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Historia de Corea

El Paleolítico Inferior en la península de Corea y en Manchuria comenzó hace aproximadamente medio millón de años. [1] [2] [3] La cerámica coreana más antigua conocida data de alrededor del 8000 a. C. y el Neolítico comenzó después, seguido por la Edad del Bronce en el 2000 a. C., [4] [5] [6] y la Edad del Hierro alrededor del 700 a. C. Es probable que los pueblos del Paleolítico no sean los antepasados ​​directos del pueblo coreano actual, pero se cree que sus antepasados ​​directos son los pueblos del Neolítico de alrededor del 2000 a. C. [7]

Según el relato mítico relatado en el Samguk Yusa (1281), el reino de Gojoseon fue fundado en el norte de Corea y el sur de Manchuria en 2333 a. C. [8] [9] [10] El primer registro histórico escrito sobre Gojoseon se puede encontrar en el texto Guanzi , atribuible al siglo VII a. C. [11] [12] [13] El estado Jin se formó en el sur de Corea en el siglo III a. C. A fines del siglo II a. C., Gojoseon finalmente cayó ante la dinastía Han de China, lo que dio lugar a sucesivos estados en guerra, el período de los Proto-Tres Reinos .

Desde el siglo I a. C., Goguryeo , Baekje y Silla crecieron hasta controlar la península y Manchuria como los Tres Reinos de Corea (57 a. C.-668 d. C.), hasta la unificación por parte de Silla en 676. En 698, Dae Jo-young estableció Balhae en los antiguos territorios de Goguryeo, [14] [15] lo que condujo al período de los Estados del Norte y del Sur (698-926) con la coexistencia de Balhae y Silla.

A finales del siglo IX, Silla se dividió en los Tres Reinos Posteriores (892-936), que terminaron con la unificación de la dinastía Goryeo de Wang Kŏn . Mientras tanto, Balhae cayó después de las invasiones de la dinastía Liao liderada por los Kitán ; los refugiados que huyeron, incluido el último príncipe heredero , emigraron a Goryeo, donde fue absorbido por la familia gobernante, unificando así los dos estados sucesores de Goguryeo. [16] [17] Durante el período de Goryeo, se codificaron las leyes , se introdujo un sistema de servicio civil y floreció la cultura influenciada por el budismo . Sin embargo, las invasiones mongolas en el siglo XIII pusieron a Goryeo bajo la influencia del Imperio mongol y la dinastía Yuan de China hasta mediados del siglo XIV. [18] [19]

En 1392, el general Yi Seong-gye estableció la dinastía Joseon (1392-1897) después de un golpe de estado en 1388 que derrocó a la dinastía Goryeo. El rey Sejong el Grande (1418-1450) implementó numerosas reformas administrativas, sociales, científicas y económicas, estableció la autoridad real en los primeros años de la dinastía y creó personalmente el Hangul , el alfabeto coreano. [20]

Después de disfrutar de un período de paz durante casi dos siglos, la dinastía Joseon enfrentó invasiones extranjeras desde 1592 hasta 1637. La más notable de estas fueron las invasiones japonesas de Corea . [21] La fuerza combinada de la dinastía Ming de China y la dinastía Joseon (cuya flota naval fue liderada con éxito por el almirante Yi Sun-sin ) repelió estas invasiones japonesas, pero a un costo para ambos países. A partir de entonces, Joseon gradualmente se volvió cada vez más aislacionista y estancada con frecuentes luchas internas.

A mediados del siglo XIX, con el país reacio a modernizarse y bajo la invasión de las potencias europeas , la Corea de Joseon se vio obligada a firmar tratados desiguales con potencias extranjeras. Después del asesinato de la emperatriz Myeongseong por mercenarios japoneses en 1895, la Revolución Campesina Donghak y las Reformas Gabo de 1894 a 1896 , nació el Imperio coreano (1897-1910), anunciando un breve pero rápido período de reforma social y modernización. Sin embargo, en 1905, el Imperio coreano se vio obligado a firmar un tratado de protectorado y en 1910, Japón anexó efectivamente el Imperio coreano ; los tratados involucrados fueron confirmados más tarde como nulos y sin valor. Corea se convirtió entonces en una colonia japonesa de facto entre 1910 y 1945. La resistencia coreana se manifestó en el generalizado Movimiento del 1 de Marzo de 1919. A partir de entonces, los movimientos de resistencia , coordinados por el Gobierno Provisional de la República de Corea en el exilio, se volvieron ampliamente activos en la vecina Manchuria, China propiamente dicha y Siberia .

Tras el fin de la Segunda Guerra Mundial en 1945, los aliados dividieron el país en una zona norte (protegida por los soviéticos ) y una zona sur (protegida principalmente por los Estados Unidos ). En 1948, cuando las grandes potencias no lograron ponerse de acuerdo sobre la formación de un gobierno único, esta partición se convirtió en los estados modernos de Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur. La península quedó dividida en el paralelo 38 : se creó la « República de Corea » en el sur, con el apoyo de los EE. UU. y Europa Occidental, y la « República Popular Democrática de Corea » en el norte, con el apoyo de los soviéticos y la República Popular China comunista . El nuevo primer ministro de Corea del Norte, Kim Il Sung , lanzó la Guerra de Corea en 1950 en un intento de reunificar el país bajo el régimen comunista . Después de una inmensa destrucción material y humana, el conflicto terminó con un alto el fuego en 1953. En 1991, ambos estados fueron aceptados en las Naciones Unidas . En 2018, las dos naciones acordaron trabajar hacia una solución final para poner fin formalmente al conflicto coreano y promover la prosperidad común y la reunificación de Corea.

Aunque ambos países estuvieron esencialmente bajo un régimen autoritario después de la guerra, Corea del Sur acabó liberalizándose . Desde 1987 ha tenido un sistema electoral competitivo. La economía surcoreana ha prosperado y ahora se considera que el país está plenamente desarrollado. Corea del Norte ha mantenido un régimen totalitario militarizado , con un culto a la personalidad construido en torno a la familia Kim . Económicamente, Corea del Norte ha seguido dependiendo en gran medida de la ayuda extranjera .

Prehistoria

Paleolítico

Jarra de barro coreana con patrón de peine; fabricada en el año 4000 a. C., Amsa-dong , Seúl , actualmente en el Museo Británico

No se ha encontrado ningún fósil que se haya demostrado que es del Homo erectus en la península de Corea , [22] aunque se ha informado de un candidato. [2] Se han encontrado artefactos para fabricar herramientas del período Paleolítico en las actuales provincias de Hamgyong del Norte , Pyongan del Sur , Gyeonggi y Chungcheong del Norte y del Sur , [23] lo que data la Era Paleolítica hace medio millón de años, [5] aunque puede haber comenzado tan tarde como hace 400.000 años [1] o tan temprano como hace 600.000-700.000 años. [2] [3]

Neolítico

La cerámica coreana más antigua conocida data de alrededor del 8000 a. C. [24] y se encuentran evidencias de la cultura de cerámica de hoyo-peine del Mesolítico (o cerámica Yunggimun ) en toda la península, como en la isla de Jeju . La cerámica de Jeulmun , o "cerámica con patrón de peine", se encuentra después del 7000 a. C. y se concentra en sitios en las regiones centro-occidentales de la península de Corea, donde existían varios asentamientos prehistóricos, como Amsa-dong . La cerámica de Jeulmun tiene similitudes básicas de diseño y forma con la de Mongolia , las cuencas de los ríos Amur y Songhua de Manchuria , la cultura Jōmon en Japón y la Baiyue en el sur de China y el sudeste asiático . [25] [26]

La evidencia arqueológica demuestra que las sociedades agrícolas y las primeras formas de complejidad sociopolítica surgieron en el período de cerámica Mumun (c. 1500-300 a. C.). [27]

