El budismo de la Tierra Pura o escuela de la Tierra Pura ( chino :淨土宗; pinyin : Jìngtǔzōng ; japonés :浄土仏教, romanizado : Jōdo bukkyō ; coreano : 정토종 ; RR : Jeongto-jong ; vietnamita : Tịnh độ tông ; también conocido como amidismo [1] [2] ) es una amplia rama del budismo Mahayana centrada en alcanzar el renacimiento en una Tierra Pura . Es una de las tradiciones del budismo más practicadas en el este de Asia .
El budismo de la Tierra Pura es una tradición que se centra principalmente en lograr el renacimiento en la "tierra pura" o campo búdico de un Buda , que en términos generales es el campo de influencia de un Buda. Algunos campos búdicos se consideran lugares superiores para entrenar espiritualmente para la Budeidad completa , ya que un Buda los ha "purificado" compasivamente para este propósito y dado que en estos reinos, uno puede encontrarse cara a cara con un Buda y estudiar con él. [3] Dado que es mucho más fácil alcanzar la iluminación en uno de estos campos búdicos (debido a la naturaleza corrupta de la era actual ), muchos budistas Mahayana se esfuerzan por renacer en un lugar así. [4]
La tierra pura más común hoy en día es la de Amitābha , llamada Sukhavati , "Tierra de la Felicidad". [5] Los budistas Mahayana también pueden aspirar a renacer en otras tierras puras, como los campos de Buda de Aksobhya y Medicine Guru (aunque esto es más raro). [6] En el budismo tibetano , los seguidores también pueden aspirar a otras tierras puras como la de Ratnasambhava . Aunque los budas son venerados en las tradiciones de la Tierra Pura y son vistos como figuras salvadoras, la tradición se distingue claramente de las religiones teístas , debido a sus raíces en la comprensión clásica Mahayana de la Budeidad y los bodhisattvas , así como las doctrinas budistas de la vacuidad y la mente-solamente . [7] [8]
Las prácticas y conceptos orientados a la Tierra Pura forman un componente importante de las tradiciones budistas Mahāyāna de China , Japón , Corea , Vietnam , los Himalayas y las regiones del interior de Asia, como el Tíbet . En el budismo tibetano , las oraciones y prácticas que tienen como objetivo el renacimiento en un campo de Buda son una orientación religiosa popular, especialmente entre los laicos. [9]
La característica más distintiva de las tradiciones de la Tierra Pura del Este de Asia es que "ofrecen a los practicantes una oportunidad para que las personas no pertenecientes a la élite, analfabetas, con discapacidad intelectual o previamente inmorales tengan la esperanza de que mediante la dedicación y el compromiso se puede acceder a la Budeidad, al renacimiento en la Tierra Pura del Buda Amitabha, a la niquilación de su karma acumulado, al escape del samsara y a la etapa de no retroceso " . [10]
En el budismo de Asia oriental , los tres textos principales de la tradición de la Tierra Pura (los "Tres Sutras de la Tierra Pura") son el Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra más largo ( Sutra de la Vida Infinita/Sutra de Amitabha más grande ), el Sutra Amitayurdhyana ( Sutra de la contemplación ) y el Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra más corto ( Sutra de Amitabha ). El Pratyutpanna-samādhi-sūtra también es una fuente importante, particularmente para la Tierra Pura china temprana. [11] El budismo de la Tierra Pura de Asia oriental se basa principalmente en la práctica de la atención plena del Buda , que se llama niànfó (念佛, "recitación de Buda", japonés: nenbutsu ) en chino e implica recitar el nombre de Amitabha (chino: Āmítuófó , japonés: Amida ). [12] Sin embargo, el Budismo de la Tierra Pura también incluye un gran grupo de prácticas que se realizan junto con la recitación de Buda. [13] La práctica de abstenerse de comer animales o subproductos animales, llamada chún jìng sù (纯净素) en chino, se traduce como vegetarianismo/vegano budista puro y denota la aspiración y trascendencia a niveles superiores de no violencia a través de la práctica física. [14]
Budismo de la Tierra Pura ( chino :淨土宗; pinyin : Jìngtǔzōng ; japonés :浄土仏教, romanizado : Jōdo bukkyō ; coreano : 정토종 ; RR : Jeongto-jong ); vietnamita : Tịnh độ tông , también conocido como Amidismo, [1] [2] se utiliza para describir tanto la práctica de la tradición como la soteriología . Se refiere a la "tierra pura" de Buda o campo de Buda (sánscrito: buddhakṣetra ), que en términos generales es el campo de influencia de un Buda. [3] Puede entenderse mejor como "tradiciones de la Tierra Pura" o "enseñanzas de la Tierra Pura", que se encuentran en todo el budismo Mahayana. También puede tratarse de varias sectas de la Tierra Pura separadas que se centran exclusivamente en la práctica de la Tierra Pura. [15] En el budismo chino , la tradición a veces se denomina zōng (escuela) en un sentido institucional. Históricamente, se la describía más comúnmente como una "puerta del dharma" (fǎmén 法門), en referencia a un método de práctica budista. En el budismo japonés, el término se refiere más comúnmente a instituciones específicas. [16]
Las enseñanzas que se centran en la búsqueda del renacimiento en un campo de Buda ( buddhakṣetra ) se desarrollaron por primera vez en los sutras budistas Mahayana de la India y fueron muy populares en Cachemira y Asia Central , donde podrían haberse originado. [18] Los métodos enseñados en las fuentes Mahayana que hablan de los buddhakṣetras son generalmente formas Mahayana devocionales de la práctica budista clásica conocida como atención plena del Buda (sct. buddhānusmṛti ). [19] Andrew Skilton sostiene que la mezcla de las enseñanzas Mahāyāna con las tradiciones de meditación Sarvāstivādin en Cachemira condujo a las prácticas de meditación de Buda que más tarde influyeron en la Tierra Pura en China. [20]
El recuerdo del Buda es una práctica budista temprana que se enseñó en los Textos budistas tempranos . Según Paul Harrison, el término anusmṛti significa 'recuerdo', 'recuerdo' y, por extensión, 'traer a la mente', 'mantener en la mente' (cf. smriti , comúnmente traducido como 'atención'). [8] El recuerdo del Buda era parte de un grupo de prácticas anusmṛti . En el Anguttara Nikaya , se encuentran seis anusmṛtis: el Buda, el Dhamma, la Sangha, sila (observancia moral), caga (liberalidad) y los devata (dioses). [8] En el Sutta Nipata , un seguidor brahmán del Buda, llamado Pingiya, señala que aunque su estado físico no le permite estar con el Buda personalmente,
No hay momento para mí, por pequeño que sea, que pase lejos de Gotama, de este universo de sabiduría, de este mundo de comprensión... Con una vigilancia constante y cuidadosa, me es posible verlo con mi mente tan claramente como con mis ojos, tanto de noche como de día. Y como paso mis noches venerándolo, no hay, a mi entender, un solo momento que pase lejos de él. [21]
El Ekottara-agama (EA) también contiene varios pasajes únicos sobre buddhānusmṛti. EA III, 1 (Taisho Vol. II, p. 554a7-b9) afirma que buddhānusmṛti puede conducir al nirvana incondicionado , así como al poder mágico. Este sutra explica que un monje debe sentarse y "contemplar la imagen del Tathagatha sin apartar los ojos de ella... evoca las cualidades del Tathagatha". Estas cualidades que uno contempla incluyen su cuerpo vajra, diez poderes, sus cualidades morales, samadhis y sabiduría (prajña). [8] Según Paul Williams, esta práctica de "conciencia de Buda" ganó mayor importancia dentro del budismo Mahayana, que tenía una cosmología expandida que sostenía que había un número infinito de Budas y Bodhisattvas viviendo en infinitos campos de Buda en todo el universo. La práctica de la atención plena a los Budas se consideraba una forma de contactar con estos Budas vivientes y alcanzar el despertar. [22] Por ejemplo, el Saptaśatikā (línea 700) Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra afirma que a través del 'Samadhi de la Acción Única' uno puede alcanzar rápidamente la iluminación:
Los meditadores deben vivir en reclusión, desechar los pensamientos discursivos, no apegarse a la apariencia de las cosas, concentrar su mente en un Buda y recitar su nombre con una sola mente. Deben mantener el cuerpo erguido y, mirando hacia ese Buda, meditar en él continuamente. Si pueden mantener la atención plena en el Buda sin interrupción de un momento a otro, entonces podrán ver todos los Budas del pasado, del presente y del futuro en cada momento. [22]
Una idea relacionada asociada con esta budología Mahayana era que a través de una conducta adecuada, adoración y meditación, uno podía alcanzar el renacimiento en el campo búdico de uno de estos Budas. [8]
En la cosmología Mahayana, más amplia, hay un número infinito de Budas, y cada uno tiene un campo de actividad en el que enseña y guía a los seres sensibles hacia el despertar. Esta actividad de enseñanza, que se lleva a cabo por un sentido de gran compasión, es la forma en que los Budas y los bodhisattvas "purifican" sus campos de Buda. De hecho, la existencia misma de un campo de Buda depende de los actos de un bodhisattva en su camino hacia la Budeidad. [3] Según Jan Nattier, estas ideas pueden haberse desarrollado a partir de experiencias meditativas que proporcionaron a ciertos meditadores "visiones de un universo mucho más vasto de lo que se había supuesto anteriormente", con muchos sistemas de mundos, algunos de los cuales contenían otros Budas. Esto introdujo la posibilidad de que uno pudiera renacer en estos campos de Buda. [23]
Los mahayanistas indios también sostenían que estos campos de Buda tenían un esplendor y una pureza que coincidían con la pureza de la mente de Buda. [24] Los seres sintientes que renacen en estos campos de Buda puros debido a su buen karma también contribuyen al desarrollo de un campo de Buda, al igual que los bodhisattvas que pueden viajar allí. Por lo tanto, estos campos de Buda son lugares poderosos que son muy beneficiosos para el progreso espiritual. [3]
Según Jan Nattier, el deseo de renacer en un campo de Buda puede haberse vuelto popular en la India debido a la idea común de que el camino del bodhisattva era muy difícil y conllevaba mucho sufrimiento y autosacrificio. También se consideraba que duraba mucho tiempo; en algunas formulaciones, dura tres eones incalculables ( asamkhyeya kalpas ), lo que significaría pasar millones de vidas en el camino. [23]
No todos los campos de Buda parecen perfectamente "puros", y algunos sutras del Mahayana hablan de tres tipos de campos de Buda: impuros, puros y mixtos. Así, un campo de Buda impuro (como este mundo, llamado Sahā - "el mundo que debe soportarse" - que es el campo de Buda Sakyamuni ), incluye a los no budistas, a las personas inmorales, etc. Por otro lado, los campos de Buda purificados, como el de Amitabha, se describen como lugares hermosos, cubiertos de berilo y oro, sin ninguna suciedad o maldad. [4] Sin embargo, diferentes textos del Mahayana explican la naturaleza del campo de Buda de Sakyamuni de diferentes maneras. Según Paul Williams, algunos sutras adoptan la visión de que el campo de Buda de Sakyamuni es impuro porque, debido a su gran compasión, trabaja para ayudar a todos los seres, incluso a los más impuros. Así, mientras algunos Budas como Amitabha, enseñan a los seres que aspiran a nacer en sus campos de Buda puros, otros Budas (como Sakyamuni) "hacen voto de aparecer como Budas en reinos impuros, Campos de Buda manchados, por su gran compasión". [25] Esta es la visión del campo de Buda de Sakyamuni que se encuentra en el Sutra del Loto , que según Williams "buscó restaurar a Sakyamuni a la preeminencia frente a los cultos de la Tierra Pura centrados en Amitayus y Aksobhya". [25]
Según el sutra Vimalakirti , este mundo aparentemente impuro, el campo búdico de Sakyamuni, es en realidad un campo búdico purificado. Sólo parece impuro porque las mentes de los seres sensibles lo perciben como tal. Como explica Williams, la visión del sutra Vimalakirti es que: “La impureza que vemos es el resultado de la conciencia impura, y también de la compasión del Buda al crear un mundo dentro del cual los seres impuros pueden crecer. Por lo tanto, la verdadera manera de alcanzar una Tierra Pura es purificar la propia mente. Dicho de otro modo, ya estaríamos en la Tierra Pura si tan sólo la conociéramos. Cualquiera que sea el reino, si está habitado por personas con mentes puras iluminadas, entonces es una Tierra Pura”. [25]
Nunca hubo ninguna "escuela" india centrada en este método, ya que se consideraba uno de los muchos objetivos y métodos del budismo Mahayana indio. [26] También hay muy poca evidencia de un culto a Amitabha per se en la India según Williams. [27] Además, el término del este de Asia "tierra pura" o "suelo purificado" (chino: jìngtǔ ) no es una traducción de ningún término índico en particular, y los autores indios casi siempre usaban el término buddhakṣetra. Sin embargo, es posible que el término chino esté relacionado con el término sánscrito pariśuddha - buddhakṣetra (campo de buda purificado). [26]
El Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra ofrece una descripción temprana de la práctica de recitar el nombre de Amitābha como método de meditación , aunque no enumera ningún voto de Amitābha ni las cualidades de su campo búdico de Sukhāvatī. Este sutra es uno de los primeros sutras Mahayana traducidos al chino (finalmente fue traducido al chino cuatro veces). [8] El sutra se centra en el pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhavasthita-samadhi que significa "el samadhi de aquel que se encuentra ( avasthita ) cara a cara con, o en presencia de ( sammukha ), los budas actuales ( pratyutpanna )". [8]
