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Policromo

Reconstrucción de 1883 del esquema de colores del entablamento de un templo dórico

La policromía es la "práctica de decorar elementos arquitectónicos, esculturas, etc., en una variedad de colores". [1] El término se utiliza para referirse a ciertos estilos de arquitectura , cerámica o escultura en múltiples colores.

Al observar las obras de arte y la arquitectura de la Antigüedad y la Edad Media europea , la gente tiende a creer que eran monocromas. En realidad, el pasado prerrenacentista estaba lleno de color, y todas las esculturas grecorromanas y catedrales góticas , que ahora son blancas, beige o grises, fueron pintadas inicialmente en colores brillantes. Como afirmó André Malraux , "Atenas nunca fue blanca, pero sus estatuas, desprovistas de color, han condicionado la sensibilidad artística de Europa... todo el pasado nos ha llegado sin color". [2] La policromía fue y es una práctica que no se limita solo al mundo occidental . Las obras de arte no occidentales, como los templos chinos , las figuras Uli de Oceanía o los jarrones de cerámica maya , también estaban decoradas con colores.

Antiguo Cercano Oriente

Al igual que el arte antiguo de otras regiones, el arte del Antiguo Oriente Próximo era policromado y los colores brillantes a menudo estaban presentes. Muchas esculturas ya no tienen su colorido original en la actualidad, pero todavía hay ejemplos que lo mantienen. Una de las mejores es la Puerta de Ishtar , la octava puerta de la ciudad interior de Babilonia (en el área de la actual Hillah , Gobernación de Babilonia , Irak ). Fue construida en el año 575 a. C. por orden del rey Nabucodonosor II en el lado norte de la ciudad. Formaba parte de una gran vía procesional amurallada que conducía a la ciudad. Sus colores son tan ricos como en su época porque las paredes estaban hechas de ladrillo vidriado.

Muchas esculturas del antiguo Oriente Próximo también estaban pintadas. Aunque hoy son grises, todos los relieves asirios que decoraban los palacios reales estaban pintados con colores muy saturados.

Antiguo Egipto

Gracias al clima seco de Egipto, los colores originales de muchas esculturas antiguas en bulto redondo, relieves, pinturas y diversos objetos se conservaron bien. Algunos de los ejemplos mejor conservados de la arquitectura egipcia antigua fueron las tumbas, cubiertas en su interior con relieves esculpidos pintados en colores brillantes o simplemente frescos . Los artistas egipcios trabajaron principalmente con pigmentos negros, rojos, amarillos, marrones, azules y verdes. Estos colores se derivaban de minerales molidos, materiales sintéticos ( azul egipcio , verde egipcio y fritas utilizadas para hacer esmaltes de vidrio y cerámica) y negros a base de carbono (hollín y carbón vegetal ). La mayoría de los minerales estaban disponibles en suministros locales, como pigmentos de óxido de hierro (ocre rojo, ocre amarillo y sombra); blanco derivado del carbonato de calcio que se encuentra en las extensas colinas de piedra caliza de Egipto; y azul y verde de azurita y malaquita .

Además de su efecto decorativo, los colores también se utilizaban por sus asociaciones simbólicas. Los colores en esculturas, ataúdes y arquitectura tenían cualidades tanto estéticas como simbólicas. Los antiguos egipcios veían el negro como el color del suelo aluvial fértil, por lo que lo asociaban con la fertilidad y la regeneración. El negro también se asociaba con la otra vida, y era el color de las deidades funerarias como Anubis . El blanco era el color de la pureza, mientras que el verde y el azul se asociaban con la vegetación y el rejuvenecimiento. Debido a esto, Osiris a menudo se representaba con la piel verde, y las caras de los ataúdes de la Dinastía XXVI a menudo eran verdes. El rojo, el naranja y el amarillo se asociaban con el sol. El rojo también era el color de los desiertos, y por lo tanto se asociaba con Seth y las fuerzas de la destrucción. [5] [6]

