera Blanca. Decorative work from this era, approximately the 9th century BCE, was symbolic and religious in nature. The artists worked with gold, silver, and ceramics to create a variety of sculptures and relief carvings. These civilizations were also known for their architecture and wood sculptures.
Between the 9th century BCE and the 2nd century CE, the Paracas Cavernas and Paracas Necropolis cultures developed on the south coast of Peru. Paracas Cavernas produced complex polychrome and monochrome ceramics with religious representations. Burials from the Paracas Necropolis also yielded complex textiles, many produced with sophisticated geometric patterns.
The 3rd century BCE saw the flowering of the urban culture, Moche, in the Lambayeque region. The Moche culture produced architectural works, such as the Huacas del Sol y de la Luna and the Huaca Rajada of Sipán. They were experts at cultivation in terraces and hydraulic engineering and produced original ceramics, textiles, pictorial and sculptural works.
Another urban culture, the Wari civilization, flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries in Ayacucho. Their centralized town planning was extended to other areas, such as Pachacamac, Cajamarquilla and Wari Willka.
Between the 9th and 13th centuries CE, the military urban Tiwanaku empire rose by the borders of Lake Titicaca. Centered around a city of the same name in modern-day Bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduced stone architecture and sculpture of a monumental type. These works of architecture and art were made possible by the Tiwanaku's developing bronze, which enabled them to make the necessary tools.
Urban architecture reached a new height between the 14th and 15th centuries in the Chimú Culture. The Chimú built the city of Chan Chan in the valley of the Moche River, in La Libertad. The Chimú were skilled goldsmiths and created remarkable works of hydraulic engineering.
The Inca Civilization, which united Peru under its hegemony in the centuries immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, incorporated into their own works a great part of the cultural legacy of the civilizations which preceded it. Important relics of their artwork and architecture can be seen in cities like Cusco, architectural remains like Sacsayhuamán and Machu Picchu and stone pavements that united Cusco with the rest of the Inca Empire.
Peruvian sculpture and painting began to define themselves from the ateliers founded by monks, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian Baroque School. In this context, the stalls of the Cathedral choir, the fountain of the Main Square of Lima both by Pedro de Noguera, and a great part of the colonial production were registered. The first center of art established by the Spanish was the Cuzco School that taught Quechua artists European painting styles. Diego Quispe Tito (1611–1681) was one of the first members of the Cuzco school and Marcos Zapata (1710–1773) was one of the last.[247]
Painting of this time reflected a synthesis of European and Indigenous influences, as is evident in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. de Mora or in the canvases of the Italians Mateo Pérez de Alesio and Angelino Medoro, the Spaniards Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and the Creole J. Rodriguez.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Baroque Style also dominated the field of plastic arts.
The term Peruvian literature not only refers to literature produced in the independent Republic of Peru, but also to literature produced in the Viceroyalty of Peru during the country's colonial period, and to oral artistic forms created by diverse ethnic groups that existed in the area during the pre-Columbian period, such as the Quechua, the Aymara and the Chanka people.
Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.[248] The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría[249] and José María Arguedas.[250] César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.[251]
Because of the Spanish expedition and discovery of America, explorers started the Columbian exchange which included unknown food in the Old World, including potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Modern Indigenous Peruvian food often includes corn, potatoes, and chilies. There are now more than 3,000 kinds of potatoes grown on Peruvian terrain, according to Peru's Instituto Peruano de la Papa.[252]Modern Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.[253] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.[254] Peru is known to have one of the best cuisines in the world. The capital, Lima, is home to Central Restaurante, which is one of the World's Best Restaurants and serves various Peruvian dishes from each geographical part of the country, the Costa (coast, Sierra (mountains) and Selva (rainforest).