Este sutra también contiene la referencia textual más antigua a Amitabha, aunque el contexto de la referencia deja claro que el Pratyutpanna Samādhi no es exclusivamente para encontrarse con Amitabha, sino que puede usarse para encontrarse con cualquier Buda actual. [8] Según el Pratyutpanna, un practicante debe primero cumplir estrictamente el código moral budista y luego ingresar en un retiro solitario. En el retiro, concentran sus pensamientos en el Buda Amitabha y, de este modo, practican buddhānusmṛti. Contemplan sus cualidades (como ser un Tathagata, un conocedor del mundo, maestro de devas y humanos) y su cuerpo, con las treinta y dos marcas del gran hombre y un color dorado, que brilla intensamente, sentado en un trono y enseñando el Dharma. Esta práctica debe realizarse durante días o incluso tres meses, hasta que tengan visiones del Buda (ya sea mientras están despiertos durante el día o en un sueño por la noche), momento en el que pueden adorar y recibir enseñanzas de Amitabha. De esta manera, pueden llegar a ser bodhisattvas muy eruditos ( bahusruta ). [28] [8] El sutra también afirma:
Los bodhisattvas oyen hablar del Buda Amitābha y lo recuerdan una y otra vez en esta tierra. Debido a esta evocación, ven al Buda Amitābha. Después de verlo, le preguntan qué fenómenos se requieren para nacer en el reino del Buda Amitābha. Entonces el Buda Amitābha dice a estos bodhisattvas: “Si deseáis venir y nacer en mi reino, debéis recordarme siempre una y otra vez, debéis mantener siempre este pensamiento en la mente sin aflojar, y así lograréis nacer en mi reino”. [29]
Según el sutra, no se dice que estas visiones sean el resultado del ojo divino (u otros poderes mágicos), sino que los Budas aparecen en la visión del meditador. [28] [8]
El sutra también busca explicar cómo es posible tener estas visiones y cómo es su naturaleza. Según el sutra, la naturaleza de las visiones es similar a la de un sueño y el sutra afirma que son posibles porque todos los fenómenos son vacíos y están hechos por la mente. [28] [8] Según el Pratyutpanna, estas visiones son posibles porque: "este triple mundo no es nada más que pensamiento. Eso es porque, independientemente de cómo discrimino las cosas [Skt. vikalpayati, construyo mentalmente], así aparecen". [8] El sutra también vincula este samadhi visionario con la realización de la vacuidad , afirmando que "aquel que obtiene el samadhi de la vacuidad al concentrarse así en el Tathagata sin aprehenderlo, se le conoce como alguien que trae a la mente al Buda". [8] Por lo tanto, no se debe pensar que estos Budas realmente vienen de algún lugar o van a alguna parte, sino que deben ser entendidos como similares al espacio vacío y como no existentes de alguna manera sustancial u objetiva, ya que están vacíos, como todos los dharmas, de existencia inherente ( svabhavena sunya ). [8]
Los dos sutras indios más importantes para la tradición de la Tierra Pura de Asia Oriental son el Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra más largo y el Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra más corto . [30] Estos sutras describen a Amitābha (cuyo nombre significa Luz inmensurable) y su campo de Buda puro de Sukhavati (que se dice que supera a todos los campos de Buda). [31] También analizan sus diversos votos de bodhisattva, que se centran en su campo de Buda, así como también analizan cómo alcanzó la Budeidad. Como escribe Williams, el Sutra más largo también afirma que “aquellos que confían sinceramente en Amitabha y desean renacer en su Tierra Pura necesitan “invocar el nombre” de Amitabha sólo 10 veces y renacerán allí, siempre que no hayan cometido ninguno de los cinco grandes crímenes de asesinar a su padre o madre, o a un Arhat, dañar a un Buda, o causar cisma en la Sangha, o haber calumniado el Dharma”. [32]
Según el sutra más extenso, quienes deseen renacer en Sukhavati deben hacer surgir la bodhicitta, meditar en Amitabha, escuchar y recitar su nombre, orar para renacer en Sukhavati y acumular méritos. Luego, en el momento de la muerte, Amitabha se aparecerá a quienes hayan practicado sinceramente y hayan deseado renacer allí y los conducirá a Sukhavati. Los bodhisattvas que lleguen a Sukhavati desde otras tierras también podrán entrar en la etapa de "un nacimiento más" (que queda hasta la Budeidad) y también podrán renacer desde Sukhavati en otros mundos para ayudar a los seres. Desde Sukhavati, los seres también podrán visitar otros campos de Buda para ver a muchos otros Budas. [33] Por lo tanto, este campo de Buda hace que sea mucho más fácil para alguien alcanzar la iluminación. [33]
Según Julian Pas, los sūtras Sukhāvatīvyūha largos y cortos fueron compuestos durante los siglos I y II d.C., aunque considera que el Sukhāvatīvyūha más corto es anterior. [34] Andrew Skilton escribe que las descripciones de Sukhāvatī dadas en los sūtras Sukhāvatīvyūha sugieren que estas descripciones se usaron originalmente para la meditación: "Esta tierra, llamada Sukhāvatī o "dichosa", se describe con gran detalle, de una manera que sugiere que los sūtras debían usarse como guías para la meditación de visualización , y también da la impresión de un mundo mágico de intenso deleite visual y sonoro ". [35] Según Nakamura, el Sukhāvatīvyūha más largo podría haber sido influenciado por la escuela Lokottaravāda , ya que la obra tiene muchos elementos en común con el Mahāvastu . [36]
En el Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra más largo , el Buda Gautama comienza describiendo a su asistente Ānanda una vida pasada del Buda Amitābha. Afirma que en una vida pasada, Amitābha fue una vez un rey que renunció a su reino y se convirtió en un bodhisattva monástico llamado Dharmākara ("Depósito del Dharma") y dio lugar a la aspiración de alcanzar la Budeidad para ayudar a todos los seres. También tenía la aspiración de crear el campo de Buda más perfecto como el lugar ideal para alcanzar el despertar. [37] [38] Bajo la guía del Buda Lokeśvararāja ("Rey Soberano del Mundo"), innumerables tierras de Buda a lo largo de las diez direcciones fueron reveladas a Dharmākara. [37] Después de meditar durante cinco eones sobre cómo preparar la tierra de Buda perfecta, hizo una gran serie de cuarenta y ocho votos y, a través de su gran mérito, creó el reino de Sukhāvatī ("Felicidad Máxima"). [37] [39] [38]
Charles B. Jones describe algunos de los elementos más importantes de estos votos de la siguiente manera:
Esta tierra de Buda será accesible a todos los seres que aspiren a renacer allí, aunque sea por "diez momentos de pensamiento" (voto 18), cultiven todas las virtudes (voto 19) y, al escuchar su futuro nombre de Buda, Amitābha, dediquen el mérito de sus prácticas a obtener el renacimiento (voto 20). Él se aparecerá personalmente a esos seres en el momento de la muerte (voto 19). Una vez nacidos en su tierra de Buda, tendrán muchas de las habilidades y características corporales de un buda completamente despierto, como el ojo divino, el oído divino y la capacidad de leer las mentes de los demás (votos 6, 7, 8), y las 32 marcas corporales de un buda (voto 21). El requisito de que los seres primero perfeccionen todas las virtudes y obtengan tales habilidades y características antes de renacer puede llevar a uno a pensar que son efectivamente budas al llegar, pero otros votos dejan en claro que el propósito del renacimiento en esta tierra de Buda es la adquisición de la budeidad. A los seres nacidos allí se les promete tiempo ilimitado para practicar (voto 15), nunca perecerán ni volverán a un renacimiento inferior (voto 2), y con seguridad alcanzarán la budeidad (voto 11). La tierra en sí debe ser tan clara y pura que refleje perfectamente todos los demás sistemas del mundo (voto 31). Todos los adornos de la tierra deben estar tan finamente labrados que sean imperceptibles (voto 27), y la tierra misma, con todos sus árboles y edificios, debe estar adornada con los siete tipos de joyas brillantes (voto 32). [40]
El sutra afirma que Amitabha ha alcanzado la Budeidad y, por lo tanto, ha cumplido con estos votos. También describe en detalle la naturaleza de la "Tierra de la Paz y la Felicidad", su belleza, magnificencia y características confortables, así como la forma en que las diversas características de la tierra enseñan el Dharma a todos los seres que allí habitan. [41]
El sutra más extenso también menciona que los seres con pocos logros o virtudes pueden llegar a la Tierra Pura, aunque también afirma que la forma y el lugar en que nacerán una vez dentro de la Tierra Pura se correlacionan con su nivel de logro. Sólo aquellos que han cometido las Cinco Acciones Atroces o han calumniado el dharma tienen prohibido el acceso a la Tierra Pura según el sutra extenso. [42]
El Akṣobhya-vyūha es la fuente principal de la tradición del Buda Akṣobhya y su campo de Buda de Abhirati . También es uno de los primeros sutras Mahayana conocidos. [43] Según este sutra, Akṣobhya tomó varios votos para seguir el camino hacia la Budeidad hace muchos eones. Debido al gran mérito generado por estos votos durante incontables vidas, Akṣobhya pudo crear un campo de Buda purificado, un lugar pacífico y dichoso donde no hay miseria, hambre ni dolor y donde todos los seres realizan las diez buenas acciones . [43] Nattier señala que este sutra no recomienda la Budeidad para todos los seres en Abhirati, en cambio, algunos se esfuerzan por alcanzar el estado de Arhat y lo alcanzarán allí. Además, en este sutra, los bodhisattvas no alcanzan la Budeidad en Abhirati, sino que avanzan en el camino hasta estar preparados y luego nacen en otro mundo que carece del Buddhadharma para alcanzar la Budeidad allí. [23]
Akṣobhya y su campo de Buda también se mencionan en el Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra , y las descripciones de este sutra coinciden con las del Akṣobhya-vyūha . Nattier señala que este campo de Buda es similar a nuestro sistema mundial, con un reino humano, reinos celestiales y un reino de Buda. Sin embargo, carece de los tres reinos inferiores y hay poco sufrimiento incluso en el reino humano, que es un lugar pacífico sin necesidad de trabajar ni comprar ni vender, ya que la comida aparece mágicamente para aquellos que la necesitan. [6]
Según el Akṣobhya-vyūha , alcanzar el renacimiento en Abhirati es difícil. Nattier señala que "se requiere una enorme cantidad de mérito", y, a la inversa, no se requiere ningún acto devocional específico hacia Akṣobhya . [23] Uno debe cultivar las raíces adecuadas del mérito y purificar su conducta. [44] Aquellos que desean nacer en Abhirati deben hacer el voto de renacer allí, dedicar todo su mérito para renacer en Abhirati, no ser egoístas, aprender meditación y reunirse con personas santas. Deben practicar la visualización de los Budas en sus campos de Buda y hacer el voto de ser como ellos. [45]
El Sutra Vimalakīrti es un texto que se centra principalmente en la sabiduría, pero incluye varias discusiones sobre la naturaleza de nuestro mundo (que es el campo de Buda de Śākyamuni), y cómo parece impuro y, sin embargo, es puro. Esta discusión fue ampliamente citada por fuentes chinas posteriores de la Tierra Pura. [46] El sutra también contiene un capítulo en el que el campo de Buda de Akṣobhya juega un papel clave. El Sutra Vimalakīrti afirma que la purificación de una tierra de Buda ocurre a través de la purificación de nuestras mentes: "si el bodhisattva desea adquirir una tierra pura, debe purificar su mente. Cuando la mente es pura, la tierra de Buda será pura". [47] Cuando el discípulo del Buda, Śāriputra, cuestiona la naturaleza de este mundo que parece contaminado, el Buda afirma que solo parece impuro para ciertos seres ya que sus mentes son impuras. El Buda toca entonces el suelo con la punta de su pie y el mundo entero aparece de una manera hermosa y radiante ante Shariputra. El Buda declara entonces que su campo de Buda siempre ha sido puro. [47]
En contraste con esta visión, el Sutra del Nirvana afirma que el Buda Śākyamuni tiene su propia Tierra Pura, que no es este mundo, sino que está a muchos mundos de distancia y se la llama “Insuperable” (Wúshèng 無勝). El Buda se manifiesta desde esta Tierra Pura a nuestro mundo para enseñar el Dharma. [48]
El Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra describe brevemente el campo búdico del Buda Bhaiṣajyaguru (Gurú de la Medicina), el Buda de la curación, así como los votos que hizo como bodhisattva. [49] Su campo búdico es similar al de Akṣobhya, sin dolor y totalmente limpio y hermoso. [49] El sutra puede haber sido compuesto fuera de la India (quizás Asia Central) y luego introducido en el subcontinente. [49] Este Buda se volvió bastante popular en Asia Oriental debido a la creencia de que podía curar enfermedades y mejorar la longevidad. [50]
El Mañjuśrībuddhakṣetraguṇavyūha analiza el futuro campo búdico de Mañjuśrī . [6]
Las enseñanzas y prácticas relacionadas con los campos de Buda se discuten en varios tratados Mahayana, incluidos algunos que se han atribuido a maestros indios como Nāgārjuna y Vasubandhu . [51] Un texto atribuido a Nagarjuna, el * Dasabhumikavibhāsā (chino: Shí zhù pípóshā lùn十住毘婆沙論, T.1521) que solo existe en chino, contiene un capítulo que establece que hay muchas puertas para la práctica budista y que el camino fácil es el de estar constantemente consciente de los Budas, especialmente Amitabha. [52] Este capítulo (el número 9, "Capítulo sobre la práctica fácil") que se centra en cómo el nacimiento en la Tierra Pura de Amitābha es un camino relativamente más fácil de seguir fue ampliamente citado por los autores de la Tierra Pura de Asia Oriental. [38] La autoría de este texto ha sido cuestionada por algunos eruditos, incluido Akira Hirakawa. [53] [54]
