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Conflicto entre israelíes y palestinos

El conflicto israelí-palestino es un conflicto militar y político en curso sobre la tierra y la autodeterminación dentro del territorio de la antigua Palestina Mandataria . [22] [23] [24] Los aspectos clave del conflicto incluyen la ocupación israelí de Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza , el estatus de Jerusalén , los asentamientos israelíes , las fronteras, la seguridad, los derechos de agua, [25] el régimen de permisos , la libertad de movimiento palestina , [26] y el derecho palestino al retorno .

El conflicto tiene sus orígenes en el ascenso del sionismo en Europa y la consecuente primera llegada de colonos judíos a la Palestina otomana en 1882. [27] La ​​población árabe local comenzó a oponerse cada vez más al sionismo, principalmente por miedo al desplazamiento territorial y la desposesión. [27] El movimiento sionista obtuvo el apoyo de una potencia imperial en la Declaración Balfour de 1917 emitida por Gran Bretaña, que prometía apoyar la creación de una " patria judía " en Palestina . Tras la ocupación británica de la antigua región otomana durante la Primera Guerra Mundial , se estableció el Mandato Británico de Palestina como un mandato británico . El aumento de la inmigración judía provocó tensiones entre judíos y árabes que se convirtieron en un conflicto intercomunitario . [28] [29] En 1936, estalló una revuelta árabe que exigía la independencia y el fin del apoyo británico al sionismo, que fue reprimido por los británicos. [30] [31] Finalmente, las tensiones llevaron a que la ONU adoptara un plan de partición en 1947, lo que desencadenó una guerra civil .

Durante la subsiguiente guerra de Palestina de 1948 , más de la mitad de la población predominantemente árabe palestina del mandato huyó o fue expulsada por las fuerzas israelíes. Al final de la guerra, Israel se había establecido en la mayor parte del territorio del antiguo mandato, y la Franja de Gaza y Cisjordania estaban controladas por Egipto y Jordania respectivamente. [32] [33] Desde la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967 , Israel ha estado ocupando Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza, conocidas colectivamente como los territorios palestinos . Dos levantamientos palestinos contra Israel y su ocupación estallaron en 1987 y 2000, la primera y la segunda intifada respectivamente. La ocupación de Israel, que ahora se considera la ocupación militar más larga de la historia moderna, ha visto al país construir asentamientos ilegales allí, creando un sistema de discriminación institucionalizada contra los palestinos bajo su ocupación llamado apartheid israelí . Israel ha recibido la condena internacional por violar los derechos humanos de los palestinos . [34]

La comunidad internacional, con excepción de Estados Unidos e Israel, ha estado de acuerdo desde los años 1980 en que la solución del conflicto se basaría en una solución de dos Estados a lo largo de las fronteras de 1967 y una solución justa para los refugiados palestinos . Estados Unidos e Israel han preferido, en cambio, las negociaciones bilaterales en lugar de resolver el conflicto sobre la base del derecho internacional . En los últimos años, el apoyo público a una solución de dos Estados ha disminuido, y la política israelí refleja un interés en mantener la ocupación en lugar de buscar una solución permanente al conflicto. En 2007, Israel endureció su bloqueo de la Franja de Gaza e hizo oficial su política de aislarla de Cisjordania. Desde entonces, Israel ha enmarcado su relación con Gaza en términos de las leyes de la guerra en lugar de en términos de su condición de potencia ocupante . En julio de 2024, la Corte Internacional de Justicia rechazó esta postura, determinando que los territorios palestinos constituyen una unidad política y que Israel continúa ocupando ilegalmente Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza. El tribunal también determinó que las políticas israelíes violan la Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial . Desde 2006, Hamás e Israel han librado cinco guerras , la más reciente de las cuales comenzó en 2023 y aún continúa.

Historia

El periódico palestino árabe-cristiano Falastin , del 18 de junio de 1936, caricaturizó al sionismo como un cocodrilo, protegido por un oficial británico, que decía a los árabes palestinos: "¡No tengan miedo! Los tragaré pacíficamente..." [35]

El conflicto palestino-israelí comenzó a fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX, con el desarrollo del sionismo político y la llegada de colonos sionistas a Palestina. [27] [36] El movimiento sionista político moderno, con el objetivo de establecer un estado judío en Palestina , surgió en las últimas dos décadas del siglo XIX, en gran medida como respuesta al antisemitismo en Europa. Si bien la colonización judía comenzó durante este período , no fue hasta la llegada de inmigrantes ideológicamente sionistas en la década anterior a la Primera Guerra Mundial que el paisaje de la Palestina otomana comenzaría a cambiar significativamente. [37] Las compras de tierras, el desalojo de campesinos árabes arrendatarios y la confrontación armada con unidades paramilitares judías contribuirían al creciente temor de la población palestina al desplazamiento territorial y la desposesión. Este temor sería gradualmente reemplazado por un sentido más amplio de expresión nacional palestina que incluía el rechazo del objetivo sionista de convertir la tierra mayoritariamente poblada por árabes en una patria judía. [33] Desde el principio, los dirigentes del movimiento sionista tuvieron la idea de "transferir" (un eufemismo para la limpieza étnica ) a la población árabe palestina fuera de la tierra con el fin de establecer una mayoría demográfica judía. [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] Según el historiador israelí Benny Morris, la idea de la transferencia era "inevitable e inherente al sionismo". [43] La población árabe sintió esta amenaza ya en la década de 1880 con la llegada de la primera aliá. [33]

Los esfuerzos de Chaim Weizmann por conseguir el apoyo británico al movimiento sionista acabaron asegurando la Declaración Balfour , una declaración pública emitida por el gobierno británico en 1917 durante la Primera Guerra Mundial en la que se anunciaba el apoyo al establecimiento de un "hogar nacional para el pueblo judío" en Palestina. [44] Weizmann adoptaría una interpretación maximalista de la declaración, en la que las negociaciones sobre el futuro del país se llevarían a cabo directamente entre Gran Bretaña y los judíos, excluyendo la representación árabe. En la Conferencia de Paz de París , más tarde compartiría su famosa interpretación de la declaración en su anuncio del objetivo de "[h]acer que Palestina sea tan judía como Inglaterra es inglesa". En parte como respuesta al movimiento sionista, un movimiento nacional palestino se desarrollaría de forma más concreta en el período de entreguerras. Los años siguientes verían un deterioro dramático de las relaciones entre judíos y palestinos. [45]

Década de 1920

Con el compromiso de establecer un hogar nacional para el pueblo judío en Palestina, la creación del Mandato Británico en Palestina después del final de la Primera Guerra Mundial permitiría una inmigración judía a gran escala. Esto vendría acompañado del desarrollo de un sector separado de la economía controlado por los judíos y apoyado con grandes cantidades de capital del exterior. [46] Los ideólogos sionistas más ardientes de la Segunda Aliá se convertirían en los líderes del Yishuv a partir de la década de 1920 y creían en la separación de las economías y sociedades judías y árabes. Durante este período, el ethos nacionalista excluyente crecería hasta dominar los ideales socialistas con los que había llegado la Segunda Aliá. [27]

Amin al-Husseini, el líder del movimiento nacional árabe palestino, señaló inmediatamente al movimiento nacional judío y a la inmigración judía a Palestina como el único enemigo de su causa, [47] iniciando disturbios a gran escala contra los judíos ya en 1920 en Jerusalén y en 1921 en Jaffa . Entre los resultados de la violencia estuvo el establecimiento de la fuerza paramilitar judía Haganah . En 1929, una serie de disturbios violentos resultaron en la muerte de 133 judíos y 116 árabes, con importantes bajas judías en Hebrón y Safed , y la evacuación de judíos de Hebrón y Gaza. [48]

1936-1939 Rebelión árabe

La revuelta árabe de 1936-1939 en Palestina, motivada por la oposición a la inmigración judía masiva permitida por el Mandato Británico.

A principios de la década de 1930, la lucha nacional árabe en Palestina había atraído a muchos militantes nacionalistas árabes de todo Oriente Medio, como el jeque Izaddin al-Qassam de Siria, que estableció el grupo militante Mano Negra y había preparado el terreno para la revuelta árabe de 1936-1939 en Palestina . Tras la muerte de al-Qassam a manos de los británicos a finales de 1935, las tensiones estallaron en 1936 en la huelga general árabe y el boicot general. La huelga pronto degeneró en violencia, y la revuelta árabe fue reprimida sangrientamente por los británicos con la ayuda de las fuerzas armadas británicas de la Policía de Asentamientos Judíos , la Policía Supernumeraria Judía y los Escuadrones Nocturnos Especiales . [49] La supresión de la revuelta dejaría al menos al 10% de la población masculina adulta muerta, herida, encarcelada o exiliada. [50] En la primera ola de violencia organizada, que duró hasta principios de 1937, la mayoría de los grupos árabes fueron derrotados por los británicos y se produjo la expulsión forzada de gran parte de los dirigentes árabes. Con gran parte de los dirigentes en el exilio y la economía severamente debilitada, los palestinos tendrían dificultades para hacer frente al movimiento sionista que estaba creciendo en fuerza, con el apoyo de los británicos. [51]

El costo y los riesgos asociados con la revuelta y el conflicto intercomunitario en curso llevaron a un cambio en las políticas británicas en la región y al nombramiento de la Comisión Peel que recomendó la partición de Palestina. [ cita requerida ] Los dos principales líderes sionistas, Chaim Weizmann y David Ben-Gurion , aceptaron las recomendaciones sobre la base de que permitirían una mayor expansión, pero algunos líderes sionistas secundarios lo desaprobaron. [52] [53] [54] La posterior publicación del Libro Blanco de 1939 , que buscaba limitar la inmigración judía a la región, fue el punto de ruptura en las relaciones entre las autoridades británicas y el movimiento sionista. [55]

Década de 1940

El barco Haganah del Estado judío transporta inmigrantes judíos ilegales procedentes de Europa en el puerto de Haifa , Mandato Británico de Palestina , 1947

La renovada violencia, que continuó esporádicamente hasta el comienzo de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, terminó con alrededor de 5.000 bajas en el lado árabe y 700 en total en el lado británico y judío. [56] [57] [58] Con el estallido de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , la situación en la Palestina del Mandato se calmó. Permitió un cambio hacia una postura más moderada entre los árabes palestinos bajo el liderazgo del clan Nashashibi e incluso el establecimiento del Regimiento Palestino Judío-Árabe bajo el mando británico, luchando contra los alemanes en el norte de África. Sin embargo, la facción exiliada más radical de al-Husseini tendió a cooperar con la Alemania nazi y participó en el establecimiento de una máquina de propaganda pronazi en todo el mundo árabe. La derrota de los nacionalistas árabes en Irak y la posterior reubicación de al-Husseini en la Europa ocupada por los nazis le ataron las manos con respecto a las operaciones de campo en Palestina, aunque exigió regularmente que los italianos y los alemanes bombardearan Tel Aviv . Al final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, una crisis sobre el destino de los sobrevivientes del Holocausto en Europa condujo a nuevas tensiones entre el Yishuv y las autoridades del Mandato. El aumento de la inmigración ilegal de refugiados judíos, junto con una campaña paramilitar de resistencia contra las autoridades británicas por parte de las milicias sionistas , anularía efectivamente el Libro Blanco y, finalmente, conduciría a la retirada de los británicos. [48]

Plan de partición de las Naciones Unidas de 1947

El 29 de noviembre de 1947, la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas adoptó la Resolución 181(II) [59] recomendando la adopción e implementación de un plan para dividir Palestina en un estado árabe, un estado judío y la ciudad de Jerusalén. [60] Los árabes palestinos se opusieron a la partición. [61] Los sionistas aceptaron la partición pero planearon expandir las fronteras de Israel más allá de lo que le había asignado la ONU. [62] Al día siguiente, Palestina fue arrasada por la violencia. Durante cuatro meses, bajo continuas provocaciones y ataques árabes, el Yishuv estuvo generalmente a la defensiva mientras que ocasionalmente tomaba represalias. [63] La Liga Árabe apoyó la lucha árabe formando el Ejército de Liberación Árabe basado en voluntarios , apoyando al Ejército Árabe Palestino de la Guerra Santa , bajo el liderazgo de Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni y Hasan Salama . Del lado judío, la guerra civil estuvo a cargo de las principales milicias clandestinas –la Haganah , el Irgun y el Lehi– , reforzadas por numerosos veteranos judíos de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y voluntarios extranjeros. En la primavera de 1948, ya estaba claro que las fuerzas árabes se acercaban al colapso total, mientras que las fuerzas del Yishuv ganaban cada vez más territorio, creando un problema de refugiados a gran escala de árabes palestinos. [48]

Guerra árabe-israelí de 1948

Las tierras en tonos más claros representan el territorio que se encontraba dentro de las fronteras de Israel al concluir la guerra de 1948. Estas tierras están reconocidas internacionalmente como pertenecientes a Israel.

Tras la Declaración del Establecimiento del Estado de Israel el 14 de mayo de 1948, la Liga Árabe decidió intervenir en favor de los árabes palestinos, marchando sus fuerzas hacia la antigua Palestina británica, comenzando la fase principal de la Guerra Árabe-Israelí de 1948. [ 60] Los combates en general, que provocaron alrededor de 15.000 bajas, dieron lugar a acuerdos de alto el fuego y armisticio en 1949, con Israel en posesión de gran parte del territorio del antiguo Mandato, Jordania ocupando y posteriormente anexionando Cisjordania y Egipto apoderándose de la Franja de Gaza, donde la Liga Árabe declaró el Gobierno Pan-Palestina el 22 de septiembre de 1948. [49]

Crisis de Suez de 1956

Durante la década de 1950, Jordania y Egipto apoyaron los ataques transfronterizos de los militantes fedayines palestinos contra Israel, mientras que Israel llevó a cabo sus propias operaciones de represalia en los países anfitriones. La crisis de Suez de 1956 resultó en una ocupación israelí de corto plazo de la Franja de Gaza y el exilio del Gobierno Pan-Palestino , que luego fue restaurado con la retirada israelí. El Gobierno Pan-Palestino fue completamente abandonado por Egipto en 1959 y se fusionó oficialmente con la República Árabe Unida , en detrimento del movimiento nacional palestino. La Franja de Gaza luego fue puesta bajo la autoridad del administrador militar egipcio, convirtiéndola en una ocupación militar de facto. En 1964, sin embargo, una nueva organización, la Organización para la Liberación de Palestina (OLP), fue establecida por Yasser Arafat. [60] Inmediatamente ganó el apoyo de la mayoría de los gobiernos de la Liga Árabe y se le concedió un asiento en la Liga Árabe .

Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967

Durante la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967, Israel se apoderó de Cisjordania , la Franja de Gaza , los Altos del Golán y la península del Sinaí . Todos estos territorios, excepto el Sinaí, siguen bajo ocupación israelí .

