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Las artes en Filipinas

Las artes en Filipinas reflejan una variedad de influencias artísticas en la cultura del país, incluido el arte indígena. El arte filipino consta de dos ramas: el arte tradicional [1] y el arte no tradicional [2] . Cada rama se divide en categorías y subcategorías.

Descripción general

La Comisión Nacional de Cultura y Artes , la agencia cultural del gobierno filipino, ha clasificado las artes filipinas en tradicionales y no tradicionales. Cada categoría tiene subcategorías.

Artes tradicionales

Las artes tradicionales en Filipinas incluyen la arquitectura popular, el transporte marítimo, el tejido, la talla, las artes escénicas populares, la literatura popular (oral), las artes gráficas y plásticas populares, los adornos, el arte textil o de fibra, la cerámica y otras expresiones artísticas de la cultura tradicional. [1] Los artistas tradicionales o grupos de artistas reciben el Premio Nacional de Tesoros Vivientes (Premio Gawad Manlilikha ng Bayan (GAMABA)) por sus contribuciones al patrimonio cultural inmaterial del país.

Etnomedicina

Hilot realizado por un especialista

La etnomedicina es una de las artes tradicionales más antiguas de Filipinas. Las tradiciones (y los objetos asociados a ellas) son realizadas por artesanos médicos y chamanes. Las prácticas, basadas en los elementos físicos, son una ciencia y un arte antiguos. Los remedios a base de hierbas, que complementan las técnicas mentales, emocionales y espirituales, también forman parte de muchas tradiciones. La categoría se agregó a GAMABA en 2020. [3]

Arquitectura popular

La arquitectura popular en Filipinas varía según el grupo étnico, y las estructuras están hechas de bambú , madera, piedra , coral , ratán , hierba y otros materiales. Incluyen el estilo choza bahay kubo , las casas de las tierras altas (conocidas como bale ) con cuatro a ocho lados, las casas de coral de Batanes que protegen de los fuertes vientos arenosos de la zona, el torogan real (grabado con un intrincado motivo okir ) y palacios como el Darul Jambangan (Palacio de las Flores), la residencia del sultán de Sulu antes de la colonización. La arquitectura popular también incluye edificios religiosos, generalmente llamados casas espirituales , que son santuarios para espíritus protectores o dioses. [4] [5] [6] La mayoría son edificios al aire libre, similares a casas, hechos de materiales nativos. [7] [4] Algunos eran originalmente como pagodas (un estilo continuado por los nativos que se convirtieron al Islam), y ahora son raros. [8] Otros edificios tienen motivos indígenas e hispanos ( arquitectura bahay na bato y sus prototipos). En Vigan , Patrimonio de la Humanidad , se encuentran numerosos edificios de bahay na bato . [9] Las estructuras populares van desde simples puestos de palos sagrados hasta castillos o fortalezas indígenas (como los ijangs de los batanes) y alteraciones geológicas como los Arrozales en Terrazas de las Cordilleras de Filipinas (otro Patrimonio de la Humanidad). [10] [11] [12] [13]

Transporte marítimo

El transporte marítimo incluye casas flotantes, fabricación de barcos y tradiciones marítimas. Estas estructuras, tradicionalmente hechas de madera elegida por ancianos y artesanos, conectaban las islas. Aunque se cree que se han utilizado barcos en el archipiélago durante miles de años, la evidencia más antigua de fabricación de barcos se ha datado mediante carbono en el año 689 d. C.: los barcos de Butuan identificados como grandes balangays . [14] [15] [16] Además del balangay, las embarcaciones indígenas incluyen el armadahan pesquero de dos mástiles y doble estabilizador , [17] [18] el barco comercial avang , [19] las canoas awang , [20] el barco de vela con estabilizadores balación , [21] el bangka , [22] la canoa bangka anak-anak , [23] el basnigan elevador de salambáw , [24] el velero de doble estabilizador bigiw , [25] la canoa birau , [23] la canoa buggoh , [23] la barcaza casco , [26] el chinarem de un solo mástil y puntiagudo , [19] el chinedkeran de cubierta abierta para mar agitado , [19] el barco de tablones de doble estabilizador djenging , [23] el barco pirata garay , [27] el barco de vela con estabilizadores guilalo , [28] el barco de cubierta abierta falua , [19] la canoa junkun , [23] el junkung motorizado , [29] los barcos de guerra con estabilizadores karakoa y lanong , [30] [31] la casa flotante lepa , [32] la balsa ontang , [23] la canoa del lago owong , [33] el barco pesquero de cubierta abierta panineman , [19] el velero paraw de doble estabilizador , [34] la canoa de guerra salisipan , [35] el barco pesquero tataya , [19] el barco de pesca motorizadotempel , el bote tiririt , [36] y el velero vinta . [37] Entre 1565 y 1815, los artesanos filipinos construyeron galeones de Manila . [38]

Tejeduría

El tejido es una forma de arte antigua y cada grupo étnico tiene una técnica de tejido distinta. [39] Las artes del tejido incluyen el tejido de cestas, el tejido en telar de cintura, el tejido de tocados y el tejido de redes de pesca.