Los habitantes del sur de Corea adoptaron una agricultura intensiva de secano y arrozales con una multitud de cultivos en el Período Mumun Temprano (1500–850 a. C.). Las primeras sociedades lideradas por grandes hombres o jefes surgieron en el Período Mumun Medio (850–550 a. C.), y los primeros entierros ostentosos de la élite se remontan al Período Mumun Tardío (c. 550–300 a. C.). La producción de bronce comenzó en el Período Mumun Medio y adquirió cada vez mayor importancia en la sociedad ceremonial y política después del 700 a. C. La evidencia arqueológica de Songguk-ri , Daepyeong , Igeum-dong y otros lugares indica que la era Mumun fue la primera en la que surgieron, se expandieron y colapsaron los cacicazgos. La creciente presencia del comercio a larga distancia, un aumento de los conflictos locales y la introducción de la metalurgia del bronce y el hierro son tendencias que denotan el final del Período Mumun alrededor del 300 a. C. [27]

Además, se han encontrado 73 tumbas similares a las encontradas en Japón, que se estima que datan de Gojoseon (100 a. C.), en el extremo sur de la península de Corea, y el descubrimiento de entierros en jarras sugiere una estrecha relación con Japón, [28] y Gojoseon, lo que demuestra que Gojoseon y el Japón del período Yayoi mantuvieron estrechas relaciones entre sí incluso durante la antigüedad.

Edad del Bronce

Se cree que la Edad del Bronce en Corea comenzó alrededor del 900-800 a. C., [5] aunque la transición a la Edad del Bronce puede haber comenzado ya en el 2300 a. C. [6] Se han encontrado dagas, espejos, joyas y armas de bronce, así como evidencia de sistemas políticos de ciudades amuralladas. Se cultivaban arroz, frijoles rojos, soja y mijo, y se encuentran casas-foso rectangulares y lugares de enterramiento en dólmenes cada vez más grandes en toda la península. [29] Los registros contemporáneos sugieren que Gojoseon pasó de ser una federación feudal de ciudades amuralladas a un reino centralizado al menos antes del siglo IV a. C. [30] Se cree que hacia el siglo IV a. C., la cultura del hierro se estaba desarrollando en Corea por influencia del norte a través de la actual Provincia Marítima de Rusia. [31] [32]

Corea antigua

Corea en el año 108 a. C.
Espada de la Edad del Bronce de Corea. Seúl, Museo Nacional de Corea

Gojoseon

Gojoseon fue el primer reino coreano , situado en el norte de la península y Manchuria, más tarde junto al estado de Jin en el sur de la península.

La leyenda fundadora de Gojoseon, que está registrada en el Samguk Yusa (1281) y otros libros medievales coreanos, [33] afirma que el país fue establecido en 2333 a. C. por Dangun , que se dice que descendió del cielo. [34] Si bien no se ha encontrado evidencia que respalde los hechos que puedan estar detrás de esto, [35] [36] el relato ha jugado un papel importante en el desarrollo de la identidad nacional coreana.

En el siglo XII a. C., Gija , un príncipe de la dinastía Shang de China, supuestamente fundó Gija Joseon . En la Corea premoderna, Gija representaba la presencia autenticada de la civilización china, y hasta el siglo XX, los coreanos creían comúnmente que Dangun le otorgó a Corea su gente y cultura básica, mientras que Gija le dio a Corea su alta cultura y, presumiblemente, su posición como civilización legítima. [37] Sin embargo, debido a evidencia histórica y arqueológica contradictoria, su existencia fue cuestionada en el siglo XX, y hoy ya no forma parte de la comprensión general de este período.

El reino histórico de Gojoseon fue mencionado por primera vez en el registro chino en un texto llamado Guanzi , atribuido al siglo VII a. C. [11] [12] [13] Alrededor del siglo IV a. C., Gojoseon se había desarrollado hasta el punto en que su existencia era bien conocida en China, [38] [39] y alrededor de esta época, su capital se trasladó a Pyongyang . [40] [41]

En 194 a. C., el rey de Gojoseon fue derrocado por Wi Man (también conocido como Wei Man), un refugiado chino-coreano del estado vasallo Han de Yan . Wi Man luego estableció Wiman Joseon . [42] [43]

En el año 128 a. C., Nan Lü (南閭), un líder de Ye que estaba recibiendo presión de Wiman Joseon , se rindió a la dinastía Han y se convirtió en la Comandancia de Canghai . [44] [45]

Comandancias chinas

En el año 108 a. C., la dinastía Han china derrotó a Wiman Joseon e instaló cuatro comandancias en el norte de la península de Corea. [46] Tres de las comandancias cayeron o se retiraron hacia el oeste en unas pocas décadas, pero la comandancia Lelang permaneció como un centro de intercambio cultural y económico con sucesivas dinastías chinas durante cuatro siglos, hasta que fue conquistada por Goguryeo en el año 313 d. C.

Las Cuatro Comandancias de Han , establecidas en el antiguo territorio de Gojoseon después de la caída de Wiman Joseon. [47] La ​​ubicación de las comandancias se ha convertido en un tema controvertido en Corea en los últimos años. [48] Sin embargo, la ubicación de las comandancias no es controvertida fuera de Corea. [nota 1]

Estado de Jin

Alrededor del año 300 a. C., surgió un estado llamado Jin en la parte sur de la península de Corea. Se sabe muy poco sobre Jin, pero estableció relaciones con la China Han y exportó artefactos a los Yayoi de Japón . [49] [50] [51] Alrededor del año 100 a. C., Jin evolucionó hasta convertirse en las confederaciones Samhan . [52]

Muchos estados más pequeños surgieron del antiguo territorio de Gojoseon, como Buyeo , Okjeo , Dongye , Goguryeo y Baekje . Los Tres Reinos se refieren a Goguryeo , Baekje y Silla , aunque Buyeo y la confederación de Gaya existieron hasta los siglos V y VI respectivamente.

Proto-Tres Reinos

Proto-Tres Reinos, c. 1 d. C.
Hebilla de oro del período de los Proto-Tres Reinos

El período de los Proto-Tres Reinos, a veces llamado el Período de Varios Estados (열국시대,列國時代), [53] es el tiempo anterior al surgimiento de los Tres Reinos de Corea , que incluían Goguryeo , Silla y Baekje , y ocurrió después de la caída de Gojoseon . Este período de tiempo consistió en numerosos estados que surgieron de los antiguos territorios de Gojoseon. Entre estos estados, los más grandes e influyentes fueron Buyeo Oriental y Buyeo del Norte .