El maestro indio Yogacara Asanga también analiza la idea del renacimiento en un campo de Buda en su Mahāyānasaṃgraha . Según Asanga, las afirmaciones de los sutras que dicen que uno puede renacer en un campo de Buda simplemente deseando hacerlo o simplemente recitando el nombre de un Buda no deben tomarse en forma literal. En cambio, la intención del Buda al decir tales cosas era alentar a los perezosos e indolentes que no eran capaces de practicar el Dharma correctamente. [55]
A otro maestro de Yogacara, el hermano de Asanga , Vasubandhu , se le atribuye la autoría de los breves Versos de aspiración: una upadeśa sobre el Amitāyus Sūtra ( Wúliángshòujīng yōupótíshè yuànshēng jié無量壽經優婆提舍願生偈, T.1524), que es un comentario sobre el Sukhāvatīvyūha más breve que describe una práctica de cinco partes que puede haber sido utilizada como un ritual de meditación de visualización. [38] Williams señala que algunos eruditos modernos cuestionan la autoría de esta obra de Vasubadhu . El texto es conocido por su enfoque en la fe o la confianza. [56]
El Dà zhìdù lùn ( Gran discurso sobre la Perfección de la Sabiduría , T.1509), traducido por Kumārajīva y su equipo de eruditos, es una extensa obra de comentarios sobre la Perfección de la Sabiduría . Su sección 92 (juǎn) se titula «Capítulo sobre la purificación de un campo de Buda» y contiene mucha discusión sobre la naturaleza de los campos de Buda y cómo alcanzar el renacimiento allí. [46]
Los sutras Mahayana que enseñan los métodos de la Tierra Pura fueron traídos de la región de Gandhāra a China ya en el año 147 d. C., cuando el monje indo-kushan Lokakṣema comenzó a traducir los primeros sūtras budistas al chino . [57] Incluyen el Akṣobhya-vyūha (centrado en Abhirati , el campo búdico del buda Akṣohhya ) y el Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra (que analiza el campo búdico de Amitabha ). [58] La primera de estas traducciones muestra evidencia de haber sido traducida del idioma Gāndhārī , un prácrito . [59] También hay imágenes de Amitābha con los bodhisattvas Avalokiteśvara y Mahāsthāmaprāpta que se hicieron en Gandhāra durante la era Kushan . [60]
Un poco más tarde, el maestro Kuchan Kumārajīva (344-413 d. C.) tradujo el Sukhāvatī-vyūha más pequeño (T 366) y otros traductores chinos también tradujeron el Sukhāvatīvyūha más largo al chino, siendo el más popular el de Buddhabhadra (c. 359-429 d. C.). Con el tiempo, los tres sūtras principales de la tradición china de la Tierra Pura se convirtieron en el Sukhāvatīvyūha más largo , el Sutra de Amitayurdhyana ( es decir, el Sutra de la contemplación ) y el Sukhāvatīvyūha más corto . [30]
En cuanto al Sutra Amitayurdhyana (Guan-wuliangshou-jing, Sutra sobre la visualización de la vida inconmensurable [del Buda]), los eruditos modernos lo consideran una composición china. No se ha descubierto ningún original en sánscrito, no existen traducciones tibetanas y el texto también muestra influencias chinas, incluidas referencias a traducciones anteriores de textos chinos de la Tierra Pura. Los eruditos modernos generalmente aceptan que el texto describe una meditación que se practicaba en Asia Central, pero con añadidos chinos. [61]
Estos tres sutras de la Tierra Pura (el Sukhāvatī-vyūha largo y corto y el Sutra de la contemplación ) se consideran los "tres sutras de la Tierra Pura" principales en el budismo de la Tierra Pura de Asia oriental y son las principales fuentes de sutras para la doctrina de la Tierra Pura en Asia oriental. En el budismo de la Tierra Pura chino, estos tres se combinan con dos capítulos de sutras más y un tratado del sur de Asia reinterpretado para formar un canon de seis textos fundamentales de la Tierra Pura. Las otras tres fuentes son: [62] [63]
Además de estos sutras y tratados, muchos otros textos Mahāyāna también presentan a Amitābha, y se han identificado un total de 290 obras de este tipo en el Taishō Tripiṭaka . [66]
Las enseñanzas de la Tierra Pura se hicieron prominentes por primera vez en China con la fundación del Templo Donglin en el Monte Lu ( en chino :廬山) por Huiyuan ( en chino :慧遠) en 402. Cuando era joven, Huiyuan practicaba el taoísmo , pero sentía que las teorías de la inmortalidad eran vagas y poco confiables, y no representativas de la verdad última. [67] En cambio, se volvió al budismo y se convirtió en monje bajo el Dao'an (en chino:道安). Más tarde fundó un monasterio en la cima del Monte Lu e invitó a literatos conocidos a estudiar y practicar el budismo allí, donde formaron la Sociedad del Loto Blanco ( Báiliánshè 白蓮社). [68] También mantuvo correspondencia con Kumārajīva . [69]
Huiyuan y la comunidad del Monte Lu se centraron en la práctica de la atención plena del Buda Amitabha como se enseña en el Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra . [70] Huiyuan practicaba principalmente este método para desarrollar el samadhi y tener una visión del Buda Amitābha en la vida presente y recibir enseñanzas de él. [71] Los miembros del Loto Blanco también juraron ayudarse mutuamente a alcanzar "el reino espiritual" u "el oeste". [72] Hoy en día, el Monte Lu se considera uno de los sitios religiosos más sagrados de la tradición budista de la Tierra Pura, [73] y el sitio de la primera reunión de la Tierra Pura. [74]
Sin embargo, eruditos como Charles B. Jones han cuestionado si Huiyuan estaba realmente interesado en la práctica del nianfo como una forma de renacer en la Tierra Pura. Señala que sus cartas a Kumārajīva no mencionan este objetivo y que la biografía de Huiyan en el Gāo sēng zhuàn ( Biografías de monjes eminentes , T.2059, circa 519) no nombra ni describe la Tierra Pura de Sukhavati utilizando descripciones budistas clásicas que uno encuentra en los sutras. En cambio, este "reino espiritual" muestra influencias taoístas. Por lo tanto, Jones no ve a Huiyuan como un devoto real del budismo de la Tierra Pura, sino simplemente como un budista que practicaba nianfo. [75] Huiyan elogió al nianfo, y se registra que dijo que "el samadhi nianfo es preeminente por la altura del mérito y la facilidad de la práctica". [76] Sea como fuere, durante el curso posterior del Budismo de la Tierra Pura, Huiyan comenzó a ser visto como un patriarca del Budismo de la Tierra Pura que había logrado renacer en la Tierra Pura y había tenido visiones de Amitabha. [77]
La práctica de la atención plena del Buda también fue enseñada por la figura muy influyente del budismo Tiāntái , Zhìyǐ (538-597). Su Móhē zhǐguān , enseña el Samadhi de Caminar Constantemente (cháng xíng sānmèi) que se basa en el Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra. Esta práctica implica circunvalar un altar mientras se visualiza una imagen detallada de Amitabha y recitar sonoramente el nombre Amitabha mientras también se trabaja para comprender la naturaleza vacía de la visualización. Esta práctica se realizó durante noventa días. [78]
El aumento de la popularidad del budismo de la Tierra Pura puede haberse debido a la idea popular de que los seres humanos se estaban volviendo incapaces de practicar el Dharma del Buda correctamente ya que el mundo estaba entrando en una era decadente o tardía del Dharma . [56] Según este punto de vista, los humanos necesitan la ayuda del Buda Amitābha para alcanzar el despertar, ya que en nuestro tiempo, el camino clásico del bodhisattva es demasiado difícil. [79] [56] Las ideas de la Tierra Pura dieron esperanza a la gente en un mundo difícil e hicieron que el camino budista pareciera relativamente más fácil que el camino clásico del bodhisattva Mahayana que se creía que duraba incontables eones (kalpas). [56] Otra posible razón por la que esta tradición creció en popularidad en China fue que abordaba una importante preocupación china, la búsqueda de la inmortalidad (el nombre del Buda Amitayus significa "Vida inmensurable"). [80]
Según Charles B. Jones, los primeros autores de la Tierra Pura en China discutieron y debatieron tres puntos de vista diferentes sobre la Tierra Pura: (1) la gente común podía nacer en Sukhāvatī, (2) solo los bodhisattvas avanzados podían alcanzar Sukhāvatī, (3) los practicantes de la Tierra Pura alcanzaban cualquier tipo de tierra que correspondiera a la pureza de sus mentes. [81] Con el tiempo, el punto de vista 1 prevaleció sobre los demás, tanto que, según Jones, el elemento más esencial de la enseñanza de la Tierra Pura en China es la idea misma de que la gente común que no pertenece a la élite podía alcanzar las metas budistas más elevadas a través de prácticas simples basadas en Amitabha. Este movimiento fue ampliamente adoptado por los laicos comunes. Recibió una respuesta mixta de la comunidad budista china en general y dio lugar a generaciones de escritos y apologéticas sobre la Tierra Pura. [82]
Antes del siglo VII, la evidencia arqueológica del culto a Amitabha en China es bastante escasa. Williams señala que había muy poca devoción a Amitabha en China durante los siglos III y IV. Sin embargo, durante el siglo VII, se erigieron más de 144 imágenes de Amitabha y Avalokitesvara en China. Según Williams, "estos cambios ocurren durante las vidas colectivas de Tanluan , Daochuo (Tao-ch'o; 562-645) y Shandao (Shan-tao; 613-81)". [83]
Las enseñanzas de la Tierra Pura y los métodos de meditación basados en la atención plena del Buda (recitar el nombre de Amitābha y visualizar su forma), se difundieron rápidamente por toda China debido al trabajo de figuras como estos tres patriarcas. [84] También es en los escritos de estos patriarcas donde se promovió y defendió la idea de que la gente común podía alcanzar la Tierra Pura de Amitabha a través de la confianza en la doctrina budista clásica. [85]
El primer patriarca es Tanluan, conocido por su comentario sobre el *Sukhavativyuhopadesa . Tanluan era escéptico sobre la posibilidad de crecimiento espiritual en la época en que vivió. Sostiene que ahora es demasiado difícil practicar el camino del bodhisattva confiando en el propio poder (o autopoder, a través del estudio y la meditación) y que en su lugar uno necesita confiar en "otro poder", es decir, el poder de un Buda como Amitabha. Según Tanluan, a través de la fe en este otro poder, uno puede alcanzar la iluminación con relativa facilidad. [86] Tanluan describe una meditación detallada de visualizar al Buda Amitabha y recitar su nombre con fe sincera. Veía el nombre del Buda como una especie de hechizo que tiene el poder de conectarnos con la sabiduría del Buda y su reino inconcebible ( acintya-dhātu ). [87] [88]
This practice has the power to purify the mind of all evil tendencies, since it calls on the power of Amitabha Buddha. Thus, even the worst of persons can be saved through this method. According to Tanluan, once one reaches the Pure Land and achieve awakening there, one's purpose must be to manifest in this world as bodhisattvas in order to help others.[89] Tanluan cites over twenty sutras and over a dozen treatises in his main commentary, including eighty one references to the Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa and twenty one to the work of Sengchao.[88] Tanluan preached his Pure Land doctrine, which had great potential for mass appeal, to monastics, laypeople, Buddhists and non-Buddhists.[88]
The next major influence on Chinese Pure Land was Daochuo, who wrote a work defending Pure land from its critics. Daochuo promoted the view that the world was entering the "last days of the Dharma" (mòfǎ 末法). In this era, the "path of the sages" (shèngdào) which relies on classic Buddhist self-development and on "self-power" (zìlì 自力), was not feasible or effective.[90] Instead the most effect method now was "to repent our sins, to cultivate virtues, and to utter the Buddha's name" and thus to leave this defiled world for the Pure Land.[89] Daochuo called this "the way of rebirth in the Pure Land" (wǎngshēng jìngtǔ 往生淨土) and associated it with the "other power" (tālì 他力) of Amitabha.[90] In responding to critics of Pure Land Buddhism, Daochuo said that the Pure Land was a conventional truth, a skillful means taught by the Buddhas for the benefit of sentient beings.[91] Daochuo also held that those who had heard the Pure Land teachings had already cultivated good roots of merit in past lives as well as bodhicitta, thus they already had the necessary merit to attain the Pure Land. Thus, in his view, reaching the Pure Land required a certain amount of merit.[92]
,_Nanbokucho_period,_14th_century.JPG/1280px-Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_(Zendo_Daishi),_Nanbokucho_period,_14th_century.JPG)
Shandao (7th century) was a student of Daochuo who lived in the ancient capital of Chang’an and focused on spreading the Pure Land teachings among ordinary people (instead of at court). He is said to have had many followers and to have distributed numerous sutras and paintings of the Pure land (which he painted himself).[93] According to Jones, Shandao is the true founder of the Pure Land tradition.[92] This is because, according to Jones, "while Tanluan and Daochuo provided some of the necessary conceptual pieces and served as exemplars, it was Shandao who stated clearly and fully that ordinary beings can attain rebirth in the Pure Land through the power of Amitābha's vow."[92]
