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Arte africano

El arte africano describe pinturas, esculturas, instalaciones y otras manifestaciones culturales visuales modernas e históricas de los africanos nativos o indígenas y del continente africano . La definición también puede incluir el arte de las diásporas africanas , como el arte afroamericano , caribeño o el arte de las sociedades sudamericanas inspiradas en las tradiciones africanas. A pesar de esta diversidad, hay temas artísticos unificadores presentes cuando se considera la totalidad de la cultura visual del continente africano. [2]

La cerámica , la metalistería , la escultura , la arquitectura , el arte textil y el arte con fibras son importantes formas de arte visual en toda África y pueden incluirse en el estudio del arte africano. El término "arte africano" no suele incluir el arte de las zonas del norte de África a lo largo de la costa mediterránea , ya que dichas zonas han formado parte durante mucho tiempo de tradiciones diferentes. Durante más de un milenio, el arte de dichas zonas ha formado parte del arte bereber o islámico , aunque con muchas características locales particulares.

El arte etíope , con una larga tradición cristiana , [3] también es diferente del de la mayor parte de África, donde la religión africana tradicional (con el Islam en el norte) fue dominante hasta el siglo XX. [4] El arte africano incluye el arte prehistórico y antiguo , el arte islámico de África occidental , el arte cristiano de África oriental y los artefactos tradicionales de estas y otras regiones. Muchas esculturas africanas se hicieron históricamente de madera y otros materiales naturales que no han sobrevivido desde hace unos pocos siglos, aunque se pueden encontrar raras figuras de cerámica y metal más antiguas en algunas áreas. [5] Algunos de los primeros objetos decorativos, como cuentas de concha y evidencia de pintura, se han descubierto en África, que datan de la Edad de Piedra Media . [6] [7] [8] Las máscaras son elementos importantes en el arte de muchas personas, junto con las figuras humanas, y a menudo están muy estilizadas. Existe una gran variedad de estilos, que a menudo varían dentro del mismo contexto de origen y dependiendo del uso del objeto, pero son evidentes amplias tendencias regionales; La escultura es más común entre los "grupos de cultivadores asentados en las áreas bañadas por los ríos Níger y Congo " en África Occidental. [9] Las imágenes directas de deidades son relativamente poco frecuentes, pero las máscaras en particular se hacen o se hacían a menudo para ceremonias rituales. Desde finales del siglo XIX ha habido una cantidad cada vez mayor de arte africano en las colecciones occidentales , cuyas mejores piezas se exhiben como parte de la historia de la colonización.

El arte africano ha tenido una importante influencia en el arte modernista europeo , [10] que se inspiró en su interés por la representación abstracta. Fue esta apreciación de la escultura africana la que se ha atribuido al concepto mismo de "arte africano", tal como lo ven los artistas e historiadores del arte europeos y estadounidenses. [11]

Las culturas de África occidental desarrollaron la fundición de bronce para relieves, como los famosos Bronces de Benín , para decorar palacios y para cabezas reales altamente naturalistas de los alrededores de la ciudad Bini de Benin City, estado de Edo , así como en terracota o metal, de los siglos XII al XIV. Las pesas de oro akan son una forma de pequeñas esculturas de metal producidas durante el período 1400-1900; algunas representan proverbios , lo que aporta un elemento narrativo poco común en la escultura africana; y las insignias reales incluían elementos esculpidos en oro. [12] Muchas figuras de África occidental se utilizan en rituales religiosos y a menudo se recubren con materiales colocados sobre ellas para ofrendas ceremoniales. Los pueblos de habla mandé de la misma región fabrican piezas de madera con superficies anchas y planas y brazos y piernas con forma de cilindros. En África central , sin embargo, las principales características distintivas incluyen caras en forma de corazón que se curvan hacia adentro y muestran patrones de círculos y puntos.

Elementos temáticos

Alcance

Hasta hace poco, el estudio del arte africano se centraba en el arte tradicional de ciertos grupos bien conocidos del continente, con especial énfasis en la escultura tradicional, las máscaras y otra cultura visual del África occidental no islámica, África central [15] y África meridional, con especial énfasis en los siglos XIX y XX. Sin embargo, recientemente ha habido un movimiento entre los historiadores del arte africano y otros académicos para incluir la cultura visual de otras regiones y períodos de tiempo. La idea es que al incluir todas las culturas africanas y su cultura visual a lo largo del tiempo en el arte africano , habrá una mayor comprensión de la estética visual del continente a través del tiempo. Finalmente, las artes de los pueblos de la diáspora africana, en Brasil , el Caribe y el sureste de los Estados Unidos , también han comenzado a incluirse en el estudio del arte africano.

Materiales

Cesta-bandeja sudanesa, tabar de fibra vegetal natural tejida, coloreada en diferentes colores

El arte africano se produce utilizando una amplia gama de materiales y adopta muchas formas distintas. Debido a que la madera es un material muy común, las esculturas de madera constituyen la mayoría del arte africano. Otros materiales utilizados en la creación de artes africanas incluyen tierra arcillosa. La joyería es una forma de arte popular y se utiliza para indicar rango, afiliación a un grupo o puramente estética. [16] La joyería africana está hecha de materiales tan diversos como piedra de ojo de tigre , hematita , sisal , cáscara de coco, cuentas y madera de ébano . Las esculturas pueden ser de madera, cerámica o talladas en piedra como las famosas esculturas Shona, [17] y la cerámica decorada o esculpida proviene de muchas regiones. Se fabrican varias formas de textiles, incluido el chitenge , la tela de barro y la tela kente . Los mosaicos hechos de alas de mariposa o arena de colores son populares en África Occidental. Las primeras esculturas africanas pueden identificarse como hechas de terracota y bronce. [18]

Religiones tradicionales africanas

Las religiones africanas tradicionales han tenido una gran influencia en las formas de arte africanas en todo el continente. El arte africano a menudo se basa en temas de simbolismo religioso, funcionalismo y utilitarismo, y muchas obras de arte se crean con fines espirituales en lugar de puramente creativos. Muchas culturas africanas enfatizan la importancia de los antepasados ​​como intermediarios entre los vivos, los dioses y el creador supremo, y el arte se considera una forma de contactar con estos espíritus de los antepasados. El arte también puede usarse para representar a los dioses y se valora por sus fines funcionales. [19] Sin embargo, es importante señalar que la llegada tanto del cristianismo como del islam también han influido en gran medida en el arte del continente africano, y las tradiciones de ambos se han integrado en las creencias y obras de arte de la religión africana tradicional. [20]