Tejido de telas y esteras

Tela Banton , el tejido ikat más antiguo que se conserva en el sudeste asiático (siglos XIII-XIV), un tesoro cultural nacional

Los textiles valiosos se hacen con un telar de cintura . [40] Fibras como algodón, abacá , fibra de plátano, hierba y palma se utilizan en el tejido filipino. [41] Hay varios tipos de tela tejida. Pinilian es una tela de algodón ilocano tejida con un pangablan , utilizando estilos binakul , binetwagan o tinumballitan . El tejido Bontoc enfatiza el concepto de centrado, clave para la cultura del pueblo Bontoc . El tejido comienza con los lados ( langkit ), seguido de pa-ikid (paneles laterales), fatawil ( bandas de urdimbre ) y shukyong (flechas). Luego comienza el tejido sinamaki , incorporando un tinagtakho (figura humana), minatmata (rombo) y tinitiko (zigzag). El último es el centro ( pa-khawa ), con el kan-ay (trama suplementaria). Los textiles Kalinga contienen diseños geométricos; Un motivo es un patrón de rombos conocido como inata-ata . Piña se considera el mejor textil indígena filipino. Los textiles Aklanon se utilizan en los trajes nacionales. Hablon es el textil de los pueblos Karay-a e Hiligaynon. El tapiz tejido por el pueblo Yakan utiliza el tejido de trama suplementaria bunga-sama , el patrón de urdimbre flotante siniluan , la técnica de trama suplementaria inalaman y el patrón de trama-banda pinantupan . El tejido Blaan representa cocodrilos y rizos. Los Mandaya utilizan una técnica de teñido con barro. Los textiles Meranaw se utilizan para el malong y otras prendas Maranao. T'nalak es un textil Tboli. [42] El textil ikat más antiguo conocido en el sudeste asiático es la tela Banton , que data de los siglos XIII al XIV. [43]

A diferencia del tejido de tela con telar, las esteras se tejen a mano. Se tejen en un lugar fresco y a la sombra, y se mantienen frescas para preservar su integridad. Un ejemplo es el banig de Basey, donde sus tejedores suelen trabajar en una cueva. Las fibras que se utilizan son el plátano, la hierba y la palma. [44]

Cestería

Las cestas tienen diseños, estilos y formas intrincados para propósitos específicos, como la cosecha, el almacenamiento de arroz, los viajes y el almacenamiento de espadas. Se cree que el tejido de cestas llegó con la migración humana de norte a sur. Algunas de las mejores cestas fabricadas son de Palawan , en el suroeste. Los materiales varían según el grupo étnico e incluyen bambú, ratán, pandan, borlas de algodón, cera de abejas, abacá , corteza y tintes. Los patrones de cestería incluyen un tejido inferior cerrado cruzado, un tejido de sarga doble de bambú cerrado y un patrón de pentágono de ratán espaciado. Los productos incluyen el tupil (fiambrera), el bukug (cesta), el kabil (cesta de transporte), el uppig (cesta de almuerzo), el tagga-i (cesta de arroz), el bay'ung (bolsa de cesta), el lig-o (bandeja para aventar) y el binga (bolsa). [45] [46] Las tradiciones de tejido han sido influenciadas por las demandas modernas. [47]

Los tocados tejidos son comunes y las culturas utilizan una variedad de fibras para crear tocados como el vakul de Ivatan y el tocado de serpiente de los Bontoc . [48] Las trampas tejidas para peces son una especialidad del pueblo Ilocano . [49] El tejido de escobas es otra tradición, ejemplificada por el pueblo Kalinga . [50]

Reliquias

Filipinas tiene artefactos budistas [51] [52] con influencia Vajrayāna, [53] [54] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] [55] la mayoría de los cuales datan del siglo IX y reflejan la iconografía del imperio Śrīvijayan. Fueron producidos desde el área de Agusan-Surigao en Mindanao hasta Cebú , Palawan y Luzón .

La imagen de Agusan es una estatuilla de oro de 21 quilates y 2 kg (4,4 lb) encontrada en 1917 en el río Wawa cerca de Esperanza , Agusan del Sur , Mindanao , [56] que data del siglo IX o X. La imagen se conoce comúnmente como Tara dorada, una alusión a su identidad [57] reportada como una imagen de una Tara budista . La figura, de aproximadamente 178 mm (7,0 pulgadas) [58] de alto, es de una deidad hindú o budista femenina sentada con las piernas cruzadas y con un tocado y otros adornos. Está en exhibición en el Museo Field de Historia Natural en Chicago. [58] [59] [60] Se encontró una estatua de bronce de Lokesvara en Isla Puting Bato en Tondo, Manila . [61]

En el municipio de Calatagan se moldeó una imagen de Buda en un medallón de arcilla en bajorrelieve. Se dice que se parece a las representaciones iconográficas de Buda en Siam , India y Nepal : en una pose de tribhanga [62] dentro de un nimbo ovalado . Los eruditos han notado una orientación mahayánica en la imagen, ya que también se muestra al bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara . [63]

Otro artefacto de oro, de las cuevas de Tabon en la isla de Palawan , es una imagen de Garuda , el pájaro que es el monte de Vishnu . Las imágenes hindúes y los artefactos de oro en las cuevas se han relacionado con los de Oc Eo , en el delta del Mekong en el sur de Vietnam . Henry Otley Beyer encontró estatuas de bronce toscas de la deidad hindú Ganesha en 1921 en Puerto Princesa , Palawan, y en Mactan , Cebú . Las estatuas fueron producidas localmente. [61] Beyer también excavó ese año una estatua de bronce de Avalokiteśvara en Mactan. [61] Se encontró un Kinnara de oro en Surigao. Otras reliquias de oro incluyen anillos (algunos con imágenes de Nandi ), cadenas de joyería , láminas de oro inscritas y placas de oro con imágenes repujadas de deidades hindúes. [64] [65]

Tallado

La talla incluye la talla de madera y la creación de esculturas populares sin arcilla. [66] [67]