Peruvian cuisine reflects local practices and ingredients – including influences from the Indigenous population including the Inca and cuisines brought in with colonizers and immigrants. Without the familiar ingredients from their home countries, immigrants modified their traditional cuisines by using ingredients available in Peru. The four traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine are corn, potatoes and other tubers, Amaranthaceaes (quinoa, kañiwa and kiwicha) and legumes (beans and lupins). Staples brought by the Spanish include rice, wheat, and meats (beef, pork, and chicken). Many traditional foods – such as quinoa, kiwicha, chili peppers, and several roots and tubers have increased in popularity in recent decades, reflecting a revival of interest in Native Peruvian foods and culinary techniques. It is also common to see traditional cuisines being served with a modern flair in towns like Cusco, where tourists come to visit. Chef Gastón Acurio has become well known for raising awareness of local ingredients.
Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.[255] In pre-Columbian times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.[256] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.[257] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument. Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno.[258]
Peruvian music is dominated by the national instrument, the charango. The charango is a member of the lute family of instruments and was invented during colonial times by musicians imitating the Spanish vihuela. In the Canas and Titicaca regions, the charango is used in courtship rituals, symbolically invoking mermaids with the instrument to lure the woman to the male performers. Until the 1960s, the charango was denigrated as an instrument of the rural poor. After the revolution in 1959, which built the Indigenismo movement (1910–1940), the charango was popularized among other performers. Variants include the walaycho, chillador, chinlili, and the larger and lower-tuned charangon.
While the Spanish guitar is widely played, so too is the Spanish-in-origin bandurria. Unlike the guitar, it has been transformed by Peruvian players over the years, changing from a 12-string, 6-course instrument to one having 12 to 16 strings in a mere four courses. Violins and harps, also of European origin, are also played. A very famous instrument from Peru is the Pan flute, dating back to Incan times. It is made of hollow bamboo tubes and is widely played in the Peruvian Andes.
While the Peruvian film industry has not been nearly as prolific as that of some other Latin American countries, some Peruvian movies produced enjoyed regional success. Historically, the cinema of Peru began in Iquitos in 1932 by Antonio Wong Rengifo (with a momentous, initial film billboard from 1900) because of the rubber boom and the intense arrival of foreigners with technology to the city, and thus continued an extensive, unique filmography, with a different style than the films made in the capital, Lima.
Peru also produced the first animated 3-D film in Latin America, Piratas en el Callao. This film is set in the historical port city of Callao, which during colonial times had to defend itself against attacks by Dutch and British privateers seeking to undercut Spain's trade with its colonies. The film was produced by the Peruvian company Alpamayo Entertainment, which made a second 3-D film one year later: Dragones: Destino de Fuego.
In February 2006, the film Madeinusa, produced as a joint venture between Peru and Spain and directed by Claudia Llosa, was set in an imaginary Andean village and describes the stagnating life of Madeinusa performed by Magaly Solier and the traumas of post-civil war Peru.
Llosa, who shared elements of Gabriel García Márquez's magic realism, won an award at the Rotterdam Film Festival. Llosa's second feature, The Milk of Sorrow ("La Teta Asustada"), was nominated for the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Picture, the first Peruvian film in the academy's history to be nominated. The film won the Golden Bear award at the 2009 Berlinale.
The practice of sport in Peru dates back to Colonial times. With the arrival of the Spanish to this territory, the practice of sport changed radically. Later, this was influenced by the American ideology of physical education linked to commercialization. Sports in the country are divided into several sports federations (one for each sports practice) that are under the tutelage of the highest state entity to regulate their practice, the Peruvian Sports Institute (IPD). Most of the sports federations are based in the Villa Deportiva Nacional in Lima. Peru's largest stadium is Estadio Monumental "U" which has a capacity of over 80,000, making it the second largest stadium in South America. The country's national stadium is the Estadio Nacional. Peru has hosted various sporting events, such as the 2004 Copa América, 2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship, 2013 and 2024 Bolivarian Games, and the largest sporting event held by the country, the 2019 Pan American Games.