Historia

Los orígenes del arte africano se remontan a mucho antes de la historia registrada. Las cuentas más antiguas conocidas de la región se hicieron con conchas de Nassarius y se usaron como adornos personales hace 72.000 años. [6] En África, existen evidencias de la fabricación de pinturas mediante un proceso complejo de hace unos 100.000 años [7] y del uso de pigmentos de hace unos 320.000 años. [8] [21] El arte rupestre africano en el Sahara en Níger conserva tallas de 6000 años de antigüedad. [22] Junto con el África subsahariana, las artes culturales occidentales, las pinturas y artefactos del antiguo Egipto y las artesanías indígenas del sur también contribuyeron en gran medida al arte africano. A menudo representaban la abundancia de la naturaleza circundante y el arte consistía en interpretaciones abstractas de animales, vida vegetal o diseños y formas naturales. El reino nubio de Kush en el moderno Sudán estaba en contacto cercano y a menudo hostil con Egipto, y produjo esculturas monumentales en su mayoría derivadas de estilos que no conducían al norte. En África Occidental, las primeras esculturas conocidas son de la cultura Nok , que prosperó entre 1.500 a. C. y 500 d. C. en la actual Nigeria , con figuras de arcilla normalmente con cuerpos alargados y formas angulares.

[23]

En el África subsahariana se desarrollaron métodos más complejos de producción artística alrededor del siglo X; algunos de los avances más notables incluyen el trabajo en bronce de Igbo Ukwu y la terracota y metalistería de Ile Ife . Las fundiciones de bronce y latón , a menudo ornamentadas con marfil y piedras preciosas , adquirieron gran prestigio en gran parte de África occidental , a veces limitándose al trabajo de los artesanos de la corte e identificándose con la realeza , como ocurre con los Bronces de Benin .

Influencia en el arte occidental

Pablo Picasso ; 1907; Nu à la servilleta , óleo sobre lienzo, 116 x 89 cm

Durante y después del período colonial de los siglos XIX y XX, los occidentales caracterizaron durante mucho tiempo el arte africano como "primitivo". El término conlleva connotaciones negativas de subdesarrollo y pobreza. La colonización durante el siglo XIX estableció una concepción occidental basada en la creencia de que el arte africano carecía de capacidad técnica debido a su bajo nivel socioeconómico.

A principios del siglo XX, historiadores del arte como Carl Einstein , Michał Sobeski y Leo Frobenius publicaron importantes obras sobre la temática, dando al arte africano el estatus de un objeto estético , no solo de un objeto etnográfico . [24] Al mismo tiempo, artistas como Paul Gauguin , Pablo Picasso , Georges Braque , André Derain , Henri Matisse , Joseph Csaky y Amedeo Modigliani tomaron conciencia y se inspiraron en el arte africano, entre otras formas de arte. [10] En una situación en la que la vanguardia establecida luchaba contra las limitaciones impuestas por servir al mundo de las apariencias, el arte africano demostró el poder de las formas supremamente bien organizadas; producidas no solo respondiendo a la facultad de la vista, sino también, y a menudo principalmente, a la facultad de la imaginación, la emoción y la experiencia mística y religiosa. Estos artistas vieron en el arte africano una perfección formal y una sofisticación unificadas con un poder expresivo fenomenal. El estudio del arte africano y la respuesta que dieron los artistas a principios del siglo XX propiciaron una explosión de interés por la abstracción, la organización y la reorganización de las formas, así como la exploración de áreas emocionales y psicológicas hasta entonces no vistas en el arte occidental. De esta manera, el estatus del arte visual cambió. El arte dejó de ser meramente y principalmente estético , para convertirse también en un verdadero medio para el discurso filosófico e intelectual, y, por lo tanto, más verdadera y profundamente estético que nunca. [25]

Arte tradicional

El arte tradicional describe las formas de arte africano más populares y estudiadas que normalmente se encuentran en las colecciones de los museos.

Las máscaras de madera , que pueden ser de seres humanos , animales o criaturas legendarias , son una de las formas de arte más comunes en África occidental. En sus contextos originales, las máscaras ceremoniales se utilizan para celebraciones, iniciaciones, cosechas y preparación para la guerra. Las máscaras son usadas por un bailarín elegido o iniciado. Durante la ceremonia de la máscara, el bailarín entra en un trance profundo y durante este estado mental se "comunica" con sus antepasados. Las máscaras se pueden usar de tres maneras diferentes: cubriendo verticalmente la cara: como cascos, cubriendo toda la cabeza, y como cresta, descansando sobre la cabeza, que comúnmente estaba cubierta por material como parte del disfraz. Las máscaras africanas a menudo representan un espíritu y se cree firmemente que el espíritu de los antepasados ​​​​posee al portador. La mayoría de las máscaras africanas están hechas de madera y pueden decorarse con: marfil, pelo de animal, fibras vegetales (como rafia), pigmentos (como caolín ), piedras y gemas semipreciosas también se incluyen en las máscaras.

Las estatuas, generalmente de madera o marfil, suelen tener incrustaciones de conchas de cauri , tachuelas de metal y clavos. La ropa decorativa también es común y constituye otra gran parte del arte africano. Entre los textiles africanos más complejos se encuentra la colorida tela tejida en tiras Kente de Ghana . La tela de barro con estampados llamativos es otra técnica muy conocida.

Arte africano contemporáneo

Fest für Neptun , escultura en las zonas exteriores del edificio de la Deutsche Welle ( Schürmann-Bau ) en Bonn

África es el hogar de una floreciente cultura del arte contemporáneo y de las bellas artes. Esto ha sido poco estudiado hasta hace poco, debido al énfasis de los académicos y coleccionistas de arte en el arte tradicional. Entre los artistas modernos notables se incluyen El Anatsui , Marlene Dumas , William Kentridge , Karel Nel, Kendell Geers , Yinka Shonibare , Zerihun Yetmgeta , Odhiambo Siangla, Elias Jengo, Olu Oguibe , Lubaina Himid , Bili Bidjocka y Henry Tayali . Se celebran bienales de arte en Dakar , Senegal , y Johannesburgo , Sudáfrica . Muchos artistas africanos contemporáneos están representados en colecciones de museos, y su arte puede venderse a precios elevados en subastas de arte . A pesar de esto, muchos artistas africanos contemporáneos tienden a tener dificultades para encontrar un mercado para su trabajo. Muchas artes africanas contemporáneas toman prestado en gran medida de predecesores tradicionales. Irónicamente, este énfasis en la abstracción es visto por los occidentales como una imitación de los artistas cubistas y totémicos europeos y estadounidenses, como Pablo Picasso , Amedeo Modigliani y Henri Matisse , quienes, a principios del siglo XX, fueron fuertemente influenciados por el arte africano tradicional. Este período fue crítico para la evolución del modernismo occidental en las artes visuales, simbolizado por la pintura revolucionaria de Picasso Les Demoiselles d'Avignon . [26]