Talla de madera

Las tallas de madera indígenas realizadas por algunos grupos étnicos datan de antes de la llegada hispana; las más antiguas pueden ser fragmentos de un barco de madera que datan del año 320 d. C. [68] Se utilizan diversas maderas para hacer artesanías de madera, que incluyen bululs. [69] [70] Estas figuras de madera, conocidas por varios nombres, se encuentran desde el norte de Luzón hasta el sur de Mindanao. [71] El okir de madera es elaborado por grupos étnicos en Mindanao y el archipiélago de Sulu. [72] [73] Las artesanías de madera de objetos como empuñaduras de espadas e instrumentos musicales representan seres antiguos y míticos. [74] [75] Las técnicas indígenas de elaboración de madera se han utilizado en tallas de madera hispánicas después de la colonización, como en Paete . [76] [77]

Las tallas de madera religiosas hispánicas se introdujeron con el cristianismo y son una fusión de estilos indígenas e hispánicos. Paete es un centro de talla de madera religiosa hispánica. [76] Dichas tallas de madera también existen en muchos municipios, donde la mayoría de las artesanías representan la vida de Jesús y la Virgen María . [78]

Piedra, marfil y otras tallas

Las tallas de piedra son anteriores a la colonización occidental. [79] Las tallas pueden representar a un antepasado o una deidad que ayuda al espíritu de un ser querido a entrar en la otra vida. [80] Se han encontrado urnas funerarias antiguas talladas en muchas áreas, especialmente en la región de Cotabato. [81] Se cree que las tumbas de piedra caliza de Kamhantik , en la provincia de Quezón, inicialmente tenían cubiertas de roca y eran sarcófagos. Se cree que originalmente estaban techadas, como lo evidencian los agujeros donde se han colocado vigas. [82] Las marcas de tumbas de piedra están talladas con motivos okir para ayudar a los muertos. [83] Las laderas de las montañas están talladas para formar cuevas funerarias, especialmente en las tierras altas del norte de Luzón; las momias de Kabayan son un ejemplo. [84] Las tallas de mármol se centran en Romblon , y la mayoría (principalmente estatuas budistas y obras relacionadas) se exportan. [85] Con la llegada del cristianismo, las tallas de piedra se generalizaron; La mayoría son fachadas de iglesias o estatuas, o estatuas y otras artesanías para altares personales. [86] Una notable talla de piedra es la fachada de la Iglesia de Miagao . [87]

La talla de marfil se practica en Filipinas desde hace un milenio; su artefacto de marfil más antiguo conocido es el Sello de Marfil de Butuan , que data de los siglos IX al XII. [88] Las tallas religiosas de marfil (conocidas localmente como garing ) se generalizaron después de que el marfil se importara a Filipinas desde Asia, donde las tallas se centraban en temas cristianos como la Virgen y el niño, el niño Jesús y la Madre Dolorosa. [89] Muchas de las tallas de marfil de Filipinas tienen diseños de oro y plata. [89] El comercio de marfil filipino ha experimentado un auge debido a la demanda de tallas, [90] pero el gobierno ha tomado medidas enérgicas contra el comercio ilegal. En 2013, Filipinas fue el primer país en destruir su stock de marfil; el comercio de marfil ha diezmado las poblaciones de elefantes y rinocerontes del mundo. [91] Los cuernos de carabaos muertos han sustituido al marfil en el país durante siglos. [92]

Artes escénicas populares

Se representan danzas folclóricas, obras de teatro y dramas. Cada grupo étnico tiene su propia herencia y las artes escénicas folclóricas filipinas también tienen influencias españolas y americanas. Algunos bailes están relacionados con los de los países vecinos austronesios y otros países asiáticos. [93] Las artes escénicas populares incluyen banga, manmanok, ragragsakan, tarektek, uyaoy (o uyauy), [94] pangalay , asik, singkil , sagayan , kapa malong malong, [95] binaylan, sugod uno, dugso, kinugsik kugsik, engendrando, pagdiwata, maglalatik , tinikling , subli , cariñosa , kuratsa y pandanggo sa ilaw. [96] [97] [98] [99] Los dramas y obras de teatro populares se basan en epopeyas populares como Hinilawod , [100] y el Senakulo es un drama popular entre grupos hispanos. [101] [102]

Literatura popular (oral)

La literatura folclórica (oral) incluye las epopeyas, canciones, mitos y otra literatura oral de los grupos étnicos filipinos. La poesía del país es rica en metáforas. [103] La poesía tanaga tiene un recuento de 7777 sílabas y sus formas de rima varían desde rimas duales hasta ninguna. [103] La poesía awit tiene cuartetos de 12 sílabas, con rimas similares al Pasyon [104] [105] cantado en el pabasa . [106] Otro awit es el Florante at Laura de 1838. [107] La ​​poesía dalit contiene cuatro líneas de ocho sílabas cada una. [ 108] La poesía ambahan consta de líneas de siete sílabas con sílabas finales rítmicas, a menudo cantadas y a veces escritas en bambú. [109] Balagtasan es un debate en verso. [110] Otros poemas incluyen A la juventud filipina , [111] y Ako'y may alaga . [112] [113]

Los poemas épicos incluyen el Darangen del Maranao [114] de 17 ciclos y 72.000 líneas y el Hinilawod . [115] Otros incluyen Biag ni Lam-Ang , Ibalon , Hudhud , Alim , el ciclo Ulalim , Lumalindaw , Kudaman , el ciclo Agyu , Tulelangan , Gumao de Dumalinao , Ag Tubig Nog Keboklagan , Keg Sumba Neg Sandayo y Tudbulul . [116] La lengua de signos filipina se utiliza para transmitir literatura oral a las personas con discapacidad auditiva. [117] La ​​literatura popular está documentada por académicos en manuscritos, cintas y grabaciones de vídeo. [118] [119]

Artes gráficas y plásticas populares

Se trata de tatuajes, escrituras populares y dibujos y pinturas populares.