En la guerra árabe-israelí de 1967 , Israel ocupó Cisjordania palestina, Jerusalén Oriental, la Franja de Gaza, el Sinaí egipcio, los Altos del Golán sirios y dos islas en el Golfo de Aqaba . A mediados de la década de 1970, la comunidad internacional había convergido en un marco para resolver el conflicto. Esto incluía la retirada total de Israel de los territorios ocupados a cambio del reconocimiento por parte de los palestinos y otras naciones árabes, y el establecimiento de un estado palestino independiente en Cisjordania y Gaza y una "resolución justa" de la cuestión de los refugiados palestinos. Estos principios, conocidos como "territorio por paz" y la autodeterminación palestina a través de un acuerdo de dos estados, fueron respaldados por la Corte Internacional de Justicia, las Naciones Unidas y organizaciones internacionales de derechos humanos. [64]

La guerra de junio de 1967 tuvo un efecto significativo sobre el nacionalismo palestino, ya que Israel obtuvo el control militar de Cisjordania de manos de Jordania y de la Franja de Gaza de manos de Egipto. En consecuencia, la OLP no pudo establecer ningún control sobre el terreno y estableció su sede en Jordania, donde vivían cientos de miles de palestinos, y apoyó al ejército jordano durante la Guerra de Desgaste , que incluyó la Batalla de Karameh . Sin embargo, la base palestina en Jordania se derrumbó con la guerra civil jordano-palestina de 1970. La derrota de la OLP a manos de los jordanos hizo que la mayoría de los militantes palestinos se trasladaran al sur del Líbano, donde pronto se apoderaron de grandes áreas, creando la llamada "Fatahlandia".

Guerra de Yom Kippur de 1973

El 6 de octubre de 1973, una coalición de fuerzas árabes integrada principalmente por Egipto y Siria lanzó un ataque sorpresa contra Israel en el día sagrado judío de Yom Kippur. Egipto y Siria habían cruzado las líneas de alto el fuego acordadas antes de 1973. Egipto, en particular, había intentado recuperar gran parte de la zona que rodea el Canal de Suez, mientras que la línea de frente con Siria se situaba principalmente en el norte, en los Altos del Golán. La guerra concluyó con una victoria israelí, en la que ambos bandos sufrieron enormes bajas.

Tras el fin de la guerra, el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas aprobó la Resolución 338, que confirmó el principio de territorio por paz establecido en la Resolución 242, y dio inicio al proceso de paz en Oriente Medio. La derrota árabe desempeñaría un papel importante en la voluntad de la OLP de buscar una solución negociada al conflicto. [65] [66] Además, muchos israelíes empezaron a creer que la zona bajo ocupación israelí no podía mantenerse indefinidamente por la fuerza. [67] [68]

Los Acuerdos de Camp David, firmados por Israel y Egipto en 1978, tenían como objetivo principal establecer un tratado de paz entre los dos países. Los acuerdos también proponían la creación de una "Autoridad de Autogobierno" para la población árabe en Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza, con exclusión de Jerusalén. Si bien prometían "plena autonomía para los habitantes", la tierra debía permanecer bajo control israelí. En 1979 se firmó un tratado de paz basado en estos acuerdos, que condujo a la retirada de Israel de la península del Sinaí egipcia ocupada en 1982. Sin embargo, los detalles de los acuerdos de autonomía palestina fueron objeto de controversia entre los firmantes y otros grupos árabes, y nunca se implementaron. [69] [70]

Guerra del Líbano de 1982

La insurgencia palestina en el sur del Líbano alcanzó su punto máximo a principios de la década de 1970, cuando el Líbano se utilizó como base para lanzar ataques contra el norte de Israel y campañas de secuestro de aviones en todo el mundo, lo que provocó represalias israelíes. Durante la guerra civil libanesa , los militantes palestinos continuaron lanzando ataques contra Israel al mismo tiempo que luchaban contra oponentes dentro del Líbano. En 1978, la masacre de la carretera costera condujo a la invasión israelí a gran escala conocida como Operación Litani . Esta operación buscó desalojar a la OLP del Líbano mientras expandía el área bajo el control de las milicias cristianas aliadas de Israel en el sur del Líbano. La operación tuvo éxito al dejar una gran parte del sur bajo el control del representante israelí que eventualmente formaría el Ejército del Sur del Líbano . Bajo la presión de los Estados Unidos, las fuerzas israelíes eventualmente se retirarían del Líbano. [71] [72] [73] [74]

En 1982, Israel, tras haber asegurado su frontera sur con Egipto, trató de resolver la cuestión palestina intentando desmantelar el poder militar y político de la Organización para la Liberación de Palestina (OLP) en el Líbano. [75] El objetivo era establecer un régimen amistoso en el Líbano y continuar su política de asentamiento y anexión en la Palestina ocupada. [76] [77] [78] La OLP había observado el último alto el fuego con Israel y había mostrado preferencia por las negociaciones en lugar de las operaciones militares. Como resultado, Israel trató de eliminar a la OLP como un socio negociador potencial. [79] [80] [81] La mayoría de los militantes palestinos fueron derrotados en varias semanas, Beirut fue capturada y la sede de la OLP fue evacuada a Túnez en junio por decisión de Yasser Arafat. [49]

Primera Intifada (1987-1993)

El primer levantamiento palestino comenzó en 1987 como respuesta a la escalada de ataques y la interminable ocupación. A principios de la década de 1990, los esfuerzos internacionales para resolver el conflicto habían comenzado, a la luz del éxito del tratado de paz egipcio-israelí de 1982. Finalmente, el proceso de paz israelí-palestino condujo a los Acuerdos de Oslo de 1993, que permitieron a la OLP trasladarse de Túnez y ganar terreno en Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza , estableciendo la Autoridad Nacional Palestina . El proceso de paz también tuvo una oposición significativa entre los elementos islámicos radicales de la sociedad palestina, como Hamás y la Jihad Islámica Palestina, que inmediatamente iniciaron una campaña de ataques contra israelíes. Después de cientos de víctimas y una ola de propaganda radical contra el gobierno, el primer ministro israelí Rabin fue asesinado por un extremista de extrema derecha israelí que se opuso a la iniciativa de paz. Esto asestó un duro golpe al proceso de paz, del que el gobierno recién elegido de Israel en 1996 se retractó. [48]

Segunda Intifada (2000-2005)

Consecuencias de un atentado suicida palestino en un autobús en Tel Aviv

Tras varios años de negociaciones infructuosas, el conflicto volvió a estallar como la Segunda Intifada en septiembre de 2000. [49] La violencia, que se intensificó hasta convertirse en un conflicto abierto entre las Fuerzas de Seguridad Nacional Palestinas y las Fuerzas de Defensa de Israel , duró hasta 2004/2005 y provocó aproximadamente 130 muertes . En 2005, el Primer Ministro israelí Sharon ordenó la retirada de los colonos y soldados israelíes de Gaza . Israel y su Corte Suprema declararon formalmente el fin de la ocupación, diciendo que "no tenía control efectivo sobre lo que ocurría" en Gaza. [82] Sin embargo, las Naciones Unidas , Human Rights Watch y muchos otros organismos internacionales y ONG siguen considerando a Israel como la potencia ocupante de la Franja de Gaza, ya que Israel controla el espacio aéreo y las aguas territoriales de la Franja de Gaza y controla el movimiento de personas o bienes dentro o fuera de Gaza por aire o mar. [82] [83] [84]

División entre Fatah y Hamás (2006-2007)

En 2006, Hamás ganó con un 44% de los votos las elecciones parlamentarias palestinas . Israel respondió que comenzaría a aplicar sanciones económicas a menos que Hamás aceptara los acuerdos israelí-palestinos previos, renunciara a la violencia y reconociera el derecho de Israel a existir, todo lo cual Hamás rechazó. [85] Después de que la lucha política interna palestina entre Fatah y Hamás estallara en la Batalla de Gaza (2007) , Hamás tomó el control total de la zona. [86] En 2007, Israel impuso un bloqueo naval en la Franja de Gaza , y la cooperación con Egipto permitió un bloqueo terrestre de la frontera egipcia.

Las tensiones entre Israel y Hamás se intensificaron hasta finales de 2008, cuando Israel lanzó la operación Plomo Fundido sobre Gaza, que causó miles de víctimas civiles y miles de millones de dólares en daños. En febrero de 2009, se firmó un alto el fuego con mediación internacional entre las partes, aunque la ocupación y pequeños y esporádicos estallidos de violencia continuaron. [ cita requerida ]

En 2011, fracasó un intento de la Autoridad Palestina de obtener la membresía de la ONU como un estado plenamente soberano. En Gaza, controlada por Hamás, continuaron ocurriendo ataques esporádicos con cohetes contra Israel y ataques aéreos israelíes. [87] [88] [89] [90] En noviembre de 2012, la representación palestina en la ONU fue elevada a la categoría de estado observador no miembro, y el título de su misión se cambió de "Palestina (representada por la OLP)" a " Estado de Palestina ". En 2014, estalló otra guerra entre Israel y Gaza, que resultó en más de 70 víctimas israelíes y más de 2.000 palestinas. [91]

Guerra entre Israel y Hamás (2023-actualidad)

Mapa de la guerra entre Israel y Hamás en Gaza y el sur de Israel

Después de la guerra de 2014 y la crisis de 2021 , Hamás comenzó a planificar un ataque contra Israel. [92] En 2022, Netanyahu regresó al poder mientras encabezaba un gobierno de extrema derecha de línea dura , [93] lo que provocó mayores conflictos políticos en Israel [94] y enfrentamientos en los territorios palestinos. [95] Esto culminó en la guerra entre Israel y Hamás de 2023 , cuando grupos militantes liderados por Hamás lanzaron un ataque sorpresa contra el sur de Israel desde la Franja de Gaza, matando a más de 1.200 civiles y militares israelíes y tomando rehenes . [96] [97] El ejército israelí tomó represalias llevando a cabo una extensa campaña de bombardeos aéreos sobre Gaza, [98] seguida de una invasión terrestre a gran escala con el objetivo declarado de destruir a Hamás y controlar la seguridad en Gaza después. [99] Israel mató a decenas de miles de palestinos, incluidos civiles y combatientes, y desplazó a casi dos millones de personas. [100] Sudáfrica acusó a Israel de genocidio ante la Corte Internacional de Justicia y pidió un alto el fuego inmediato. [101] La Corte emitió una orden que exigía a Israel que tomara todas las medidas necesarias para impedir cualquier acto contrario a la Convención sobre el Genocidio de 1948 , [102] [103] [104] pero no ordenó a Israel que suspendiera su campaña militar. [105]

La guerra se extendió , con Israel participando en enfrentamientos con milicias locales en Cisjordania , Hezbolá en el Líbano y el norte de Israel, y otras milicias respaldadas por Irán en Siria. [106] [107] [108] Las milicias respaldadas por Irán también participaron en enfrentamientos con los Estados Unidos, [109] mientras que los hutíes bloquearon el Mar Rojo en protesta, [110] a lo que Estados Unidos respondió con ataques aéreos en Yemen , [111] Irak y Siria . [112]

Intentos de alcanzar una solución pacífica

La participación de la OLP en las negociaciones diplomáticas dependía de su total rechazo del terrorismo y del reconocimiento del "derecho a existir" de Israel. Esta estipulación requería que la OLP abandonara su objetivo de recuperar toda la Palestina histórica y se centrara en el 22 por ciento que quedó bajo control militar israelí en 1967. [113] A finales de los años 1970, los dirigentes palestinos de los territorios ocupados y de la mayoría de los estados árabes apoyaban un acuerdo de dos estados. [114] En 1981, Arabia Saudita presentó un plan basado en un acuerdo de dos estados para el conflicto con el apoyo de la Liga Árabe. [115] El analista israelí Avner Yaniv describe a Arafat como dispuesto a hacer un compromiso histórico en ese momento, mientras que el gabinete israelí seguía oponiéndose a la existencia de un estado palestino. Yaniv describió la disposición de Arafat a hacer un compromiso como una "ofensiva de paz" a la que Israel respondió planeando eliminar a la OLP como un socio negociador potencial para evadir la presión diplomática internacional. [116] Israel invadiría el Líbano al año siguiente en un intento de socavar a la OLP como organización política, debilitando el nacionalismo palestino y facilitando la anexión de Cisjordania al Gran Israel. [117]

Aunque la OLP había adoptado un programa de búsqueda de un Estado palestino junto a Israel desde mediados de los años 1970, la Declaración de Independencia Palestina de 1988 consagró formalmente este objetivo. Esta declaración, que se basaba en resoluciones de las sesiones del Consejo Nacional Palestino de finales de los años 1970 y 1980, abogaba por la creación de un Estado palestino que comprendiera Cisjordania, la Franja de Gaza y Jerusalén Oriental, dentro de las fronteras establecidas por las líneas de armisticio de 1949 antes del 5 de junio de 1967. Tras la declaración, Arafat denunció explícitamente todas las formas de terrorismo y afirmó la aceptación por parte de la OLP de las Resoluciones 242 y 338 de la ONU, así como el reconocimiento del derecho de Israel a existir. Todas las condiciones definidas por Henry Kissinger para las negociaciones de los EE.UU. con la OLP se habían cumplido. [118]

El primer ministro israelí Yitzhak Shamir defendió la postura de que la OLP era una organización terrorista. Mantuvo una postura estricta contra cualquier concesión, incluida la retirada de los territorios palestinos ocupados, el reconocimiento de la OLP o las negociaciones con ella, y especialmente el establecimiento de un Estado palestino. Shamir consideró que la decisión de los Estados Unidos de entablar un diálogo con la OLP era un error que amenazaba el statu quo territorial existente. Sostuvo que negociar con la OLP significaba aceptar la existencia de un Estado palestino y, por lo tanto, era inaceptable. [119]

El proceso de paz

El término "proceso de paz" se refiere al proceso de solución gradual del conflicto entre Israel y Palestina. Aunque en un principio se utilizó para describir las negociaciones entre Israel y los países árabes vecinos, en particular Egipto, con la mediación de los Estados Unidos, el término "proceso de paz" ha pasado a asociarse con un énfasis en el proceso de negociación en lugar de en la presentación de una solución integral al conflicto. [120] [121] [122] Como parte de este proceso, las cuestiones fundamentales del conflicto entre Israel y Palestina, como las fronteras, el acceso a los recursos y el derecho de retorno de los palestinos, se han dejado en manos de las conversaciones sobre el "estatuto final". Esas negociaciones sobre el "estatuto final" en la línea de las discutidas en Madrid en 1991 nunca han tenido lugar. [122]