Shandao wrote a large four volume commentary to the Amitayurdhyana Sutra, which he held was taught for the benefit of the common folk (which he sees as exemplified by the character of queen Videhi and in himself).[94] To attain the Pure Land, one must have a deep, sincere trust in Amitabha and deeply desire to be reborn in the Pure Land and then perform the five forms of religious practice. Reciting the name of Amitabha is the main practice, which is supported by the auxiliary practices of chanting the Pure Land sutras, visualization and meditation on Amitabha, worshiping and bowing to Amitabha and praising and making offerings to Amitabha.[94] These practices led to birth in the Pure land, as well as to meditative absorption (samadhi) and visions of Amitabha in this life.[94] While Shandao taught these auxiliary practices, he also held that reciting Amitabha's name ten times was sufficient for rebirth in the pure land.[95]
Jones notes that it was Shandao who promoted the centrality of the oral recitation of Amitabha's name as the main Pure Land practice (which he connected with the term nian), previous patriarchs had not focused on this aspect and had interpreted nian differently.[96] Jones notes that the term niàn 念 can mean both contemplate and recite.[97] Another important doctrinal development of Shandao was the idea that the power of Amitabha's vows not only established the Pure Land, but also caused even the most depraved beings to be reborn there. Previous patriarchs like Tanluan had only held that Amitabha's power merely created the Pure Land, where beings would be reborn according to their own merit and bodhicitta. Shandao meanwhile wrote that it was "entirely due to the power of Amitābha's vows" that someone could attain rebirth in Sukhavati, which also appeared equally as a sambhoghakaya (reward body) to all beings, no matter how depraved they were.[95]
Shandao's disciple, Huaigan (d. 699) was also an important figure in his own right. According to Jones, Huaigan's apologetic Treatise explaining a number of doubts about Pure Land, (Shì jìngtǔ qúnyí lùn 釋淨土群疑論, T.1960) "added a great deal of philosophical depth to Shandao's basic framework."[98] The work explains how the power of the Buddha can override individual's negative karma and allow them to see the purity of the Pure Land and be reborn there among the lower grades of beings. He does not reject the more elite and high level practices and attainments (and the idea that they lead to higher ranks in the Pure Land) but he also argues for the idea that even the most defiled people will also enter the Pure Land as part of those of the lowest grade (of rebirth forms), as explained in the Amitayus Contemplation Sutra.[99]
Another influential text written during the time of Huaigan was the Discourse on ten doubts about Pure Land (Jìngtǔ shí yí lùn 淨土十疑論, T.1961). This text was attributed to Zhiyi, but cannot be by him according to Jones and it betrays the influence of Huaigan's ideas as well as those of Tanluan and Daochuo.[99]
In China, Pure Land practices were always historically viewed as a practice or method that could be integrated together with the teachings and practices of other Buddhist traditions. As such, many modern scholars argue that no independent Pure Land "school" or "clan" (zōng 宗) existed in China, and it was regarded and practiced as an integral part of other "schools" such as Tiantai, Vinaya and Chan.[100][101][102][103]
According to Charles B. Jones, the Pure Land was most often described in pre-modern Chinese sources as a "dharma-gate" (fǎmén 法門), meaning a path or way of practice. When the term zōng was used, it did not refer to an institution, but to the "cardinal tenet" of Pure Land teaching.[16] Some Chinese Buddhists might have used Pure Land practice as their main or only practice, while for others it could be a subsidiary method.[86]
Pure Land cosmology, soteriology, and ritual were always part-and-parcel of Chinese Buddhism in general and Chan monasticism in particular. The modern conception of an independent and self-conscious Chinese Pure Land historical "school" with its own patriarchate and teachings, and the associated notion of Chan/Pure Land syncretism, have been influenced by the work of Japanese Buddhist studies scholars and the enduring legacy of Japanese sectarian disputes over Chinese Patriarchs.[104] In reality, Pure Land and Chan/Zen practice were historically and still often seen as being mutually compatible, and no strong distinctions are made.[105] Chinese Buddhists have traditionally viewed the practice of meditation and the practice of reciting Amitābha Buddha's name, as complementary and even analogous methods for achieving enlightenment.[105] This is because they view recitation as a meditation method used to concentrate the mind and purify thoughts.[105] Chinese Buddhists widely consider this form of recitation as a very effective form of meditation practice.[105]
Historically, Buddhist teachers in China have taken eclectic approaches in their practice by teaching various Buddhist schools of thought concurrently (including Pure Land and Chan), without emphasizing any strict sectarian delineation between them. For example, prominent monastics during such as Tanluan were recorded as having written commentaries on non-Pure Land related scriptures, and there is little evidence of them having advocated for Pure Land as an independent "school" of Buddhism.[102][103] Another example is Hanshan Deqing and many of his contemporaries who advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods, advocating mindfulness of Amitābha to purify the mind for the attainment of self-realization.[106]
There were many other important Chinese Pure Land masters besides these three widely known patriarchs (Tanluan, Daochuo, and Shandao). Later figures were forced to defend Pure Land Buddhism against the critiques of the growing Chan Buddhist tradition and reposition Pure Land in the new Buddhist landscape.[107]
One important figure in this regard was the monk Cimin (Tz'u-min Hui-jih, c. 680–74), who is known to have visited India. Cimin defended Pure Land Buddhism from the critiques of Chan masters that argued that all we needed to do was practice meditation.[108]
Cimin's main points of contention are found in his Lueh chu-ching lun nien-jo fa-men wang-sheng ching-t 'u chi (A Collection Outlining Various Scriptures and Treatises Regarding Methods of Contemplating the Buddha and Rebirth in the Pure Land). For Cimin, Chan masters were arrogant unawakened people who claimed enlightenment and denied basic Buddhist teaching and scriptures in favor of their own narrow focus on meditative concentration.[107] In contrast, Cimin recommended "nien-fo, scripture chanting, and invocation of the bodhisattvas, in addition to vegetarianism," as a basic structure of Pure Land practice.[107]
Another key figure in the Pure Land - Chan debate was Fei-hsi (8th century). His works, such as Nien-fo san-mei pao-wang fun ("Treatise on the Contemplation of the Buddha as the Jewel King of Meditation"), are more accommodating to the Chan perspective than Cimin's. He cites the Lotus Sutra's chapter on Never Disparaging bodhisattva (whose attitude is that we should see all beings as future Buddhas and never disparage any of them) as a conciliatory text which leads to his more friendly attitute to Chan.[109] Fei-hsi also attempts to argue for the unity of the practice of the Pure Land nianfo method and the Chan doctrine of no-mind by using the classic Huayan doctrine of principle and phenomena.[110] 175-176 Fei-hsi's method involved "using the mind of nien-fo to enter into the patience based on the insight of non-arising." This method is also based on the power of the Buddha, whose activity allows the Pure Land practitioner to enter the realm of ultimate principle.[111]
A later figure was Fazhao (died c. 820), who was influential in increasing the popularity of Pure land with the Imperial court. Fazhao is known for standardizing the Chinese classic chant of na-mo a-mi-tuo fo ("adoration [or prostration] to Amitabha Buddha'), which came to be known as the "nianfo".[112]
Unlike in the Japanese Pure Land of Shinran and Honen, Chinese Buddhist Pure Land practice was never really exclusivist and was often practiced in tandem with other Buddhist methods. Yongming Yanshou (904–975) is one of the many figures which taught the unity of Chan Buddhism with Pure Land practice. For Yanshou, the Pure Land and Chan are really both working for the same thing, the pure mind, since the Pure land is just the pure mind (as the Vimalakirti sutra states). Furthermore, for Yanshou, both methods are just ways of cutting self grasping, since the Pure Land abandonment of self-power is none other than the Buddhist teaching of not-self.[108]
The Tiantai Buddhist master Sìmíng Zhīlǐ (四明知禮, 960–1028) was also known as an important teacher of the Pure Land dharma gate.[113] Indeed, according to Jones, "much Pure Land thought developed within the Tiantai School during the Song dynasty."[114] Tiantai school monks were pivotal in the spreading of Pure Land practice in China during this period. Jones notes that monks such as Shengchang (Shěngcháng 省常, 959–1020), Ciyun Zunshi (Cíyún Zūnshì 慈雲尊式, 964–1032), and Siming Zhili (Sìmíng Zhīlǐ 四明知禮, 960–1028), were instrumental in founding societies for pure conduct and vocal nianfo."[114]
This blending of Chan and Pure Land became more popular during the Mind and Qing dynasties, especially through the work of Yúnqī Zhūhóng (雲棲祩宏, 1535–1615).[108] He was one of the most influential figures of the Ming, along with Yuan Hongdao (Yuán Hóngdào 袁宏道, 1568–1610).[115] Ouyi Zhixu (Ǒuyì Zhìxù 藕益智旭, 1599–1655), was another important Pure Land leader who wrote on a wide variety of topics that included both Pure Land soteriology and precepts.[116]
Another important late Pure Land author was the Yuan dynasty monk Tianru Weize (天如惟則, c. 1286?–1354), who wrote the Questions about Pure Land (Jìngtǔ huòwèn 淨土或問, T.1972) as a dialogue between a skeptical Chan monk who poses questions about Pure Land practice, claiming it is dualistic.[117] Tianru defends the idea that an evil person can attain the Pure Land at death by arguing that at death, a person's power of concentration becomes very strong and that during this special time, they may repent of their past deeds with complete sincerity.[118]
During the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), various authors also synthesized Huayan thought with Pure Land practice. The most influential promoters of Huayan-Nianfo were the monk Baiting Xufa (1641–1728) and the lay literatus Peng Shaosheng (彭紹升, 1740–1796).[119][120] These figures generally promoted the practice of nianfo backed by the teachings of the Avatamsaka sutra and Huayan metaphysics. For Peng Shaosheng, Amitabha and Vairocana (the Buddha of the Avatamsaka) were identical, and Sukhavati was likewise identical to Vairocana's Lotus Treasury World.[120]
As the Chinese Pure land school developed its own self conscious identity, lists of Chinese pure land "patriarchs" ( zǔ 祖) developed which included later key figures in Chinese Pure Land. The first widely recognized list of Pure Land patriarchs appears in the Tang dynasty in the writings of Zongxiao (1151-1214) who lists five patriarchs: Shandao, Fazhao, Shaokang, Shengchang, and Zongze.[121]
The modern Chinese Pure Land Buddhist tradition of Yinguang recognizes thirteen patriarchs:[121]
The Japanese Jōdo-shū school recognizes five patriarchs before Hōnen:[122]
Meanwhile, Japanese Pure Land Buddhist school of Jodo Shinshu relies on a different list of seven patriarchs (shichiso):[123]
Furthermore, for Jodo Shinshu, Shinran is considered to be the final and culminating patriarch of the Pure Land tradition.[123]
Pure Land thought also made its way into Korean Buddhism from China during the Unified Silla period (668–935). Perhaps the most influential figure in this development was Wohnyo (617–686), who was known for promoting the practice of nianfo among Korean commoners.[124][125] Korean practitioners of Pure Land like Wohnyo never set out to establish a separate school of Buddhism, instead they saw Pure land practice as part of the larger Mahayana tradition.[125]
There may have been a lineage of Pure land praxis based in Hwangnyong Monastery (皇龍寺) which could be traced back to Wŏn’gwang 圓光 (c. 540–640), who may have studied under Huiyuan. However, his works are all lost.[125] Chajang may have been another important figure for Korean Pure Land, but his works (including two commentaries on the Amitabha sutra) are also lost. As such, it is in the works of Wohnyo that early Korean Pure land ideas can be found and it is his work which influenced all later Korean writings on Pure Land.[125]
Wohnyo's Pure Land thought is based on numerous Mahayana sources, including the works of Zhiyi, Tanluan along with Chinese Yogācāra and Tathāgatagarbha thought. Later Silla era Pure Land authors like Pŏbwi, Hyŏnil, Uijŏk, and Kyŏnghung all follow Wonhyo's synthetic method of interpreting Pure Land by drawing on the broader Mahayana doctrinal tradition.[125]
In Wohnyo's Pure Land writings, he argues that the superior practice of nianfo is the one which is done with bodhicitta and with a repentant, sincere mind (chisim 至心). Indeed, in his Muryangsu-gyŏng chongyo (無量壽經宗要, Doctrinal Essentials of the Sūtra on the Visualization of Immeasurable Life), Wohnyo argues that it is bodhicitta which is the primary cause of birth in the Pure land.[125]
Another important figure in Korean Pure Land thought was the Hwaeom founder Uisang (625–702) who wrote a commentary on the Amitabha sutra, the Amit’a-gyŏng ŭigi (阿彌陀經義記 The meaning of the Amituo jing).[125] Pure land practice was also an important part of the Cheontae school (Korean Tiantai).