Estados del norte

Después de la caída de Gojoseon , Buyeo surgió en la actual Corea del Norte y el sur de Manchuria , desde aproximadamente el siglo II a. C. hasta el 494 d. C. Sus restos fueron absorbidos por Goguryeo en el 494, y tanto Goguryeo como Baekje , dos de los Tres Reinos de Corea , se consideraron sus sucesores. [54]

Aunque los registros son escasos y contradictorios, se cree que en el año 86 a. C., Dongbuyeo (Buyeo oriental) se ramificó, tras lo cual a veces se hace referencia al Buyeo original como Bukbuyeo (Buyeo del norte). Jolbon Buyeo fue el predecesor de Goguryeo , y en 538, Baekje cambió su nombre a Nambuyeo (Buyeo del sur). [55]

Okjeo era un estado tribal que se encontraba en el norte de la península de Corea y se estableció después de la caída de Gojoseon. Okjeo había sido parte de Gojoseon antes de su caída. Nunca llegó a convertirse en un reino completamente desarrollado debido a la intervención de sus reinos vecinos. Okjeo se convirtió en un tributario de Goguryeo y finalmente fue anexado a Goguryeo por Gwanggaeto el Grande en el siglo V. [56]

Dongye (Ye Oriental) era otro pequeño reino situado en el norte de la península de Corea . Dongye limitaba con Okjeo y los dos reinos corrían el mismo destino de convertirse en tributarios del creciente imperio de Goguryeo . Dongye también era una antigua parte de Gojoseon antes de su caída. [57]

Estados del sur

Sam-han (삼한, 三韓) se refiere a las tres confederaciones de Mahan , Jinhan y Byeonhan . El Samhan estaba ubicado en la región sur de la península de Corea . [58] Los países Samhan estaban gobernados estrictamente por la ley, y la religión desempeñaba un papel importante. Mahan era el más grande, compuesto por 54 estados, y asumió el dominio político, económico y cultural. Byeonhan y Jinhan constaban de 12 estados, lo que sumaba un total de 78 estados dentro del Samhan. El Samhan finalmente fue conquistado por Baekje , Silla y Gaya en el siglo IV. [59]

Tres reinos de Corea

Goguryeo

Goguryeo en su apogeo, en el año 476 d. C.
Pintura de enviados de los Tres Reinos de Corea a la corte Tang : Silla, Baekje y Goguryeo. Retratos de ofrendas periódicas , dinastía Tang del siglo VII
Embajadores coreanos ( Goguryeo ) durante una audiencia con el rey Varkhuman de Samarcanda . Se los identifica por las dos plumas que tienen en la parte superior de la cabeza. [60] 648–651 d. C., murales de Afrasiab , Samarcanda. [61] [62]

Goguryeo fue fundado en el año 37 a. C. por Jumong (a quien se le concedió póstumamente el título real de Dongmyeongseong). [63] Más tarde, el rey Taejo centralizó el gobierno. Goguryeo fue el primer reino coreano en adoptar el budismo como religión estatal en el año 372, durante el reinado del rey Sosurim . [64] [65]

Goguryeo (también escrito como Koguryŏ ) también era conocido como Goryeo (también escrito como Koryŏ ), y eventualmente se convirtió en la fuente del nombre moderno de Corea. [66]

Los siglos III y IV se caracterizaron por la competencia territorial con los chinos y los xianbei, lo que resultó en pérdidas y ganancias. Goguryeo inició la Guerra Goguryeo-Wei al atacar una fortaleza china en 242 en un intento de cortar el acceso chino a sus territorios en Corea. Cao Wei de los Tres Reinos de China tomó represalias invadiendo y destruyendo Hwando en 244. Esto obligó al rey a huir con Cao Wei en su persecución y rompió el gobierno de Goguryeo sobre Okjeo y Ye, dañando su economía. El rey finalmente se instaló en una nueva capital, y Goguryeo se centró en la reconstrucción y la recuperación del control. A principios del siglo IV Goguryeo atacó una vez más a los chinos (ahora Sima Jin ) para cortar su acceso a Corea y esta vez tuvo éxito, y poco después conquistó Lelang y Daifang, poniendo fin a la presencia china en Corea. Sin embargo, la expansión de Goguryeo condujo a una confrontación con los xianbeis en ascenso. Los xianbeis devastaron la capital de Goguryeo a mediados del siglo IV y el rey se retiró. Goguryeo finalmente se reagrupó y comenzó a contraatacar a fines del siglo IV con el rey Gogukyang, que culminó con las conquistas de Gwanggaeto el Grande. [67] [68]

Goguryeo alcanzó su apogeo en el siglo V, convirtiéndose en un poderoso imperio y una de las grandes potencias del este de Asia, [69] [70] [71] [72] cuando Gwanggaeto el Grande y su hijo, Jangsu , expandieron el país a casi toda Manchuria, partes de Mongolia Interior, [73] partes de Rusia, [74] y tomaron la actual ciudad de Seúl de Baekje. [73] Goguryeo experimentó una época dorada bajo Gwanggaeto y Jangsu, [75] [76] [77] [78] quienes sometieron a Baekje y Silla durante sus tiempos, logrando una breve unificación de los Tres Reinos de Corea y convirtiéndose en la potencia más dominante de la península de Corea. [64] [73] [79] El largo reinado de Jangsu de 79 años vio el perfeccionamiento de los arreglos políticos, económicos y otros arreglos institucionales de Goguryeo. [80]

Goguryeo era un estado altamente militarista; [81] [82] además de disputar el control de la península de Corea, Goguryeo tuvo muchos conflictos militares con varias dinastías chinas, [83] más notablemente la Guerra Goguryeo-Sui , en la que Goguryeo derrotó a una enorme fuerza que tradicionalmente se dice que contaba con más de un millón de hombres, [nota 2] y contribuyó a la caída de la dinastía Sui . [84] [85] [86] [87] [88]

En 642, el poderoso general Yeon Gaesomun lideró un golpe de estado y obtuvo el control completo sobre Goguryeo. En respuesta, el emperador Taizong de la China Tang dirigió una campaña contra Goguryeo , pero fue derrotado y se retiró. [83] [89] [90] [91] Después de la muerte de Taizong, su hijo Gaozong se alió con el reino coreano de Silla e invadió Goguryeo nuevamente, pero no pudo superar las firmes defensas de Goguryeo y fue derrotado en 662. [92] [93] Sin embargo, Yeon Gaesomun murió de una causa natural en 666 y Goguryeo se vio sumido en el caos y debilitado por una lucha de sucesión entre sus hijos y su hermano menor, [94] [95] con su hijo mayor desertando a Tang y su hermano menor desertando a Silla. [96] La alianza Tang-Silla organizó una nueva invasión en 667, con la ayuda del desertor Yeon Namsaeng, y finalmente pudo conquistar Goguryeo en 668. [97] [98]

Tras el colapso de Goguryeo, Tang y Silla pusieron fin a su alianza y lucharon por el control de la península de Corea . Silla logró hacerse con el control de la mayor parte de la península de Corea, mientras que Tang consiguió el control de los territorios del norte de Goguryeo. Sin embargo, 30 años después de la caída de Goguryeo, un general de Goguryeo llamado Dae Jo-yeong fundó el estado coreano-mohe de Balhae y expulsó con éxito la presencia de Tang de gran parte de los antiguos territorios de Goguryeo.

Baekje

Quemador de incienso de bronce dorado de Baekje

Baekje fue fundada por Onjo , un príncipe de Goguryeo y el tercer hijo de Jumong, el fundador de Goguryeo, en el año 18 a. C. [99] Baekje y Goguryeo compartían mitos fundacionales y se originaron en Buyeo . [100] Los Registros de los Tres Reinos mencionan a Baekje como miembro de la confederación Mahan en la cuenca del río Han (cerca de la actual Seúl ). Se expandió hacia el suroeste ( provincias de Chungcheong y Jeolla ) de la península y se convirtió en una importante potencia política y militar. En el proceso, Baekje entró en una feroz confrontación con Goguryeo y las comandancias chinas en las cercanías de sus ambiciones territoriales.

En su apogeo en el siglo IV durante el reinado del rey Geunchogo , Baekje absorbió todos los estados Mahan y subyugó la mayor parte de la península de Corea occidental (incluidas las provincias modernas de Gyeonggi , Chungcheong y Jeolla , así como parte de Hwanghae y Gangwon ) a un gobierno centralizado. Baekje adquirió la cultura y la tecnología chinas a través de contactos marítimos con las dinastías del sur durante la expansión de su territorio. [101]

Baekje fue una gran potencia marítima; [102] su habilidad náutica, que la convirtió en la Fenicia del Este de Asia, fue fundamental en la difusión del budismo en todo el Este de Asia y de la cultura continental a Japón. [103] [104] Baekje jugó un papel fundamental en la transmisión de desarrollos culturales, como los caracteres chinos , el budismo , la fabricación de hierro, la cerámica avanzada y el entierro ceremonial al antiguo Japón . [72] [105] [106] [107] [108 ] [109] [110] Otros aspectos de la cultura también se transmitieron cuando la corte de Baekje se retiró a Japón después de que Baekje fuera conquistada por la alianza Silla-Tang.