Los Acuerdos de Oslo de 1993 y 1995 se basaron en el marco gradual establecido por las negociaciones de Camp David de 1978 y las conversaciones de Madrid y Washington de 1991. La motivación detrás del enfoque gradual hacia un acuerdo era que "generaría confianza", pero el resultado final fue, en cambio, una disminución dramática de la confianza mutua. En cada etapa gradual, Israel afianzó aún más su ocupación de los territorios palestinos, a pesar de que la Autoridad Palestina cumplió con su obligación de frenar los ataques violentos de los grupos extremistas, en parte mediante la cooperación con las fuerzas israelíes. [123]

Meron Benvenisti , ex vicealcalde de Jerusalén, observó que la vida se volvió más dura para los palestinos durante este período a medida que la violencia estatal aumentaba y la tierra palestina seguía siendo expropiada a medida que los asentamientos se expandían. [124] [125] [126] [127] El ministro de Asuntos Exteriores israelí, Shlomo Ben-Ami, describió los Acuerdos de Oslo como una legitimación de "la transformación de Cisjordania en lo que se ha llamado una 'tabla de quesos cartográfica'". [128]

Creación de la Autoridad Palestina y cooperación en materia de seguridad

Un elemento central de los Acuerdos de Oslo fue la creación de la Autoridad Palestina y la cooperación en materia de seguridad que ésta establecería con las autoridades militares israelíes, en lo que se ha descrito como la "externalización" de la ocupación a la AP. [113] Justo antes de firmar el acuerdo de Oslo, Rabin describió la expectativa de que "los palestinos serán mejores que nosotros en establecer la seguridad interna, porque no permitirán apelaciones al Tribunal Supremo y evitarán que [los grupos de derechos humanos] critiquen las condiciones allí". [129] En esta línea, Ben-Ami, que participó en las conversaciones de Camp David 2000, describió este proceso: "Uno de los significados de Oslo fue que la OLP fue finalmente colaboradora de Israel en la tarea de sofocar la Intifada y cortar lo que era claramente una lucha auténticamente democrática por la independencia palestina". [128]

El Memorándum de Wye River, acordado entre la Autoridad Palestina e Israel, introdujo una política de “tolerancia cero” frente al “terrorismo y la violencia”. Esta política fue criticada uniformemente por las organizaciones de derechos humanos por su “incentivo” a los abusos de los derechos humanos. [130] [131] Dennis Ross afirma que el Memorándum de Wye ha logrado reducir tanto las protestas violentas como las no violentas, ambas consideradas “incompatibles con el espíritu del Memorándum de Wye”. [132] Watson afirma que la Autoridad Palestina violó con frecuencia sus obligaciones de frenar la incitación [133] y que su historial en materia de reducción del terrorismo y otras obligaciones de seguridad en virtud del Memorándum de Wye River fue, en el mejor de los casos, mixto. [134]

Acuerdos de Oslo (1993, 1995)

Un cartel del movimiento por la paz : banderas israelí y palestina y la palabra paz en árabe y hebreo .

En 1993, funcionarios israelíes encabezados por Yitzhak Rabin y dirigentes palestinos de la Organización para la Liberación de Palestina encabezados por Yasser Arafat se esforzaron por encontrar una solución pacífica mediante lo que se conocería como el proceso de paz de Oslo. Un hito crucial en este proceso fue la carta de Arafat en la que reconocía el derecho de Israel a existir. Emblemático de la asimetría del proceso de Oslo, Israel no estaba obligado a reconocer, y no lo hizo, el derecho a la existencia de un Estado palestino. En 1993 se firmó la Declaración de Principios (u Oslo I), que establecía un marco para las futuras negociaciones entre israelíes y palestinos, en las que las cuestiones clave se dejarían para las conversaciones sobre el "estatuto final". Las estipulaciones de los acuerdos de Oslo eran contrarias al consenso internacional para resolver el conflicto; los acuerdos no defendían la autodeterminación palestina ni la condición de Estado y derogaban la interpretación internacionalmente aceptada de la Resolución 242 de la ONU de que no se puede adquirir tierra mediante la guerra. [125] Con respecto al acceso a la tierra y a los recursos, Noam Chomsky describió los acuerdos de Oslo como una medida que permite a "Israel hacer prácticamente lo que quiera". [135] El proceso de Oslo fue delicado y avanzó a trompicones.

El proceso tuvo un punto de inflexión con el asesinato de Yitzhak Rabin en noviembre de 1995 y la elección de Netanyahu en 1996, y finalmente se deshizo cuando Arafat y Ehud Barak no lograron llegar a un acuerdo en Camp David en julio de 2000 y más tarde en Taba en 2001. [120] [136] El período interino especificado por Oslo no había generado confianza entre las dos partes; Barak no había logrado implementar etapas adicionales de los acuerdos interinos y los asentamientos se expandieron en un 10% durante su corto mandato. [137] El desacuerdo entre las dos partes en Camp David fue principalmente sobre la aceptación (o rechazo) del consenso internacional. [138] [139] Para los negociadores palestinos, el consenso internacional, representado por la votación anual en la Asamblea General de la ONU que se aprueba casi por unanimidad, fue el punto de partida de las negociaciones. Los negociadores israelíes, apoyados por los participantes estadounidenses, no aceptaron el consenso internacional como base para un acuerdo. [140] Ambas partes aceptaron finalmente los parámetros de Clinton "con reservas", pero Barak "detuvo" las conversaciones de Taba y el proceso de paz en sí mismo quedó paralizado. [136] Ben-Ami, que participó en las conversaciones de Camp David como ministro de Asuntos Exteriores de Israel, describiría más tarde la propuesta que estaba sobre la mesa: "Los parámetros de Clinton... son la mejor prueba de que Arafat tenía razón al rechazar las ofertas de la cumbre". [138]

Cumbre de Camp David (2000)

Yitzhak Rabin , Bill Clinton y Yasser Arafat durante los Acuerdos de Oslo el 13 de septiembre de 1993.

En julio de 2000, el presidente estadounidense Bill Clinton convocó una cumbre de paz entre el presidente palestino Yasser Arafat y el primer ministro israelí Ehud Barak. Según se informa, Barak presentó las siguientes "bases para la negociación", a través de los EE. UU. al presidente palestino: un estado palestino no militarizado dividido en 3 o 4 partes que contuvieran entre el 87 y el 92% de Cisjordania después de haber cedido ya el 78% de la Palestina histórica. [A] Así, una oferta israelí del 91 por ciento de Cisjordania (5.538 km2 de Cisjordania se traducen en sólo el 86 por ciento desde la perspectiva palestina), [141] incluidas las partes árabes de Jerusalén Oriental y toda la Franja de Gaza, [142] [143] así como una estipulación de que 69 asentamientos judíos (que comprenden el 85 por ciento de los colonos judíos de Cisjordania) serían cedidos a Israel, ningún derecho de retorno a Israel, ninguna soberanía sobre el Monte del Templo o cualquier barrio central de Jerusalén Oriental, y el control israelí continuo sobre el Valle del Jordán. [144] [145]

Arafat rechazó esta oferta, [142] que los negociadores palestinos, los analistas israelíes y el ministro de Asuntos Exteriores israelí Shlomo Ben-Ami calificaron de "inaceptable". [136] [146] Según los negociadores palestinos, la oferta no eliminaba muchos de los elementos de la ocupación israelí en materia de tierra, seguridad, asentamientos y Jerusalén. [147]

Después de la cumbre de Camp David, surgió una versión, apoyada por el primer ministro israelí Ehud Barak y su ministro de Asuntos Exteriores Shlomo Ben-Ami, así como por funcionarios estadounidenses como Dennis Ross y Madeleine Albright, de que Yasser Arafat había rechazado una generosa oferta de paz de Israel y en su lugar había incitado un levantamiento violento. Esta versión sugería que Arafat no estaba interesado en una solución de dos Estados, sino que más bien pretendía destruir a Israel y apoderarse de toda Palestina. Esta visión fue ampliamente aceptada en la opinión pública estadounidense e israelí. Casi todos los académicos y la mayoría de los funcionarios israelíes y estadounidenses involucrados en las negociaciones han rechazado esta versión. Entre estos individuos se incluyen destacados negociadores israelíes, el jefe del Estado Mayor de las FDI, el jefe de la oficina de inteligencia de las FDI, el jefe del Shin Bet, así como sus asesores. [148]

No se llegó a ninguna solución sostenible que satisficiera las demandas israelíes y palestinas, ni siquiera bajo intensa presión estadounidense. Clinton ha culpado durante mucho tiempo a Arafat por el fracaso de la cumbre. [149] En los meses posteriores a la cumbre, Clinton nombró al ex senador estadounidense George J. Mitchell para dirigir un comité de investigación cuyo objetivo era identificar estrategias para restablecer el proceso de paz. Las conclusiones del comité se publicaron en 2001 y entre ellas figuraban el desmantelamiento de los asentamientos israelíes existentes y la represión palestina de la actividad militante. [150]

Los acontecimientos posteriores a Camp David

Barrera israelí en Cisjordania, Belén

Tras el fracaso de la cumbre, los negociadores palestinos e israelíes siguieron reuniéndose en pequeños grupos durante agosto y septiembre de 2000 para tratar de superar las diferencias entre sus respectivas posiciones. Estados Unidos preparó su propio plan para resolver las cuestiones pendientes. La presentación de las propuestas estadounidenses por parte de Clinton se vio retrasada por el inicio de la Segunda Intifada a finales de septiembre. [147]

El plan de Clinton, presentado finalmente el 23 de diciembre de 2000, proponía la creación de un Estado palestino soberano en la Franja de Gaza y el 94-96 por ciento de Cisjordania, más el equivalente al 1-3 por ciento de Cisjordania en intercambios de tierras con Israel antes de 1967. En cuanto a Jerusalén, el plan establecía que "el principio general es que las zonas árabes son palestinas y las zonas judías son israelíes". Los lugares sagrados se dividirían sobre la base de que los palestinos tendrían soberanía sobre el Monte del Templo/Noble Santuario, mientras que los israelíes tendrían soberanía sobre el Muro Occidental. En cuanto a los refugiados, el plan sugería una serie de propuestas, entre ellas la compensación financiera, el derecho de retorno al Estado palestino y el reconocimiento israelí del sufrimiento causado a los palestinos en 1948. Las propuestas de seguridad se referían a un Estado palestino "no militarizado" y a una fuerza internacional para la seguridad fronteriza. Ambas partes aceptaron el plan de Clinton [147] [151] [152] y se convirtió en la base de las negociaciones en la cumbre de paz de Taba, celebrada en enero siguiente. [147]

Cumbre de Taba (2001)

El equipo negociador israelí presentó un nuevo mapa en la Cumbre de Taba , celebrada en Taba (Egipto) , en enero de 2001. La propuesta eliminaba las zonas "temporalmente controladas por Israel", y la parte palestina la aceptó como base para seguir negociando. Ante la proximidad de las elecciones israelíes, las conversaciones terminaron sin un acuerdo, pero ambas partes emitieron una declaración conjunta en la que daban fe de los avances que habían logrado: "Las partes declaran que nunca han estado tan cerca de llegar a un acuerdo y, por tanto, creemos que las diferencias restantes podrían superarse con la reanudación de las negociaciones tras las elecciones israelíes". El mes siguiente, el candidato del partido Likud, Ariel Sharon, derrotó a Ehud Barak en las elecciones israelíes y fue elegido primer ministro israelí el 7 de febrero de 2001. El nuevo gobierno de Sharon decidió no reanudar las conversaciones de alto nivel. [147]

Hoja de ruta para la paz (2002-2003)

El presidente George W. Bush (centro) analiza el proceso de paz con el primer ministro israelí Ariel Sharon (izquierda) y el presidente palestino Mahmoud Abbas en Aqaba (Jordania), el 4 de junio de 2003

Una propuesta de paz, presentada por el Cuarteto de la Unión Europea, Rusia, las Naciones Unidas y los Estados Unidos el 17 de septiembre de 2002, fue la Hoja de Ruta para la Paz. Este plan no intentaba resolver cuestiones difíciles como el destino de Jerusalén o los asentamientos israelíes, sino que dejaba que se negociara en fases posteriores del proceso. La propuesta nunca pasó de la primera fase, cuyos objetivos exigían el cese de la construcción de asentamientos israelíes y de la violencia entre israelíes y palestinos. Ninguno de estos objetivos se había logrado hasta noviembre de 2015. [153] [154] [155]

La propuesta israelí de intercambio de territorios en la conferencia de Annapolis, según el think tank The Economic Cooperation Foundation (azul para Israel, verde para el Estado palestino)

La Conferencia de Annapolis fue una conferencia de paz en Oriente Medio celebrada el 27 de noviembre de 2007 en la Academia Naval de los Estados Unidos en Annapolis, Maryland , Estados Unidos. La conferencia tuvo como objetivo reactivar el proceso de paz entre israelíes y palestinos e implementar la " Hoja de ruta para la paz " . [156] La conferencia finalizó con la emisión de una declaración conjunta de todas las partes. Después de la Conferencia de Annapolis, las negociaciones continuaron. Tanto Mahmoud Abbas como Ehud Olmert se presentaron mutuamente propuestas de paz en competencia. Finalmente no se llegó a ningún acuerdo. [157] [158]

Iniciativa de Paz Árabe (2002, 2007, 2017)

La Iniciativa de Paz Árabe ( en árabe : مبادرة السلام العربية Mubādirat as-Salām al-ʿArabīyyah ), también conocida como Iniciativa Saudí, fue propuesta por primera vez por el Príncipe Heredero Abdullah de Arabia Saudí en la Cumbre de Beirut (2002). La iniciativa de paz es una propuesta de solución al conflicto árabe-israelí en su conjunto, y al conflicto israelí-palestino en particular. [159] La iniciativa se publicó inicialmente el 28 de marzo de 2002, en la Cumbre de Beirut, y se volvió a acordar en 2007 en la Cumbre de Riad . A diferencia de la Hoja de Ruta para la Paz , detallaba las fronteras de la "solución final" basándose explícitamente en las fronteras de la ONU establecidas antes de la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967 . Ofreció la normalización total de las relaciones con Israel, a cambio de la retirada de sus fuerzas de todos los territorios ocupados, incluidos los Altos del Golán , de reconocer "un Estado palestino independiente con Jerusalén Oriental como su capital" en Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza, así como una "solución justa" para los refugiados palestinos. [160]

La Autoridad Palestina, liderada por Yasser Arafat, abrazó inmediatamente la iniciativa. [161] Su sucesor, Mahmoud Abbas , también apoyó el plan y pidió oficialmente al presidente estadounidense Barack Obama que lo adoptara como parte de su política en Oriente Medio. [162] El partido político islamista Hamás , el gobierno electo de la Franja de Gaza , estaba profundamente dividido, [163] y la mayoría de las facciones rechazaron el plan. [164] Los palestinos han criticado el acuerdo de normalización entre Israel y los Emiratos Árabes Unidos y otro con Bahréin firmado en septiembre de 2020, por temor a que las medidas debiliten la Iniciativa de Paz Árabe, y consideran la medida de los EAU como "una traición". [165]