Escritura popular (caligrafía)

Filipinas tiene una serie de escrituras indígenas conocidas colectivamente como suyat , cada una de las cuales tiene su propia caligrafía . Desde la colonización española del siglo XVI, los grupos etnolingüísticos han utilizado las escrituras en una variedad de medios. Al final de la era colonial, solo cuatro escrituras suyat sobrevivieron y continúan utilizándose: las escrituras hanunó'o y buhid y las de los pueblos tagbanwa y palawan . Las cuatro fueron inscritas en el Programa Memoria del Mundo de la UNESCO como paleografías filipinas (hanunoo, buid, tagbanua y pala'wan) en 1999. [120]

Artists and cultural experts have also revived extinct suyat scripts, including the Visayan badlit script, the iniskaya script of the Eskaya people, the baybayin script of the Tagalog people, the sambali script of the Sambal people, the basahan script of the Bicolano people, the sulat pangasinan script of the Pangasinense people, and the kur-itan (or kurdita) script of the Ilocano people.[121][122][123][124][125] Spanish[126] and Arabic Jawi scripts are also used.[127][128] Suyat-based calligraphy has become increasingly popular.[129][130] Philippine Braille is used by the visually impaired.[131]

Folk drawing and painting

Folk drawing has been known for thousands of years. The oldest folk drawings are rock drawings and engravings which include the Angono Petroglyphs in Rizal, created during the Neolithic (6000 to 2000 BC). The drawings have been interpreted as religious, with infant drawings to relieve sickness in children.[132] Another petroglyph is in Alab (Bontoc), dated as not later than 1500 BC and containing fertility symbols such as the pudenda. Ancient petrographs are also found; those in Peñablanca and Singnapan are drawn with charcoal, and those in Anda (Bohol) are drawn with red hematite.[133] Recently-discovered petrographs in Monreal (Ticao) include drawings of monkeys, human faces, worms (or snakes), plants, dragonflies, and birds.[134]

Evidence indicates that indigenous Filipinos have been painting and glazing pottery for thousands of years. Pigments used for painting range from gold, yellow, reddish-purple, green, white, and blue-green to blue.[135] Statues and other creations have also been painted with a variety of colors. Painting on skin is practiced, especially by the Yakan people.[136]

Tattooing was introduced by the Austronesian peoples thousands of years ago, and it developed into cultural symbols in a number of ethnic groups.[137][138][139] It was first documented the 16th century, with the bravest Pintados (people of central and eastern Visayas) the most tattooed. Similar tattooed peoples were the Bicolanos of Camarines and the Tagalogs of Marinduque.[140][141][142] Tattooed people in Mindanao include the Manobo, whose tattoo tradition is known as pang-o-túb.[143][144] The T'boli also tattoo their skin in the belief that the tattoos glow after death, guiding the soul in its journey to the afterlife.[145] The best-known tattooed people may have been the Igorot people of highland Luzon. Only Tinglayan in Kalinga has traditional tattoo artists crafting batok; they were headed by master tattooist and Kalinga matriarch Whang-od.[146][147] Traditional tattooing has experienced a revival after centuries of decline.[148]

Ornaments

Ornamental art includes glass art, accessories and metal crafts.[1]

Glass art

Glass art is found in places such as Pinagbayanan.[149] Stained glass has been a feature of many churches since Spanish colonization. European craftspeople initially produced stained glass, with Filipinos beginning to join the craft during the 20th century.[150] The Manila Cathedral contains a number of stained-glass windows.[151] [better source needed] Other glass art includes chandeliers and sculptures.[152]

The gourd-based tabungaw of Abra and Ilocos Region is an example of hat-making.[153] Indigenous hats were widely worn until the 20th century (when they were replaced by Western styles), and are currently worn for festivals, rituals, or theatre.[48][154]

Mask-making is an indigenous and imported tradition; some communities made masks before colonization, and other mask-making traditions were introduced by trade with Asia and the West. These masks are primarily worn during the Moriones and MassKara Festivals.[155][156][157] Puppet-making is a related art whose products are used in plays and festivals such as the Higantes Festival.[158] Most indigenous masks are made of wood, and gold masks (made for the dead) were common in the Visayas region before Spanish colonization. Masks made of bamboo and paper, used in Lucban depict the typical Filipino farming family. Masks in Marinduque are used in pantomime; those in Bacolod depict egalitarian values, regardless of economic standards. Masks are worn in theatrical epics, especially those related to the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.[159]

Accessories

Accessories are generally worn with clothing, and some are accessories for houses, altars, and other objects. Of the Philippines' over 100 ethnic groups, the most accessorized may be the Kalinga people.[160] The Gaddang people also use many accessories.[161] The best-known accessory is the lingling-o, a pendant or amulet used from Batanes in the north to Palawan in the south.[162][163] The oldest known lingling-o has been dated to 500 BC and is made of nephrite.[163] Shells have also traditionally been used for accessories.[164]