Baekje fue una vez una gran potencia militar en la península de Corea, especialmente durante la época de Geunchogo , [111] pero fue derrotada críticamente por Gwanggaeto el Grande y declinó. [112] [ fuente autoeditada ] Finalmente, Baekje fue derrotada por una coalición de fuerzas de Silla y Tang en 660. [113]

Silla

Réplica reducida de la famosa pagoda de 80 metros de altura del templo Hwangnyongsa que fue destruida por los mongoles
La pagoda del templo Bunhwangsa , 634 d. C., que alguna vez tuvo entre siete y nueve pisos de altura, pero que se derrumbó a su estado actual de tres pisos.

Según la leyenda, el reino de Silla comenzó con la unificación de seis cacicazgos de la confederación Jinhan por Park Hyeokgeose en el año 57 a. C., en la zona sureste de Corea. [114] Su territorio incluía la actual ciudad portuaria de Busan , y Silla emergió más tarde como una potencia marítima responsable de destruir a los piratas japoneses, especialmente durante el período de Silla Unificada . [115]

Los artefactos de Silla, incluyendo trabajos en metal dorado únicos, muestran influencia de las estepas nómadas del norte y de los pueblos iraníes y especialmente de los persas , con menos influencia china que la que muestran Goguryeo y Baekje. [116] Silla se expandió rápidamente al ocupar la cuenca del río Nakdong y unificar las ciudades-estado.

En el siglo II, Silla era un gran estado que ocupaba e influía en las ciudades-estado cercanas. Silla ganó más poder cuando se anexionó la confederación de Gaya en 562. Silla a menudo enfrentó la presión de Goguryeo, Baekje y Japón, y en varias ocasiones se alió y combatió con Baekje y Goguryeo .

Silla era el más pequeño y débil de los Tres Reinos de Corea , pero utilizó astutos medios diplomáticos para hacer pactos y alianzas oportunistas con los reinos coreanos más poderosos, y eventualmente con la China Tang, para su gran beneficio. [117] [118]

En 660, el rey Muyeol de Silla ordenó a sus ejércitos atacar Baekje. El general Kim Yu-shin , ayudado por las fuerzas Tang , conquistó Baekje. En 661, Silla y Tang avanzaron hacia Goguryeo, pero fueron repelidos. El rey Munmu , hijo de Muyeol y sobrino de Kim, lanzó otra campaña en 667 y Goguryeo cayó al año siguiente. [119]

Gaya

Corona y accesorios de oro. Tesoro Nacional No.138.

Gaya fue una confederación de pequeños reinos en el valle del río Nakdong , en el sur de Corea , desde el año 42 d. C., que surgió de la confederación Byeonhan del período Samhan . Las llanuras de Gaya eran ricas en hierro, por lo que la exportación de herramientas de hierro era posible y la agricultura florecía. En los primeros siglos, la Confederación estaba liderada por Geumgwan Gaya en la región de Gimhae . Sin embargo, su poder principal pasó a manos de Daegaya en la región de Goryeong después del siglo V.

Gaya, que estuvo constantemente en guerra con los tres reinos que la rodeaban, no logró desarrollarse hasta formar un estado unificado y finalmente fue absorbida por Silla en 562. [120]

Estados del Norte y del Sur

El término Estados Norte-Sur se refiere a Silla Unificada y Balhae , durante la época en que Silla controlaba la mayor parte de la península de Corea mientras Balhae se expandía hacia Manchuria . Durante esta época, la cultura y la tecnología avanzaron significativamente, especialmente en Silla Unificada.

Silla Unificada

Bulguksa
El templo de Bulguksa es Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO

Después de las guerras de unificación, la dinastía Tang estableció puestos de avanzada en la antigua Goguryeo y comenzó a establecer y administrar comunidades en Baekje . Silla atacó a las fuerzas Tang en Baekje y el norte de Corea en 671. Tang invadió Silla en 674, pero Silla expulsó a las fuerzas Tang de la península en 676 para lograr la unificación de la mayor parte de la península de Corea. [121]

La Silla Unificada fue una época dorada del arte y la cultura. [122] [123] [124] [125] Durante este período, el comercio a larga distancia entre la Silla Unificada y el Califato Abasí fue documentado por el geógrafo persa Ibn Khordadbeh en el Libro de los Caminos y los Reinos . [126] Los monasterios budistas como los sitios Patrimonio de la Humanidad Templo Bulguksa y Gruta Seokguram son ejemplos de arquitectura coreana avanzada e influencia budista. [127] Otro arte y arquitectura patrocinados por el estado de este período incluyen el Templo Hwangnyongsa y el Templo Bunhwangsa . La Silla Unificada continuó con la destreza marítima de Baekje , que actuó como la Fenicia del Asia Oriental medieval , [128] y durante los siglos VIII y IX dominó los mares del Asia Oriental y el comercio entre China, Corea y Japón, más notablemente durante la época de Jang Bogo ; Además, el pueblo de Silla creó comunidades de ultramar en China, en la península de Shandong y en la desembocadura del río Yangtze . [129] [130] [131] [132] La Silla unificada era un país próspero y rico, [133] y su capital metropolitana de Gyeongju [134] era la cuarta ciudad más grande del mundo. [135] [136] [137] [138]

El budismo floreció durante este tiempo, y muchos budistas coreanos ganaron gran fama entre los budistas chinos [139] y contribuyeron al budismo chino, [140] incluyendo: Woncheuk , Wonhyo , Uisang , Musang , [141] [142] [143] [144] y Kim Gyo-gak , un príncipe de Silla cuya influencia hizo del Monte Jiuhua una de las Cuatro Montañas Sagradas del Budismo chino. [145] [146] [147] [148] [149]

A finales del siglo VIII, Silla comenzó a experimentar problemas políticos, lo que debilitó gravemente a Silla y, poco después, los descendientes de la antigua Baekje fundaron la Baekje Posterior . En el norte, los rebeldes revivieron Goguryeo y dieron comienzo al período de los Tres Reinos Posteriores .

La Silla unificada duró 267 años hasta que el rey Gyeongsun entregó el país a Goryeo en 935, después de 992 años y 56 monarcas. [150]

Balhae

Balhae en el norte, Silla Unificada en el sur.
Estela de Balhae en el Museo Nacional de Corea

Balhae fue fundada solo treinta años después de la caída de Goguryeo, en 698. Fue fundada en la parte norte de las antiguas tierras de Goguryeo por Dae Jo-yeong , un ex general de Goguryeo [151] [152] o jefe de Sumo Mohe. [153] [154] [155] Balhae controlaba las áreas del norte de la península de Corea , gran parte de Manchuria (aunque no ocupó la península de Liaodong durante gran parte de la historia) y se expandió hasta el actual Krai de Primorie ruso . También adoptó la cultura de la dinastía Tang , como la estructura de gobierno y el sistema geopolítico. [156]

En una época de relativa paz y estabilidad en la región, Balhae floreció, especialmente durante los reinados del rey Mun y el rey Seon . Balhae fue llamado el "País Próspero del Este". [157] Sin embargo, Balhae se vio severamente debilitado y finalmente conquistado por la dinastía Liao liderada por Khitan en 926. [156] Goryeo dio la bienvenida a un gran número de refugiados, incluido Dae Gwang-hyeon , el último príncipe heredero de Balhae. [16] [158] Dae Gwang-hyeon fue incluido en la familia imperial de Wang Kŏn , lo que trajo consigo una unificación nacional entre las dos naciones sucesoras de Goguryeo. [17]