El gobierno israelí de Ariel Sharon rechazó la iniciativa por considerarla "imposible de implementar" [166] porque exigía que Israel se retirara a las fronteras anteriores a junio de 1967. [167] Después del renovado respaldo de la Liga Árabe en 2007, el entonces primer ministro Ehud Olmert dio una cautelosa bienvenida al plan. [168] En 2015, el primer ministro israelí, Benjamin Netanyahu, expresó un apoyo tentativo a la Iniciativa, [169] pero en 2018 la rechazó como base para futuras negociaciones con los palestinos. [170]

Estado actual

Segregación racial

En julio de 2024, la Corte Internacional de Justicia determinó que las políticas israelíes violan la Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial . [171] En 2022, todas las principales organizaciones israelíes e internacionales de derechos humanos estaban de acuerdo en que las acciones israelíes constituían el crimen de apartheid . [172] En abril de 2021, Human Rights Watch publicó su informe A Threshold Crossed , en el que se describe que las políticas de Israel hacia los palestinos que viven en Israel, Cisjordania y Gaza constituyen el crimen de apartheid . [173] Amnistía Internacional publicó otro informe titulado El apartheid de Israel contra los palestinos: cruel sistema de dominación y crimen contra la humanidad el 1 de febrero de 2022. [174]

En 2018, la Knesset aprobó la ley del Estado-nación que el grupo jurídico israelí Adalah denominó "ley del apartheid". Adalah describió la ley del Estado-nación como una "constitución que consagra la supremacía judía y la identidad del Estado de Israel como el Estado-nación del pueblo judío". La ley del Estado-nación es una Ley Básica , lo que significa que tiene un "estatus cuasi constitucional" [175] y establece que el derecho a ejercer la autodeterminación nacional en Israel es "exclusivo del pueblo judío". [176]

Territorio palestino ocupado

Manifestación contra la confiscación de tierras en Bil'in , 2011

Israel ha ocupado los territorios palestinos , que comprenden Cisjordania (incluida Jerusalén Oriental ) y la Franja de Gaza , desde 1967 tras la Guerra de Junio , lo que la convierte en la ocupación militar más larga de la historia moderna. [177] En 2024, la Corte Internacional de Justicia determinó que los territorios palestinos constituyen una unidad política y que la ocupación de Israel desde 1967, y la posterior creación de asentamientos israelíes y la explotación de los recursos naturales, son ilegales según el derecho internacional. El tribunal también dictaminó que Israel debe pagar reparaciones completas al pueblo palestino por el daño que ha causado la ocupación. [178] [179]

Algunos palestinos afirman que tienen derecho a toda Cisjordania, la Franja de Gaza y Jerusalén Oriental. Israel dice que está justificado no ceder toda esta tierra, debido a preocupaciones de seguridad, y también porque la falta de un acuerdo diplomático válido en ese momento significa que la propiedad y los límites de esta tierra están abiertos a discusión. [180] Los palestinos afirman que cualquier reducción de esta reclamación es una grave privación de sus derechos. En las negociaciones, afirman que cualquier medida para reducir los límites de esta tierra es una medida hostil contra sus intereses clave. Israel considera que esta tierra está en disputa y siente que el propósito de las negociaciones es definir cuáles serán las fronteras finales. En 2017, Hamás anunció que estaba listo para apoyar un estado palestino en las fronteras de 1967 "sin reconocer a Israel ni ceder ningún derecho". [181]

Asentamientos israelíes

Un barrio en el asentamiento de Ariel en la Cisjordania ocupada por Israel , que alberga la Universidad de Ariel
Colonos israelíes en Hebrón , Cisjordania

La comunidad internacional considera que los asentamientos israelíes son ilegales según el derecho internacional , [182] [183] ​​[184] [185] pero Israel lo niega. [186] [187] [188] [189] Quienes justifican la legalidad de los asentamientos utilizan argumentos basados ​​en los artículos 2 y 49 del Cuarto Convenio de Ginebra , así como en la Resolución 242 del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas . [190] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] La expansión de los asentamientos a menudo implica la confiscación de tierras y recursos palestinos, lo que lleva al desplazamiento de comunidades palestinas y crea una fuente de tensión y conflicto. Los asentamientos suelen estar protegidos por el ejército israelí y con frecuencia son puntos críticos de violencia contra los palestinos. Además, la presencia de asentamientos y carreteras de circunvalación exclusivas para judíos crea un territorio palestino fragmentado , lo que obstaculiza gravemente el desarrollo económico y la libertad de movimiento de los palestinos . [191] Amnistía Internacional informa de que los asentamientos israelíes desvían los recursos que necesitan las ciudades palestinas, como tierras cultivables, agua y otros recursos; y que los asentamientos reducen la capacidad de los palestinos de viajar libremente por las carreteras locales, debido a consideraciones de seguridad. [192]

En 2023, había alrededor de 500.000 colonos israelíes viviendo en Cisjordania, y otros 200.000 en Jerusalén Oriental. [193] [194] [195] En febrero de 2023, el Ministro de Finanzas de Israel, Bezalel Smotrich, se hizo cargo de la mayor parte de la Administración Civil , obteniendo una amplia autoridad sobre cuestiones civiles en Cisjordania. [196] [197] En los primeros seis meses de 2023, se construyeron 13.000 unidades de vivienda en asentamientos, lo que es casi tres veces más que en todo el año 2022. [198]

Policía militar israelí

Manifestantes en Lod portan fotografías de la periodista palestino-estadounidense Shireen Abu Akleh, quien fue asesinada a tiros mientras informaba en Cisjordania el 11 de mayo de 2022

En un informe publicado en febrero de 2014 sobre los incidentes ocurridos durante el trienio 2011-2013, Amnistía Internacional afirmó que las fuerzas israelíes emplearon una violencia temeraria en Cisjordania y que en algunos casos parecieron cometer homicidios deliberados que equivaldrían a crímenes de guerra . Además de las numerosas muertes, Amnistía afirmó que al menos 261 palestinos, incluidos 67 niños, habían resultado gravemente heridos por el uso de munición real por parte de Israel. En ese mismo período, 45 palestinos, incluidos 6 niños, habían muerto. El análisis de Amnistía de las 25 muertes de civiles concluyó que en ningún caso había pruebas de que los palestinos representaran una amenaza inminente. Al mismo tiempo, más de 8.000 palestinos sufrieron lesiones graves por otros medios, incluidas balas metálicas recubiertas de goma. Sólo un soldado de las FDI fue condenado por matar a un palestino que intentaba entrar ilegalmente en Israel. El soldado fue degradado y condenado a un año de prisión con una suspensión de cinco meses. Las FDI respondieron a las acusaciones afirmando que su ejército se atenía a "los más altos estándares profesionales", añadiendo que cuando había sospechas de irregularidades, investigaba y tomaba medidas "cuando era apropiado". [199] [200]

Separación de la Franja de Gaza

Desde 2006, Israel ha aplicado una política oficial y explícita de "separación" entre Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza. [201] Esta política de separación ha implicado restricciones estrictas a las importaciones, exportaciones y viajes hacia y desde la Franja de Gaza. [202] Esta política comenzó a desarrollarse ya en la década de 1950, pero se formalizó aún más con la implementación de un régimen de cierre israelí en 1991, donde Israel comenzó a exigir a los habitantes de Gaza que obtuvieran permisos para salir de la Franja de Gaza y para entrar en Cisjordania (cancelando el "permiso general de salida"). Al tratar la Franja de Gaza como una entidad separada, Israel ha tenido como objetivo aumentar su control sobre Cisjordania al tiempo que evita una resolución política del conflicto. [203] [204] La falta de contigüidad territorial entre Gaza y Cisjordania y la ausencia de cualquier "paso seguro" explican el éxito de la política de separación de Israel. [205] La economista política de Harvard Sara Roy describe la política de separación como motivada por el rechazo israelí al compromiso territorial, socavando fundamentalmente la cohesión política y económica palestina y debilitando la unidad nacional entre los palestinos. [206] [207]

La separación de Gaza del interior de Cisjordania refleja un cambio de paradigma en el marco del conflicto. Después de que Hamás asumiera el poder en 2007, Israel declaró a Gaza un "territorio hostil", prefiriendo enmarcar sus obligaciones hacia Gaza en términos del derecho de los conflictos armados, en lugar de lo que presentó como una disputa fronteriza, en oposición a las de la ocupación militar [205] [208] (este marco fue rechazado por la CIJ en 2024 cuando el tribunal declaró que Israel seguía ocupando la Franja de Gaza incluso después de la retirada de 2005 [209] ). De hecho, los funcionarios israelíes presentaron la política de bloqueo intensificado como una "guerra económica" destinada a "mantener la economía de Gaza al borde del colapso" al "nivel más bajo posible". [205] Roy cita una decisión de la Corte Suprema israelí que aprobaba los recortes de combustible a Gaza como emblemática de la desactivación de Gaza; El tribunal consideró que los cortes de combustible eran permisibles porque no perjudicarían las "necesidades humanitarias esenciales" de la población.

El director ejecutivo de la organización israelí de derechos humanos Gisha describió la política israelí hacia Gaza entre 2007 y 2010 como "explícitamente punitiva", controlando la entrada de alimentos en función de las necesidades calóricas calculadas para limitar la actividad económica e imponer una "guerra económica". Estas restricciones incluían permitir sólo pequeños paquetes de margarina para impedir la producción local de alimentos. El PIB de Gaza disminuyó drásticamente durante este período como resultado de estas medidas. [210] De hecho, en abril de 2010 Israel restringió la entrada de artículos comerciales a Gaza a una lista de 73 productos, en comparación con los 4.000 productos que habían sido aprobados anteriormente. El resultado fue el colapso virtual del sector privado de Gaza, que Roy describe como en gran parte completado después de la Operación Plomo Fundido israelí de 2008 en Gaza. [206] Según Gisha, las restricciones de viaje desde la Franja de Gaza no se basan en preocupaciones de seguridad individuales, sino que la regla general es que los viajes a Israel o Cisjordania desde Gaza no están permitidos salvo en casos "excepcionales". [211] Las restricciones de viaje impuestas por Israel tienen por objeto, en particular, impedir que los habitantes de Gaza vivan en Cisjordania. De hecho, la política israelí trata a la Franja de Gaza como una estación "terminal", en la que la reunificación familiar entre Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza sólo es posible si la familia acepta trasladarse permanentemente a la Franja de Gaza. [212] Los funcionarios israelíes describieron el bloqueo como una medida de seguridad limitada, y en cambio afirmaron que estas restricciones estaban motivadas por razones "políticas y de seguridad". [213]

Bloqueo de la Franja de Gaza

El ataque de Israel a Gaza en 2009

Aunque el cierre tiene una larga historia en Gaza que se remonta a 1991, cuando se impuso por primera vez, se agudizó después de 2000 con el inicio de la segunda intifada. El cierre se endureció aún más después de la desconexión de 2005 y luego nuevamente en 2006, después de la victoria electoral de Hamás. [207] Se impusieron mayores restricciones a las importaciones y exportaciones, así como al movimiento de personas, incluida la fuerza laboral de Gaza. El asedio total de Gaza que se impuso después del ataque liderado por Hamás contra Israel durante el 7 de octubre de 2023, fue parte de esa misma política de separación y cierre, caracterizada por la destrucción de la infraestructura de Gaza (especialmente viviendas) y la negación de alimentos, agua, electricidad y combustible a su población. [205] El 9 de octubre de 2023, Israel declaró la guerra a Hamás y endureció su bloqueo de la Franja de Gaza . [214] El ministro de Defensa israelí, Yoav Gallant, declaró: "No habrá electricidad, ni alimentos, ni combustible, todo está cerrado. Estamos luchando contra animales humanos y estamos actuando en consecuencia". [215] [216]

Desde su inicio, el bloqueo ha tenido un impacto perjudicial en el sector privado de Gaza, el principal motor del crecimiento económico de Gaza. Antes del bloqueo, Gaza importaba el 95% de sus insumos para la industria y exportaba el 85% de los productos terminados (principalmente a Israel y Cisjordania). El empleo en este sector se redujo al 4% en 2010, con una tasa general de desempleo del 40% en ese momento y el 80% de la población viviendo con menos de 2 dólares al día. [217] En 2009 se permitió la entrada a la Franja de Gaza de menos de 40 artículos comerciales, en comparación con una lista de 4.000 artículos antes del inicio del bloqueo. Las importaciones de combustible se restringieron de tal manera que el 95% de las operaciones industriales de Gaza se vieron obligadas a cerrar, y el resto funcionó muy por debajo de su capacidad. En total, 100.000 de las 120.000 personas empleadas en el sector privado perdieron sus empleos como resultado del bloqueo. El factor más crítico para la economía ha sido la prohibición casi total de las exportaciones desde la Franja de Gaza. El número de camiones cargados con productos de exportación se redujo al 2% de lo que era antes del bloqueo. Sólo se permitieron las exportaciones al mercado europeo, un mercado mucho menos rentable para los habitantes de Gaza que Israel y Cisjordania. Los productos aprobados para la exportación fueron principalmente flores y fresas. La primera exportación a Cisjordania o Israel no se produjo hasta 2012 y sólo en cantidades muy limitadas: se permitió el paso a través de Israel de hasta cuatro camiones cargados de muebles fabricados en Gaza para una exposición en Ammán. [207]

Incluso en los primeros años del cierre impuesto por Israel, el aumento de los costos asociados a las transacciones comerciales tuvo un impacto negativo en el comercio. Las mercancías transferidas entre Cisjordania, Gaza e Israel debían cargarse primero en camiones palestinos y luego descargarse en camiones israelíes en la frontera, incluso para distancias de 80 a 160 kilómetros. Estos mayores costos incluyen los costos de los controles de seguridad, el despacho de aduanas, el almacenamiento y el deterioro, así como mayores costos de transporte. [218]

El Procurador General Militar de Israel dijo que Israel está justificado, en virtud del derecho internacional, para imponer un bloqueo a un enemigo por razones de seguridad, ya que Hamás "convirtió el territorio bajo su control de facto en una plataforma de lanzamiento de ataques con morteros y cohetes contra ciudades y pueblos israelíes en el sur de Israel". [219] Los titulares de los medios de comunicación han descrito una comisión de las Naciones Unidas como la que dictaminó que el bloqueo de Israel es "tanto legal como apropiado". [220] [221] Sin embargo, Amnistía Internacional ha declarado que esto es "completamente falso", y que el informe de la ONU citado no hacía tal afirmación. [222] El continuo bloqueo terrestre, marítimo y aéreo del Gobierno israelí equivale a un castigo colectivo de la población, según la Oficina de las Naciones Unidas para la Coordinación de Asuntos Humanitarios. [223]