Gold is crafted by Filipino ethnic groups, and the country's best-known goldsmiths came from Butuan. Regalia, jewelry, ceremonial weapons, tooth ornamentation, and ritualistic and funerary objects made of high-quality gold have been found at a number of sites, and the archipelago's gold culture flourished between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. Some gold-crafting techniques were lost in colonization, but techniques influenced by other cultures have been adopted by Filipino goldsmiths.[165][166]

Metal ornaments

Ornamental metal crafts are metal-based products used to beautify something else, metal or non-metal, and those made by the Maranao in Tugaya are valued. Metal crafts by the Moro people decorate a variety of objects, and are inscribed with the okir motif.[167] Metal crafts also decorate religious objects such as altars, Christian statues, and vestments. Apalit, in Pampanga, is a center of the craft.[168] Gold has been used in a number of ornaments, and most which survive are human accessories with elaborate, ancient designs.[165]

Pottery (ceramic) arts

Pottery (ceramics, clay, and folk clay sculpture) has been part of Filipino culture for about 3,500 years.[169] Notable artifacts include the Manunggul Jar (890–710 BCE)[170] and Maitum anthropomorphic pottery (5 BC-225 AD).[171] High-fired pottery was first made around 1,000 years ago, leading to a ceramic age in the Philippines.[135] Ceramics were traded, and pottery and fragments from the Arab world (possibly Egypt) and East Asia have been found.[135] Specific jars were also traded directly to Japan.[172] Before colonization during the 16th century, foreign porcelain was popular in a number of communities; according to oral tradition from Cebu, indigenous porcelain was produced at the time of Cebu's early rulers.[173] The earliest known indigenous porcelain has been dated to the 1900s, however; porcelain found at Filipino archaeological sites was labeled "imported", which has become a subject of controversy. Filipinos worked as porcelain artisans in Japan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, re-introducing the craft in the Philippines. All but one porcelain artifact from the era survived World War II.[174] Notable folk clay art includes The Triumph of Science over Death (1890)[175] and Mother's Revenge (1894),[176] and popular pottery includes the tapayan and palayok. Pottery-making has received recent media attention.[177][178]

Other traditional arts

Other traditional arts, including non-ornamental metal crafts, martial arts, supernatural healing arts, medicinal arts, and constellation traditions, cannot be specifically categorized.

Non-ornamental metal crafts

Non-ornamental metal crafts are metal products with simple, utilitarian designs. The Moro people are known for their metalwork, which is usually decorated with the okir motif.[179] Baguio is also a center for metalwork.[180] Hispanic metal crafts are common in the lowlands. They include large bells, and Asia's largest bell is at Panay Church.[181] Metal deities, notably of gold, are also found.[165][182]

Sword making

Filipino bladesmiths have been creating swords and other bladed weapons for centuries. Many swords are made for ceremonies and agriculture, and others are used for warfare. The best-known Filipino sword is the kampilan, a sharp blade with a spikelet one the flat side of the tip and a pommel depicting one of four sacred creatures: a bakunawa (dragon), a buaya (crocodile), a kalaw (hornbill), or a kakatua (cockatoo).[183] Other Filipino bladed weapons include the balarao, balasiong, balisong, balisword, bangkung, banyal, barong, batangas, bolo, dahong palay, gunong, gayang, golok, kalis, karambit, panabas, pinutí, pirah, gunong, susuwat, tagan, and utak. A variety of spears (sibat), axes, darts (bagakay), and arrows (pana or busog) are also used.[184]

Martial arts

Filipino martial arts vary by ethnic group. The best-known is arnis (also known as kali and eskrima) (the country's national sport and martial art), which has weapon-based fighting styles with sticks, knives, bladed and improvised weapons and open-hand techniques. Arnis has changed over time, and was also known as estoque, estocada, and garrote during Spanish colonization. The Spanish recorded it as called paccalicali-t by the Ibanags, didya (or kabaroan) by the Ilocanos, sitbatan or kalirongan by the Pangasinenses, sinawali ("to weave") by the Kapampangans, calis or pananandata ("use of weapons") by the Tagalogs, pagaradman by the Ilonggos, and kaliradman by the Cebuanos.[185]

Unarmed martial-arts techniques include pangamot (the Bisaya), suntukan (the Tagalogs), sikaran (the Rizal Tagalogs), dumog (the Karay-a), buno (the Igorot people), and yaw-yan. Martial-arts weapons include the baston (or olisi), bangkaw (or tongat), dulo-dulo, and tameng. Edged weapons include the daga (or cuchillo), gunong, punyal and barung (or barong), balisong, karambit (with blades resembling tiger claws), espada, kampilan, ginunting, pinuti, talibong, itak, kalis, kris, golok, sibat, sundang, lagaraw, ginunting, and pinunting. Flexible weapons include latigo, buntot pagi, lubid, sarong, cadena (or tanikala), and tabak-toyok. Projectile weapons include the pana, sibat, sumpit, bagakay, tirador (or pintik or saltik), kana, lantaka, and luthang.[186][187][188] Related martial arts include kuntaw and silat.[189][full citation needed][190][page needed][191]