Hoy en día, Fathi Hassan es considerado un importante representante temprano del arte africano negro contemporáneo. El arte africano contemporáneo fue iniciado en las décadas de 1950 y 1960 en Sudáfrica por artistas como Irma Stern , Cyril Fradan y Walter Battiss y a través de galerías como la Goodman Gallery en Johannesburgo. Más recientemente, galerías europeas como la October Gallery en Londres y coleccionistas como Jean Pigozzi , [27] Artur Walther [28] y Gianni Baiocchi en Roma han ayudado a expandir el interés en el tema. Numerosas exposiciones en el Museo de Arte Africano de Nueva York y el Pabellón Africano en la Bienal de Venecia de 2007 , que exhibió el arte africano Sindika Dokolo

La Colección de Arte Contemporáneo ha contribuido en gran medida a contrarrestar muchos de los mitos y prejuicios que acechan al arte africano contemporáneo . El nombramiento del nigeriano Okwui Enwezor como director artístico de Documenta 11 y su visión del arte centrada en África impulsaron las carreras de innumerables artistas africanos a la escena internacional.

Un ataúd de fantasía moderno con forma de gallo rojo, Ghana

Se elabora una amplia gama de formas de arte más o menos tradicionales o adaptaciones de estilos tradicionales al gusto contemporáneo para venderlas a los turistas y a otros, incluido el llamado "arte de aeropuerto". Una serie de tradiciones populares vigorosas asimilan influencias occidentales en estilos africanos, como los elaborados ataúdes de fantasía del sur de Ghana, hechos en una variedad de formas diferentes que representan las ocupaciones o intereses del difunto o elevan su estatus. Los Ga creen que un funeral elaborado beneficiará el estatus de sus seres queridos en la otra vida, por lo que las familias a menudo no escatiman gastos al decidir qué ataúd quieren para sus parientes. [29] Estos ataúdes pueden tener la forma de automóviles, mazorcas de cacao, pollos o cualquier otra forma que una familia pueda decidir que represente mejor a su ser querido fallecido. [30]

El arte pop y el arte publicitario

El arte utilizado para publicitar negocios locales, incluidas peluquerías, cines y tiendas de electrodomésticos, se ha celebrado internacionalmente en galerías y ha lanzado las carreras de muchos artistas africanos contemporáneos, desde Joseph Bertiers de Kenia hasta varios pintores de carteles de películas en Ghana. [31] Los carteles de películas ghaneses pintados a mano sobre lienzo y sacos de harina de los años 1980 y 1990 se han exhibido en museos de todo el mundo y han despertado la atención viral en las redes sociales debido a sus representaciones altamente imaginativas y estilizadas de películas occidentales. [32] [33] Esta interpretación creativa de la cultura occidental a través de los estilos artísticos africanos también se exhibe con la tradición de los retratos de elogio que representan a celebridades internacionales, que a menudo sirvieron como arte publicitario de escaparates, y desde entonces se han vuelto ampliamente valorados y coleccionados en el mercado del arte global.

Arte africano minimalista

Otro artista africano contemporáneo notable es Amir Nour , un artista sudanés que vivió en Chicago. En la década de 1960 creó una escultura de metal llamada Grazing at Shendi (1969) , que consiste en formas geométricas que se conectan con su memoria de su tierra natal. [34] La escultura se asemeja a una oveja pastando en la distancia. Valoraba el descubrimiento del arte dentro de la sociedad del artista, incluida la cultura, la tradición y el trasfondo. [35]

Por país, civilización o pueblo

África occidental

Ghana

Ghana es famosa por crear las más famosas expresiones y creaciones africanas auténticas, que van desde tallas de madera, trabajos en latón, figuras, gemas y diferentes tipos de materiales. Ghana todavía mantiene su notoriedad como nación con reservas infinitas de minerales, como oro, diamantes, plata, bronce, etc. Ghana ofrece mucha ayuda a los artesanos para crear y diseñar joyas, ya sean contemporáneas o tradicionales.

Tejido kente de Ghana

El kente es una tela tradicional, multicolor, tejida a mano y acolchada. También es una especie de textura de seda y algodón hecha de tiras de tela entrelazadas. La tela es fundamental en la cultura ghanesa y también se usa tradicionalmente como abrigo tanto para hombres como para mujeres, con variaciones ligeramente diferentes para ambos. Esta tela la usan casi todos los miembros de las tribus ghanesas.

Colores y significado

Existen diferentes variaciones de color para el kente, cada color tiene un significado diferente. A continuación se muestran algunos ejemplos:

Negro: maduración

Blanco: purificación

Amarillo: preciosidad

Azul: tranquilidad

Rojo: derramamiento de sangre

El arte Akan se originó entre el pueblo Akan . El arte Akan es conocido por sus vibrantes tradiciones artísticas, que incluyen textiles, esculturas, pesas de oro Akan, así como joyas de oro y plata . El pueblo Akan es conocido por su fuerte conexión entre las expresiones visuales y verbales y una mezcla distintiva de arte y filosofía. La cultura Akan valora el oro por encima de todos los demás metales y cree que puede representar los elementos sobrenaturales detrás de muchas cosas, incluida la autoridad real y los valores culturales. Los Asante, que es una cultura dominante de habla Akan en Ghana, remontan sus orígenes a la llegada de un taburete de oro, que ahora se dice que contiene el alma de la nación Asante en su interior. El oro se consideraba una contraparte terrenal del sol y a menudo se utilizaba en el arte para mostrar la importancia del rey, lo que lo convierte en una representación esencial de sus valores culturales y sociales. [36] La tela Kente es otra tradición artística extremadamente importante de la cultura Akan. La tradición afirma que la tela Kente se originó cuando los tejedores intentaron copiar las habilidades de tejido de las arañas con sus redes. La tela kente es famosa en todo el mundo por sus colores y patrones. Su propósito original era representar el poder y la autoridad real, pero ahora se ha convertido en un símbolo de tradición y ha sido adoptada por varias otras culturas. [37]


Máscara colgante de la Reina Madre - Iyoba MET DP231460
Olla hecha a mano por Ladi Kwali (YORYM-2004.1.919)

Nigeria

La cultura nigeriana se ilustra a través del arte y el folclore. Nigeria se inspira en el patrimonio folclórico tradicional de la región para su arte. Existen diferentes tipos de obras de arte de la cultura nigeriana. Algunas de estas obras de arte pueden ser tallas de piedra, cerámica, trabajos en vidrio, tallas de madera y trabajos en bronce. Benin y Awka se consideran los lugares centrales para la talla de madera. Los talladores de madera han prosperado en todo el sur de Nigeria desde tiempos inmemoriales.