Más tarde, durante el siglo XIX, se llevaron a cabo expediciones que tenían como objetivo catalogar el arte y la cultura del antiguo Egipto. Description de l'Égypte es una serie de publicaciones de principios del siglo XIX repletas de ilustraciones de monumentos y artefactos del Antiguo Egipto. La mayoría son en blanco y negro, pero algunas son coloridas, para poder mostrar la policromía del pasado. En algunos casos, solo quedaron algunos rastros de pintura en las paredes, pilares y esculturas, pero los ilustradores intentaron con éxito mostrar el estado original de los edificios en sus imágenes. [7]

Mundo clasico

Reliquias de policromía en un capitel jónico de la antigua Grecia , procedente de un edificio no identificado del siglo V a. C. Museo del Ágora de Atenas, Stoa de Átalo

En la Creta minoica se han excavado algunas piezas de cerámica policromada muy antiguas, como en el yacimiento de Festos, de la Edad del Bronce . [9] En la antigua Grecia, las esculturas se pintaban con colores fuertes. La pintura se limitaba con frecuencia a las partes que representaban la ropa, el pelo, etc., dejando la piel con el color natural de la piedra, pero podía cubrir las esculturas en su totalidad. La pintura de la escultura griega no debe verse simplemente como una mejora de su forma esculpida, sino que tiene las características de un estilo artístico distinto. Por ejemplo, se ha demostrado recientemente [ ¿cuándo? ] que las esculturas del frontón del templo de Afaya en Egina estaban pintadas con patrones atrevidos y elaborados, que representaban, entre otros detalles, ropa estampada. La policromía de las estatuas de piedra se correspondía con el uso de materiales para distinguir la piel, la ropa y otros detalles en las esculturas criselefantinas , y con el uso de metales para representar labios, pezones, etc., en bronces de alta calidad como los bronces de Riace . La disponibilidad de métodos y técnicas digitales modernas han permitido la reconstrucción y visualización de la policromía 3D antigua con un método científicamente sólido y muchos proyectos han explorado estas posibilidades en los últimos años. [10]

Un ejemplo temprano de decoración policromada se encontró en el Partenón sobre la Acrópolis de Atenas . Sin embargo, cuando el anticuarismo europeo despegó en el siglo XVIII, la pintura que había estado en los edificios clásicos se había desgastado por completo. Por lo tanto, las primeras impresiones de los anticuarios y arquitectos de estas ruinas fueron que la belleza clásica se expresaba solo a través de la forma y la composición, carente de colores robustos, y fue esa impresión la que inspiró la arquitectura neoclásica . Sin embargo, algunos clasicistas como Jacques Ignace Hittorff notaron rastros de pintura en la arquitectura clásica y esto lentamente llegó a ser aceptado. Dicha aceptación se aceleró más tarde con la observación de diminutos rastros de color por medios microscópicos y de otro tipo, lo que permitió reconstrucciones menos tentativas que las que Hittorff y sus contemporáneos habían podido producir. Un ejemplo de policromía arquitectónica griega clásica puede verse en la réplica de tamaño real del Partenón exhibida en Nashville, Tennessee , EE. UU.

Wikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre Policromía en el arte antiguo .

Asia oriental

El arte chino es conocido por el uso de colores vibrantes. Las vasijas de cerámica chinas neolíticas, como las producidas por la cultura Yangshao , muestran el uso de pigmentos negros y rojos. Más tarde, las esculturas funerarias y religiosas aparecen como consecuencia de la difusión del budismo . Las deidades más comunes en la escultura budista china son formas de Buda y el bodhisattva Guanyin . Los rastros de oro y colores brillantes en los que se pintaron las esculturas aún dan una idea de su efecto. Durante las dinastías Han y Tang , se colocaron figurillas de cerámica policromada de sirvientes, artistas, inquilinos y soldados en las tumbas de personas de clase alta. Estas figurillas se produjeron en masa en moldes. Aunque la porcelana china es más conocida por ser azul y blanca, se produjeron muchos jarrones y figuras de cerámica coloridas durante las dinastías Ming y Qing . Durante las mismas dos dinastías, también se fabricaron vasijas cloisonné que usan alambres de cobre ( cloisons ) y esmalte brillante.