No han sobrevivido registros históricos de Balhae, y los Liao no dejaron historias de Balhae. Goryeo absorbió parte del territorio de Balhae, dio la bienvenida a entre 100.000 y 200.000 refugiados de Balhae, incluido su príncipe heredero Dae Gwang-hyeon , y mantuvo relaciones hostiles con los Liao por destruir Balhae. [159] [160] [161] [162] [163] Sin embargo, el registro histórico oficial de Goryeo, el Samguk Sagi ("Historia de los Tres Reinos"), incluye pasajes sobre Balhae, pero no incluyó una historia dinástica de Balhae. Balhae fue incluido por primera vez en la historia de Corea por el erudito de Goryeo Yi Seung-hyu en Jewang ungi en 1287. El historiador de la dinastía Joseon del siglo XVIII Yu Deuk-gong abogó por el estudio adecuado de Balhae como parte de la historia de Corea y acuñó el término "Período de los Estados del Norte y del Sur" para referirse a esta era. [156]

Los Tres Reinos Posteriores

El período de los Tres Reinos Posteriores (892-936) consistió en la unificación de Silla y el resurgimiento de Baekje y Goguryeo , conocidos historiográficamente como "Baekje Posterior" y "Goguryeo Posterior". A finales del siglo IX, cuando Silla perdió poder y se impusieron impuestos exorbitantes al pueblo, estallaron rebeliones en todo el país y poderosos señores regionales se alzaron contra el reino en decadencia. [164]

Baekje fue fundada por el general Kyŏn Hwŏn en 892, y su capital se estableció en Wansanju (actual Jeonju ). El reino estaba basado en las regiones del suroeste en los antiguos territorios de Baekje. En 927, Baekje atacó Gyeongju , la capital de Silla Unificada, y colocó a un títere en el trono. Finalmente, Kyŏn Hwŏn fue derrocado por sus hijos debido a una disputa sucesoria y escapó a Goryeo, donde sirvió como general en la conquista del reino que él mismo fundó. [165]

Más tarde, Goguryeo fue fundada por el monje budista Kung Ye en 901, y su capital original se estableció en Songak (la moderna Kaesong ). El reino estaba basado en las regiones del norte, que eran los bastiones de los refugiados de Goguryeo. [166] [160] Más tarde, el nombre de Goguryeo fue cambiado a Majin en 904, y Taebong en 911. En 918, Wang Kŏn , un general prominente de ascendencia de Goguryeo, depuso al cada vez más despótico y paranoico Kung Ye, y estableció Goryeo . En 936, Goryeo conquistó a sus rivales y logró la unificación de los Tres Reinos Posteriores. [167]

Dinastía Goryeo

Quemador de incienso de celadón de la dinastía coreana Goryeo (918-1392), con esmalte de color martín pescador

Goryeo fue fundada por Wang Kŏn en 918 y se convirtió en la dinastía gobernante de Corea en 936. Se llamó "Goryeo" porque Wang Kŏn, que era descendiente de Goguryeo, [168] consideró a la nación como la sucesora de Goguryeo . [158] [169] [170] [171] [172] [173] Wang Kŏn hizo de su ciudad natal Kaesong (en la actual Corea del Norte) la capital. La dinastía duró hasta 1392, aunque el gobierno estuvo controlado por líderes del régimen militar entre 1170 y 1270. Goryeo (también escrito como Koryŏ) es la fuente del nombre en inglés "Korea". [174] [175]

Durante este período, se codificaron las leyes y se introdujo un sistema de servicio civil. El budismo floreció y se extendió por toda la península. El desarrollo de la cerámica celadón floreció en los siglos XII y XIII. [176] [177] La ​​producción de la Tripitaka Koreana en 81.258 bloques de impresión de madera, [178] y la invención de los tipos móviles de metal dan testimonio de los logros culturales de Goryeo. [179] [180] [181] [182] [183]

En 1018, la dinastía Liao , que era el imperio más poderoso de su tiempo, [184] [185] invadió Goryeo pero fue derrotada por el general Kang Kam-ch'an en la batalla de Kuju para poner fin a la guerra Goryeo-Khitan . Después de derrotar al Imperio Khitan, Goryeo experimentó una edad de oro que duró un siglo, durante la cual se completó la Tripitaka Koreana , y hubo grandes avances en la impresión y publicación, promoviendo el aprendizaje y difundiendo el conocimiento sobre filosofía, literatura, religión y ciencia; para 1100, había 12 universidades que produjeron famosos eruditos y científicos. [186] [187]

En 1231, los mongoles comenzaron sus invasiones de Corea durante siete campañas importantes y 39 años de lucha, pero no pudieron conquistar Corea. [188] Agotado después de décadas de lucha, Goryeo envió a su príncipe heredero a Dadu para jurar lealtad a la dinastía Yuan ; Kublai Khan aceptó y casó a una de sus hijas con el príncipe heredero coreano, [188] y durante los siguientes 80 años Goryeo existió bajo el señorío de la dinastía Yuan gobernada por los mongoles en China . [189] [190] Las dos naciones se entrelazaron durante 80 años ya que todos los reyes coreanos posteriores se casaron con princesas mongolas, [188] y la última emperatriz de la dinastía Yuan fue una mujer coreana. [191] [ fuente autopublicada ]

In the 1350s, the Yuan dynasty declined rapidly due to internal struggles, enabling King Gongmin to reform the Goryeo government.[192] Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, including the removal of pro-Yuan aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars.[193] During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered Liaoyang in 1356, repulsed two large invasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General Ch'oe Yŏng defeated an invading Yuan tumen in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the Wokou menace and used naval artillery created by Ch'oe Mu-sŏn to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships.

The Goryeo dynasty would last until 1392. Yi Seong-gye, the founder of the Joseon dynasty, took power in a coup in 1388 and after serving as the power behind the throne for two monarchs, established the Joseon dynasty in 1392.[194]

Joseon dynasty

King Taejo's portrait
Donggwoldo

Political history

In 1392, the general Yi Seong-gye, later known as Taejo, established the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897), named in honor of the ancient kingdom Gojoseon,[12][195][note 3] and founded on idealistic Confucianism-based ideology.[196] The prevailing philosophy throughout the Joseon dynasty was Neo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by the seonbi class, scholars who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity.

Taejo moved the capital to Hanyang (modern-day Seoul) and built Gyeongbok Palace. In 1394 he adopted Neo-Confucianism as the country's official religion, and pursued the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. His son and grandson, King Taejong and Sejong the Great, implemented numerous administrative, social, and economic reforms and established royal authority in the early years of the dynasty.[197]

During the 15th and 16th centuries, Joseon enjoyed many benevolent rulers who promoted education and science.[198] Most notable among them was Sejong the Great (r. 1418–50), who personally created and promulgated Hangul, the Korean alphabet.[199] This golden age[198] saw great cultural and scientific advancements,[200] including in printing, meteorological observation, astronomy, calendar science, ceramics, military technology, geography, cartography, medicine, and agricultural technology, some of which were unrivaled elsewhere.[201]

Internal conflicts within the royal court, civil unrest and other political struggles plagued the nation in the years that followed, worsened by the Japanese invasion of Korea between 1592 and 1598. Toyotomi Hideyoshi marshalled his forces and tried to invade the Asian continent through Korea, but was eventually repelled by the Korean military, with the assistance of the righteous armies and Chinese Ming dynasty. This war also saw the rise of the career of Admiral Lee Sun-sin with the turtle ship. As Korea was rebuilding, it had to repel invasions by the Manchu in 1627 and 1636. Internal politics were bitterly divided and settled by violence.[202] Historian JaHyun Kim Haboush, in the summary by her editor William Haboush in 2016, interpreted the decisive impact of the victories against the Japanese and Manchu invaders:

Out of this great war at the end of the 16th century and the Manchu invasions of 1627 and 1636–1637, Koreans emerged with a discernible sense of themselves as a distinct ethnic united by birth, language, and belief forged by this immense clash of the three great powers of East Asia ... Korea arrived at the brink of the seventeenth century as a nation.[203]

After the second Manchu invasion and stabilized relations with the new Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of external peace. However internally, the bitter and violent factional battles raged on. In the 18th century, King Yeongjo (r. 1724–76) and his grandson King Jeongjo (r. 1776–1800) led a new renaissance.[204] Yeongjo and Jeongjo reformed the tax system which grew the revenue stream into the treasury, strengthened the military and sponsored a revival of learning. The printing press was rejuvenated by using movable metal type; the number and quality of publications sharply increased. Jeongjo sponsored scholars from various factions to work in the Kyujanggak, or Inner Royal Library, established in 1776.[205]

19th century

Corruption in government and social unrest prevailed after 1776. The government attempted sweeping reforms in the late 19th century, but adhered to a strict isolationist policy, earning Korea the nickname "Hermit Kingdom". The policy had been established primarily for protection against Western imperialism, but soon the Joseon dynasty was forced to open trade, beginning an era leading into Japanese rule.[206]

The destabilization of the Korean nation may be said to have begun in the period of Sedo Jeongchi (Korean세도정치; Hanja勢道政治; lit. in-law politics) whereby, on the death of King Jeongjo of Joseon (r. 1776–1800), the 10-year-old Sunjo of Joseon (r. 1800–34) ascended the Korean throne, with the true power of the administration residing with his regent, Kim Jo-sun, as a representative of the Andong Kim clan. As a result, the disarray and blatant corruption in the Korean government, particularly in the three main areas of revenues – land tax, military service, and the state granary system – heaped additional hardship on the peasantry. Of special note is the corruption of the local functionaries (Hyangni), who could purchase an appointment as an administrator and so cloak their predations on the farmers with an aura of officialdom. Yangban families, formerly well-respected for their status as a noble class and being powerful both "socially and politically", were increasingly seen as little more than commoners unwilling to meet their responsibilities to their communities. Faced with increasing corruption in the government, brigandage of the disenfranchised (such as the mounted fire brigands, or Hwajok, and the boat-borne water brigands or Sujok) and exploited by the elite, many poor village folk sought to pool their resources, such as land, tools, and production, to survive. Despite the government effort in bringing an end to the practice of owning slaves in 1801, slavery in Korea remained legal until 1894.[207]

At this time, Catholic and Protestant missions were well tolerated among the nobles, most notably in and around the area of Seoul.[208] Animus and persecution by more conservative elements, the Pungyang Jo clan, took the lives of priests and followers, known as the Korean Martyrs, dissuading membership by the upper class. The peasants continued to be drawn to Christian egalitarianism, though mainly in urban and suburban areas. Arguably of greater influence were the religious teachings of Choe Je-u, (최제우, 崔濟愚, 1824–64) called "Donghak", which literally means Eastern Learning, and the religion became especially popular in rural areas. Themes of exclusionism (from foreign influences), nationalism, salvation and social consciousness were set to music, allowing illiterate farmers to understand and accept them more readily. Along with many other Koreans, Choe was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and the Anglo-French occupation of Beijing during the Second Opium War. He believed the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally. Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among peasant guerrillas, and Donghak spread all across Korea. Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Arrested in 1863 following the Jinju uprising led by Yu Kye-chun, Choe was charged with "misleading the people and sowing discord in society". Choe was executed in 1864, sending many of his followers into hiding in the mountains.[209]

Gojong of Korea (r. 1864–1907), enthroned at the age of 12, succeeded Cheoljong of Joseon (r. 1849–63). King Gojong's father, Heungseon Daewongun (Yi Ha-ung; 1820–98), ruled as the de facto regent and inaugurated far-ranging reforms to strengthen the central administration. Of special note was the decision to rebuild palace buildings and finance the project through additional levies on the population. Further inherited rule by a few elite ruling families was challenged by the adoption of a merit system for official appointments. In addition, Sowon – private academies – which threatened to develop a parallel system to the corrupt government and enjoyed special privileges and large landholdings, were taxed and repressed despite bitter opposition from Confucian scholars. Lastly, a policy of steadfast isolationism was enforced to staunch the increasing intrusion of Western thought and technology. He was impeached in 1873 and forced into retirement by the supporters of Empress Myeongseong, also called "Queen Min".[210]

Culture and society

One of the earliest photographs depicting yangban Koreans, taken in 1863

Korea's culture was based on the philosophy of Neo-Confucianism, which emphasizes morality, righteousness, and practical ethics. Wide interest in scholarly study resulted in the establishment of private academies and educational institutions. Many documents were written about history, geography, medicine, and Confucian principles. The arts flourished in painting, calligraphy, music, dance, and ceramics.[211]

The most notable cultural event of this era is the creation and promulgation of the Korean alphabet Hunmin jeongeom (later called Hangul) by Sejong the Great in 1446.[199] This period also saw various other cultural, scientific and technological advances.[212]

During Joseon dynasty, a social hierarchy system existed that greatly affected Korea's social development. The king and the royal family were atop the hereditary system, with the next tier being a class of civil or military officials and landowners known as yangban, who worked for the government and lived off the efforts of tenant farmers and slaves.

A middle class, jungin, were technical specialists such as scribes, medical officers, technicians in science-related fields, artists and musicians. Commoners, sangmin, constituted the largest class in Korea. They had obligations to pay taxes, provide labor, and serve in the military. By paying land taxes to the state, they were allowed to cultivate land and farm. The lowest class, cheonmin, included tenant farmers, slaves, entertainers, craftsmen, prostitutes, laborers, shamans, vagabonds, outcasts, and criminals. Although slave status was hereditary, they could be sold or freed at officially set prices, and the mistreatment of slaves was forbidden.[213]

This yangban focused system started to change in the late 17th century as political, economic and social changes came into place. By the 19th century, new commercial groups emerged, and the active social mobility caused the yangban class to expand, resulting in the weakening of the old class system. The Korea government ordered the freedom of government slaves in 1801. The class system of Korea was completely banned in 1894.[214]

Foreign relationships

Korean Embassy to Japan, 1655, attributed to Kano Toun Yasunobu; British Museum

Korea dealt with a pair of Japanese invasions from 1592 to 1598 (Imjin War or the Seven Years' War). Prior to the war, Korea sent two ambassadors to scout for signs of Japan's intentions of invading Korea. However, they came back with two different reports, and while the politicians split into sides, few proactive measures were taken.

This conflict brought prominence to Admiral Yi Sun-sin as he contributed to eventually repelling the Japanese forces with the innovative use of his turtle ship, a massive, yet swift, ramming/cannon ship fitted with iron spikes.[215][216][217] The use of the hwacha was also highly effective in repelling the Japanese invaders from the land.

Subsequently, Korea was invaded in 1627 and again in 1636 by the Manchus, who went on to conquer China and establish the Qing dynasty, after which the Joseon dynasty recognized Qing suzerainty.[218] Though Joseon respected its traditional tributary position to China, there was persistent loyalty for the perished Ming China and disdain for the Manchus, who were regarded as barbarians.

During the 19th century, Joseon tried to control foreign influence by closing its borders to all nations. In 1853 the American whaleship South America visited Busan for 10 days and had amiable contact with local officials. Several Americans shipwrecked on Korea in 1855 and 1865 were also treated well and sent to China for repatriation. The Joseon court was aware of the foreign invasions and treaties involving Qing China, as well as the First and Second Opium Wars, and followed a cautious policy of slow exchange with the West.