Ejemplos de arte tradicional nigeriano

Máscaras

Las máscaras son parte de la confesión animista de los yorubas. Los velos están pintados y los fanáticos los usan en los servicios conmemorativos y en diferentes funciones para apaciguar los espíritus.

Cerámica

La alfarería es una tradición muy antigua en Nigeria. La alfarería era conocida desde el año 100 a. C. En la actualidad, Suleja, Abuja e Ilorin se consideran figuras importantes de la cerámica tradicional. Los alfareros de Nigeria suelen ser mujeres y suelen practicar técnicas que se transmiten de generación en generación.

Textiles

Los yorubas utilizan un arbusto para hacer telas batik de color índigo. Las mujeres suelen ser las que se encargan del teñido, mientras que en el norte, la técnica la realizan sólo los hombres. Los tejedores de todo el país producen una espléndida textura con estructuras de cintas. El estado de Oyo es conocido por sus finos tejidos de telar, mientras que los tejidos del estado de Abia utilizan una técnica de telar ancho.

La cultura Nok es una población de la Edad de Hierro temprana cuyos restos materiales reciben el nombre de la aldea Ham de Nok en el estado de Kaduna de Nigeria , donde sus famosas esculturas de terracota se descubrieron por primera vez en 1928. La cultura Nok apareció en el norte de Nigeria alrededor de 1500 a. C. [23] y desapareció en circunstancias desconocidas alrededor de 500 d. C., por lo que duró aproximadamente 2000 años. [38]

La función de las esculturas de terracota de Nok sigue siendo desconocida. En su mayor parte, la terracota se conserva en forma de fragmentos dispersos. Es por eso que el arte Nok es más conocido hoy en día solo por las cabezas, tanto masculinas como femeninas, cuyos peinados son particularmente detallados y refinados. Las estatuas están en fragmentos porque los descubrimientos generalmente se hacen a partir de lodo aluvial , [39] [40] [41] en terrenos hechos por la erosión del agua. Las estatuas de terracota encontradas allí están ocultas, enrolladas, pulidas y rotas. Rara vez se conservan obras de gran tamaño intactas, lo que las hace muy valoradas en el mercado de arte internacional. Las figuras de terracota son cabezas y cuerpos humanos huecos, construidos en espiral, casi de tamaño natural que se representan con rasgos muy estilizados, abundante joyería y posturas variadas.

Se sabe poco sobre la función original de las piezas, pero las teorías incluyen la representación de antepasados, marcadores de tumbas y amuletos para prevenir el fracaso de las cosechas, la infertilidad y las enfermedades. Además, según las bases en forma de cúpula encontradas en varias figuras, podrían haber sido utilizadas como remates para los techos de estructuras antiguas. Margaret Young-Sanchez, curadora asociada de arte de las Américas, África y Oceanía en el Museo de Arte de Cleveland , explica que la mayoría de las cerámicas Nok fueron moldeadas a mano a partir de arcilla de grano grueso y esculpidas sustractivamente de una manera que sugiere una influencia de la talla de madera. Después de un tiempo de secado, las esculturas se cubrieron con engobe y se pulieron para producir una superficie lisa y brillante. Las figuras son huecas, con varias aberturas para facilitar el secado y la cocción completos. El proceso de cocción probablemente se parecía al que se usa hoy en Nigeria, en el que las piezas se cubren con hierba, ramitas y hojas y se queman durante varias horas.

Como resultado de la erosión y la deposición naturales, las terracotas Nok se dispersaron a distintas profundidades por las praderas del Sahel, lo que dificultó la datación y clasificación de los misteriosos artefactos. Se encontraron dos sitios arqueológicos, Samun Dukiya y Taruga , que contenían arte Nok que había permanecido inalterado. Las pruebas de radiocarbono y termoluminiscencia redujeron la edad de las esculturas a entre 2000 y 2500 años atrás, lo que las convierte en algunas de las más antiguas de África occidental. Se recuperaron muchas más fechas en el curso de nuevas excavaciones arqueológicas, lo que extiende los inicios de la tradición Nok aún más atrás en el tiempo. [42]

Debido a las similitudes entre los dos sitios, el arqueólogo Graham Connah cree que "las obras de arte de Nok representan un estilo que fue adoptado por una variedad de sociedades agrícolas que utilizaban hierro de diferentes culturas, en lugar de ser la característica diagnóstica de un grupo humano en particular, como a menudo se ha afirmado".

Arte de Benín

El arte de Benín es el arte del Reino de Benín o Imperio Edo (1440–1897), un estado africano precolonial ubicado en lo que ahora se conoce como la región Sur-Sur de Nigeria. Los Bronces de Benín son un grupo de más de mil placas de metal y esculturas que decoraban el palacio real del Reino de Benín en lo que hoy es Nigeria. [a] En conjunto, los objetos forman los ejemplos más conocidos del arte de Benín , creado a partir del siglo XIII en adelante, por el pueblo Edo , que también incluía otras esculturas en latón o bronce, incluidas algunas famosas cabezas de retratos y piezas más pequeñas.

En 1897, la mayoría de las placas y otros objetos de la colección fueron tomados por una fuerza británica durante la Expedición a Benín de 1897 , que tuvo lugar mientras se consolidaba el control británico en el sur de Nigeria . [45] Doscientas de las piezas fueron llevadas al Museo Británico , mientras que el resto fueron adquiridas por otros museos de Europa. [46] Hoy en día, una gran cantidad se encuentran en el Museo Británico, [45] así como en otras colecciones notables en museos alemanes y estadounidenses. [47]

Igbo

Los igbo producen una amplia variedad de obras de arte, entre las que se incluyen figuras tradicionales, máscaras, artefactos y textiles, además de obras en metales como el bronce. Se han encontrado obras de arte de los igbo que datan del siglo IX, como los artefactos de bronce hallados en Igbo Ukwu . Sus máscaras son similares a las de los fang , ya que comparten una combinación de colores blanco y negro en prácticamente las mismas zonas.