En enero de 2008, el gobierno israelí calculó cuántas calorías por persona eran necesarias para evitar una crisis humanitaria en la Franja de Gaza, y luego restó un ocho por ciento para ajustarlo a la "cultura y experiencia" de los habitantes de Gaza. Los detalles de los cálculos se hicieron públicos tras la solicitud de la organización israelí de derechos humanos Gisha al Tribunal Supremo. El Coordinador de Actividades Gubernamentales de Israel en los Territorios, que redactó el plan, declaró que el plan nunca fue adoptado formalmente y que Gisha no lo aceptó. [224] [225] [226]

El 20 de junio de 2010, en respuesta al ataque a la flotilla de Gaza , el Gabinete de Seguridad de Israel aprobó un nuevo sistema de control del bloqueo que permitiría la entrada en la Franja de Gaza de prácticamente todos los artículos no militares o de doble uso. Según una declaración del Gabinete, Israel "ampliaría la transferencia de materiales de construcción destinados a proyectos que han sido aprobados por la Autoridad Palestina, incluidas escuelas, instituciones de salud, agua, saneamiento y más, así como (proyectos) que están bajo supervisión internacional". [227] A pesar de la flexibilización del bloqueo terrestre, Israel seguirá inspeccionando todos los bienes destinados a Gaza por mar en el puerto de Ashdod . [228] A pesar de estos anuncios, la situación económica no cambió sustancialmente y la prohibición prácticamente completa de las exportaciones siguió vigente. Sólo se permitió la entrada de algunos productos de consumo y material para proyectos patrocinados por donantes. [229]

Manifestantes palestinos en la Franja de Gaza durante la guerra entre Israel y Hamás de 2023

Naciones Unidas y el reconocimiento del Estado palestino

  Países que han reconocido el Estado de Palestina
  Países que no han reconocido el Estado de Palestina

La OLP ha hecho campaña para que el Estado de Palestina sea miembro pleno de la ONU y para que se lo reconozca en las fronteras de 1967. Esta campaña ha recibido un amplio apoyo. [230] [231] La Asamblea General de la ONU vota cada año casi unánimemente a favor de una resolución que pide el establecimiento de un Estado palestino en las fronteras de 1967. [232] En cambio, Estados Unidos e Israel prefieren buscar una negociación bilateral en lugar de resolver el conflicto sobre la base del derecho internacional. [233] [234] Netanyahu ha criticado a los palestinos por supuestamente intentar eludir las conversaciones directas, [235] mientras que Abbas ha argumentado que la continua construcción de asentamientos israelíes-judíos está "socavando el potencial realista" de la solución de dos Estados. [236] Aunque el Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU ha negado a Palestina el estatus de miembro pleno , [237] a finales de 2012 la Asamblea General de la ONU aprobó por abrumadora mayoría el reconocimiento de facto de la soberanía de Palestina al concederle el estatus de Estado no miembro. [238]

Incitación

Tras los Acuerdos de Oslo, que debían establecer órganos reguladores para poner freno a las fricciones, la incitación palestina contra Israel, los judíos y el sionismo continuó, en paralelo con la búsqueda de asentamientos por parte de Israel en los territorios palestinos, [239] aunque, según se informa, bajo el mandato de Abu Mazen ha disminuido significativamente. [240] Las acusaciones de incitación han sido recíprocas, [241] [242] ambas partes han interpretado las declaraciones de los medios de comunicación palestinos e israelíes como constitutivas de incitación. [240] Se ha descubierto que los libros escolares publicados tanto para las escuelas israelíes como para las palestinas han fomentado una narrativa unilateral e incluso el odio hacia la otra parte. [243] [244] [245] [246] [247] [248] Los autores de ataques asesinos, ya sea contra israelíes o palestinos, a menudo encuentran un fuerte apoyo vocal de sectores de sus comunidades a pesar de los distintos niveles de condena de los políticos. [249] [250] [251]

Ambas partes en conflicto han sido criticadas por terceros por enseñar incitación a sus hijos al restar importancia a los lazos históricos de cada lado con la zona, enseñarles mapas propagandísticos o adoctrinar a sus hijos para que algún día se unan a las fuerzas armadas. [252] [253]

Cuestiones en disputa

Las cuestiones centrales del conflicto son las fronteras, el estatuto de los asentamientos en Cisjordania, el estatuto de Jerusalén Oriental, el derecho de retorno de los refugiados palestinos y la seguridad. [254] [125] [121] [255] Con el reconocimiento por parte de la OLP del derecho de Israel a existir en 1982, [135] la comunidad internacional, con la principal excepción de los Estados Unidos e Israel [256] [257], ha llegado a un consenso sobre un marco para resolver el conflicto sobre la base del derecho internacional. [258] Varios organismos de la ONU y la CIJ han apoyado esta posición; [258] [121] cada año, la Asamblea General de la ONU vota casi unánimemente a favor de una resolución titulada "Arreglo pacífico de la cuestión de Palestina". Esta resolución afirma sistemáticamente la ilegalidad de los asentamientos israelíes, la anexión de Jerusalén Oriental y el principio de la inadmisibilidad de la adquisición de territorio por medio de la guerra. También se destaca la necesidad de una retirada israelí del territorio palestino ocupado desde 1967 y la necesidad de una solución justa a la cuestión de los refugiados sobre la base de la resolución 194 de las Naciones Unidas. [232]

Las estrategias unilaterales y la retórica de las facciones políticas de línea dura, junto con la violencia, han fomentado el resentimiento y la hostilidad mutuos y una pérdida de fe en la posibilidad de alcanzar un acuerdo pacífico. Desde la ruptura de las negociaciones, la seguridad ha desempeñado un papel menos importante en las preocupaciones israelíes, rezagada ante el empleo, la corrupción, la vivienda y otras cuestiones urgentes. [259] La política israelí se ha reorientado para centrarse en la gestión del conflicto y la ocupación asociada del territorio palestino, en lugar de alcanzar una solución negociada. [259] [260] [261] [262] [263] La expansión de los asentamientos israelíes en Cisjordania ha llevado a la mayoría de los palestinos a creer que Israel no está comprometido a alcanzar un acuerdo, sino más bien a tratar de establecer un control permanente sobre este territorio para proporcionar esa seguridad. [264]

Estatus de Jerusalén

Gran Jerusalén, mayo de 2006. Mapa de teledetección de la CIA que muestra lo que la CIA considera asentamientos, además de campos de refugiados, vallas y muros.

En 1967, Israel anexó unilateralmente Jerusalén Oriental , en violación del derecho internacional. Israel se apoderó de una zona significativa más al este de la ciudad, creando finalmente una barrera de asentamientos israelíes alrededor de la ciudad, aislando a la población palestina de Jerusalén de Cisjordania. [265] La política de Israel de construir barrios judíos en expansión alrededor de las secciones palestinas de la ciudad tenía como objetivo hacer que una repartición de la ciudad fuera casi imposible. En un esfuerzo adicional por cambiar la demografía de Jerusalén a favor de una mayoría judía, Israel desalentó la presencia palestina en la ciudad mientras alentaba la presencia judía, como una cuestión de política. Específicamente, Israel introdujo políticas que restringían el espacio disponible para la construcción de barrios palestinos, retrasando o denegando permisos de construcción y aumentando las órdenes de demolición de viviendas. [266] Las tensiones en Jerusalén son impulsadas principalmente por provocaciones de las autoridades israelíes y extremistas judíos contra los árabes en la ciudad. [267]

El gobierno israelí, incluidos el Knesset y el Tribunal Supremo , está ubicado en la "nueva ciudad" de Jerusalén Oeste y ha estado allí desde la fundación de Israel en 1948. Después de que Israel se anexionara Jerusalén Este en 1967, asumió el control administrativo completo de Jerusalén Este. Desde entonces, varios organismos de la ONU han denunciado sistemáticamente el control de Israel sobre Jerusalén Este como inválido. [266] En 1980, Israel aprobó la Ley de Jerusalén que declaraba que "Jerusalén, completa y unida, es la capital de Israel". [268] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ]

Muchos países no reconocen a Jerusalén como capital de Israel, con la excepción de Estados Unidos [269] y Rusia [270] . La mayoría de los estados miembros de la ONU y la mayoría de las organizaciones internacionales no reconocen las reivindicaciones de Israel sobre Jerusalén Oriental que se produjeron después de la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967, ni su proclamación de la Ley de Jerusalén de 1980. [271] La Corte Internacional de Justicia, en su opinión consultiva de 2004 sobre las "Consecuencias jurídicas de la construcción de un muro en el territorio palestino ocupado", describió a Jerusalén Oriental como "territorio palestino ocupado". [272]

Las tres religiones abrahámicas más importantes ( el judaísmo , el cristianismo y el islam) consideran a Jerusalén como un escenario importante para sus narrativas religiosas e históricas. Jerusalén es la ciudad más sagrada del judaísmo, ya que fue la antigua ubicación de los templos judíos en el Monte del Templo y la capital del antiguo reino israelita. Para los musulmanes, Jerusalén es el tercer lugar más sagrado, ya que es el lugar de los eventos de Isra' y Mi'raj , y la mezquita Al-Aqsa . Para los cristianos, Jerusalén es el lugar de la crucifixión de Jesús y la Iglesia del Santo Sepulcro .

Lugares sagrados y el Monte del Templo de Jerusalén

Panorama del Muro Occidental con la Cúpula de la Roca (izquierda) y la mezquita de Al-Aqsa (derecha) al fondo

Desde principios del siglo XX, la cuestión de los lugares sagrados , y en particular de los lugares sagrados de Jerusalén, ha sido utilizada por políticos nacionalistas. [273]

Los israelíes no tenían acceso irrestricto a los lugares sagrados en Jerusalén Este durante el período de ocupación jordana. [274] Desde 1975, Israel ha prohibido a los musulmanes adorar en la Tumba de José , un santuario considerado sagrado tanto por judíos como por musulmanes. Los colonos establecieron una yeshivá, instalaron un rollo de la Torá y cubrieron el mihrab . Durante la Segunda Intifada, los manifestantes palestinos saquearon y quemaron el sitio. [275] [276] Las agencias de seguridad israelíes monitorean y arrestan rutinariamente a los extremistas judíos que planean ataques, aunque todavía han ocurrido muchos incidentes graves. [277] Israel ha permitido una autonomía casi completa al fideicomiso musulmán ( Waqf ) sobre el Monte del Templo. [266]

Los palestinos han expresado su preocupación por el bienestar de los lugares sagrados cristianos y musulmanes bajo control israelí. [278] Además, algunos defensores palestinos han hecho declaraciones en las que afirman que el túnel del Muro Occidental se reabrió con la intención de provocar el derrumbe de la mezquita. [279]

Refugiados palestinos

Refugiados palestinos, 1948

Los refugiados palestinos son personas que perdieron sus hogares y medios de subsistencia como resultado del conflicto árabe-israelí de 1948 [280] y la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967. [281] El número de palestinos que fueron expulsados ​​o huyeron de Israel se estimó en 711.000 en 1949. [282] La ONU considera también refugiados a los descendientes de todos los refugiados (no solo a los refugiados palestinos [283] ). En 2010 había 4,7 millones de refugiados palestinos. [284] Entre 350.000 y 400.000 palestinos fueron desplazados durante la guerra árabe-israelí de 1967. [281] Un tercio de los refugiados vive en campos de refugiados reconocidos en Jordania , Líbano , Siria , Cisjordania y la Franja de Gaza . El resto vive en las ciudades y pueblos de estos países de acogida y sus alrededores. [280] La mayoría de los refugiados palestinos nacieron fuera de Israel y no se les permite vivir en ninguna parte de la Palestina histórica. [280] [285]

Israel ha impedido desde 1948 el retorno de los refugiados palestinos y ha rechazado cualquier asentamiento que permita su retorno, salvo en casos limitados. [135] [286] [287] Sobre la base de la Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos y la Resolución 194 de la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas , los palestinos reclaman el derecho de los refugiados a regresar a las tierras, hogares y aldeas donde vivían antes de ser expulsados ​​al exilio en 1948 y 1967. El propio Arafat aseguró repetidamente a sus interlocutores estadounidenses e israelíes en Camp David que lo que buscaba principalmente era que se aceptara el principio del derecho al retorno, en lugar del pleno derecho al retorno, en la práctica. [288]

Autores palestinos e internacionales han justificado el derecho al retorno de los refugiados palestinos por varios motivos: [289] [290] [291] Varios académicos incluidos en el grupo más amplio de Nuevos Historiadores sostienen que los refugiados palestinos huyeron o fueron perseguidos o expulsados ​​por las acciones de la Haganah , Lehi y el Irgun , grupos paramilitares sionistas. [292] [293] Varios también han caracterizado esto como una limpieza étnica. [294] [295] [296] [297] Los Nuevos Historiadores citan indicaciones del deseo de los líderes árabes de que la población árabe palestina se quede. [298]

Casa en el campo de refugiados de Balata demolida durante la segunda Intifada, 2002

La Ley de Retorno israelí que otorga la ciudadanía a las personas de ascendencia judía ha sido descrita como discriminatoria contra otros grupos étnicos, especialmente los palestinos que no pueden solicitar dicha ciudadanía en virtud de la ley de retorno al territorio del que fueron expulsados ​​o del que huyeron durante el curso de la guerra de 1948. [299] [300] [301]

Según la Resolución 194 de las Naciones Unidas , adoptada en 1948, "a los refugiados que deseen regresar a sus hogares y vivir en paz con sus vecinos se les debe permitir hacerlo lo antes posible, y se debe pagar una compensación por la propiedad de aquellos que opten por no regresar y por la pérdida o daño a la propiedad que, en virtud de los principios del derecho internacional o de la equidad, deben ser reparados por los gobiernos o autoridades responsables". [302] La Resolución 3236 de las Naciones Unidas "reafirma también el derecho inalienable de los palestinos a regresar a sus hogares y propiedades de los que han sido desplazados y desarraigados, y pide su retorno". [303] La Resolución 242 de las Naciones Unidas afirma la necesidad de "lograr una solución justa del problema de los refugiados"; sin embargo, la Resolución 242 no especifica que la "solución justa" debe o debería ser en la forma de un derecho literal palestino al retorno. [304]

Historically, there has been debate over the relative impact of the causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus, although there is a wide consensus that violent expulsions by Zionist and Israeli forces were the main factor. Other factors include psychological warfare and Arab sense of vulnerability. Notably, historian Benny Morris states that most of Palestine's 700,000 refugees fled because of the "flail of war" and expected to return home shortly after a successful Arab invasion. He documents instances in which Arab leaders advised the evacuation of entire communities as happened in Haifa although recognizes that these were isolated events.[305][306] In his later work, Morris considers the displacement the result of a national conflict initiated by the Arabs themselves.[306] In a 2004 interview with Haaretz, he described the exodus as largely resulting from an atmosphere of transfer that was promoted by Ben-Gurion and understood by the military leadership. He also claimed that there "are circumstances in history that justify ethnic cleansing".[307] He has been criticized by political scientist Norman Finkelstein for having seemingly changed his views for political, rather than historical, reasons.[308]

Shatila refugee camp on the outskirts of Beirut in May 2019

Although Israel accepts the right of the Palestinian Diaspora to return into a new Palestinian state, Israel insists that the return of this population into the current state of Israel would threaten the stability of the Jewish state; an influx of Palestinian refugees would lead to the end of the state of Israel as a Jewish state since a demographic majority of Jews would not be maintained.[309][310][311]

Israeli security concerns

Remains of an Egged bus hit by suicide bomber in the aftermath of the 2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks. Eight people were killed, about 40 were injured.