De manera similar a lo que estaba sucediendo en China, la introducción del budismo en Japón en el año 538 (o quizás 552 d. C.) condujo a la producción de esculturas budistas japonesas policromadas. Hasta entonces, la imaginería religiosa japonesa había consistido en figuras de arcilla desechables que se utilizaban para transmitir oraciones al mundo espiritual. [19]

Medieval

En toda la Europa medieval, las esculturas religiosas en madera y otros medios solían estar pintadas o coloreadas con colores brillantes, al igual que los interiores de los edificios de las iglesias. Estas esculturas solían ser destruidas o encaladas durante las fases iconoclastas de la Reforma protestante o en otros disturbios como la Revolución Francesa , aunque algunas han sobrevivido en museos como el Victoria & Albert , el Museo de Cluny y el Louvre . Los exteriores de las iglesias también se pintaban, pero poco ha sobrevivido. La exposición a los elementos y los gustos cambiantes y la aprobación religiosa a lo largo del tiempo actuaron en contra de su conservación. El "Portal de la Majestad" de la Colegiata de Toro es el ejemplo restante más extenso, debido a la construcción de una capilla que lo encerraba y lo protegía de los elementos solo un siglo después de su finalización. [23]

17th and 18th centuries

Library of the Wiblingen Abbey, Ulm, Germany, by Christian Wiedemann [sv], 1737-1744.[31] All the elements that seem to be made out of marble are actually made from polychrome stucco

While stone and metal sculpture normally remained uncolored, like the classical survivals, polychromed wood sculptures were produced by Spanish artists: Juan Martínez Montañés, Gregorio Fernández (17th century); German: Ignaz Günther, Philipp Jakob Straub (18th century); or Brazilian: Aleijadinho (19th century).

Monochromatic color solutions of architectural orders were also designed in the late, dynamic Baroque, drawing on the ideas of Borromini and Guarini. Single-colored stone cladding was used: light sandstone, as in the case of the façade of the Bamberg Jesuit church (Gunzelmann 2016) designed by Georg and Leonhard Dientzenhofer (1686–1693), the façade of the monastery church in Michelsberg by Leonard Dientzenhofer (1696), and the abbey church in Neresheim by J.B. Neumann (1747–1792).[32]

In the space of present-day Germany, during the 18th century, the Asam brothers (Egid Quirin Asam and Cosmas Damian Asam) designed churches with undulating walls, curved borken pediments and polychromy.[33] In the German-speaking space, multiple Rococo churches and libraries with pastel polychrome stuccos and columns were built. There, faux marble columns are made from wood pillars that are covered in a layer of polychrome stucco, a mixture of plaster, lime, and pigment. When these ingredients are mixed, a homogenous-coloured paste is created. To achieve the marble look, thinner batches of darker and lighter paste are made, so that veins begin to appear. It’s all roughly mixed by hand. When the material hardens it's polished by rubbing with fine sandpaper, and thus this layer of polychrome stucco becomes glossy and imitates really realistically marble. A good example of this is the Library of the Wiblingen Abbey in Ulm, Germany. Faux marble made of stucco will continue to be used during the 19th and early 20th centuries too. It is used only for interiors, because stucco dissolves outside through of contact with water.

In Wallachia, during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Brâncovenesc style was popular in architecture and decorative arts. It is named after Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu, during whose reign it was developed. Some of the churches in this style have polychrome facades, decorated with murals, like the church of the Stavropoleos Monastery in Bucharest, Romania.

The 2nd half of the 18th century was the rise of Neoclassicism, a movement which tries its best at reviving the styles of Ancient Greece, Rome, the Etruscan civilization, and sometimes even Egypt. During Louis XVI's reign (1760-1789), interiors in the Louis XVI style start to be decorated with arabesques, inspired by those discovered in ancient houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum. They are painted in pastel colours, painted white with the ornate parts gilt, or polychrome. The State Dining Room of the Inveraray Castle in Scotland, decorated by two French painters, is a good example of a polychrome Louis XVI style interior.