Football is the most popular and widely practiced in the country. The Peruvian Primera División is the most important club tournament in the nation. The men's team has had some important performances on the world stage. They participated in the FIFA World Cup five times. Likewise, they have been champions of the Copa América on two occasions, in 1939 and 1975, and impressed at the 1936 Summer Olympics before going home after withdrawing from a walkover given to Austria in the quarter-final. Teófilo Cubillas is considered Peru's greatest footballer. At the club level, Universitario stands out with the runner-up in the Copa Libertadores in 1972 and Sporting Cristal also with the runner-up in 1997. The only Peruvian clubs with international titles are Cienciano, which won the 2003 Recopa Sudamericana and the 2004 Recopa Sudamericana, and Universitario, champion of the 2011 U-20 Copa Libertadores.
Other popular sports in Peru are volleyball, surfing and karate. Peru has won multiple gold, silver, and bronze medals at the Pan American Games. The Peru women's national volleyball team was one of the dominant teams in the 1980s and 90s and won the silver medal at the 1988 Summer Olympics, losing to the Soviet Union 3–2 after having led by a wide margin. Peru has usually been very good at surfing and volleyball.
Only in Latin America have all new democracies retained a pure presidential form, except for Peru (president-parliamentary) and Bolivia (assembly-independent).
At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society called El cuaderno verde. This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself. El cuaderno verde was passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori.
important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan. ... Fujimori essentially adopted the Green Plan and the military became a partner in the regime. ... The self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the Green Plan
terruqueo, ou seja, a construção artificial, racista e conveniente de um inimigo sociopolítico para deslegitimar formas de protesto social
a Middle Power like Peru lack the diplomatic and other resources...
The wreck excavation could prove that European style jewelry was being made in the Philippines. Some 56 intact storage jars were discovered. Investigations revealed that they had come from kilns in South China, Cochin China (Vietnam), and Siam (Thailand), and one was of Spanish design. The archaeology of the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, consequently, also provides us with intriguing new insights into the trans-Pacific trade connection and the commodities involved. Each time a galleon arrived at Acapulco, a market, la feria, was organized. This attracted all kinds of people such as Indian peddlers, Mexican and Peruvian merchants, soldiers, the king's officials, and friars, as well as a few Chinese and some Filipinos. From Acapulco, the goods were transported into the hinterlands, into Mexico City, and various other places, including Peru. The Peruvian port at that time was Callao and the Ciudad de los Reyes, that is Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Generally speaking, much of what was not sold (rezagos) directly in Acapulco was redirected towards Peru. Peruvian ships, mainly loaded with silver, mercury, cacao from Guayaquil, and Peruvian wines, sailed to ports along the Mexican and Guatemalan coasts, returning with Asian goods and leftover cargo from the galleon ships. Besides Callao and Guayaquil, Paita was also frequently a port of call.
He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reenforcement of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom.
The inflation rate in 1990 was 7,650%....President Fujimori immediately implemented a program of severe austerity and privatization programs. The economic shock therapy hit the poor the hardest, but brought inflation down to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.
a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention
the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.
important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan. ... Fujimori essentially adopted the 'Plan Verde,' and the military became a partner in the regime. ... The autogolpe, or self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the 'Plan Verde.'
the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Plan Verde was shown to President Fujimorti after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration
In September 1992, a small, elite squad within Peru's antiterrorist police (established under Garcia) captured the Shining Path leader, Abimael Guzman. Within the next few weeks, using information in Guzman's hideout, police arrested more than 1,000 suspected guerillas. During the next few years, the Shining Path was decimated.
a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention
At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society called El cuaderno verde. This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself. El cuaderno verde was passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori. ... It was a program that resulted in the forced sterilization of Quechua-speaking women belonging to rural Andean communities. This is an example of 'ethnic cleansing' justified by the state, which claimed that a properly controlled birth rate would improve the distribution of national resources and thus reduce poverty levels. ... The Peruvian state decided to control the bodies of 'culturally backward' women, since they were considered a source of poverty and the seeds of subversive groups
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Altroy" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Andrien" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Bakewell" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Burkholder" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Haas" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Mayer" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Phelan" is not used in the content (see the help page).
DOC. 28 September 1999.
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Wikimedia Atlas of Peru
Peru travel guide from Wikivoyage
Geographic data related to Peru at OpenStreetMap10°S 76°W / 10°S 76°W / -10; -76