Throughout the conflict, Palestinian violence has been a concern for Israelis. Security concerns have historically been a key driver in Israeli political decision making, often expanding in scope and taking precedence over other considerations such as international law and Palestinian human rights.[312][313][314] The occupation of the West Bank, Gaza, East Jerusalem and the continued expansion of settlements in those areas have been justified on security grounds. [315]

Israel,[316] along with the United States[317][better source needed] and the European Union, refer to any use of force by Palestinian groups as terroristic and criminal. This is in contrast to the consensus in international law which allows for Palestinians, as a people under illegal military occupation, to use lethal force against Israeli military targets and installations.[318][319][page needed]

In Israel, Palestinian suicide bombers have targeted civilian buses, restaurants, shopping malls, hotels and marketplaces.[320] From 1993 to 2003, 303 Palestinian suicide bombers attacked Israel.[citation needed] In 1994, Hamas initiated their first lethal suicide attack in response to the cave of the Patriarchs massacre where American-Israeli physician Baruch Goldstein opened fire in a mosque, killing 29 people and injuring 125.[321]

The Israeli government initiated the construction of a security barrier following scores of suicide bombings and terrorist attacks in July 2003. Israel's coalition government approved the security barrier in the northern part of the green line between Israel and the West Bank. According to the IDF, since the erection of the fence, terrorist acts have declined by approximately 90%.[322] The decline in attacks can also be attributed to the permanent presence of Israeli troops inside and around Palestinian cities and increasing security cooperation between the IDF and the Palestinian Authority during this period.[323] The barrier followed a route that ran almost entirely through land occupied by Israel in June 1967, unilaterally seizing more than 10% of the West Bank, including whole neighborhoods and settlement blocs, while splitting Palestinian villages in half with immediate effects on Palestinian's freedom of movement. The barrier, in some areas, isolated farmers from their fields and children from their schools, while also restricting Palestinians from moving within the West Bank or pursuing employment in Israel.[324][page needed][325][326]

In 2004 the International Court of Justice ruled that the construction of the barrier violated the Palestinian right to self-determination, contravened the Fourth Geneva Convention, and could not be justified as a measure of Israeli self-defense.[327] The ICJ further expressed that the construction of the wall by Israel could become a permanent fixture, altering the status quo. Israel's High Court, however, disagreed with the ICJ's conclusions, stating that they lacked a factual basis. Several human rights organizations, including B'Tselem, Human Rights Watch, and Amnesty International, echoed the ICJ's concerns. They suggested that the wall's route was designed to perpetuate the existence of settlements and facilitate their future annexation into Israel, and that the wall was a means for Israel to consolidate control over land used for illegal settlements. The sophisticated structure of the wall also indicated its likely permanence.[328]

Since 2001, the threat of Qassam rockets fired from Palestinian territories into Israel continues to be of great concern for Israeli defense officials.[329] In 2006—the year following Israel's disengagement from the Gaza Strip—the Israeli government claimed to have recorded 1,726 such launches, more than four times the total rockets fired in 2005.[316][330] As of January 2009, over 8,600 rockets have been launched,[331][332] causing widespread psychological trauma and disruption of daily life.[333] As a result of these attacks, Israelis living in southern Israel have had to spend long periods in bomb shelters. The relatively small payload carried on these rockets, Israel's advanced early warning system, American-supplied anti-missile capabilities, and network of shelters made the rockets rarely lethal. In 2014, out of 4,000 rockets fired from the Gaza Strip, only six Israeli civilians were killed. For comparison, the payload carried on these rockets is smaller than Israeli tank shells, of which 49,000 where fired in Gaza in 2014.[334]

There is significant debate within Israel about how to deal with the country's security concerns. Options have included military action (including targeted killings and house demolitions of terrorist operatives), diplomacy, unilateral gestures toward peace, and increased security measures such as checkpoints, roadblocks and security barriers. The legality and the wisdom of all of the above tactics have been called into question by various commentators.[citation needed]

Since mid-June 2007, Israel's primary means of dealing with security concerns in the West Bank has been to cooperate with and permit United States-sponsored training, equipping, and funding of the Palestinian Authority's security forces, which with Israeli help have largely succeeded in quelling West Bank supporters of Hamas.[335]

Water resources

In the Middle East, water resources are of great political concern. Since Israel receives much of its water from two large underground aquifers which continue under the Green Line, the use of this water has been contentious in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Israel withdraws most water from these areas, but it also supplies the West Bank with approximately 40 million cubic metres annually, contributing to 77% of Palestinians' water supply in the West Bank, which is to be shared for a population of about 2.6 million.[336]

Palestinian villagers purchase water from water trucks in Khirbet A-Duqaiqah in the Hebron Hills
A swimming pool in the Israeli settlement of Ma'ale Adumim, West Bank

While Israel's consumption of this water has decreased since it began its occupation of the West Bank, it still consumes the majority of it: in the 1950s, Israel consumed 95% of the water output of the Western Aquifer, and 82% of that produced by the Northeastern Aquifer. Although this water was drawn entirely on Israel's own side of the pre-1967 border, the sources of the water are nevertheless from the shared groundwater basins located under both West Bank and Israel.[337]

In the Oslo II Accord, both sides agreed to maintain "existing quantities of utilization from the resources." In so doing, the Palestinian Authority established the legality of Israeli water production in the West Bank, subject to a Joint Water Committee (JWC). Moreover, Israel obligated itself in this agreement to provide water to supplement Palestinian production, and further agreed to allow additional Palestinian drilling in the Eastern Aquifer, also subject to the Joint Water Committee.[338][339] The water that Israel receives comes mainly from the Jordan River system, the Sea of Galilee and two underground sources. According to a 2003 BBC article the Palestinians lack access to the Jordan River system.[340]

According to a report of 2008 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, water resources were confiscated for the benefit of the Israeli settlements in the Ghor. Palestinian irrigation pumps on the Jordan River were destroyed or confiscated after the 1967 war and Palestinians were not allowed to use water from the Jordan River system. Furthermore, the authorities did not allow any new irrigation wells to be drilled by Palestinian farmers, while it provided fresh water and allowed drilling wells for irrigation purposes at the Jewish settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.[341]

A report was released by the UN in August 2012 and Max Gaylard, the UN Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator in the occupied Palestinian territory, explained at the launch of the publication: "Gaza will have half a million more people by 2020 while its economy will grow only slowly. In consequence, the people of Gaza will have an even harder time getting enough drinking water and electricity, or sending their children to school". Gaylard present alongside Jean Gough, of the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), and Robert Turner, of the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). The report projects that Gaza's population will increase from 1.6 million people to 2.1 million people in 2020, leading to a density of more than 5,800 people per square kilometre.[342]

Future and financing

Numerous foreign nations and international organizations have established bilateral agreements with the Palestinian and Israeli water authorities. It was estimated that a future investment of about US$1.1bn for the West Bank and $0.8bn for the Gaza Strip Southern Governorates was needed for the planning period from 2003 to 2015.[343]

In late 2012, a donation of $21.6 million was announced by the Government of the Netherlands—the Dutch government stated that the funds would be provided to the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), for the specific benefit of Palestinian children. An article, published by the UN News website, stated that: "Of the $21.6 million, $5.7 will be allocated to UNRWA's 2012 Emergency Appeal for the occupied Palestinian territory, which will support programmes in the West Bank and Gaza aiming to mitigate the effects on refugees of the deteriorating situation they face."[342]

Agricultural rights

The conflict has been about land since its inception.[344] When Israel became a state after the war in 1948, 77% of Palestine's land was used for the creation on the state.[345] The majority of those living in Palestine at the time became refugees in other countries and this first land crisis became the root of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.[346][page needed] Because the root of the conflict is with land, the disputes between Israel and Palestine are well-manifested in the agriculture of Palestine.

In Palestine, agriculture is a mainstay in the economy. The production of agricultural goods supports the population's sustenance needs and fuels Palestine's export economy.[347] According to the Council for European Palestinian Relations, the agricultural sector formally employs 13.4% of the population and informally employs 90% of the population.[347] Over the past 10 years[when?], unemployment rates in Palestine have increased and the agricultural sector became the most impoverished sector in Palestine. Unemployment rates peaked in 2008 when they reached 41% in Gaza.[348]

Palestinian agriculture suffers from numerous problems including Israeli military and civilian attacks on farms and farmers, blockades to exportation of produce and importation of necessary inputs, widespread confiscation of land for nature reserves as well as military and settler use, confiscation and destruction of wells, and physical barriers within the West Bank.[349]

Israel's West Bank barrier

The barrier between Israel and Palestine

With the construction of the separation barrier, the Israeli state promised free movement across regions. However, border closures, curfews, and checkpoints has significantly restricted Palestinian movement.[350] In 2012, there were 99 fixed check points and 310 flying checkpoints.[351][page needed] The border restrictions impacted the imports and exports in Palestine and weakened the industrial and agricultural sectors because of the constant Israeli control in the West Bank and Gaza.[352] In order for the Palestinian economy to be prosperous, the restrictions on Palestinian land must be removed.[349] According to The Guardian and a report for World Bank, the Palestinian economy lost $3.4bn (%35 of the annual GDP) to Israeli restrictions in the West Bank alone.[353]

Palestinian violence outside of Israel

Some Palestinians have committed violent acts over the globe on the pretext of a struggle against Israel.[354]

During the late 1960s, groups affiliated with the PLO became increasingly infamous for its use of international terror. In 1969 alone, these groups were responsible for hijacking 82 planes. El Al Airlines became a regular hijacking target.[355][356] The hijacking of Air France Flight 139 by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine culminated during a hostage-rescue mission, where Israeli special forces successfully rescued the majority of the hostages.

However, one of the most well-known and notorious terrorist acts was the capture and eventual murder of 11 Israeli athletes carried out by the Black September Organization during the 1972 Olympic Games.[357]

Palestinian-on-Palestinian violence

A demonstration in support of Fatah in Gaza City in January 2013

Fighting among rival Palestinian and Arab movements has played a crucial role in shaping Israel's security policy towards Palestinian militants, as well as in the Palestinian leadership's own policies.[citation needed] As early as the 1930s revolts in Palestine, Arab forces fought each other while also skirmishing with Zionist and British forces, and internal conflicts continue to the present day.[citation needed]

In the First Intifada, more than a thousand Palestinians were killed in a campaign initiated by the Palestine Liberation Organization to crack down on suspected Israeli security service informers and collaborators. The Palestinian Authority was strongly criticized for its treatment of alleged collaborators, rights groups complaining that those labeled collaborators were denied fair trials. According to a report released by the Palestinian Human Rights Monitoring Group, less than 45 percent of those killed were actually guilty of informing for Israel.[358][better source needed]

Overriding authority and international status

Area C, controlled by Israel under Oslo Accords, in blue and red, in December 2011

As far as Israel is concerned, the jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority is derived from the Oslo Accords, signed with the PLO, under which it acquired control over cities in the Palestinian territories (Area A) while the surrounding countryside came either under Israeli security and Palestinian civil administration (Area B) or complete Israeli civil administration (Area C). Israel has built additional highways to allow Israelis to traverse the area without entering Palestinian cities in Area A. The initial areas under Palestinian Authority control are diverse and non-contiguous. The areas have changed over time by subsequent negotiations, including Oslo II, Wye River and Sharm el-Sheik. According to Palestinians, the separated areas make it impossible to create a viable nation and fails to address Palestinian security needs; Israel has expressed no agreement to withdrawal from some Areas B, resulting in no reduction in the division of the Palestinian areas, and the institution of a safe pass system, without Israeli checkpoints, between these parts.

Under the Oslo Accords, as a security measure, Israel has insisted on its control over all land, sea and air border crossings into the Palestinian territories, and the right to set import and export controls. This is to enable Israel to control the entry into the territories of materials of military significance and of potentially dangerous persons.

The PLO's objective for international recognition of the State of Palestine is considered by Israel as a provocative "unilateral" act that is inconsistent with the Oslo Accords.

Economic disputes and boycotts

In Gaza, the agricultural market suffers from economic boycotts and border closures and restrictions placed by Israel.[359] The PA's Minister of Agriculture estimates that around US$1.2 billion were lost in September 2006 because of these security measures. This embargo was brought on by Hamas' refusal to recognize Israel's right to statehood.[citation needed] As a result, the PA's 160,000 employees have not received their salaries in over one year.[360]

Actions toward stabilizing the conflict

In response to a weakening trend in Palestinian violence and growing economic and security cooperation between Israel and the Palestinian Authority, the Israeli military removed over 120 check points in 2010 and planned on disengaging from major Palestinian population areas. According to the IDF, terrorist activity in the West Bank decreased by 97% compared to violence in 2002.[361]

PA–Israel efforts in the West Bank have "significantly increased investor confidence", and the Palestinian economy grew 6.8% in 2009.[362][363][364][365]

Since the Second Intifada, Israel has banned Jewish Israelis from entering Palestinian cities. However, Israeli Arabs are allowed to enter West Bank cities on weekends.