Porcelain

With the arrival of European porcelain in the 18th century, brightly colored pottery figurines with a wide range of colors became very popular. Porcelain was developed in China in the 9th century. Its recipe was kept secret from other nations, and only successfully copied in the 15th century by the Japanese and Vietnamese. During the 18th century, German kilns finally figured out how to make porcelain, beginning with the alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger and the physicist Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, who made the first European variety in 1709. The Meissen Porcelain Factory was founded in the following year, and it became the leading European porcelain manufacturer. Later, other kilns stole the recipe or came up with their own porcelain technology. Another really famous factory was the Sèvres, which produced stunning porcelain for the French elite during the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries.[45]

19th century

Compared to the 18th century, polychromy was somewhat more widespread in the 19th. However, the facades of most buildings remained white, most sculptures were unpainted, and most furniture was in the shades of its materials. Colours were added usually though glazed ceramics on buildings, different types of stone on sculptures, and through painting or intarsia most often on furniture. Like in the 18th century, porcelain remained quite colourful, many figures being life-like. In contrast with their exteriors, interiors of many houses of the rich were often decorated with boiserie, stucco, and/or painted. Like in the 2nd half of the 18th century, multiple bronze clocks and decorative objects have two tints through gilding and patina. Porcelain elements were also added for more colour.

Neoclassicism

Despite evidence of polychrome being discovered on Ancient Greek architecture and sculptures, most Neoclassical buildings have white or beige facades, and black metalwork. Around 1840, the French architect Jacques Ignace Hittorff, published studies of Sicilian architecture, documenting extensive evidence of color. The "polychrome controversy" raged for over a decade and proved to be a challenge for Neoclassical architects throughout Europe.[18]

Due to the discovery of frescos in the Roman cities Pompeii and Herculaneum during the 18th century, multiple 18th and 19th century Neoclassical houses have their interiors decorated with colourful Pompeian style frescos. They often feature bright red, known as "Pompeian red". The fashion for Pompeian styles of painting resulted in rooms finished in vivid blocks of colour. Examples include the Pompeian Room from the Hinxton Hall in Cambridgeshire, the Pompejanum in Aschaffenburg, Empress Joséphine's Bedroom from the Château de Malmaison, and Napoleon's bath of the Château de Rambouillet. By the beginning of the 19th century, painters were also able to create effects of marbling and graining to imitate wood.

19th century maximalism

"More is more" was the aesthetic principle followed in the Victorian era. Maximalism is present in many types of Victorian era designs, like ceramics, furniture, cutlery, tableware, fashion, architecture, book illustration, clocks, etc. Despite the appetite for ornamentation, many of them remain decorated with only a few colours, especially furniture. Ceramics were the field where polychrome was widespread. Besides objects, polychrome ceramic was also present in architecture and some furniture pieces and architecture through tiles.

The objects and buildings of the 19th century shown in the galleries of this page are without any doubt impressive. Today were are delighted by their ornaments, colours, and styles. However, up to the 1960s, with the rise of Postmodernism, when people started to question Modernism and began to appreciate things from the pre-Modern past, the verdict of Victorian designs wasn't good. During the early 20th century and even when they were made, some described the Victorian age as being one that has been providing us with some of the ugliest objects that have ever been made. Descriptions like 'aesthetic monstrosities' or 'ornamental abominations' were around at the time, and it only got worse. At the end of the 19th century, Marc-Louis Solon (1835-1913), a well established ceramic designer, who worked for Minton and Company, was not unusual in commenting that the period 'bears the stamp of an unmitigated bad taste'.[51] As time passed, negative opinions only got worse. Pioneer Mondern architects Adolf Loos and Le Corbusier felt that works like this were not simply bad, they were such an affront they should have been made illegal.[52]

Polychrome brickwork

Polychrome brickwork is a style of architectural brickwork which emerged in the 1860s and used bricks of different colours (brown, cream, yellow, red, blue, and black) in patterned combinations to highlight architectural features. These patterns were made around window arches or were just applied on walls. It was often used to replicate the effect of quoining. Early examples featured banding, with later examples exhibiting complex diagonal, criss-cross, and step patterns, in some cases even writing using bricks.[55] Elements of glazed ceramic with details were also used for more complex ornaments.