From Mount Lu, Jiujiang, the Chinese Pure Land teachings spread to Japan, Vietnam and Korea where they developed in their own unique ways. Pure Land practice was present in Japan since the 7th century. During the Nara period (710–794), several monks taught nianfo (Japanese: nenbutsu) and wrote on Pure Land practice. These included Chikō (709–770 or 781) of the Sanron (Middle Way) school and Zenju (723–797) of the Hossō (Yogacara) school. Chikō's writings teach oral and visualized nenbutsu, with the main goal of attaining samadhi, but also rebirth in the Pure Land.[126]
The most important schools of Japanese Buddhism developed between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. They were mostly influenced by the eclectic teachings of the Tendai school as their founding monks were all trained originally in the school.[127] This school was founded by Saichō (767–822), who studied the Chinese Tiantai school in China, including the nianfo methods taught by Zhiyi.[126]
During the Heian period, Japanese Pure Land continued to develop in Tendai monasteries, such as the Mt. Hiei complex. One early Tendai figure, Ennin, is known for having brought back the practice of nembutsu from China, and this became the foundation for later Pure Land movements in Japan.[128] It was Tendai monks like Zenyu (913–990) and Senkan (918–983) who first developed a distinctively Japanese Pure Land Buddhist discourse and who authored the Amida shinjūgi and Jūgan hosshinki, respectively.[129]
Another important early figure of Japanese Pure Land was Genshin (942–1017), a Tendai monk known for his promotion of Pure Land practice and his writing of the Ōjōyōshū (Essentials of Birth in the Pure Land) which teaches Amitabha visualization and nembutsu and which was very influential for later Japanese Pure Land authors. Genshin held that since we had entered the era of Dharma decline (mappo), the easy practice of nenbutsu was most effective now. However, he did not argue, like later Japanese Pure Land Buddhists, that one should only practice nenbutsu exclusively and instead believed that the nenbutsu practice was to be supplemented by other practices.[130]
Pure Land practice also continued to develop in other Japanese schools of Buddhism. Figures such as Eikan (1033–1111) and Chinkai (c. 1091–1152) of the Sanron school and Kakuban (1095–1143) of the Shingon school all promoted their own form of Pure Land nembutsu based practice.[131]
Apart from these official monastic figures, there also existed itinerant holy men who traveled the countryside preaching about Pure Land practice. These preachers who practiced outside the authority of official temples, were called hijiri. Some were properly ordained, but others were self-ordained or not ordained at all.[126] Perhaps the most well known of these was Kūya (903–972), who was known for taking images of Amitabha with him and for his musical chanting of the nembutsu. He mainly wandered the country ministering to commoners and teaching them to chant the nenbutsu as well as providing other services like burying the dead, making wells and bridges and helping the needy. He was also devoted to Kannon.[132][126]
Pure Land practice also spread among commoners and laypersons, especially due to the rise in popularity of deathbed rituals and popular collections of stories of people who had achieved rebirth in the Pure Land, such as the Nihon Ōjō Gokuraku-ki (Records of Rebirth in Utmost Bliss in Japan) by Jakushin (c. 985).[126]
Japanese Pure Land teachings eventually led to the formation of independent Pure Land institutions, as can be seen in the Jōdo-shū, Jōdo Shinshū, Yūzū-nembutsu-shū, and Ji-shū.[133] These new Pure Land schools were part of a new wave of Buddhist schools founded in the Kamakura period (1185–1333), each which tended to narrow its focus around a single simple practice which was promoted exclusively above all others, especially the complex rituals and practices of Tendai Buddhism.[126] This new focus allowed these schools to appeal to a wider base of support among the commoners.[134]
The first of these, the small Yūzū-nembutsu sect, was founded by the Tendai monk Ryōnin (1072–1132), who taught that just chanting nenbutsu as one's main practice was all that one needed to do to complete all virtues. He was influenced by the Huayan idea of interpenetration and held that chanting the nenbutsu not affected oneself, but also affected everyone around us. In his community, practitioners would sign a register and pledge to recite a certain number of nenbutsus per day. They would also hold joint recitation sessions and believed that all members received the collective benefit of their recitations.[135]
Hōnen (1133–1212) was a Tendai monk influenced by Genshin who initially practiced under a successor of Ryōnin at Mount Hiei. Through his efforts, a new independent Buddhist school was established (Jōdo-shū) which focused exclusively on Pure Land practice of the nenbutsu (nianfo).[136][134] Influenced by the work Shandao, Hōnen held that to reach the Pure Land it was only necessary to orally recite the name of Amitabha.[134] One did not need to meditate, perform any rituals, visualize any Buddha, study sutras or do any other practice (as was common in Tendai and Chinese Pure Land). One just had to recite the name with faith and joy. Thus, Hōnen's doctrine favored simple nenbutsu recitation above all other practices. Indeed, he argued that all other practices were inferior to nenbutsu in this degenerate age.[134]
However, Hōnen is known to have scrupulously kept the Tendai precepts, and to have continued to perform rituals and study texts. Thus, he did not teach that one should completely discard all other practices, only that the nenbutsu was supreme and that only nenbutsu could lead to Buddhahood. And yet, he held that other practices (those which Shandao taught as auxiliary to nenbutsu) could enrich one's nenbutsu practice.[134]
According to Hōnen, even the most unethical or lowly people (like fishermen, prostitutes, etc.) would be saved, as they were, by simply reciting namu amida butsu. Likewise, one did not have to worry about paying for deathbed rituals or organizing one's last days in any specific way. Simply by reciting nenbutsu now one would be saved whenever death came.[134] This simple teaching became very popular in Japan, especially among ordinary people.[137] Because of his reliance on a single simple practice, Hōnen's teaching was widely criticized as neglecting basic Buddhist ethics and bodhicitta. A notable critique was penned by the Kegon author Myōe.[138] While Hōnen was discreet in his critiques of other forms of Buddhism, some of his disciples were not. A scandal involving rumors of some of Hōnen's disciples and an imperial concubine led to Hōnen's exile and the persecution of some of his disciples.[138][134]
After Hōnen's death, many of his writings were destroyed by the Tendai school warrior monks who also destroyed his tomb. The state also attempted to suppress his teachings, sending many of his disciples far away from the capital and this may have contributed to spread of the tradition all over Japan.[134] There was also a dispute among his followers over the issue of two different doctrinal stances: once-calling (Jp: ichinengi) and many-calling (tanengi). Once-calling held that you only needed to recite nenbutsu once and you would be saved, the many-calling view held that you needed to recite nenbutsu as much as possible. According to Jones, Hōnen had generally held that many-calling view, arguing for sustained practice, but the once-calling view also had some scriptural support. Thus, the debate continued long after his death.[134]
Initially, the Jōdo-shū were a faction (ha) or sub-sect of the Tendai school, but after the 14th century, it developed into an independent tradition, which was more like a loose family of lineages.[134] A particularly influential event was the founding of the Chinzei branch by Benchō (1162–1238) and the subsequent work of Shōgei (1341–1420) to set up a formal training program for Jōdo Shū priests. This meant they no longer needed to study the monasteries of other traditions. The other main lineage of Jōdo-shū is the Seizan (West Mountain) branch founded by Shōkū (1177–1247).[134]
After Hōnen's death, one of his disciples, Shinran Shōnin (1173–1262) created another new Pure Land school, the Jōdo Shinshū (True Pure Land, also known as Shin Buddhism) which would eventually grow to become one of the largest Buddhist schools in Japan.[139] Shinran had been a Tendai monk who saw himself as unsuited to the rigorous practices of the Tendai sect and became a follower of Hōnen.[139]
After he was exiled and defrocked with his master, Shinran married and remained a layman even after he was pardoned by the state in 1211. He then moved to the Kantō region with his family. It was at this time that he realized his practice of all other Buddhist methods other than the nenbutsu were futile and he entrusted himself completely to the power of Amitabha.[139] Shinran would go on to write some important works on Pure Land thought and practice, mainly the Kyōgyōshinshō and the Tannishō, which discuss the importance of total self-abandonment or entrusting (Jp. shinjin) of ourselves to the Buddha Amitabha.[140]
For Shinran, this shinjin— faith or entrusting —became the center of his teaching, which according to Jones, was "a deep conversion experience and the very means by which rebirth became assured."[139] For Shinran, any religious effort arose from a lack of trust in Amitabha's power and vows, which was the only thing that actually led to Buddhahood. Thus, one had to realize that one's own efforts were futile and completely entrust oneself to Amitabha. This total faith expresses itself as the nenbutsu. If someone has not developed shinjin, nenbutsu at least acts as a reminder that one requires salvation from Amitabha, and if one has developed shinjin, it is an expression of gratitude.[139] This entrusting is a total letting go which comes from Amitabha's grace, our own true nature, the Buddha-nature. This is the real "other power" (Jp. tariki) of Amitabha that is beyond the egoistic "self-power" (jiriki) and all notions of self and effort. Thus, other power is not something outside of us according to Shinran, but is immanent as our Buddha-nature.[139]
The fact that Shinran was not a monk meant that he and his followers often did not meet in temples, but in various other places, including private homes, which they might designate as dōjōs. These lay groups or congregations (monto) would also choose their own leaders and meet to practice nenbutsu together. According to Jones, "The development of independent congregations of laypeople managing their own practice and organizations loosened the control that religious orders and the aristocracy traditionally exercised, and it represented a new, more democratic structure for Japanese Buddhism as a whole."[139]
After his death, Shinran's communities remained as independent congregations, and the tradition now known as "Jōdo Shinshū" slowly developed over time. Shinran's sons and family, especially his grandson Kakunyo (1270–1351) and great-grandson Zonkaku (1290–1373) became influential caretakers of the tradition centered on Honganji temple which was built on the site of Shinran's grave.[139] Preaching and proselytizing was an important part of the tradition and there was a kind of equality between men and women (who were also given leadership roles). Rennyo (1415–1499) was one of the most influential figures in Shin Buddhist history. He was the eighth head of Honganji and led an expansion in membership and unification of Shin Buddhism. He also wrote new texts which clarified the doctrine of the tradition.[139]
Another, smaller Pure Land sect known as Jishū (時 宗) was founded by Ippen (1239–1289). Ippen was influenced by Hōnen, as well as Zen and Shingon Buddhism.[141][142] He wandered throughout Japan teaching nenbutsu with a band of followers. Ippen taught that not even faith was necessary for salvation, only the actual chanting the nenbutsu alone was needed. This is because he held, like Tanluan, that the mere name of Amitabha contained his entire reality. Amitabha was fully present in the name, since his existence, his Dharmakaya, was all pervasive. Thus, the recitation of the nenbutsu made one's mind non-dual with Amitabha.[142] Because of this, one did not need to generate faith. Faith was a gift from the Buddha, but not something we could give rise to by ourselves (since this was a kind of self-power) and so we should not be concerned with it.[142] Ippen's teaching was very popular and his sect was the dominant Pure Land sect for the two centuries following his death, but then it went into decline.[142]
Today in Japan, Pure Land schools make up almost 40 percent of Buddhist practitioners and has the most temples, second only to Zen schools.[143] In Japan, strong institutional boundaries exist between sects which serve to clearly separate the Japanese Pure Land schools from the Japanese Zen schools.[105] One notable exception to this is found in the Ōbaku Zen school, which was founded in Japan during the 17th century by the Chinese Buddhist monk Ingen (Chinese Yinyuan Longqi). The Ōbaku school of Zen retains many Chinese features such as mindfulness of Amitābha through recitation and recitation of the Pure Land sūtras.[144]