The Palestinian Authority has petitioned the Israeli military to allow Jewish tourists to visit West Bank cities as "part of an effort" to improve the Palestinian economy. Israeli general Avi Mizrahi spoke with Palestinian security officers while touring malls and soccer fields in the West Bank. Mizrahi gave permission to allow Israeli tour guides into Bethlehem, a move intended to "contribute to the Palestinian and Israeli economies."[366]

Fatalities

Israeli and Palestinian deaths from 2008 to 2023 (preceding the Israel–Hamas war). Of the Palestinian deaths 5,360 were in Gaza, 1,007 in the West Bank, 37 in Israel. Most were civilians on both sides.[367][368]

Studies provide aggregated casualty data for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 13,000 Israelis and Palestinians were killed in the conflict between 1948-97.[369] Other estimates give 14,500 killed between 1948-2009.[369][370] During the 1982 Lebanon War, Israel killed an estimated 20,000 Palestinians and Lebanese, not including the 800-3500 Palestinians killed in the Sabra-Shatila Massacre.[9]

According to B'tselem, during the first intifada from 1987 until 2000, 1,551 Palestinians and 421 Israelis lost their lives.[371] According to the database of the UNOffice for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - occupied Palestinian territory (OCHAoPt), 6,407 Palestinians and 308 Israelis were killed in the conflict from 2008 to September 2023, before the Israel–Hamas war.[367][368]

Figures include both Israeli civilians and security forces casualties in West Bank, Gaza and Israel. All numbers refer to casualties of direct conflict between Israelis and Palestinians including in IDF military operations, artillery shelling, search and arrest campaigns, barrier demonstrations, targeted killings, settler violence etc. The figures do not include events indirectly related to the conflict such as casualties from unexploded ordnance, etc., or events when the circumstances remain unclear or are in dispute. The figures include all reported casualties of all ages and both genders.[372]

As reported by the Israeli human rights group B'Tselem, from 29 September 2000 to the year 2010, a total of 7,454 Palestinian and Israeli individuals were killed due to the conflict. According to the report, 1,317 of the 6,371 Palestinians were minors, and at least 2,996 did not participate in fighting at the time of death. Palestinians killed 1,083 Israelis, including 741 civilians, of whom 124 were minors.[373]

Criticism of casualty statistics

The Israeli-based International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT) claimed that Israeli and Palestinian human rights groups overestimated the percentage of civilians killed since the IDF suspected many of those killed to be possible militants.[374][375]

During Operation Cast Lead, Israeli figures reported the number of Palestinians killed at 1,166 Palestinian, 60 percent were classified as "terrorists" by Israeli officials. This discrepancy is partially due to Israel's classification of Gazan police, who did not take part in hostilities, as combatants. The broad consensus among human rights organizations is that these police were primarily civilians, as they did not actively participate in hostilities nor were they part of armed groups. The accuracy of Israeli casualty figures was further questioned based on the number of children killed. Israel reported 89 Palestinian minors killed, whereas the human rights organization B'Tselem reported 252, substantiating their figures with birth and death certificates and other documents in almost all cases. The Israeli figures also stand out against the figures published by the US Department of State, which reported the number killed "at close to 1,400 Palestinians, including more than 1,000 civilians."[376]

Landmines and unexploded ordnance

A comprehensive collection mechanism to gather land mine and explosive remnants of war (ERW) casualty data does not exist for the Palestinian territories.[377] In 2009, the United Nations Mine Action Centre reported that more than 2,500 mine and explosive remnants of war casualties occurred between 1967 and 1998, at least 794 casualties (127 killed, 654 injured and 13 unknown) occurred between 1999 and 2008 and that 12 people had been killed and 27 injured since the Gaza War.[377] The UN Mine Action Centre identified the main risks as coming from "ERW left behind by Israeli aerial and artillery weapon systems, or from militant caches targeted by the Israeli forces."[377] There are at least 15 confirmed minefields in the West Bank on the border with Jordan. The Palestinian National Security Forces do not have maps or records of the minefields.[377]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Three factors made Israel's territorial offer less forthcoming than it initially appeared. First, the 91 percent land offer was based on the Israeli definition of the West Bank, but this differs by approximately 5 percentage points from the Palestinian definition. Palestinians use a total area of 5,854 square kilometers. Israel, however, omits the area known as No Man's Land (50 km2 near Latrun), post-1967 East Jerusalem (71 km2), and the territorial waters of the Dead Sea (195 km2), which reduces the total to 5,538 km2

References

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  30. ^ Khalidi 2024, p. 108: "The repression of the revolt had an impact not only on the populace, but also on the Palestinians’ ability to fight thereafter, and on the already fractured capabilities of their national leadership. A high proportion of the Arab casualties included the most experienced military cadres and enterprising fighters.6 By the end of the revolt, most of the top Arab political leaders and thousands of other cadres, militants, and fighters were imprisoned, interned by the British in the Seychelles, in exile, or dead. The British also confiscated large quantities of arms and ammunition from the Arabs during the revolt, and continued to do so during later years.7 By the end of the revolt, existing political divisions within the Palestinian polity had become envenomed, leading to profound rifts between the majority supporting the revolt and a minority that had become alienated from the leadership: the consequence was assassinations, infighting, and further weakening of the Palestinian position. The impact of the revolt on the Palestinian economy was also severe, although some of that damage was self-inflicted, as a boycott of British and Jewish goods and of the mandatory government during the strike and the revolt simply opened up opportunities for the already larger Jewish-controlled sector of the economy of Palestine to expand further."
  31. ^ Khalidi 2020, p. 44
  32. ^ Pappé, Ilan (2007). The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-78074-056-0.
  33. ^ a b c Morris 1999
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  36. ^ Masalha, Nur (2012). "1". The Palestine Nakba. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84813-972-5.
  37. ^ Pappé 2022, The Arrival of Zionism
  38. ^ Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2006). Scars of War, Wounds of Peace. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518158-6. Probably the most appealing article in there commendation of the Commission was that about the 'forced transfer' of Arabs from the future Jewish state. To Ben-Gurion this was an 'unparalleled achievement'. It was 'the best of all solutions', according to Berl Katznelson. 'A distant neighbour', he said, 'is better than a close enemy.' Transfer was such an ideal solution that 'it must happen someday', he concluded. A strategy of phases, admittedly always vague and anything but an articulate plan of action, could only prevail if a solution could be found to the demographic problem. 'Transfer' was the magic formula. The idea of transfer for the Arabs had a long pedigree in Zionist thought.
  39. ^ Masalha, Nur (2012). The Palestine Nakba. Zed Books. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-84813-973-2. Thus the wishful and rather naive belief in Zionism's early years that the Palestinians could be 'spirited across the border', in Herzl's words, or that they would simply 'fold their tents and slip away', to use Zangwill's formulation, soon gave way to more realistic assessments. Between 1937 and 1948 extensive secret discussions of transfer were held in the Zionist movement's highest bodies, including the Zionist Agency Executive, the Twentieth Zionist Congress, the World Convention of Ihud Po'alei Tzion (the top forum of the dominant Zionist world labour movement), and various official and semi-official transfer committees.
  40. ^ Slater 2020, p. 348: "After reviewing Zionism and its consequences, I examined the onset of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict during the 1917–47 period, and argued that because the Zionists wanted to ensure a large Jewish majority in the coming state of Israel, their leaders repeatedly discussed the means by which most of the Palestinians could be expelled or induced to flee; the euphemism they employed was "transfer." The scholarship on "transfer"—especially by Israeli historians—leaves no doubt about its importance in the thinking of every major Zionist leader before and after the creation of Israel.
  41. ^ Flapan, Simha (1979). Zionism and the Palestinians. Croom Helm. p. 259. ISBN 978-0-06-492104-6. The concept of population transfer, as a facile solution to the twin problems of the Arab landless peasants and the creation of land reserves for Jewish settlement was for some time in the back of the minds of the 2ionist leadership. In fact, in private discussions with the British, the Zionist leadership put forward population transfer as a tentative suggestion but stopped short of formulating it into a proposal for action.
  42. ^ Finkelstein, Norman G. (2016). "'Born of War, Not By Design'". Image and Reality of the Israel-Palestine Conflict. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78478-458-4. 'The idea of transfer had accompanied the Zionist movement from its very beginnings', Tom Segev reports.
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  46. ^ Khalidi 2020, Introduction: "Additionally, a separate Jewish-controlled sector of the economy was created through the exclusion of Arab labor from Jewish-owned firms under the slogan of “Avoda ivrit,” Hebrew labor, and the injection of truly massive amounts of capital from abroad."
  47. ^ Sela 2002, p. 361, "al-Husseini, Hajj (Muhammad) Amin"

    He [Husseini] incited and headed anti-Jewish riots in April 1920. ... He promoted the Muslim character of Jerusalem and ... injected a religious character into the struggle against Zionism. This was the backdrop to his agitation concerning Jewish rights at the Western (Wailing) Wall that led to the bloody riots of August 1929...[H]e was the chief organizer of the riots of 1936 and the rebellion from 1937, as well as of the mounting internal terror against Arab opponents.