Romanian Revival style

In the Kingdom of Romania, the Romanian Revival style appeared at the end of the 19th century. It is the Romanian equivalent of the National Romantic style that was popular at the same time in Northern Europe. The movement is heavily inspired by Brâncovenesc architecture, a style that was popular in Wallachia in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Interiors of houses in this style built before WW1 are often decorated with a variety of bright colours. In the case of a few buildings, the polychrome extends on the exterior too, through the use of colorful glazed ceramic tiles. The style became more popular in the 20th century. A Romanian Revival house that stands out through its variety of colours is the Gheorghe Petrașcu House (Piața Romană no. 5) in Bucharest, by Spiru Cegăneanu, 1912[59]

20th century

In the twentieth century there were notable periods of polychromy in architecture, from the expressions of Art Nouveau throughout Europe, to the international flourishing of Art Deco or Art Moderne, to the development of postmodernism in the latter decades of the century. During these periods, brickwork, stone, tile, stucco, and metal facades were designed with a focus on the use of new colors and patterns, while architects often looked for inspiration to historical examples ranging from Islamic tilework to English Victorian brick.

Before World War I

At the beginning of the 20th century, before the world wars, Revivalism (including Neoclassicism and the Gothic Revival) and eclecticism of historic styles were very popular in design and architecture. Many of the things said about the 19th century are still in this period. Many of the buildings from this period have their interiors decorated with colours, through tiles, mosaics, stuccos, or murals. When it comes to exteriors, most polychrome facades are decorated with ceramic tiles.

Art Nouveau was also in fashion during the 1900s all over the Western world. However, it fragmented by 1911 and from then it steadily faded, until it disappeared with WW1. Some regular Art Nouveau buildings have their facades decorated with colourful glazed ceramic ornaments. The colours used are often more earthy and faded compared to the intense ones used by Neoclassicism. Compared to other movements in design and architecture, Art Nouveau was one with different versions in multiple countries. The Belgian and French form is characterized by organic shapes, ornaments taken from the plant world, sinuous lines, asymmetry (especially when it comes to objects design), the whiplash motif, the femme fatale, and other elements of nature. In Austria, Germany and the UK, it took a more stylized geometric form, as a form of protest towards revivalism and eclecticism. The geometric ornaments found in Gustav Klimt's paintings and in the furniture of Koloman Moser are representative of the Vienna Secession (Austrian Art Nouveau). In some countries, artists found inspiration in national tradition and folklore. In the UK for example, multiple silversmiths used interlaces taken from Celtic art. Similarly, Hungarian, Russian, and Ukrainian architects used polychromatic folkloric motifs on their buildings, usually through colourful ceramic ornaments.

Modernism

During the interwar period and the middle of the 20th century, Modernism was in fashion. To Modernists, form was more important than ornament, so solid blocks of strong colour were often used to emphasize shape and create contrast. Primary colours and black and white were preferred. This is really the case of the Dutch De Stijl movement, which began in 1917. The style involved reducing an object (whether a painting or a design) to its essentials, using only black, white and primary colours, and a simple geometry of straight lines and planes. Gerrit Rietveld's Red and Blue Chair (1917-1918) and Rietveld Schröder House in Utrecht (1924) show this use of colour. Polychromy in Modernist design was not limited to De Stijl. The Unité d'habitation, a residential housing typology developed by Le Corbusier, has some flat colourful parts.