Upon encountering Japanese Pure Land traditions which emphasize faith, many westerners saw outward parallels between these traditions and Protestant Christianity. This has led many western authors to speculate about possible connections between these traditions.[145] However, the cosmology, internal assumptions, and underlying doctrines and practices are now known to have many differences.[145]
Contemporary Pure Land traditions see Amitābha expounding the Dharma in his Pure Land (Chinese: jìngtǔ 淨土), a region offering respite from karmic transmigration. Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī (Land of Bliss) is described in the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra as a land of beauty that surpasses all other realms. It is said to be inhabited by many gods, men, flowers, fruits, and adorned with wish-granting trees where rare birds come to rest.[146] Chinese Pure Land sources describe it by various names including "Western buddha-land" (xīfāng fótǔ 西方佛土), "Land of Amitābha Buddha" (āmítuófó guó 阿彌陀佛國), Utmost Bliss" (jílè 極樂), Peace and Nurturance" (ānyǎng 安養) and Peace and Bliss" (ānlè 安樂).[5]
In Pure Land traditions, entering the Pure Land is popularly perceived as equivalent to the attainment the bodhisattva stage of non-retrogression.[10] Upon entry into the Pure Land, the practitioner is then instructed in the Dharma by Amitābha Buddha and numerous bodhisattvas until they attain full buddhahood. Bodhisattvas also have the capacity of sending out manifestation bodies to any of the six realms of existence in order to help all sentient beings in saṃsāra, all without actually leaving the Pure Land.[33]
In Mahāyāna Buddhism, there are many buddhas, and each buddha has a pure land. Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī is understood to be in the western direction, whereas Akṣobhya's pure land of Abhirati is to the east. Though there are other Buddhist traditions devoted to being reborn in the company of other Buddhas (such as Maitreya), Amitabha's Pure Land is by far the most popular.[32] Indeed, according to Jones, most Chinese, Japanese and Korean Buddhists today practice to reach the Pure Land of Amitabha in some way.[13]
Pure Land Buddhists believe that there is evidence of dying people going to the pure land, including knowing the time of death, visions of Amitābha and the two bodhisattvas, Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta and records of past Pure Land Buddhists who have died and left behind relics (śarīra).[147][148][149]
The Pure Land is widely understood by many classic Chinese Pure Land sources as surpassing or being beyond the triple realm (the desire realm, form realm and formless realm).[150] However, while it was and is common to think of the Pure Land as an actual place that one is literally reborn into after death, other sources and authors emphasize the idea that this world is itself coextensive with the Pure Land and thus that they are not separate places. According to Jones, "the most frequently cited texts in support of this version of the Pure Land were the Vimalakīrti Sutra (Wéimójí suǒshuō jīng 維摩詰所說經, T.475) and the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch (Liù zǔ dàshī fǎbǎo tán jīng 六祖大師法寶壇經, T.2008)."[151]
Thus, Chinese Buddhism inherited two different views of the Pure Land:[152]
According to Jones, these two ideas led to many debates within Chinese Buddhism, which continued right up to the 20th century.[152] The Pure Land patriarch Yìnguāng (c. 1861–1940) for example, writes that to see the various splendors of the Pure Land as "fables, metaphors, or psychological states" was "heretical" and a "ludicrous view".[154]
On the other hand, those who promoted the "mind-only Pure Land" view saw the idea that the Pure Land was "somewhere else" as violating the Mahayana doctrine of the non-duality of purity and impurity, of samsara and nirvana.[155] They also held that claiming that a Pure Land can exist external to the mind and can appear pure even to an impure mind contradicts the Mahayana idea that the world is constructed by the mind.[155] This view is defended by the famous Chan text known as the Platform Sutra. In this text, Huineng states that only the deluded hope to be born in a faraway land in the west, while the wise who know their nature is empty seek the Pure Land by purifying their minds.[155]
Other Chinese thinkers attempted to reconcile the two views. Yúnqī Zhūhóng (1535–1615) held that the teachings on the existence of the Pure Land as a place was a skillful means (upāya) which the Buddha used to help those of lesser capacities. In reality, the Buddha has no need of an actual place or land since he dwells everywhere, and yet out of compassion for others who need such a place, he manifests the Pure Land in order to draw in sentient beings. Once they reach the Pure Land, they learn the Dharma and realize it was always just mind. True sages know both that both truths are deeply interpenetrating and thus they can hold both ideas (other direction and mind-only Pure Land) without contradiction.[156] Thus, he writes:
Now to contemplate (niàn 念) emptiness is true nian, and production enters into non-production [or, birth enters into non-birth], and to nian the Buddha (nianfo) is to nian the mind. Birth there (i.e., in the Pure Land) does not mean leaving birth here (the present defiled world). Mind, Buddha, and sentient beings are of one substance, the middle stream does not abide on [either of] the two banks. Therefore, we say "the Amitābha of one's own nature; the Pure Land of mind-only."[157]
Chinese thinkers like Zuhong and Yuan Hongdao also developed a schema which included various categories of Pure Lands. With these schema, they could accept the existence of both "mind-only" Pure Lands as well as Amitabha's Pure Land as another world. Yuan's schema also includes numerous other types of Pure Lands found in Mahayana literature, including: the Pure Land of the Primordial Buddha Vairocana which is the entire dharmadhātu in which all dharmas perfectly interfuse, the Pure Land of Vulture Peak assembly taught in the Lotus Sutra, which is also called the Constant-truth Pure Land (héng zhēn jìngtǔ), and the Conjured-manifestation Pure Land, which only exists for a brief period of time, such as when the Buddha changes the world in the Vimalakirti Sutra. Yuan's typology of Pure Lands served to resolve some of the conflict regarding the nature of the Pure Land by relying on classic Buddhist sources to show how there was a large variety of Pure Lands to be found in them.[158]
Chinese Pure Land thinkers sometimes defended Pure Land thought by explaining it within the context of Tiantai and Huayan philosophy. For example, Yuan Hongdao used the Tiantai doctrine of the three truths to defend the existence of the Pure Land path as a provisionally true yet empty reality.[159] Meanwhile, Yuan Hongdao and Yinguang both draw on Huayan thought to argue for the truth of Pure Land. Yuan Hongdao uses the Huayan theory of Indra's net to explain how the Pure Land perfectly interpenetrates with all buddha-lands and all the impure lands.[160]
Chinese Pure Land thinkers also argued for the efficacy of Pure Land practice in different ways. For example, they argued that the idea that a seemingly small effort of nianfo practice had a great effect was not illogical, since sometimes a small cause (like a spark) could have a great effect (like a large fire caused by one spark).[161] Some also argued that one could not know how much good karma one had accumulated in the past, and that nianfo practice might take many lives to produce birth in the Pure Land.[161]
"Self-power" (Ch. zìlì 自力, Jp. jiriki) and "other-power" (Ch. tālì 他力, Jp. tariki) are key terms which are used to explain and define Pure Land practice in East Asian Buddhism.[162] It was Shandao who first argued that Amitabha's power helped take people to the Pure Land after death (previous authors just held that Amitabha created the Pure Land and it was up to an individual's own effort to make it there). This other power relationship was compared to how a lowly man who is accompanied by a king can enter previously inaccessible places.[163]
Chinese Pure Land Buddhism never denied the importance of self-power. Instead, according to Jones, Chinese Pure Land generally holds that "Rebirth in the Pure Land results when the two powers work together, an idea that the modern Taiwan Pure Land master Zhiyu (Zhìyù 智諭, 1924–2000) captured with the phrase "the two powers of self and other" (zì-tā èr lì 自他二力)."[162] Thus, in Chinese Pure Land, rebirth in the Pure Land arises from a cooperation of the practitioner and the Buddha.[162]
Yúnqī Zhūhóng argues that the practitioner's efforts connect with the Buddha's power through "sympathetic resonance" (gǎnyìng 感應) which links them with the Buddha, attuning their mind with that of the Buddha, much like one plucked string in a lute can make another string nearby resonate.[164][161] According this view, the more that one practiced nianfo, the stronger and more enduring this bond with Amitabha became.[165] However, Chinese Pure Land masters also argued that one certainly cannot rely on self-power alone, which they denigrated as a futile effort.[166]
Chinese authors like Yuan Hongdao also argue that the actual nature of the Pure Land way "is not self-power, nor is it other-power." Instead, according to Yuan, there is ultimately no real distinction between the Pure Land practitioner and the Buddha Amitābha and thus, the distinction between self-power and other-power is not ultimately real, and yet we can speak of this interaction conventionally (which he describes through metaphors).[167] The twelfth "patriarch"of Chinese Pure Land, Jìxǐng Chèwù (際醒徹悟, 1741–1810) also held that the practitioner and Amitābha, while distinct beings, are also really non-dual. When one chants nianfo, a sympathetic resonance is activated which leads to a non-dual realization of one's true nature as Amitabha.[168]
In the Japanese Pure Land schools of Hōnen and Shinran which developed in the Kamakura period, self-power is considered as completely pointless and powerless. Self-power does nothing for the Pure Land devotee. Those who wish to attain the Pure Land must only rely on the other-power of Amitābha, entrusting themselves to it by reciting the nembutsu.[162] Shinran consistently denigrated all efforts to self cultivation and made the entrusting heart (J. shinjin 信心) as the only important element in gaining the Pure Land.[169] This created another problem, that of antinomianism, which was the idea that if one's salvation is assured, then there was no need to be moral at all and one could engage in wrongdoing without being concerned. Shinran attacked this problem by arguing that engaging in wrongdoing was just another form of clinging to self-power.[163]
Another difference between the Chinese and Japanese traditions is that the Japanese Pure Land schools generally hold that, since the Buddha does all the work of salvation, one's rebirth in the Pure Land is assured once one has faithfully recited the Buddha's name. No matter how wicked one may still be one will definitely reach the Pure Land. However, the Chinese traditions often hold out the prospect that a Pure Land practitioner might fail to get into the Pure Land due to various factors, such as ethical failings or getting distracted at the crucial moment of death.[170] This is because the Chinese tradition holds that Pure Land practice provides a connection to the Buddha only as long as the practitioner keeps the Buddha in mind. The effects of the practice can cease if one stops doing it. They compared this to lighting a lamp, which can remove all the darkness in a room immediately, but which will not provide light if it is put out.[171]
The concept of other power is related to other important ideas in Pure Land thought and broader Mahayana such as merit transference, esoteric empowerment (adhiṣṭhāna) and the idea that there is an "easy path" and a "difficult path" (or "path of sages").[172] Transference of merit is the idea that Buddhas and bodhisattvas can transfer their immense stores of merit (puṇya, a beneficial protective force that is accumulated by good deeds), to other beings. This idea is found in many Mahayana sutras.[173] The concept of other power is seen as the easy path of practice, following the ideas presented in the "Chapter on Easy Practice" in the Shí zhù pípóshā lùn (Treatise on the ten levels, T.1521) attributed to Nagarjuna. This text promotes the easy path of Pure land over the difficult path of practice which entails many aeons of practice and may not be suitable for people. This text describes the easy path as follows: "If a bodhisattva wishes to attain to the stage of non-retrogression in this body and accomplish supreme highest enlightenment, he should contemplate (niàn 念) all the buddhas of the ten directions and invoke their names."[174]