In 1866, reacting to greater numbers of Korean converts to Catholicism despite several waves of persecutions, the Joseon court clamped down on them, massacring French Catholic missionaries and Korean converts alike. In response France invaded and occupied portions of Ganghwa Island. The French army occupied Ganghwa Island, an island near Seoul, and tried to advance to Seoul, but failed due to strong resistance from the Korean army, and then withdrew from the island.

The General Sherman, an American-owned armed merchant marine sidewheel schooner, attempted to open Korea to trade in 1866. After an initial miscommunication, the ship sailed upriver and became stranded near Pyongyang. After being ordered to leave by the Korean officials, the American crewmen killed four Korean inhabitants, kidnapped a military officer and engaged in sporadic fighting that continued for four days. After two efforts to destroy the ship failed, she was finally set aflame by Korean fireships laden with explosives.

This incident is celebrated by the DPRK as a precursor to the later USS Pueblo incident. In response, the United States confronted Korea militarily in 1871, killing 243 Koreans in Ganghwa island before withdrawing. This incident is called the Shinmiyangyo in Korea. Five years later, the reclusive Korea signed a trade treaty with Japan, and in 1882 signed a treaty with the United States, ending centuries of isolationism.

Conflict between the conservative court and a reforming faction led to the Gapsin Coup in 1884. The reformers sought to reform Korea's institutionalized social inequality, by proclaiming social equality and the elimination of the privileges of the yangban class. The reformers were backed by Japan, and were thwarted by the arrival of Qing troops, invited by the conservative Queen Min. The Chinese troops departed but the leading general Yuan Shikai remained in Korea from 1885 to 1894 as Resident, directing Korean affairs.

In 1885, British Royal Navy occupied Geomun Island, and withdrew in 1887.

Korea became linked by telegraph to China in 1888 with Chinese controlled telegraphs. China permitted Korea to establish embassies with Russia (1884), Italy (1885), France (1886), the United States, and Japan. China attempted to block the exchange of embassies in Western countries, but not with Tokyo. The Qing government provided loans. China promoted its trade in an attempt to block Japanese merchants, which led to Chinese favour in Korean trade. Anti-Chinese riots broke out in 1888 and 1889 and Chinese shops were torched. Japan remained the largest foreign community and largest trading partner.[219]

A rapidly modernizing Meiji Japan successfully challenged China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) triggered by the Donghak Peasant Movement, forcing it to abandon its long-standing claims to deference by Korea. Modernization began in Korea when Japan forced it to open its ports in 1876. However, at first, the forces of modernization met strong opposition not only from the traditionalism of the ruling Korean elite but from the population at large, which supported the traditional Confucian system of government by gentlemen, therefore no major modernization processes occurred until the establishment of the Korean Empire in 1897. Japan used modernization movements to gain more and more control over Korea.[220]

In 1895, the Japanese were involved in the murder of Empress Myeongseong,[221][222] who had sought Russian help, and the Russians were forced to retreat from Korea for the time.

Modern history

Korean Empire (1897–1910)

As a result of the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki was concluded between China and Japan.[223] It stipulated the abolition of subordinate relationships Korea had with China, in which Korea was a client state of China since the Imo Incident in 1882.

In 1897, Joseon was renamed the Korean Empire, and King Gojong became Emperor Gojong. The imperial government aimed to become a strong and independent nation by implementing domestic reforms, strengthening military forces, developing commerce and industry, and surveying land ownership. Organizations like the Independence Club also rallied to assert the rights of the Joseon people, but clashed with the government which proclaimed absolute monarchy and power.[224]

Russian influence was strong in the Empire until being defeated by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). Korean Empire effectively became a protectorate of Japan on 17 November 1905, the 1905 Protectorate Treaty having been promulgated without Emperor Gojong's required seal or commission.[225][226]

Following the signing of the treaty, many intellectuals and scholars set up various organizations and associations, embarking on movements for independence. In 1907, Gojong was forced to abdicate after Japan learned that he sent secret envoys to the Second Hague Conventions to protest against the protectorate treaty, leading to the accession of Gojong's son, Emperor Sunjong. In 1909, independence activist An Jung-geun assassinated Itō Hirobumi, former Resident-General of Korea, for Ito's intrusions on the Korean politics.[227][228] This prompted the Japanese to ban all political organizations and proceed with plans for annexation.

Japanese rule (1910–1945)

Sup'ung Dam under construction. (July 1942)

In 1910, the Empire of Japan effectively annexed Korea through the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty. Along with all other previously signed treaties between Korea and Japan, the annexation treaty was confirmed to be null and void in 1965. While Japan asserted that the treaty was concluded legally, Korea disputed the legality of the treaty, because the treaty was not signed by the Emperor of Korea as required and it violated the international convention on external pressures regarding treaties.[229][230] Many Koreans formed the Righteous army to fight against Japanese rule.[231]

Korea was controlled by Japan under a Governor-General of Chōsen from 1910 until Japan's unconditional surrender to the Allied Forces on 15 August 1945. De jure sovereignty was deemed to have passed from the Joseon dynasty to the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.[227]

After the annexation, Japan set out to suppress many traditional Korean customs, including eventually even the Korean language itself.[232][231] Economic policies were implemented primarily for Japanese benefit.[233][234] European-styled transport and communication networks were constructed across the nation in order to extract resources and exploit labor. However, much of the built infrastructure was later destroyed during the devastating Korean War.[citation needed] The banking system was consolidated and the Korean currency abolished.[235]

The Japanese removed the Joseon hierarchy and gave the census register to the baekjeong and nobi who were not allowed to have the census register during Joseon period,[236] The Gyeongbok Palace was mostly destroyed, and replaced with the office building of the Governor-General.[237]

the March 1st Movement in 1919

After Emperor Gojong died in January 1919, with rumors of poisoning, independence rallies against the Japanese colonizers took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (the March 1st Movement). This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000 persons were killed by Japanese soldiers[note 4][238] and police.[239] An estimated 2 million people took part in peaceful, pro-liberation rallies, although Japanese records claim participation of less than half million.[240] This movement was partly inspired by United States President Woodrow Wilson's speech of 1919, declaring support for right of self-determination and an end to colonial rule after World War I.[240]

The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established in Shanghai, China, in the aftermath of the March 1 Movement, which coordinated the liberation effort and resistance against Japanese rule. Some of the achievements of the Provisional Government included the Battle of Chingshanli of 1920 and the ambush of Japanese military leadership in China in 1932. The Provisional Government is considered to be the de jure government of the Korean people between 1919 and 1948. The legitimacy of the provisional government is enshrined into the preamble of the constitution of the Republic of Korea.[241]

So far as primary and secondary education in Korea were classified as being for “those habitually using the Korean language”, and for “those habitually using the Japanese language”. Thus, the ethnic Koreans could attend the schools primarily for Japanese, and vice versa.[242]

As of 1926, the Korean language was taught for 4 hours a week for the first and second year of a common school having a six-year course, 3 for the rest of the course. Both Japanese and Koreans paid school-fees, without exception. The average fee in a common school was about 25 cents a month. The educational assessment levied by District educational bodies, paid by the ethnic Koreans, averaged about 20 cents in 1923, per capita of the Korean population, that levied by school associations, paid by the ethnic Japanese, averaged about 3.30 dollars per capita of the Japanese population comprised within all the school associations in Korea.[243]

The literacy rate of Korea reached 22% in 1945.[244] The school curriculum was radically modified to eliminate teaching of the Korean language and history.[227] The Korean language was banned, and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names,[245][note 5][246] and newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean. Numerous Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or taken to Japan.[247] According to an investigation by the South Korean government, 75,311 cultural assets were taken from Korea.[247][248]

Texto alternativo del Ejército de Liberación de Corea
Korean Liberation Army

Some Koreans left the Korean Peninsula for exile in China, the United States, and elsewhere. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as Dongnipgun (Liberation Army); they would travel in and out of the Sino-Korean border, fighting guerrilla warfare with Japanese forces. Some of them would group together in the 1940s as the Korean Liberation Army, which took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. Tens of thousands of Koreans also joined the People's Liberation Army and the National Revolutionary Army.