Some Art Deco objects, buildings and interiors stand out through their polychromy and use of intense colours. Fauvism, with its highly saturated colours, like the paintings of Henri Matisse, was an influence for some Art Deco designers. Another influence for polychromy were the Ballets Russes. Leon Bakst's stage designs filled Parisian artistic circles with enthusiasm for bright colours.[72]

Despite their lack of ornamentation, multiple Mid-century modern designs, like Lucienne Day's textiles, Charles and Ray Eames's Hang-It-All coat hanger (1953), or Irving Harper's Marshmallow sofa (1956), are decorated with colours. Aside from individual objects, mid-century modern interiors were also quite colourful. This was also caused by the fact that after WW2, plastics became increasingly popular as a material for kitchenware and kitchen units, light fixtures, electrical appliances and toys, and by the fact that plastic could be produced in a wide range of colours, from jade green to red.[73]

Postmodernism

The use of vivid colours continued with Postmodernism, in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Compared to Mid-century modern objects, which often had intense colours but were monochrome, Postmodern design and architecture stand out through the use of a variety of colours on single objects or buildings. Postmodern architects working with bold colors included Robert Venturi (Allen Memorial Art Museum addition; Best Company Warehouse), Michael Graves (Snyderman House; Humana Building), and James Stirling (Neue Staatsgalerie; Arthur M. Sackler Museum), among others. In the UK, John Outram created numerous bright and colourful buildings throughout the 1980s and 90s, including the "Temple of Storms" pumping station. Aside from architecture, bright colours were present on everything, from furniture to textiles and posters. Neon greens and yellows were popular in product design, as were fluorescent tones of scarlet, pink, and orange used together. Injection-moulded plastics gave designers new creative freedom, making it possible to mass produce almost any shape (and colour) quickly and cheaply.[82]

An artist well known for her polychrome artworks is Niki de Saint Phalle, who produced many sculptures painted in bold colours. She devoted the later decades of her life to building a live-in sculpture park in Tuscany, the Tarot Garden, with artworks covered in vibrant colourful mosaics.[83]

United States

Polychrome building facades later rose in popularity as a way of highlighting certain trim features in Victorian and Queen Anne architecture in the United States. The rise of the modern paint industry following the American Civil War also helped to fuel the (sometimes extravagant) use of multiple colors.

Early 20th Century polychrome pediment, Philadelphia Museum of Art (1928)
Water pot, Acoma Pueblo, c. 1889-1903, earthenware decorated with slip - De Young Museum

The polychrome facade style faded with the rise of the 20th century's revival movements, which stressed classical colors applied in restrained fashion and, more importantly, with the birth of modernism, which advocated clean, unornamented facades rendered in white stucco or paint. Polychromy reappeared with the flourishing of the preservation movement and its embrace of (what had previously been seen as) the excesses of the Victorian era and in San Francisco, California in the 1970s to describe its abundant late-nineteenth-century houses. These earned the endearment 'Painted Ladies', a term that in modern times is considered kitsch when it is applied to describe all Victorian houses that have been painted with period colors.

John Joseph Earley (1881–1945) developed a "polychrome" process of concrete slab construction and ornamentation that was admired across America. In the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, his products graced a variety of buildings — all formed by the staff of the Earley Studio in Rosslyn, Virginia. Earley's Polychrome Historic District houses in Silver Spring, Maryland were built in the mid-1930s. The concrete panels were pre-cast with colorful stones and shipped to the lot for on-site assembly. Earley wanted to develop a higher standard of affordable housing after the Depression, but only a handful of the houses were built before he died; written records of his concrete casting techniques were destroyed in a fire. Less well-known, but just as impressive, is the Dr. Fealy Polychrome House that Earley built atop a hill in Southeast Washington, D.C. overlooking the city. His uniquely designed polychrome houses were outstanding among prefabricated houses in the country, appreciated for their Art Deco ornament and superb craftsmanship.