Cuisine

Filipino cuisine encompasses the country's more than 100 ethnolinguistic groups. Most mainstream dishes are from the Bikol, Chavacano, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Kapampangan, Maranao, Pangasinan, Cebuano (or Bisaya), Tagalog, and Waray groups. The style of cooking and the associated foods have evolved over centuries from their Austronesian origins to a mixed cuisine with Indian, Chinese, Spanish, and American influences.[193] Dishes range the simple, such as fried salted fish and rice, to complex paellas and cocidos for Spanish fiestas. Popular dishes include lechón[194] (whole roasted pig), longganisa (Philippine sausage), tapa (cured beef), torta (omelette), adobo (chicken or pork braised in garlic, vinegar, oil and soy sauce, or cooked until dry), kaldereta (meat stewed in tomato sauce), mechado (fatty beef in a soy-tomato sauce), puchero (beef in a banana-and-tomato sauce), afritada (chicken or pork simmered in tomato sauce with vegetables), kare-kare (oxtail and vegetables cooked in peanut sauce), pinakbet (kabocha squash, eggplant, beans, okra, and tomato stew flavored with shrimp paste), crispy pata (deep-fried pig's leg), hamonado (pork sweetened in pineapple sauce), sinigang (meat or seafood in a sour broth), pancit (noodles), and lumpia (fresh or fried spring rolls).[195]

Others

Shell crafts are common, due to the variety of mollusk shells available. The country's shell industry emphasizes crafts made of capiz shells, which are seen in a variety of products including capiz-shell windows, statues, and lamps.[164] Lantern-making is also a traditional art form which began after the introduction of Christianity, and many lanterns (locally known as parol) are in Filipino streets and in front of houses for the Christmas season (which begins in September and ends in January, the world's longest Christmas season). The Giant Lantern Festival, which also celebrates Christmas, features large lanterns made by Filipino artisans.[196] Pyrotechnics are popular during the New Year celebrations and the Christmas season. The Philippines has hosted the Philippine International Pyromusical Competition, the world's largest pyrotechnic competition (previously known as the World Pyro Olympics) since 2010.[197]

Lacquerware is a less-common art form. Filipino researchers are studying the possibility of turning coconut oil into lacquer.[198][199][200] Paper arts are common in many communities; examples include the taka papier-mâché of Laguna and the pabalat of Bulacan.[201] A form of leaf-folding art is puni, which uses palm leaves to create forms such as birds and insects.[201]

Bamboo art is also common, with products including kitchen utensils, toys, furniture, and musical instruments such as the Las Piñas Bamboo Organ (the world's only organ made of bamboo).[202] In bulakaykay, bamboo is bristled to create large arches.[201] Floristry is popular for festivals, birthdays, and Undas.[203] Leaf speech (language and meaning) is popular among the Dumagat people, who use leaves to express themselves and send secret messages.[204]

Shamanism and its related healing arts are found throughout the country, with each ethnic group having its unique concepts of shamanism and healing. Philippine shamans are regarded as sacred by their ethnic groups. The introduction of Abrahamic religions (Islam and Christianity) suppressed many shamanitic traditions, with Spanish and American colonizers demeaning native beliefs during the colonial era. Shamans and their practices continue in some parts of the Philippines.[205] The art of constellation and cosmic reading and interpretation is a fundamental tradition among all Filipino ethnic groups, and the stars are used to interpret for communities to conduct farming, fishing, festivities, and other important activities. Notable constellations include Balatik and Moroporo.[206] Another cosmic reading is the utilization of earthly monuments, such as the Gueday stone calendar of Besao, which locals use to see the arrival of kasilapet (the end of the current agricultural season and the beginning of the next one).[207]

Non-traditional arts

Non-traditional arts include dance, music, theater, visual arts, literature, film and broadcast arts, architecture and allied arts, and design.[2] A distinguished artist is inducted as a National Artist of the Philippines.

Dance

Dance in the Philippines includes choreography, direction, and performance. Philippine dance is influenced by the country's folk performing arts and its Hispanic traditions; a number of styles also have global influences. Igorot dances such as banga,[94] Moro dances such as pangalay and singkil,[95] Lumad dances such as kuntaw, kadal taho and lawin-lawin, and Hispanic dances such as maglalatik and subli have been incorporated into contemporary Filipino dance.[96][97][98][99] Ballet has been popular since the early 20th century.[208] Pinoy hip hop music has influenced dances, a number of which have adopted global standards of hip hop and break dances.[209] Filipinos choreograph traditional and Westernized dances, with some companies focusing on Hispanic and traditional dance.[210][211]

Music

Musical composition, direction, and performance are central to non-traditional music. The basis of Filipino music is the heritage of the country's many ethnic groups, some of whom have been influenced by other Asian and Western music (primarily Hispanic and American). Philippine folk music includes the chanting of epic poems such as Darangen and Hudhud ni Aliguyon, and singing the Harana serenade. Musical genres include the Manila sound,[212] Pinoy reggae,[213] Pinoy rock,[214] Pinoy pop,[215] Tagonggo,[216] kapanirong,[217] kulintang,[218] kundiman,[219] bisrock,[220] and Pinoy hip hop.

Theater

Theater has a long history, and includes direction, performance, production design, light and sound design, and playwriting are the focal arts. It is Austronesian in character, evidenced by ritual, mimetic dances. Spanish culture has influenced Filipino theater and drama: the komedya, sinakulo, playlets, and sarswela. Puppetry, such as carrillo, is another theater art.[221] Anglo-American theater has influenced bodabil. Modern, original plays by Filipinos have also influenced the country's theater.[222][223][224]

Visual arts

Visual arts include painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, installation art, mixed-media works, illustration, graphic arts, performance art, and imaging.