Yoruba

El arte yoruba es más conocido por las cabezas de Ife , hechas de cerámica, latón y otros materiales. Gran parte de su arte está asociado con las cortes reales. También produjeron máscaras y puertas elaboradas, llenas de detalles y pintadas en colores brillantes, como azul, amarillo, rojo y blanco.

Otros grupos étnicos de Nigeria

Malí

Los principales grupos étnicos de Mali son los bambara (también conocidos como bamana) y los dogones. Otros grupos étnicos más pequeños son los marka y los bozos, pescadores del río Níger. Las civilizaciones antiguas florecieron en zonas como Djene y Tombuctú, donde se han desenterrado una gran variedad de figuras antiguas de bronce y terracota.

Djenné-Djenno

Djenné-Djenno es famosa por sus figurillas que representan a seres humanos y animales, como serpientes y caballos. Están hechas de terracota, un material que se utiliza en África occidental desde hace unos diez mil años.

Bambara
Dos chiwaras bambara de finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX, Instituto de Arte de Chicago . Estilos verticales: mujer (izquierda) y hombre

The Bambara people (Bambara: Bamanankaw) adapted many artistic traditions and began to create display pieces. Before money was the main drive of creation of their artworks they used their abilities solely as a sacred craft for display of spiritual pride, religious beliefs and display of customs. Example artworks include the Bamana n'tomo mask. Other statues were created for people such as hunters and farmers so others could leave offerings after long farming seasons or group hunts. The stylistic variations in Bambara art are extreme sculptures, masks and headdresses display either stylized or realistic features, and either weathered or encrusted patinas. Until quite recently, the function of Bambara pieces was shrouded in mystery, but in the last twenty years, field studies have revealed that certain types of figures and headdresses were associated with a number of the societies that structure Bambara life. During the 1970s a group of approximately twenty figures, masks and TjiWara headdresses belonging to the so-called 'Segou style' were identified. The style is distinct and recognizable by its typical flat faces, arrow-shaped noses, all-over body triangular scarifications and, on the figures, splayed hands.

Masks

There are three major and one minor type of Bambara mask. The first type, used by the N'tomo society, has a typical comb-like structure above the face, is worn during dances and may be covered with cowrie shells. The second type of mask, associated with the Komo society, has a spherical head with two antelope horns on the top and an enlarged, flattened mouth. They are used during dances, but some have a thickly encrusted patina acquired during other ceremonies in which libations are poured over them.

The third type has connections with the Nama society and is carved in the form of an articulated bird's head, while the fourth, minor type, represents a stylized animal head and is used by the Kore society. Other Bambara masks are known to exist, but unlike those described above, they cannot be linked to specific societies or ceremonies. Bambara carvers have established a reputation for the zoomorphic headdresses worn by Tji-Wara society members. Although they are all different, they all display a highly abstract body, often incorporating a zig-zag motif, which represents the sun's course from east to west, and a head with two large horns. Bambara members of the Tji-Wara society wear the headdress while dancing in their fields at sowing time, hoping to increase the crop yield.

Statuettes

Bambara statuettes are primarily used during the annual ceremonies of the Guan society. During these ceremonies, a group of up to seven figures, measuring from 80 to 130 cm in height, are removed from their sanctuaries by the elder members of the society. The sculptures are washed, re-oiled and sacrifices are offered to them at their shrines. These figures – some of which date from between the 14th and 16th centuries – usually display a typical crested coiffure, often adorned with a talisman.

Two of these figures were ascribed great significance: a seated or standing maternity figure called Guandousou – known in the West as 'Bambara Queen' – and a male figure called Guantigui, who usually appears holding a knife. The two figures were surrounded by Guannyeni attendant figures standing or seated in various positions, holding a vessel, or a musical instrument, or their breasts. During the 1970s, numerous fakes from Bamako which were based on these sculptures entered the market. They were produced in Bamako.

Other Bambara figures, called Dyonyeni, are thought to be associated with either the southern Dyo society or the Kwore society. These female or hermaphrodite figures usually appear with geometric features such as large conical breasts and measure between 40 and 85 cm in height. The blacksmith members of the Dyo society used them during dances to celebrate the end of their initiation ceremonies. They were handled, held by dancers and placed in the middle of the ceremonial circle.

Among the corpus of Bambara figures, Boh sculptures are perhaps the best known. These statues represent a highly stylized animal or human figure, and are made of wood which is repeatedly covered in thick layers of earth impregnated with sacrificial materials such as millet, chicken or goat blood, kola nuts and alcoholic drinks. They were employed by the Kono and the Komo societies and served as receptacles for spiritual forces, and could, in turn, be used for apotropaic purposes.

Each special creative trait a person obtained was seen as a different way to please higher spirits.

Dogon

Dogon art consists primarily of sculptures. Their art revolves around Dogon religious values, ideals, and freedoms (Laude, 19). Dogon sculptures are not made to be seen publicly, and are commonly hidden from the public eye within the houses of families, sanctuaries, or kept with the Hogon (Laude, 20). The importance of secrecy is due to the symbolic meaning behind the pieces and the process by which they are made.

Themes found throughout Dogon sculpture consist of figures with raised arms, superimposed bearded figures, horsemen, stools with caryatids, women with children, figures covering their faces, women grinding pearl millet, women bearing vessels on their heads, donkeys bearing cups, musicians, dogs, quadruped-shaped troughs or benches, figures bending from the waist, mirror-images, aproned figures, and standing figures (Laude, 46–52). Signs of other contacts and origins are evident in Dogon art. The Dogon people were not the first inhabitants of the cliffs of Bandiagara. Influence from Tellem art is evident in Dogon art because of its rectilinear designs (Laude, 24).

Dogon art is extremely versatile, although common stylistic characteristics – such as a tendency towards stylization – are apparent on the statues. Their art deals with the myths whose complex ensemble regulates the life of the individual. The sculptures are preserved in innumerable sites of worship, personal or family altars, altars for rain, altars to protect hunters, in market. As a general characterization of Dogon statues, one could say that they render the human body in a simplified way, reducing it to its essentials. Some are extremely elongated with emphasis on geometric forms. The subjective impression is one of immobility with a mysterious sense of a solemn gravity and serene majesty, although conveying at the same time a latent movement. Dogon sculpture recreates the hermaphroditic silhouettes of the Tellem, featuring raised arms and a thick patina made of blood and millet beer. The four Nommo couples, the mythical ancestors born of the god Amma, ornament stools, pillars or men's meeting houses, door locks, and granary doors. The primordial couple is represented sitting on a stool, the base of which depicts the earth while the upper surface represents the sky; the two are interconnected by the Nommo. The seated female figures, their hands on their abdomen, are linked to the fertility cult, incarnating the first ancestor who died in childbirth, and are the object of offerings of food and sacrifices by women who are expecting a child.