The expulsion of the Japanese in 1945 removed practically all administrative and technical expertise. While the Japanese only comprised 2.6 percent of the population in 1944, they were an urban elite. The largest 50 cities contained 71 percent of the Japanese but only 12 percent of the Koreans. They largely dominated the ranks of the well-educated occupations. Meanwhile, 71 percent of the Koreans worked on farms.[249]

Division and Korean War (1945–1953)

Liberation of Korea
American Marines climbing a sea wall in Incheon during a decisive moment in the timeline of the Korean War

At the Cairo Conference on November 22, 1943, the US, UK, and China agreed that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent";[250][251] at a later meeting in Yalta in February 1945, the Allies agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship over Korea.[252] On August 14, 1945, Soviet forces entered Korea by amphibious landings, enabling them to secure control in the north. Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces on August 15, 1945.

The unconditional surrender of Japan, brought about the liberation of Korea. However the fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology in post-war World led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones, effectively starting on September 8, 1945. The United States administered the southern half of the peninsula and the Soviet Union took over the area north of the 38th parallel. The Provisional Government was ignored, mainly due to American belief that it was too aligned with the communists.[253] This division was meant to be temporary and was intended to return a unified Korea back to its people after the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China could arrange a single government.

In December 1945, a conference convened in Moscow to discuss the future of Korea.[254] A five-year trusteeship was discussed, and a joint Soviet-American commission was established. The commission met intermittently in Seoul but members deadlocked over the issue of establishing a national government. In September 1947, with no solution in sight, the United States submitted the Korean question to the United Nations General Assembly. On December 12, 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations recognised the Republic of Korea as the sole legal government of Korea.[255]

On June 25, 1950, the Korean War broke out when North Korea breached the 38th parallel line to invade the South, ending any hope of a peaceful reunification for the time being. After the war, the 1954 Geneva conference failed to adopt a solution for a unified Korea. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll than World War II or the Vietnam War, making it perhaps the deadliest conflict of the Cold War-era. In addition, virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed by the war.[256][257][258][259][260]

Modern Korea (1953–present)

Beginning with Syngman Rhee in 1948, a series of autocratic governments took power in South Korea with American support and influence.

With the coup of Park Chung Hee in 1961, a new economic policy began. In order to promote economic development, a policy of export-oriented industrialization was applied. President Park developed the South Korean economy through a series of highly successful Five-Year Plans. South Korea's economic development was spearheaded by the chaebol, family conglomerates such as Samsung, Hyundai, SK Group and LG Corporation. The chaebol received state-backing via tax breaks and cheap loans, and took advantage of South Korea's inexpensive labor to produce exportable products.[261] The government made education a very high priority to create a well-educated populace capable of productively contributing to the economy. Despite occasional political instability, the Korean economy subsequently saw enormous growth for nearly forty years, in a period known as the Miracle on the Han River. The unparalleled economic miracle brought South Korea from one of the poorest states in the world after the Korean War into a fully developed country within a generation.

South Korea eventually transitioned into a market-oriented democracy in 1987 largely due to popular demand for political reform, and then hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics, the second Summer Olympic Games to be held on the Asian continent, in the following year.

Moving on from cheap, lower-value light industry exports, the South Korean economy eventually moved onto more capital-intensive, higher-value industries, such as information technology, shipbuilding, auto manufacturing, and petroleum refining. Today, South Korea is a leading economy and a technological powerhouse, rivaling even countries such as the United States in information and communications technology. South Korean pop culture has also boomed abroad in recent years, in a phenomenon known as the Korean Wave.

Due to Soviet Influence, North Korea established a communist government with a hereditary succession of leadership, with ties to China and the Soviet Union. Kim Il Sung became the supreme leader until his death in 1994, after which his son, Kim Jong Il took power. Kim Jong Il's son, Kim Jong Un, is the current leader, taking power after his father's death in 2011. After the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991, the North Korean economy went on a path of steep decline, and it is currently heavily reliant on international food aid and trade with China.

On 27 April 2018, both North and South Korea signed the Panmunjom Declaration on ending the conflict between the two countries to reunify Korea in the future.

See also

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Bibliography

Surveys

Historiography

Primary sources

Other books used in this page

C/J/K books

Notes

  1. ^
    • United States Congress (2016). North Korea: A Country Study. Nova Science Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-59033-443-0.
    "Han Chinese built four commanderies, or local military units, to rule the peninsula as far south as the Han River, with a core area at Lolang (Nangnang in Korean), near present-day P'yongyang. It is illustrative of the relentlessly different historiography practiced in North Korea and South Korea, as well as both countries' dubious projection backward of Korean nationalism, that North Korean historians denied that the Lolang district was centered in Korea and placed it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing."
    • Connor, Edgar V. (2003). Korea: Current Issues and Historical Background. Nova Science Publishers. p. 112. ISBN 978-1-59033-443-0.
    "They place it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing, in order to de-emphasize China's influence on ancient Korean history."
    • Kim, Jinwung 2012, p. 18
    "Immediately after destroying Wiman Chosŏn, the Han empire established administrative units to rule large territories in the northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria."
    • Hyung, Hyung Il (2000). Constructing "Korean" Origins. Harvard University Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-674-00244-9.
    "When material evidence from the Han commandery site excavated during the colonial period began to be reinterpreted by Korean nationalist historians as the first full-fledged "foreign" occupation in Korean history, Lelang's location in the heart of the Korean peninsula became particularly irksome because the finds seemed to verify Japanese colonial theories concerning the dependency of Korean civilization on China."
    • Hyung, Hyung Il (2000). Constructing "Korean" Origins. Harvard University Press. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-674-00244-9.
    "At present, the site of Lelang and surrounding ancient Han Chinese remains are situated in the North Korean capital of Pyongyang. Although North Korean scholars have continued to excavate Han dynasty tombs in the postwar period, they have interpreted them as manifestations of the Kochoson or the Koguryo kingdom."
    • Xu, Stella Yingzi (2007). That glorious ancient history of our nation. University of California, Los Angeles. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-549-44036-9.
    "Lelang Commandery was crucial to understanding the early history of Korea, which lasted from 108 BCE to 313 CE around the Pyongyang area. However, because of its nature as a Han colony and the exceptional attention paid to it by Japanese colonial scholars for making claims of the innate heteronomy of Koreans, post 1945 Korean scholars intentionally avoided the issue of Lelang."
    • Lee, Peter H. (1996). Sourcebook of Korean Civilization: Volume 2: From the Seventeenth Century to the Modern. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-231-07912-9.
    "But when Emperor Wu conquered Choson, all the small barbarian tribes in the northeastern region were incorporated into the established Han commanderies because of the overwhelming military might of Han China."
  2. ^ modern historians including Graff consider such a figure greatly exaggerated[citation needed]
  3. ^ Literally "old Joseon", the term was first coined in the 13th century AD to differentiate the ancient kingdom from Wiman Joseon and is now used to differentiate it from the Joseon dynasty.
  4. ^ Park Eun-sik stated this amount is no more than hearsay and an inexact reasoning.
  5. ^ However, the change of their given names was voluntary

External links