Native American ceramic artists, in particular those in the Southwest, produced polychrome pottery from the time of the Mogollon cultures and Mimbres peoples to contemporary times.[93]

21st century

In the 2000s, the art of designing art toys was taking off. Multiple monochrome or polychrome vinyl figurines were produced during this period, and are still produced during the 2020s. A few artists who designed vinyl toys include Joe Ledbetter, Takashi Murakami, Flying Förtress, and CoonOne1.

During the 2010s and the early 2020s, a new interest for Postmodern architecture and design appeared. One of the causes were memorial exhibitions that presented the style, the most comprehensive and influential one being held at the Victoria & Albert Museum in London in 2011, called Postmodernism: Style and Subversion, 1975-1990. The Salone del Mobile in Milan since 2014 showcased revivals, reinterpretations, and new postmodern-influenced designs.[94] Because of this, multiple funky polychrome buildings were erected, like the House for Essex, Wrabness, Essex, the UK, by FAT and Grayson Perry, 2014[95] or the Miami Museum Garage, Miami, USA, by WORKac, 2018.[96]

Besides revivals of Postmodernism, another key design movement of the early 2020s is Maximalism. Since its philosophy can be summarized as "more is more", contrasting with the minimalist motto "less is more", it is characterized by a wide use of intense colours and patterns.

Polychromatic light

The term polychromatic means having several colors. It is used to describe light that exhibits more than one color, which also means that it contains radiation of more than one wavelength. The study of polychromatics is particularly useful in the production of diffraction gratings.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Harris, Cyril M., ed. Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture, Dover Publications, New York, c. 1977, 1983 edition
  2. ^ Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus, Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, John Camp, Heinrich Piening, Oliver Primavesi (2017). GODS IN COLOR Polychromy in the Ancient World. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and DelMonico Books. p. 65. ISBN 978-3-7913-5707-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ van Lemmen, Hans (2013). 5000 Years of Tiles. The British Museum Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-7141-5099-4.
  4. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 6.
  5. ^ Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus, Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, John Camp, Heinrich Piening, Oliver Primavesi (2017). GODS IN COLOR Polychromy in the Ancient World. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and DelMonico Books. p. 62 & 63. ISBN 978-3-7913-5707-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Wilkinson, Toby (2008). Dictionary of ANCIENT EGYPT. Thames and Hudson. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-500-20396-5.
  7. ^ Rose Marie, Rainer Hagen (2022). EGYPT - People Gods Pharaohs. Taschen. p. 242. ISBN 978-3-8365-2054-6.
  8. ^ "temple-relief". britishmuseum.org. Retrieved May 1, 2023.
  9. ^ C. Michael Hogan, Knossos Fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian (2007)
  10. ^ Siotto, Eliana; Cignoni, Paolo (July 1, 2024). "Digital methods and techniques for reconstructing and visualizing ancient 3D polychromy – An overview". Journal of Cultural Heritage. 68: 59–85. doi:10.1016/j.culher.2024.05.002. ISSN 1296-2074.
  11. ^ Jones 2014, p. 37.
  12. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 40.
  13. ^ Bernard Holtzmann, Alain Pasquier (2011). Historie de l'Art Antique - L'Art Grec (in French). Ecole du Louvre. p. 220. ISBN 978-2-7118-5905-4.
  14. ^ Psarra, I. "Ministry of Culture and Sports: Mieza, the so-called Macedonian Tomb of the Palmettes". odysseus.culture.gr. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020. Retrieved April 14, 2019.
  15. ^ Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus, Ulrike Koch-Brinkmann, John Camp, Heinrich Piening, Oliver Primavesi (2017). GODS IN COLOR Polychromy in the Ancient World. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and DelMonico Books. p. 144. ISBN 978-3-7913-5707-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Virginia, L. Campbell (2017). Ancient Room - Pocket Museum. Thames & Hudson. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-500-51959-2.
  17. ^ Virginia, L. Campbell (2017). Ancient Room - Pocket Museum. Thames & Hudson. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-500-51959-2.
  18. ^ a b Bergdoll 2000, pp. 176.
  19. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 75, 76, 87, 93.
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References

External links