Kneeling statues of protective spirits are placed at the head of the dead to absorb their spiritual strength and to be their intermediaries with the world of the dead, into which they accompany the deceased before once again being placed on the shrines of the ancestors. Horsemen are reminders of the fact that, according to myth, the horse was the first animal present on earth. The Dogon style has evolved into a kind of cubism: ovoid head, squared shoulders, tapered extremities, pointed breasts, forearms, and thighs on a parallel plane, hairdos stylized by three or four incised lines. Dogon sculptures serve as a physical medium in initiations and as an explanation of the world. They serve to transmit an understanding to the initiated, who will decipher the statue according to the level of their knowledge. Carved animal figures, such as dogs and ostriches, are placed on village foundation altars to commemorate sacrificed animals, while granary doors, stools and house posts are also adorned with figures and symbols.

There are nearly eighty styles of masks, but their basic characteristic is great boldness in the use of geometric shapes, independent of the various animals they are supposed to represent. The structure of a large number of masks is based on the interplay of vertical and horizontal lines and shapes. Another large group has triangular, conic shapes. All masks have large geometric eyes and stylized features. The masks are often polychrome, but on many the color is lost; after the ceremonies they were left on the ground and quickly deteriorated because of termites and other conditions. The Dogon continue an ancient masquerading tradition, which commemorates the origin of death. According to their myths, death came into the world as a result of primeval man's transgressions against the divine order. Dama memorial ceremonies are held to accompany the dead into the ancestral realm and restore order to the universe. The performance of masqueraders – sometimes as many as 400 – at these ceremonies is considered absolutely necessary. In the case of the dama, the timing, types of masks involved, and other ritual elements are often specific to one or two villages and may not resemble those seen in locations only several kilometres distant. The masks also appear during baga-bundo rites performed by small numbers of masqueraders before the burial of a male Dogon. Dogon masks evoke the form of animals associated with their mythology, yet their significance is only understood by the highest ranking cult members whose role is to explain the meaning of each mask to a captivated audience.

Other ethnic groups of Mali

Burkina Faso

Bobo Mask (Nyanga) from Burkina Faso, made in the early 19th century. Brooklyn Museum

Burkina Faso is a small, landlocked country north of Ghana and south of Mali and Niger. Economically, it is one of the four or five poorest countries in the world. Culturally, it is extremely rich. In part, this is because so few people from Burkina have become Muslim or Christian.[49] Many of the ancient artistic traditions for which Africa is so well known have been preserved in Burkina Faso because so many people continue to honor the ancestral spirits, and the spirits of nature. In great part, they honor the spirits through the use of masks and carved figures. Many of the countries to the north of Burkina Faso had become predominantly Muslim, while many of the countries to the south of Burkina Faso are heavily Christian. In contrast, many of the people of Burkina Faso continue to offer prayers and sacrifices to the spirits of nature and to the spirits of their ancestors. The result is that they continue to use the sorts of art that we see in museums in Europe and America.[50]

One of the principal obstacles to understanding the art of Burkina Faso, including that of the Bwa, has been a confusion between the styles of the Bwa, "gurunsi", and Mossi, and a confusion of the Bwa people with their neighbors to the west the Bobo people. This confusion was the result of the use by French colonial officers of Jula interpreters at the turn of the century. these interpreters considered the two peoples to be the same and so referred to the Bobo as "Bobo-Fing" and to the Bwa as "Bobo-Oule." In fact these two peoples are not related at all. Their languages are quite different, their social systems are quite different, and certainly their art is quite different. In terms of artistic styles the confusion stems from the fact that the Bwa, "gurunsi'" and Mossi make masks that are covered with red white and black geometric graphic patterns. This is simply the style of the Voltaic or Gur peoples, and also includes the Dogon and other peoples who speak Voltaic languages.[51]

Ivory Coast(Côte d'Ivoire)

Childsoldier in the Ivory Coast, Gilbert G. Groud, 2007, mixed materials: tusche and wax crayon

The Baoulé, the Senoufo and the Dan peoples are skilled at carving wood and each culture produces wooden masks in wide variety. The Ivorian people use masks to represent animals in caricature to depict deities, or to represent the souls of the departed.

As the masks are held to be of great spiritual power, it is considered a taboo for anyone other than specially trained persons or chosen ones to wear or possess certain masks. These ceremonial masks are each thought to have a soul, or life force, and wearing these masks is thought to transform the wearer into the entity the mask represents.

Ivory Coast(Côte d'Ivoire) also has modern painters and illustrators. Gilbert G. Groud[52] criticizes the ancient beliefs in black magic, as held with the spiritual masks mentioned above, in his illustrated book Magie Noire.

East Africa

Kenya

Around Lake Turkana exist ancient petroglyphs depicting human figures and animals. Bantu tribes build funeral posts, carvings of human heads atop geometric designs are still created. Though the original posts no longer exist, these more recent creations are thought to be a continuation of the practice. The Kikuyu people also continue the designs of ancient tradition in the designs painted on their shields.[53]

Bantu contemporary Kenyan artists include Elimo Njau, founder of the Paa Ya Paa Art Centre, a Nairobi-based artists workshop.[54] From the University of Nairobi School of Fine Art and Design came Bulinya Martins and Sarah Shiundu. The two by virtue of having learned many basic techniques in design are highly innovative both in style, use of color and execution. Unlike most contemporary Kenyan artist they paint using oils, acrylics and watercolors and/or combination.[55][56]

The Eskenazi Museum of Art at Indiana University has a large collection of traditional art objects from Kenya including jewelry, containers, weapons, walking sticks, headrests, stools, utensils, and other objects available online.[57]

Ethiopia

Bet Maryam church, Lalibela. Traditional Ethiopian church art

Ethiopian art from the 4th century until the 20th can be divided into two broad groupings. First comes a distinctive tradition of Christian art, mostly for churches, in forms including painting, crosses, icons, illuminated manuscripts, and other metalwork such as crowns. Secondly there are popular arts and crafts such as textiles, basketry and jewellery, in which Ethiopian traditions are closer to those of other peoples in the region. Its history goes back almost three thousand years to the kingdom of D'mt. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has been the predominant religion in Ethiopia for over 1500 years, for most of this period in a very close relation, or union, with the Coptic Christianity of Egypt, so that Coptic art has been the main formative influence on Ethiopian church art.