During the 20th century, a new way of conceiving Pure Land developed which was more humanistic. This development was led by the monk Tàixū 太虛 (1890–1947) who argued that Buddhism should benefit humans in this life, and should not just be for the afterlife. He called this new Buddhism, "Buddhism for Human Life" (rénshēng fójiào 人生佛教), which has also been termed Humanistic Buddhism.[175] This new kind of Buddhism promoted the idea that the ideal Buddhist world could be built here and now, something Tàixū called "The Pure Land in the Human Realm" (rénjiān jìngtǔ 人間淨土).[176] While Tàixū did not repudiate the idea of post-mortem rebirth in Amitabha's Pure Land, he also promoted the idea of improving people's everyday lives through social reform and the building of an ideal Buddhist community.[176]
Some of Tàixū's disciples, like Sheng Yen and Cheng Yen developed his ideas further. According to Jones, they held that Buddhists should not desire to escape from this world of suffering by seeking rebirth in a faraway land. Instead, Buddhists should "engage in social reform and charitable work in order to transform this world into a Pure Land. In this model, the Pure Land will appear when the environment is cleansed and healed, the rights of women and children are safeguarded, and economic and social justice prevail."[177] However, Jones notes that Sheng Yen's writings reveal that he did not reject the practice of seeking rebirth in Amitabha's Pure Land and instead presented an eclectic view that accepted all views on the Pure Land. According to Sheng Yen, the socially focused actions of humanistic Buddhism do not conflict with traditional Pure Land practices, instead they prepare one for birth in Amitabha's Pure Land. He also attempts to harmonize these with the other classic view that holds that the Pure land is just in the mind.[177]
Pure Land is one of the most widely practiced traditions of Buddhism in East Asia. It may be the dominant form of Buddhism in China, Japan, Vietnam and Korea.[13]
All Chinese sources agree that the principal practice of the Pure Land "easy path" is nianfo (Chinese: 念佛; Japanese: nenbutsu), which is described in a variety of different ways by Chinese sources and is also called "holding the name" (chēngmíng).[178][161]
In some forms of East Asian Buddhism, nianfo is generally seen as one practice among many. For example, according to Yuan dynasty monk Tiānrú Wéizé's (天如惟則, 1286?–1354) Questions about Pure Land (T.1972), there are three main approaches to Pure Land practice: visualization (guānxiǎng 觀想), recollection and invocation (yìniàn 意念), and "various practices" (zhòngxíng 眾行) which include ethical precepts, taking refuge and so on (and whose merit can lead to the Pure Land, especially if dedicated to this purpose).[179]
In other quarters however, nianfo is the only practice which is recommended and other practices are not seen as helpful. The Japanese Pure Land sects of Jōdo-shū and Jōdo Shinshū traditionally focus on the oral recitation of the nianfo exclusively. Similarly, the Chinese master Jìxǐng Chèwù (1741–1810) practiced and taught nianfo exclusively, having practiced it together with Chan in the past but then having abandoning this dual practice for an exclusive focus on nianfo.[180]
Repeating the name of a Buddha such as Amitābha is traditionally a form of mindfulness of the Buddha (Skt. buddhānusmṛti). This term was translated into Chinese as nianfo, by which it is popularly known in English. The practice is often described as calling the buddha to mind by repeating his name, to enable the practitioner to bring all his or her attention upon that Buddha (See: samādhi) chanting Amituofo while walking, prostrating, or in seated meditation .[181] This may be done vocally or mentally, and with or without the use of Buddhist prayer beads. Those who practice this method often commit to a fixed set of repetitions per day.[181] For instance, the monk Shandao is said to have practiced this day and night without interruption, each time emitting light from his mouth. Therefore, he was bestowed with the title "Great Master of Light" (Chinese: 光明大師) by Emperor Gaozong of Tang.[182]
However, Chinese Buddhist Pure Land practice also commonly relies on multiple elements for their practice of nianfo, including contemplation and visualization of Amitābha, his attendant bodhisattvas, and the Pure Land. Such visualization methods are found in the Pratyutpanna-samādhi-sūtra and in the Amitayurdhyana Sutra, which presents sixteen progressive visualizations, each corresponding to the attainment of various levels of rebirth in the Pure Land.[183][179]
The first of these steps is contemplation of a setting sun, until the visualization is clear whether the eyes are open or closed.[184] Each step adds complexity to the visualization of Sukhāvatī, with the final contemplation being an expansive visual which includes Amitābha and his attendant bodhisattvas.[184] According to Inagaki Hisao, this method was widely followed in the past for the purpose of developing samādhi.[7] Visualization practises for Amitābha are also popular in Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Shingon Buddhism as well as other schools of Vajrayana.
One Chinese master who taught nianfo along with visualization was Yìnguāng (1861–1940). He also stressed the importance of other elements in this practice, mainly faith in Amitābha, vowing to be reborn in Sukhāvatī and also having the intention to transfer the merit of one's practice to all beings.[185] Similarly, Jìxǐng Chèwù stressed the importance of various prerequisite elements to nianfo practice: bodhicitta, faith in the pure land, an aspiration to achieve rebirth there, a sense of shame at past wrongdoing, joy at having learned of Pure Land, sadness over one's bad karma and gratitude to the Buddha.[186]
Guīfēng Zōngmì (圭峰宗密, 780–841) was a Huayan and Chan master who also wrote on nianfo practice. He taught a schema of four types of nianfo which were adopted by later Pure Land authors like Yúnqī Zhūhóng (1535–1615) and Zhìyù (1924–2000). Zōngmì's four types of nianfo are (1) Contemplation of the name "which focuses on "mentally holding" the name; (2) Contemplating a image of the Buddha; (3) Contemplating the major and minor marks of a Buddha without a physical image, and (4) " Contemplating the true mark", in which one contemplates the Dharma Body (Dharmakaya), the true self in all phenomenon. [187][188]
This schema may have been presented as a progressive path of practice, from easiest to most difficult and profound.[191] While Zōngmì held that the fourth method of nianfo was the most profound, Yúnqī Zhūhóng reversed this progression, arguing that "contemplation of the name" was actually the highest practice and that it was to obtain wisdom and enlightenment in this life more than to be reborn in the Pure land.[161]
Yúnqī Zhūhóng also taught that there were two main mental attitudes that can be applied to practicing nianfo:[189]
The various Japanese Buddhist traditions practice Pure Land in different ways. In traditions like Sanron and Tendai, nenbutsu (nianfo) is seen as one method among many, to be practiced in conjunction with other Buddhist practices like meditation, rituals, precepts, etc.[161]
The independent Pure Land schools in Japan, especially Jōdo Shinshū, have different interpretations of nianfo where they emphasize nianfo and faith or the entrusting heart (shinjin) over and above all other forms of Buddhist practice.[192] They also hold that this idea was taught by the three Chinese Patriarchs of their purported lineage: Tanluan, Daochuo and Shandao. This exclusivity is not supported by the historical evidence which shows that the Chinese patriarchs undertook visualization meditation, scriptural study and other practices.[102][103] However, even if this is their doctrinal emphasis, Jōdo Shinshū practitioners still engage in other practices, including liturgy, scripture chanting, charity and so on.[161]
In Chinese Buddhism, there is a common practice called the "dual path of Chan and Pure Land cultivation", which is also called the "dual path of emptiness and existence."[193] As taught by Nan Huai-Chin, the name of Amitābha is recited slowly, and the mind is emptied out after each repetition. When idle thoughts arise, the name is repeated again to clear them. With constant practice, the mind is able to remain peacefully in emptiness, culminating in the attainment of samādhi.[193][194] Some Chinese masters argued that the practice of Chan by itself was risky, since one did not know if it would bear fruit in this life. Hence, it was better to practice both Chan meditation and nianfo, and in this way, one could at least be ensured of rebirth in the Pure Land.[161] A later development fused the two practices into one, which was called the Pure Land kōan and consisted of practicing nianfo while also asking oneself "Who is performing nianfo?"[161]
Other Chinese meditation masters, particularly in the Chan school, taught nianfo as a secondary method. Thus, while Hānshān Déqīng 憨山德淸 (1546–1623) taught nianfo recitation, he saw is as a lesser practice than Chan meditation proper.[195] Similarly, Chan master Xūyún (1840?–1959) subsumed nianfo under a Chan framework which interprets it as a kind of huàtóu practice.[196]
The method of joint Pure Land and Chan practice was formalized in Korean Buddhism as part of the "Three Gates" (Korean: sammun) schema which taught nianfo, Seon meditation and doctrinal study. This system was first articulated by Ch’ongheo Hyujong in the 17th century, who held that the three practices work together.[161]
The eclectic practice of Chan and Pure Land (along with other classic Buddhist practices and rituals) are also a common feature of Vietnamese Buddhism.[197] The dual practice of Zen meditation along with recitation of Amitabha's name is also common in the Japanese Ōbaku school of Buddhism.[198]
Different Pure Land traditions have different approaches to the practice of Buddhist ethical discipline (sīla), meditation and other "self-power" practices such as such as study, ritual, sutra chanting, vegetarianism, and monasticism. Chinese and Korean Pure Land Buddhists never dispensed with these practices, which they saw as valid and useful methods of making spiritual progress and generating merit which could be dedicated to rebirth in the Pure Land. This was also partly due to the fact that Pure Land in China was never an independent institutional "school", but was just seen as a "dharma gate" practiced within various schools that taught a variety of methods.[163]
Chinese Pure Land authors also had different answers to the question of why we should engage in other classic Buddhist practices if Amitabha Buddha could save all beings no matter how wicked they were. Thus, different Pure Land traditions have different ways to avoid the shared problem of antinomianism, which may arise if someone thinks they are sure to be saved by Amitabha's power and so chooses to do evil deeds or avoid all ethical training.[116]
Many Chinese Pure Land masters exhorted their disciples to both practice ethics, vows and so on and chant the nianfo without attempting to answer the question of why they are both needed if simple nianfo is sufficient for rebirth in the Pure Land as stated in the Contemplation Sutra (Amitayurdhyana).[113] Numerous important Pure Land practitioners were also Vinaya masters and were active in transmitting the precepts.[199]
Chinese masters did give various reasons for why one should do other Buddhist practices including the ethical precepts. Charles B. Jones outlines the following main reasons given in the pre-modern Pure Land literature:[200]
Group practice, whether in a ritual setting or in retreat, is a common part of modern Pure Land Buddhism.[205] One important form of ritual in Pure Land Buddhism are death rituals. Death is often assigned a special importance in Pure Land Buddhism. This is because the time of death is seen as a key moment were one could either focus the mind on Amitabha and gain rebirth in the Pure Land or become distracted and troubled by worldly things.[205]
According to Jones, one can find descriptions of such rituals in the memoirs of the Ming dynasty Pure Land teacher Yuan Hongdao (1568–1610). The basic goal of these rituals was to "provide the dying person with an environment free from anything that would distract them from focusing on Amitābha and to offer support by practicing alongside them. At its simplest, family members gathered around the bedside and helped the dying person maintain a constant flow of nianfo, sometimes taking over for them if their breath became too weak."[205] Chinese Buddhists would also be on the lookout for auspicious signs during these rituals, such as visions of Amitabha and bright lights.[205] Over time, deathbed rituals could become very elaborate and funeral specialists developed which focused on these elements of Pure Land practice. They might involve extensive liturgies and works of art depicting Amitabha.[205]