Painting

Folk painting has always been part of Filipino culture.[133][225] Petroglyphs and petrographs, the earliest known folk drawings and paintings, originated during the Neolithic.[226] Human figures, frogs, lizards, and other designs were depicted. They may have been primarily symbolic, associated with healing and sympathetic magic.[227]

Other Asian and Western cultures influenced the art of painting. From the 16th century to the end of the colonial period, religious paintings were used to spread Catholicism. Most were part of churches, such as ceilings and walls. Non-religious paintings were also known.[228] Notable works include Nuestra Senora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga (1692)[229] and paintings at Camarin de da Virgen (1720).[230] Wealthy, educated Filipinos introduced secular art during the 19th century. The number of watercolour paintings increased, and subjects began to include landscapes, Filipino people and fashion, and government officials. Portraits included self-portraits, Filipino jewelry, and native furniture. Landscape paintings depicted ordinary Filipinos participating in daily life. The paintings, often ornately signed, were made on canvas, wood, and a variety of metals.[228] Watercolours were painted in the Tipos del País[231] or Letras y figuras style.[232]

Notable 19th-century oil paintings include Basi Revolt paintings, Sacred Art of the Parish Church of Santiago Apostol (1852), Spoliarium (1884), La Bulaqueña (1895), and The Parisian Life (1892).[230] A notable modern painting s The Progress of Medicine in the Philippines (1953).[230] After World War II, paintings were influenced by the effects of war. Common themes included battle scenes, destruction, and the suffering of the Filipino people.[233] Nationalistic themes included International Rice Research Institute (1962) and the Manila Mural (1968)[230] Twentieth- and 21st-century paintings have showcased native Filipino cultures as part of the spread of nationalism.[234] Notable paintings during the era include Chickens (1968)[235] and Sarimanok series (late 20th century).[236] Some works have criticized lingering colonial viewpoints such as discrimination against darker-skinned people and the negative effects of colonialism; examples are Filipina: A racial identity crisis (1990s)[237][238] and The Brown Man's Burden (2003).[239] A number of works have protested against state authoritarian rule, human-rights violations, and fascism.[240][241][242]

Sculpture

Sculpture is popular in the Philippines.[243] Notable sculptures include Oblation, the Rizal Monument to nationalist José Rizal,[244] the Tandang Sora National Shrine commemorating Melchora Aquino,[245] the Mactan Shrine to Lapulapu,[246] the People Power Monument,[247] Filipina Comfort Women,[248] and the Bonifacio Monument commemorating Andres Bonifacio.[249][250]

Other visual arts

Printmaking began in the Philippines after the country's religious orders – the Dominicans, Franciscans and Jesuits – began printing prayer books and inexpensive religious images (such as the Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ, or the saints) to spread Roman Catholicism. Maps were also printed, including the 1734 Velarde map. Printmaking has diversified to include woodblock printing and other forms.[251] Photography began during the 1840s, and photos were used during the colonial era as media for news, tourism, anthropology and other documentation, and as colonial propaganda.[252] After independence, photography became popular for personal and commercial use.[253]

Literature

Poetry, fiction, essays, and literary and art criticism are usually influenced by folk literature, which focuses on epics, ethnic mythology, and related stories and traditions. Calligraphy on a variety of media was used to create literary works; an example is Mangyan ambahan poetry.[254] Colonial literature focused first on Spanish-language works, and then English-language works. From 1593 to 1800, most literature in the Philippines consisted of Spanish-language religious works; examples are Doctrina Christiana (1593)[255] and a Tagalog rendition of the Pasyon (1704).[256] Colonial literature was also written in native languages, primarily religious and governmental works promoting colonialism.[252] Non-colonial Filipino literature was written by local authors as well; oral traditions were incorporated into works by Filipino writers, such as the 17th-century manuscript of the ancient Ilocano epic Biag ni Lam-ang.[257] Florante at Laura was published in 1869, combining fiction with Asian and European themes.[258][unreliable source?][259] In 1878[260] or 1894,[261] Ang Babai nga Huaran (the first modern play in any Philippine language) was written in Hiligaynon. Spanish literature evolved into a nationalist stage from 1883 to 1903; Nínay, the first novel written by a Filipino, was published at this time. Literature critical of colonial rulers was published, such as the 1887 Noli Me Tángere and the 1891 El filibusterismo.[262] The first novel in Cebuano, Maming, was published in 1900.[263] The golden age of Spanish-language literature was from 1903 to 1966, and works in native languages and English were also popular. Banaag at Sikat, a 1906 novel, explores socialism, capitalism, and organized labor.[264] The first Filipino book written in English, The Child of Sorrow, was published in 1921. Early English literature is characterized by melodrama, figurative language, and an emphasis on local color.[265] A later theme was the search for Filipino identity, reconciling Spanish and American influence with the Philippines' Asian heritage.[266] Portions of Sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag were published in 1966 and 1967, and were combined in a 1986 novel.[267] During the martial-law era, works such as Dekada '70 (1983)[268] and Luha ng Buwaya (1983) criticizing human-rights violations by those in power were published.[269][270] Twenty-first-century Filipino literature has explored history, global outlooks, equality, and nationalism. Major works include Smaller and Smaller Circles (2002),[271] Ladlad (2007),[272] Ilustrado (2008),[273] and Insurrecto (2018).[274]