The rock-hewn Church of Bet Maryam in Lalibela.

Prehistoric rock art comparable to that of other African sites survives in a number of places and, until the arrival of Christianity, stone stelae, often carved with simple reliefs, were erected as grave-markers and for other purposes in many regions; Tiya is one important site. The "pre-Axumite" Iron Age culture of about the 5th century BCE to the 1st century CE was influenced by the Kingdom of Kush to the north, and settlers from Arabia, and produced cities with simple temples in stone, such as the ruined one at Yeha, which is impressive[opinion] for its date in the 4th or 5th century BCE.

The powerful Kingdom of Aksum emerged in the 1st century BCE and dominated Ethiopia until the 10th century, having become very largely Christian from the 4th century.[58] Although some buildings and large, pre-Christian stelae exist, there appears to be no surviving Ethiopian Christian art from the Axumite period. However, the earliest works remaining show a clear continuity with Coptic art of earlier periods. There was considerable destruction of churches and their contents in the 16th century when the country was invaded by Muslim neighbours. The revival of art after this was influenced by Catholic European art in both iconography and elements of style, but retained its Ethiopian character. In the 20th century, Western artists and architects began to be commissioned by the government, and to train local students, and more fully Westernized art was produced alongside continuations of traditional church art.[58]

Church paintings in Ethiopia were likely produced as far back as the introduction of Christianity in the 4th century AD,[59] although the earliest surviving examples come from the church of Debre Selam Mikael in the Tigray Region, dated to the 11th century AD.[60] However, the 7th-century AD followers of the Islamic prophet Muhammad who fled to Axum in temporary exile mentioned that the original Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion was decorated with paintings.[60] Other early paintings include those from the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, dated to the 12th century AD, and in nearby Geneta Maryam, dated to the 13th century AD.[60] However, paintings in illuminated manuscripts predate the earliest surviving church paintings; for instance, the Ethiopian Garima Gospels of the 4th–6th centuries AD contain illuminated scenes imitating the contemporary Byzantine style.[61]

Ethiopian painting, on walls, in books, and in icons,[62] is highly distinctive, though the style and iconography are closely related to the simplified Coptic version of Late Antique and Byzantine Christian art. From the 16th century, Roman Catholic church art and European art in general began to exert some influence. However, Ethiopian art is highly conservative and retained much of its distinct character until modern times. The production of illuminated manuscripts for use continued up to the present day.[63]

Another important form of Ethiopian art, also related to Coptic styles, are crosses made from wood and metal.[64][65] They are usually copper alloy or brass, plated (at least originally) with gold or silver. The heads are typically flat cast plates with elaborate and complex openwork decoration. The cross motif emerges from the decoration, with the whole design often forming a rotated square or circular shape, though the designs are highly varied and inventive. Many incorporate curved motifs rising from the base, which are called the "arms of Adam". Except in recent Western-influenced examples, they usually have no corpus, or figure of Christ, and the design often incorporates numerous smaller crosses. Engraved figurative imagery has sometimes been added. Crosses are mostly either processional crosses, with the metal head mounted on a long wooden staff, carried in religious processions and during the liturgy, or hand crosses, with a shorter metal handle in the same casting as the head. Smaller crosses worn as jewellery are also common.

Ethiopia has great ethnic and linguistic diversity, and styles in secular traditional crafts vary greatly in different parts of the country. There are a range of traditions in textiles, many with woven geometric decoration, although many types are also usually plain. Ethiopian church practices make a great deal of use of colourful textiles, and the more elaborate types are widely used as church vestments and as hangings, curtains and wrappings in churches, although they have now largely been supplanted by Western fabrics. Examples of both types can be seen in the picture at the top of the article. Icons may normally be veiled with a semi-transparent or opaque cloth; very thin chiffon-type cotton cloth is a speciality of Ethiopia, though usually with no pattern.

Colourful basketry with a coiled construction is common in rural Ethiopia. The products have many uses, such as storing grains, seeds and food and being used as tables and bowls. The Muslim city of Harar is well known for its high-quality basketry,[66] and many craft products of the Muslim minority relate to wider Islamic decorative traditions.

Tanzania

Modern Makonde carving in ebony

Art from Tanzania is known for paintings by modern artists like Tinga Tinga or George Lilanga, and for traditional as well as modern Makonde sculptures. Like in other regions, there is also a diversified tradition of producing textile art.[9]

Tinga Tinga art has roots in decorating hut walls in central and south Tanzania. It was first in 1968 when Edward Said Tingatinga started to paint on wooden sheets with enamel colours when Tinga Tinga art became known. The art of the Makonde must be subdivided into different areas. The Makonde are known as master carvers throughout East Africa, and their statuary that can be found being sold in tourist markets and in museums alike. They traditionally carve household objects, figures and masks. Since the 1950s the so-called Modern Makonde Art has been developed. An essential step was the turning to abstract figures, mostly spirits (Shetani) that play a special role. Makonde are also part of the important contemporary artists of Africa today. An outstanding position is taken by George Lilanga.

Central Africa

Democratic Republic of Congo

Kuba Kingdom

The Kuba Kingdom (also rendered as the Kingdom of the Bakuba, Songora or Bushongo) was a pre-colonial kingdom in Central Africa. The Kuba Kingdom flourished between the 17th and 19th centuries in the region bordered by the Sankuru, Lulua, and Kasai rivers in the south-east of the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo. A great deal of the art was created for the courts of chiefs and kings and was profusely decorated, incorporating cowrie shells and animal skins (especially leopard) as symbols of wealth, prestige and power. Masks are also important to the Kuba. They are used both in the rituals of the court and in the initiation of boys into adulthood, as well as at funerals.

Luba Kingdom

The Kingdom of Luba or Luba Empire (1585–1889) was a pre-colonial Central African state that arose in the marshy grasslands of the Upemba Depression in what is now southern Democratic Republic of Congo. Today, the Luba people or baLuba are an ethno-linguistic group indigenous to the south-central region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[68] The majority of them live in this country, residing mainly in its Katanga, Kasai, and Maniema provinces.

As in the Kuba Kingdom, the Luba Kingdom held the arts in high esteem. A carver held relatively high status, which was displayed by an adze (axe) that he carried over his shoulder. Luba art was not very uniform because of the vast territory which the kingdom controlled. However, some characteristics are common. The important role of woman in the creation myths and political society resulted in many objects of prestige being decorated with female figures.