Another form of group practice which is common in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism is the nianfo recitation retreat, where Buddhists come together for intensive recitation practice for several days. These retreats always focus on nianfo recitation (walking or sitting), but might also include chanting of the Pure Land sutras, taking of the eight precepts, silent meditation and Dharma lectures.[205]
Japanese Pure Land Buddhist sects, like Jōdo Shinshū Hongwanji-ha, also perform numerous ritual services for their congregation. Charles B. Jones notes that in this school: "there is an "infant rite" to welcome the birth of a new baby, a "confirmation ceremony" to affirm one's commitment to the Jōdo Shinshū and receive a dharma name, a "wedding ceremony" that unites a couple's marriage vows with a reaffirmation of their commitment to the way of Amitābha, and, of course, funeral rites to commend loved ones to rebirth in the Pure Land. Individual parishioners may also request special services, such as a home visit during which the minister chants the Smaller Sūtra in front of the family buddha-altar (Jpn.: butsudan), or memorial services to mark the death anniversaries of loved ones."[205] According to Jōdo Shinshū teaching, while these rituals do not actually contribute to one's attainment of the Pure Land (only shinjin does), they still promote virtues like self-reflection, awareness, gratitude and humility.[205]
Another common practice in Pure Land Buddhism is the chanting of sutras (especially the three Pure Land sutras).[163] Sutra chanting was one of the auxiliary methods taught by Pure Land patriarchs like Shandao.[94]
The chanting of dhāraṇīs is a similar method. One popular Pure Land dhāraṇī is the Pure Land Rebirth dhāraṇī (往生淨土神咒 Wangsheng Jingtu Shenzhou) is another method in Pure Land Buddhism. The repetition of this dhāraṇī (which actually refers to two texts, a long and a short one) is said to be very popular among traditional Chinese Buddhists.[182] It is traditionally preserved in Sanskrit, and it is said that when a devotee succeeds in realizing singleness of mind on it, its true and profound meaning will be clearly revealed.[182] The Chinese use a version of this dhāraṇī that was transliterated from Sanskrit into Chinese characters, called the "Mantra for Birth in the Pure Land" (Chinese: 生淨土咒; pinyin: Shēng jìngtǔ zhòu).[206] Another dhāraṇī of Amitabha is the Dhāraṇī of Holy Infinite-Life Resolute Radiance King Tathāgata (聖無量壽決定光明王如來陀羅尼).[207]
According to Chinese Pure Land master Yinguang, a Pure Land practitioner can recite any mantra or sutra, such as those which are commonly used in Chinese Mahayana (Heart Sutra, Great Compassion mantra, and the Shurangama Mantra). However, he also notes "to be in accord with the tenets of Pure Land" one should also include nianfo into one's recitation practice and also dedicate the merit of the practice to rebirth in the Pure Land.[208]
Pure Land practice is primarily said to lead to rebirth in Amitabha's Pure Land and thus the bodhisattva stage of non-retrogression (since at the point one has reached the Pure Land, one will not fall back from this to a lower realm). This Pure Land is often described as a kind of way station or hostel (lǚguǎn 旅館) outside of the triple world of samsara. It is a place that lacks suffering and which allows someone to practice the bodhisattva path without difficulties.[209] However, Pure Land authors also claim other benefits of practicing Pure Land which appear in this life. Benefits include the buddha-contemplation samādhi, purification of the mind, and elimination of bad karma.[210][161]
Various worldly benefits of nianfo practice have also been claimed by Pure Land masters at least since the Song dynasty. For example, when Tiantai master Sìmíng Zhīlǐ (960–1028) organized a Pure Land society, he claimed that the society's practice would "extend the emperor's longevity (shòu 壽) and contribute to the prosperity (lù 祿) of the people."[211] Various sources also claim that nianfo could heal or prevent disease and illness due to detoxification through repetitive breathing, examples of this are faster healing, more energy and a stronger immune system and a passive exercise for the elderly and physically impaired, elongating heath and longevity. [212] Yinguang claimed to have been healed of conjunctivitis by the practice.[211] Thus, some traditional Chinese sources use nianfo as a health incantation with numerous benefits. These benefits can be found in sources like "Forty-Eight Ways to Nianfo" (Niànfó sìshíbā fǎ 念佛四十八法) by Zhèng Wéiān and other traditional Chinese medical text.[12][211]
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In Tibetan Buddhism, which is a Vajrayana tradition, various practices and ideas which are focused on rebirth in the Buddhafield of Amitabha (as well as other Buddhas) exist as part of the vast repertoire of Buddhist practices found in this tradition.[213][214] These include exoteric (or sutra) and esoteric (or tantric) forms of Buddhist practice focused on the Buddha Amitabha and his buddhafield of Sukhavati.[214] Matthew Kapstein writes that "Sukhavati has long been an important focal point for much of Tibetan devotion," especially among lay devotees who commonly revere Amitabha, Avalokiteshvara and Padmasambhava as three bodies of a single Buddha.[9] He also notes that such an orientation also exists in Nepalese Buddhism.[9]
Georgios T. Halkias notes that the term "Pure Land" can be used in reference to these Tibetan practices and scriptures which are analogous to East Asian Pure Land Buddhist practices. However, he also notes that there has never been a "sectarian, self-conscious movement of Pure Land Buddhism in Tibet" which saw itself as independent of the larger doctrinal and practical worldview of Tibetan Buddhism as a whole. As such, Pure Land practices in Tibetan Buddhism are considered one element or orientation within the broader Himalayan Buddhist tradition.[215][9]
Pure Land Buddhism in Tibet has a long and innovative history dating from the era of the Tibetan Empire (8th–9th centuries), with the translation of the Sukhāvatīvyūha sūtras into Tibetan. Tibetan documents from Dunhuang also prove that by the 8th and 9th centuries, Sukhavati and Amitabha were important to Tibetan Buddhists.[216] The Tibetan Canon also includes numerous other Sukhavati-Amitabha oriented texts, including various dharanis (incantations/spells) which claim to lead one to Sukhavati. These include the Cloud of Offerings Dharani, Dharani-Mantra of Amitabha, Recollection of Amitabha, Dharani of the Essence of Aparimitayus, Dharani in Praise of Immeasurable Qualities.[217] However, there are also many other sources which mention other Pure Lands aside from Sukhavati, which shows that this was not the only Pure Land sought after by Tibetan Buddhists during the first and second disseminations of Buddhism.[218]
Tibetan compositions of pure-land prayers and artistic renditions of Sukhāvatī in Central Asia date to that time. Tibetan pure-land literature forms a distinct genre and encompasses a wide range of texts, including aspirational and devotional prayers for rebirth in Sukhavati (Tib. bde-smon), commentaries (’grel-ba) by scholars which discuss Pure Land practice, and esoteric meditations and rituals belonging to the Vajrayāna tradition which focus on rebirth in the Pure land and on the deity Amitābha.[219] The composition of Pure Land oriented literature was popular among major Tibetan Buddhist figures. For example, both Sakya Pandita (a key figure for the Sakya school) and Tsongkhapa (the founder of the Gelug school), composed Sukhavati-oriented works.[220]
Tibetan commentaries focusing on Amitabha and Sukhavati, like The First Panchen Lama's (1567–1662) Swift and Unobstructed Path to Sukhavati, teach methods to attain the Pure Land. In this text, the First Panchen Lama advises that one may use a thangka painting or a statue to help visualize Amitabha in his Pure Land while maintaining a mind oriented towards the good of all beings. The commentary also says that one should infuse all daily activities with this practice.[220]
Another important commentary on Pure Land practice, Training for Sukhavati with Luminous Faith: Sun-like Instructions of a Sage, was composed by the Nyingma scholar Ju Mipham (1846–1912).[221] His work is a classic of the genre and draws on numerous other texts to explain how Pure Land practice works through a synthesis of the "ripening force of individual beings" (sems-can rang-rang gi stobs smin-pa), the "power of reality's potency" (dngos-po'i nus-pa) and the power of Amitābha's aspirations (smon-lam) and wisdom (ye-shes).[222]
According to Mipham, rebirth in Sukhavati is an excellent path to nirvana and is based on four causes: recollecting Buddha Amitabha, accumulating countless virtues, generating bodhicitta, and dedicating one's virtues to rebirth in Sukhavati. Recollecting the Buddha with faith and a strong aspiration to be born in Sukhavati are the main causes, while the others are secondary.[222] Mipham also discusses the three major hindrances to birth in Sukhavati: lack of understanding, wrong views and doubt. He also recommends reading, reciting, writing and meditating on the Sukhavati sutras.[223]
Amitabha is generally understood as a specific Buddha, one of the Five Tathagathas, some of the most prominent Buddhas in the tradition. However, in some Tibetan Buddhist writings, Amitabha is equated with the Dharmakaya and with the Dzogchen concept of the basis or ground (gzhi). For example, the great 19th century Dzogchen master Dudjom Lingpa (khrag 'thung bdud 'joms rdo rje), writes: "Emaho, in the self-manifest, pure expanse that is the real Akanistha, the magical field that is gnosis arrayed, is the Dharmakaya of the ground, the conqueror Amitabha."[224] Thus, Matthew Kapstein writes that in this Dzogchen understanding of Amitabha, Sukhavati is "no longer the name of a particular paradise, but rather a metonymic expression for the primordial ground in which the Buddha's gnosis is disclosed."[224]
It seems that from the 11th century onwards, Amitabha and Sukhavati became increasingly popular, and this pure land became the most widespread destination sought by Pure Land rituals and contemplations.[225] Amitabha-focused tantric practices seem to have become widespread at least partly due to the efforts of the Indian tantric scholar Jitāri / Jetari.[225] One of these practices was popularized by the Sakya school and was a contemplation that one performed just before falling asleep, in which one visualized Sukhavati and the Buddha Amitabha. This "sleep-meditation" (nyal-bsgom) continues to be transmitted in the Sakya school until the present day.[226]
One of the simplest popular practices which Tibetan Buddhists consider to lead to rebirth in Sukhavati is the recitation of the six syllable mantra (om mani padme hum) of Avalokitesvara. According to Lama Zopa, this mantra can lead to Avalokitesvara's Potala Pure Land or Sukhavati.[227]
Pure Land works based on Amitabha are found in various other Tibetan textual collections, such as in the compositions of Tibetan masters like Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361), Namchö Mingyur Dorje (1645–1667) and Karma Chagme (1613–1678).[228] Dolpopa is known to have written a commentary on the Larger Sukhāvatīvyuha sutra entitled The supreme means whereby self and others may be reborn in Sukhāvatī.[226] According to Georgios T. Halkias, Mingyur Dorje's Namcho Terma Cycle "contains a unique assortment of ritual practices devoted exclusively to the realization of Sukhāvatī" called The Means of Attaining the Sukhāvatī Kṣetra, which "represents the most original and systematic anthology of Tibetan Pure Land rituals to date."[229] This terma includes phowa practices and extensive visualization exercises where the main mandala is Sukhavati.[230]
The esoteric practice of phowa (mind transference, Sanskrit: *saṃkrānti) is a unique part of Tibetan Pure Land practice which is found in various terma (revealed treasure) works like The Standing Blade of Grass (Tib. 'Pho-ba 'Jag-tshug ma) by the Nyingma master Nyida Sangye (14th century) and Namchö Mingyur Dorje's Namcho Terma.[219][230] Phowa is an esoteric technique which ejects the mind stream through the crown of the head directly to Sukhavati at the moment of death.[231] This technique is found as one of the Six Dharmas of Naropa.[232] Since phowa specialists are said to be able to guide the minds of other people at death to Sukhavati, phowa also became a popular ritual that came to be performed for the dying by lamas.[231]
Another important tradition in Tibetan Buddhism are tantric practices based around Amitayus (another name for Amitabha, meaning Infinite Life) which focuses on the longevity and life-giving powers of this Buddha.[233]
There are many other treasure texts (termas) associated with Pure Land practice[234] and tertön Longsal Nyingpo (1625–1682/92 or 1685–1752) of Katok Monastery revealed a terma on the pure land.[235]
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