Film and broadcast arts

The film and broadcast arts focus on direction, writing, production design, cinematography, editing, animation, performance, and new media. Filipino cinema began in 1897, with the introduction of moving pictures in Manila. Foreign filmmakers worked in the country until 1919, when filmmaker José Nepomuceno made the first Filipino film, Country Maiden.[275] Interest in film as art had begun by the 1930s, with theatre an important influence. Films made during the 1940s were realistic, due to the occupation years of World War II. More artistic, mature films were produced a decade later.[276][277] The 1960s were a decade of commercialism, fan movies, soft porn films, action films, and western spin-offs, leading to a golden age during the 1970s and 1980s under dictatorship. These films were overseen by the government, and a number of filmmakers were arrested. One notable film made at that time was Himala, which addressed religious fanaticism. The period after martial law dealt with more serious topics, and independent films were popular. The 1990s saw the emergence of Western-themed films and the continued popularity of films focusing on poverty; examples of the latter include Manila in the Claws of Light, The Flor Contemplacion Story, Oro, Plata, Mata, and Sa Pusod ng Dagat.[277] Twenty-first-century Filipino films have examined human equality, poverty, self-love, and history.[278] Notable films include The Blossoming of Maximo Oliveros,[279] Caregiver,[280] Kinatay,[281] Thy Womb,[282] That Thing Called Tadhana,[283] The Woman Who Left,[284] and the film version of the novel Smaller and Smaller Circles.[285]

Architecture and allied arts

Architecture focuses on non-folk architecture and its allied arts, such as interior design, landscape architecture, and urban design.

Architecture

Filipino architecture is influenced by the folk architecture of its ethnic groups, including the bahay kubo, bahay na bato, torogan, idjang, payyo, and shrines and mosques.[286] Western Baroque architecture was introduced by the Spanish during the 16th century; examples are the Manila Cathedral and Boljoon Church. It evolved into Earthquake Baroque, used to build Binondo Church, Daraga Church and the World Heritage Sites of Paoay Church, Miagao Church, San Agustin Church, and Santa Maria Church.[87][287][288] Throughout the colonial era, a variety of architectural styles were introduced; a Gothic Revival example is San Sebastian Church, Asia's only all-steel church. Beaux-Arts architecture became popular among the wealthy, and an example is the Lopez Heritage House.[286] Art Deco is popular in some Filipino communities, and the city of Sariaya is considered the country's Art Deco capital.[289] Italian and Italian-Spanish architecture is seen in Fort Santiago and the Ruins. An example of Stick-built construction is Silliman Hall. Many official buildings have neoclassical architecture; examples include the Baguio Cathedral, Manila Central Post Office, and the National Museum of Fine Arts. After independence, Brutalism was employed during the martial-law era. After the restoration of democracy, indigenous architecture revived during the late 20th and 21st centuries; these buildings have become bases for Filipino nationalism. Modern architecture is popular, and examples include Saint Andrew the Apostle Church and the Manila Hotel.[286] Culturally-important buildings have been demolished despite preservation laws, and cultural workers and architects are attempting to prevent further demolition.[290]

Allied arts

Allied arts of architecture include interior design, landscape architecture, and urban design. Interior design has been influenced by indigenous Filipino culture, Hispanic, American and Japanese styles, modern design, the avant-garde, tropical design, neo-vernacular, international style, and sustainable design. Interior spaces, expressive of culture, values and aspirations, have been extensively researched by Filipino scholars.[291] Common interior design styles have been Tropical, Filipino, Japanese, Mediterranean, Chinese, Moorish, Victorian and Baroque, and Avant Garde Industrial, Tech and Trendy, Metallic Glam, Rustic Luxe, Eclectic Elegance, Organic Opulence, Design Deconstructed, and Funk Art have become popular.[292] Landscape architecture initially mirrored a client's opulence, but presently emphasizes ecosystems and sustainability.[293] Urban planning is a key economic and cultural issue because of the country's large population and problems with infrastructure such as transportation. Urban planners have proposed raising some urban areas, especially in congested and flood-prone Metro Manila.[294][295]

Design

Design encompasses industrial and fashion design.

Industrial design

Industrial design has been a factor in improving the Philippine economy. Many artistic creations are through research and development, which attracts customers. The packaging of food and other products and the aesthetics of gadgets are examples of industrial design with the aesthetics of mass-produced vehicles, kitchen equipment and utensils, and furniture.[296][297] Design Week has been held during the third week of March and October since 2011.[298]

Fashion design

Fashion is one of the Philippines' oldest artistic crafts, and each ethnic group has an individual fashion sense. Indigenous fashion uses materials created with the traditional arts, such as weaving and the ornamental arts. Unlike industrial design (which is intended for objects and structures), fashion design is a bodily package. Filipino fashion is based on indigenous fashion and aesthetics introduced by other Asian peoples and the West through trade and colonization. Ilustrado fashion was prevalent during the last years of the Hispanic era, and many people wore Hispanized outfits; this slowly changed as American culture was imported.[300] Budget-friendly choices prevail in modern Filipino fashion, although expensive fashions are available for the wealthy.[301] Outfits using indigenous Filipino textiles, without cultural appropriation, have become popular in the country.[302]

Preservation

Museums protect and conserve Philippine arts. A number of museums in the country possess works of art which have been declared National Treasures, particularly the National Museum of the Philippines in Manila. Other notable museums include the Ayala Museum, Negros Museum, Museo Sugbo, Lopez Museum, and Metropolitan Museum of Manila. University museums also hold a large collection of art.[303] The best-known libraries and archives are the National Library of the Philippines and the National Archives of the Philippines.[304] Organizations, groups, and universities also preserve the arts, especially the performing and craft arts.[304]

Heritage management in the Philippines includes preservation measures by private and public institutions and organizations, and laws such as the National Cultural Heritage Act have aided the conservation of Filipino art. The act established the Philippine Registry of Cultural Property, the country's repository of its cultural heritage.[305] The National Commission for Culture and the Arts, established by law in 1992, is the cultural arm of the Philippine government, and a Philippine Department of Culture has been proposed.[306][307]

See also

References

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