Other ethnic groups of Democratic Republic of Congo

Chad

Sao

The Sao civilisation in Middle Africa from circa the sixth century BC to as late as the sixteenth century AD, and lived by the Chari River around Lake Chad in territory that later became part of Cameroon and Chad. Their most important artworks are the terracotta figurines. These figurines represent humans and animals. Other kinds of artifacts show that the Saos were skilled workers in bronze, copper, and iron.[69]

Gabon

Ngil mask from Gabon or Cameroon; wood colored with kaolin (chiny clay); by Fang people; Ethnological Museum of Berlin. Worn with full costume in a night masquerade to settle disputes and quell misbehavior, this calm visage was terrifying to wrong-doers

The Fang people make masks and basketry, carvings, and sculptures. Fang art is characterized by organized clarity and distinct lines and shapes. Bieri, boxes to hold the remains of ancestors, are carved with protective figures. Masks are worn in ceremonies and for hunting. The faces are painted white with black features. Myene art centers around Myene rituals for death. Female ancestors are represented by white painted masks worn by male relatives. The Bekota use brass and copper to cover their carvings. They use baskets to hold ancestral remains. Tourism is rare in Gabon, and unlike in other African countries, art is not spurred on by commerce.

Southern Africa

Botswana

In the northern part of Botswana, women in the villages of Etsha and Gumare[70] are noted for their skill at crafting baskets from Mokola Palm and local dyes. The baskets are generally woven into three types: large, lidded baskets used for storage large, open baskets for carrying objects on the head or for winnowing threshed grain, and smaller plates for winnowing pounded grain. The artistry of these baskets is being steadily enhanced through color use and improved designs as they are increasingly produced for commercial use.

The oldest evidence ancient paintings from both Botswana and South Africa. Depictions of hunting, both animal and human figures were made by the San people dating before civilization over 20,000 years old within the Kalahari desert.

Zimbabwe

The culture from Great Zimbabwe left more impressive buildings than sculpture,[opinion] but the eight soapstone Zimbabwe Birds appear to have had a special significance and were presumably mounted on monoliths. Modern Zimbabwean sculptors in soapstone have achieved considerable international success. Southern Africa's oldest known clay figures date from 400 to 600 AD and have cylindrical heads with a mixture of human and animal features.

South Africa

Mapungubwe
The golden rhinoceros of Mapungubwe; 1075–1220; from Mapungubwe National Park (Limpopo, South Africa); Mapungubwe Collection (University of Pretoria Museums)

Kingdom of Mapungubwe (1075–1220) was a pre-colonial state in Southern Africa located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, south of Great Zimbabwe. The most famous Mapungubwe artwork is a tiny golden rhino, known as the golden rhinoceros of Mapungubwe. In other graves from Mapengubwe were found objects made of iron, gold, copper, ceramic and glass beads.

Southern Ndebele

The Southern Ndebele people are famous for the way they paint their houses. Distinct geometric forms against stark, contrasting colours form the basis of the Ndebele style, which encompassed everything from the architecture, clothing and tools of the people. While color has almost always had a role in drawing emotions in art, the Ndebele were one of the first Southern African tribes to utilise a wide array of colours to convey specific meaning as part of their very lives.

North Africa

Egypt

Persisting for 3,000 years and thirty dynasties, the "official" art of Ancient Egypt was centred on the state religion of the time. The art ranged from stone carvings of both massive statues and small statuettes, to wall art that depicted both history and mythology. In 2600 BC the maturity of Egyptian carving reached a peak it did not reach again for another 1,500 years during the reign of Rameses II.[71]

A lot of the art possesses a certain stiffness, with figures poised upright and rigid in a regal fashion. Bodily proportions also appear to be mathematically derived, giving rise to a sense of fantastic perfection in the figures depicted. This most likely was used to reinforce the godliness of the ruling caste.

Nubia and Sudan

The people of Nubia, living in southern Egypt and the northern region of Sudan, developed historical art styles similar to that of their Egyptian neighbors to the north. However, Nubian art was not merely a product of colonization by ancient Egypt, but rather due to a mutual exchange of ideas and ideologies along the Nile Valley. The earliest art of the region comes from the Kerma culture, which was contemporary to Old and Middle Kingdom Egypt. Art from this period exhibits Egyptian faience along with distinct black-topped pottery of Nubian origin. In the latter Napatan period of the Kingdom of Kush, art showed more influence from Egypt as the people in the region were worshiping Egyptian gods.[72][73]

After these historical periods, the inhabitants of Sudan created artworks in different styles, both in indigenous African ways or influenced by Byzantine Christian, Islamic and modern art traditions.[74]

African Diaspora

Museums

The Museum of African Art in Belgrade at the time of its opening

Many art and ethnographic museums have a section dedicated to the art from Sub-Saharan Africa, for example the British Museum, Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac in Paris, Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Ethnological Museum of Berlin. Not many western museums are dedicated only to African art, like the Africa Museum in Brussels, National Museum of African Art in Washington, D.C., and African Art Museum of Maryland in Columbia, Maryland.[75] Some colleges and universities hold collections of African art, for example Howard University in Washington, DC and Spelman College in Atlanta, Georgia.

Nearly all countries in Africa have at least a national museum housing African art, often very largely from that country, for example the Sierra Leone National Museum and Nigerian National Museum in Lagos. There are also many smaller museums in the provinces.

The display of African art and artifacts in European museums has long been controversial in various ways, and the French-commissioned "Report on the restitution of African cultural heritage" (2018) has marked a key moment, leading to an increase in the return of artefacts. However, there are other examples, such as the Museum of African Art in Belgrade which was opened in 1977 because of Yugoslavia's relations with many African countries thanks to the Non-Aligned Movement. The museum was opened out of the desire to acquaint the people of Yugoslavia with the art and culture of Africa since there was a deeply rooted notion about Yugoslavia sharing a friendship with African countries thanks to their similar struggles; all of the original items in the museums were legally bought by the Yugoslav ambassador and journalist Zdravko Pečar and his wife Veda Zagorac, while more recent acquisition were either bought by the museum, received as gifts from Yugoslavs who lived in Africa or were diplomatic gifts to the museum by the ambassadors of African countries.[76]

The Congolese activist Mwazulu Diyabanza has taken direct action against European museums to take back items he says belong to Africa.[77][78]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The exact number of pieces is uncertain.[43] Most sources speak of a thousand pieces or several thousand pieces. According to Nevadomsky, there were between 3,000 and 5,000 pieces in total.[44]

References

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General sources

Further reading

External links