  48. ^ a b c d Sela 2002, pp. 58–121, "Arab-Israel Conflict"
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  50. ^ Khalidi 2020, Chapter 1: "Of all the services Britain provided to the Zionist movement before 1939, perhaps the most valuable was the armed suppression of Palestinian resistance in the form of the revolt. The bloody war waged against the country’s majority, which left 10 percent of the adult male Arab population killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled,55 was the best illustration of the unvarnished truths uttered by Jabotinsky about the necessity of the use of force for the Zionist project to succeed. To quash the uprising, the British Empire brought in two additional divisions of troops, squadrons of bombers, and all the paraphernalia of repression that it had perfected over many decades of colonial wars."
  51. ^ Khalidi 2020, Chapter 1: "IN SPITE OF the sacrifices made—which can be gauged from the very large numbers of Palestinians who were killed, wounded, jailed, or exiled—and the revolt’s momentary success, the consequences for the Palestinians were almost entirely negative. The savage British repression, the death and exile of so many leaders, and the conflict within their ranks left the Palestinians divided, without direction, and with their economy debilitated by the time the revolt was crushed in the summer of 1939. This put the Palestinians in a very weak position to confront the now invigorated Zionist movement, which had gone from strength to strength during the revolt, obtaining lavish amounts of arms and extensive training from the British to help them suppress the uprising."}}
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  54. ^ Morris 2004, p. 48.
  55. ^ Shlaim 2001, Prologue: The Zionist Foundation: "A white paper of 17 May 1939 abruptly reversed British support for Zionism and for a Jewish state."
  56. ^ Hughes, Matthew (2009a). "The Banality of Brutality: British Armed Forces and the Repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–39" (PDF). English Historical Review. CXXIV (507): 314–354. doi:10.1093/ehr/cep002. ISSN 0013-8266. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2016.
  57. ^ A Survey of Palestine (PDF). Jerusalem: Government of Palestine. 1946. pp. 38–49.
  58. ^ Levenberg, Haim (1993). Military Preparations of the Arab Community in Palestine: 1945–1948. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-3439-5.
  59. ^ "A/RES/181(II) of 29 November 1947". United Nations. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2013.
  60. ^ a b c Baum, Noa. "Historical Time Line for Israel/Palestine." Archived 19 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine UMass Amherst. 5 April 2005. 14 March 2013.
  61. ^ Morris 2008, pp. 63–64, "The Zionists and their supporters rejoiced; the Arab delegations walked out of the plenum after declaring the resolution invalid. The Arabs failed to understand why the international community was awarding the Jews any part of Palestine. Further, as one Palestinian historian later put it, they could not fathom why 37 percent of the population had been given 55 percent of the land (of which they owned only 7 percent). Moreover, the Jews had been given the best agricultural lands (the Coastal Plain and Jezreel and Jordan Valleys) while the Arabs had received the 'bare and hilly' parts, as one Palestinian politician, 'Awni 'Abd al-Hadi, told a Zionist agent.162 More generally, 'the Palestinians failed to see why they should be made to pay for the Holocaust. . . . [And] they failed to see why it was not fair for the Jews to be a minority in a unitary Palestinian state, while it was fair for almost half of the Palestinian population—the indigenous majority on its own ancestral soil—to be converted overnight into a minority under alien rule.'"
  62. ^ Morris 2008, p. 101, "... mainstream Zionist leaders, from the first, began to think of expanding the Jewish state beyond the 29 November partition resolution borders."
  63. ^ Morris 2008, p. 79.
  64. ^ Louwerse, Colter (16 April 2024). Stern-Weiner, Jamie (ed.). Deluge. OR Books. ISBN 978-1-68219-619-9. During the June 1967 Arab-Israel War, Israel came into military occupation of the Palestinian West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Gaza Strip. (Israel also occupied the Egyptian Sinai, Syrian Golan Heights, and two islands in the Gulf of Aqaba.) Already by the mid-1970s, the international community converged on a framework for resolving the festering conflict. This framework comprised two elements rooted in fundamental principles of international law. The first called for Israel's full withdrawal from the occupied Palestinian and other Arab territories in exchange for Palestinian-Arab recognition of Israel. The second called for establishing an independent State of Palestine on the Palestinian territories from which Israel would withdraw, i.e., the West Bank and Gaza, as well as a "just resolution" of the Palestinian refugee question.10 Land for peace and Palestinian self-determination secured through a two-state settlement: these principles for a reasonable if imperfect resolution of the Israel-Palestine conflict were eventually endorsed by an overwhelming consensus at the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in the political organs of the United Nations (UN), and of respected human rights organizations.11
  65. ^ Erakat, Noura (2019). Justice for Some: Law and the Question of Palestine. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-0883-2. The 1973 War demonstrated that Arabs could work together when needed and that Israel was not as invincible as it had believed. The war left its scars on Israel, which suffered over 2,500 dead, US$4 billion in direct monetary losses, and deflated confidence. Although the Arabs technically lost the war, they won psychologically and diplomatically as the world once again focused on the ongoing conflict.156 In 1973, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 338, affirming the land-for-peace framework enshrined in Resolution 242 and setting into motion what was to become known as the Middle East peace process. Palestinian control of the PLO and the rise of guerilla warfare, together with the shift ushered in by the 1973 War, would lay the groundwork for the PLO's political agenda and aggressive legal strategy throughout the decade that followed.
  66. ^ Slater 2020, p. 216: "The disastrous defeat of the Arab states in the 1973 war also played a major role in convincing Arafat of the need for a compromise peace settlement.19 Arafat's decision to start peace negotiations with Israel led to the June 1974 PLO agreement to adopt a new strategy that called for a struggle for "every part of Palestine that is liberated" (emphasis added). Anziska writes that this constituted "an acceptance of a political solution on a limited piece of territory,"20 the first step, however vague, that opened the door for a Palestinian acceptance of a two-state solution...19.In a recent major work, historian Seth Anziska writes that the 1973 war "launched a new phase in the PLO's struggle, oriented toward partition and the acknowledgment of Israel's presence. In the aftermath of the October War, the PLO sought a place within the comprehensive diplomatic negotiations, which required political compromise and the eventual embrace of a state on far less territory than historic Palestine" (Anziska, Preventing Palestine, Kindle 25). Similarly, Bird writes: "By mid-1974 the PLO was rapidly moving away from a strategy of armed struggle and morphing into a political movement seeking international legitimacy" based on a two-state solution (Bird, The Good Spy, Kindle location 2560–75). For similar assessments of the importance of the 1974 PLO program, see Hart, Arafat, 10–11; Weinberger, "The Palestinian National Security Debate"; Nofal, "Yasir Arafat: A Mixed Legacy"; Tessler, A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Kindle 483–84; and Elgindy, Blind Spot, Kindle 88.
  67. ^ Morris 1999, THE POLITICS OF WAR AND AFTEREFFECTS: "On the other hand, the war had given Israel a stinging slap in the face. The 1948, 1956, and 1967 wars had conditioned them to stunning victories over the Arabs and to Arab military (and political) incompetence; 1973 proved to be something else altogether. Many Israelis were now persuaded that the territories could not be held indefinitely by force and that continued occupation would necessarily lead to further bouts of painful warfare. At last, and for the first time since June 1967, most people were willing to contemplate giving up large chunks of land for peace."
  68. ^ Pappé 2022, pp. 287: "The 1973 war was a traumatic event that promoted the disintegration of Israeli politics and culture. The myth of Israeli invincibility was shattered, and while some saw this as a good reason to become more insistent in the search for peace, others turned to God, toughening their positions on peace and territorial compromise. What added to the confusion and the erosion of self-confidence was the high number of deaths, about 3,000, compared with the few hundred in the 1967 war. A general sense of grief fell on the country and affected the government’s prestige."
  69. ^ Khalidi 2013, THE FIRST MOMENT: BEGIN AND PALESTINIAN AUTONOMY IN 1982: "In addition to their central provision, for a peace treaty between the two countries, the Camp David Accords, agreed upon by Israel and Egypt under the aegis of the United States in 1978, called for negotiations for the establishment of a "Self-Governing Authority" (SGA) for the Arab population of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Jerusalem was to be excluded from its provisions. The accords stipulated "full autonomy for the inhabitants," but crucially, this did not apply to the land, which was to remain under full Israeli control. A bilateral peace treaty based on these accords was signed between Israel and Egypt in 1979, and Israel thereafter began a withdrawal of its forces from the occupied Egyptian Sinai Peninsula, which was completed in the spring of 1982. However, the modalities of the Palestinian-autonomy accords were a continuing source of dispute between the three signatories to the Camp David Accords, as well as with the Palestinians and other Arabs, and in the end they were never implemented."
  70. ^ Shlaim 2015, The Camp David Accords "The Camp David Accords were signed in an impressive ceremony in the White House on 17 September 1978. The two accords were entitled "A Framework for Peace in the Middle East" and "A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Israel and Egypt." The former stated in its preamble, "The agreed basis for a peaceful settlement of the conflict between Israel and its neighbours is UN Security Council Resolution 242 in all its parts." The framework dealt with the West Bank and Gaza and envisaged nothing less than "the resolution of the Palestinian problem in all its aspects." Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and the representatives of the Palestinian people were to participate in the negotiations, which were to proceed in three stages. In the first, the ground rules would be laid for electing a "self-governing authority" for the territories, and the powers of this authority would be defined. In the second stage, once the self-governing authority had been established, a transitional period would begin. Israel's military government and its civilian administration would be withdrawn; Israel's armed forces would also be withdrawn and the remaining forces redeployed into specified security locations. In the third stage, not later than the third year after the beginning of the transitional period, negotiations would take place to determine the final status of the West Bank and Gaza. These negotiations had to recognize "the legitimate rights of the Palestinian people and their just requirements."
  71. ^ Morris 1999, The Lebanon War: "The aim of "Operation Litani" was to kill as many guerrillas as possible and to destroy the military infrastructure—camps, munitions dumps, artillery pieces. A secondary aim was to expand, and create continuity between, the existing Christian-held enclaves on the Lebanese side of the border. By March 21, the IDF had taken all of the area south of the Litani (except for Tyre and its environs)."
  72. ^ Kimmerling, Baruch (2003). Politicide. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-85984-517-2. The collaboration was solidified and made public during Begin's first term. Begin was impressed by the pleas and the aristocratic manner of the Maronite leaders and several times declared "Israel will not allow genocide [of the Maronites] in Lebanon." In March 1978, Israeli forces temporarily occupied southern Lebanon, in an attempt to neutralize Palestinian guerilla groups and enlarge the territory controlled by Major Haddad, in an undertaking called Operation Litani (the river that more or less marked the boundary of the Israeli influence).
  73. ^ Khalidi 2020, The Third Declaration of War: "Nevertheless, after all this and despite an Israeli incursion in 1978—the Litani Operation—which left a swath of south Lebanon under the control of its proxy, the South Lebanese Army, the PLO was still standing. Indeed, it remained the strongest force in large parts of Lebanon, those that were not in the hands of foreign armies or their proxies, including West Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon, the Shouf Mountains, and much of the south. It would take one more military campaign to dislodge the PLO, and in 1982, American Secretary of State General Alexander Haig agreed to Ariel Sharon's plans for Israel to finish off the organization and with it Palestinian nationalism."
  74. ^ Cleveland, William L.; Bunton, Martin (2010). A History of the Modern Middle East. ReadHowYouWant.com, Limited. ISBN 978-1-4587-8155-0. This was that belt the Israeli government wished to destroy. Its first concerted effort to do so occurred in 1978, when 25,000 Israeli troops invaded Lebanon as far north as the Litani River. The operation failed to dislodge the PLO from its strongholds, although it did cause large-scale demographic disruptions in southern Lebanon as thousands of villagers, mainly Shi'as, fled their homelands for the area of Beirut. Pressure from the United States and the UN eventually compelled Israel to withdraw its troops.
  75. ^ Hourani, Albert Habib (2002). A history of the Arab peoples. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05819-4. In 1982 the situation acquired a more dangerous dimension. The nationalist government in Israel, having secured its southern frontier by the peace treaty with Egypt, now tried to impose its own solution of the problem of the Palestinians. This involved an attempt to destroy both the military and the political power of the PLO in Lebanon, to install a friendly regime there, and then, freed from effective Palestinian resistance, to pursue its policy of settlement and annexation of occupied Palestine. With some degree of acquiescence from the USA, Israel invaded Lebanon in June 1982. The invasion culminated in a long siege of the western part of Beirut, mainly inhabited by Muslims and dominated by the PLO. The siege ended with an agreement, negotiated through the US government, by which the PLO would evacuate west Beirut, with guarantees for the safety of Palestinian civilians given by the Lebanese and US governments. At the same time, a presidential election resulted in the military head of the Kata'ib, Bashir Jumayyil, becoming president; he was assassinated soon afterwards and his brother Amin was then elected. The assassination was taken by Israel as an opportunity to occupy west Beirut, and this allowed the Kata'ib to carry out a massacre of Palestinians on a large scale in the refugee camps of Sabra and Shatila.
  76. ^ Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2006). Scars of War, Wounds of Peace. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518158-6. Destroying the PLO's infrastructure in Lebanon as well as dismantling the last remaining Palestinian springboard in an Arab country for the military struggle against Israel, was the immediate operational objective of the war. But the architects of the invasion had far wider ambitions. They believed that the defeat of the Palestinians in Lebanon would trigger a mass exodus of Palestinians to the East Bank of the River Jordan, which in turn would bring about the collapse of the Hashemite dynasty and the Palestinisation of the kingdom in a way that would allow Israel a free hand to assert her rule in Judaea and Samaria. Israel also believed that her victory in Lebanon would create a new political order in that country with an undisputed Christian hegemony.
  77. ^ Shlaim 2001, The Lebanese Quagmire: "The real driving force behind Israel's invasion of Lebanon, however, was Ariel Sharon, whose aims were much more ambitious and far-reaching. From his first day at the Defense Ministry, Sharon started planning the invasion of Lebanon. He developed what came to be known as the "big plan" for using Israel's military power to establish political hegemony in the Middle East. The first aim of Sharon's plan was to destroy the PLO's military infrastructure in Lebanon and to undermine it as a political organization. The second aim was to establish a new political order in Lebanon by helping Israel's Maronite friends, headed by Bashir Gemayel, to form a government that would proceed to sign a peace treaty with Israel. For this to be possible, it was necessary, third, to expel the Syrian forces from Lebanon or at least to weaken seriously the Syrian presence there. In Sharon's big plan, the war in Lebanon was intended to transform the situation not only in Lebanon but in the whole Middle East. The destruction of the PLO would break the backbone of Palestinian nationalism and facilitate the absorption of the West Bank into Greater Israel. The resulting influx of Palestinians from Lebanon and the West Bank into Jordan would eventually sweep away the Hashemite monarchy and transform the East Bank into a Palestinian state. Sharon reasoned that Jordan's conversion into a Palestinian state would end international pressures on Israel to withdraw from the West Bank. Begin was not privy to all aspects of Sharon's ambitious geopolitical scenario, but the two men were united by their desire to act against the PLO in Lebanon.15"
  78. ^ Morris 1999: "On September 1 an IDF helicopter flew Gemayel to Nahariya, in northern Israel, where he met Begin, who had just been informed of the "Reagan Plan," the new American initiative for Israeli withdrawal from most of the occupied territories in exchange for Arab recognition and peace. By invading Lebanon, Begin had hoped to neutralize Palestinian nationalism and facilitate Israeli annexation, at least de facto, of the West Bank. But the invasion had brought home to the Americans the plight of the Palestinians and the imperative of resolving their problem, with Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank among the necessary preconditions. The Reagan initiative ruled out a final settlement that would involve either Israeli annexation of the territories or full-fledged Palestinian statehood.252"
  79. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1999). Fateful Triangle. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-601-2. was that "Operation Peace for Galilee"—the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982—was undertaken to protect the civilian population from Palestinian gunners, and that "the rocket and shelling attacks on Israel's northern border" were ended by the operation, though "If rockets again rain down on Israel's northern border after all that has been expended on Lebanon, the Israeli public will be outraged.19 This cannot be correct, given the history which is not challenged (even if unreported, for the most part). When it came to be recognized that the rockets still "rain down," the story was modified: "Israel's two military forays into Lebanon [1978, 1982] were military disasters that failed to provide long-term security for Israel's northern border."20 Security had indeed been at risk, as a result of Israel's unprovoked attacks from 1981, and to a large extent before. The phrase "military disaster" does not refer to the killing of some 20,000 Lebanese and Palestinians in 1982, overwhelmingly civilians, the destruction of much of southern Lebanon and the capital city of Beirut, or the terrible atrocities carried out by Israeli troops through the mid-1980s; rather, to Israel's failure to impose the "new order" it had proclaimed for Lebanon and its inability to maintain its occupation in full because of the casualties caused by unanticipated resistance ("terror"), forcing it back to its "security zone." The actual reasons for the 1982 invasion have never been concealed in Israel, though they are rated "X" here.21 A few weeks after the invasion began, Israel's leading academic specialist on the Palestinians, Yehoshua Porath, pointed out that the decision to invade "flowed from the very fact that the cease-fire had been observed" by the PLO, a "veritable catastrophe" for the Israeli government because it endangered the policy of evading a political settlement. The PLO was gaining respectability thanks to its preference for negotiations over terror. The Israeli government's hope, therefore, was to compel "the stricken PLO" to "return to its earlier terrorism," thus "undercutting the danger" of negotiations. As Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir later stated, Israel went to war because there was "a terrible danger... Not so much a military one as a political one." The invasion was intended to "undermine the position of the moderates within [the PLO] ranks" and thus to block "the PLO 'peace offensive"' and "to halt [the PLO's] rise to political respectability" (strategic analyst Avner Yaniv); it should be called "the war to safeguard the occupation of the West Bank," having been motivated by Begin's "fear of the momentum of the peace process," according to Israeli Arabist and former head of military intelligence General Yehoshaphat Harkabi. U.S. backing for Israel's aggression, including the vetoing of Security Council efforts to stop the slaughter, was presumably based on the same reasoning. After its failure to impose the intended "New Order" in Lebanon in 1982, Israel attempted to hold on to as much of Lebanon as possible, though it was forced to withdraw to its "security zone" as resistance caused too many Israeli casualties. Meanwhile Israel conducted violent terror operations, notably the "iron fist" operations of 1985 under the direction of Prime Minister Shimon Peres. These went on through the 1980s.2
  80. ^ Quigley, John B. (2005). The Case for Palestine. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3539-9. As a result, the PLO did not attack Israel from mid-I98r to mid-I982.16 But in June 1982 Israel again invaded Lebanon, and it used aerial bombardment to destroy entire camps of Palestine Arab refugees.17 By these means Israel killed 20,000 persons, mostly civilians,18 and while it occupied southern Lebanon it incarcerated 15,000 persons, according to the International Committee of the Red Cross. The IDF continued north to Beirut, where it forced the PLO out of Lebanon. Israel claimed self-defense for its invasion, but the lack of PLO attacks into Israel during the previous year made that claim dubious. By invading Lebanon, Israel evidently sought to destroy the extensive Palestinian military and administrative infrastructure in Lebanon19 and, by removing the PLO, to convince the Arabs of the Gaza Strip and West Bank that they would get no help from the PLO.20 In the United States Harold Saunders, a former assistant secretary of state for Near Eastern and South Asian affairs, said that Israel aimed,
  81. ^ Slater 2020, p. 354: "For just that reason, though, Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Defense Minister Ariel Sharon worried that the growing PLO moderation would increase the pressure on Israel to accept the creation of a Palestinian state. To prevent that, in 1982 they seized upon a pretext to again invade Lebanon and attack the PLO, this time on a far larger scale than in previous conflicts. The attacks resulted in tens of thousands of Lebanese civilian casualties; however, the PLO forces in southern Lebanon, still led by Arafat, who escaped Israeli efforts to kill him, were soon reconstituted."
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  113. ^ a b Baconi 2018, Politicide, Containment, and Pacification
  114. ^ Shaul Mishal, Avraham Sela (2000). The Palestinian Hamas. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11674-9.
  115. ^ Yehuda Lukacs, ed., The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A documentary record, 1967–1990 (Cambridge: 1992), pp. 477–79.
  116. ^ Yaniv, Avner (1987). Dilemmas of Security. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504122-4.
  117. ^ Shlaim 2015: "The real driving force behind Israel’s invasion of Lebanon, however, was Ariel Sharon, whose aims were much more ambitious and far-reaching. From his first day at the Defense Ministry, Sharon started planning the invasion of Lebanon. He developed what came to be known as the “big plan” for using Israel’s military power to establish political hegemony in the Middle East. The first aim of Sharon’s plan was to destroy the PLO’s military infrastructure in Lebanon and to undermine it as a political organization. The second aim was to establish a new political order in Lebanon by helping Israel’s Maronite friends, headed by Bashir Gemayel, to form a government that would proceed to sign a peace treaty with Israel. For this to be possible, it was necessary, third, to expel the Syrian forces from Lebanon or at least to weaken seriously the Syrian presence there. In Sharon’s big plan, the war in Lebanon was intended to transform the situation not only in Lebanon but in the whole Middle East. The destruction of the PLO would break the backbone of Palestinian nationalism and facilitate the absorption of the West Bank into Greater Israel. The resulting influx of Palestinians from Lebanon and the West Bank into Jordan would eventually sweep away the Hashemite monarchy and transform the East Bank into a Palestinian state. Sharon reasoned that Jordan’s conversion into a Palestinian state would end international pressures on Israel to withdraw from the West Bank. Begin was not privy to all aspects of Sharon’s ambitious geopolitical scenario, but the two men were united by their desire to act against the PLO in Lebanon.15"}}
  118. ^ Shlaim 2015: "The PLO followed the Algiers resolutions with a concerted attempt to project a more moderate image. It made a special effort to gain respectability by dissociating the PLO from terrorism. Arafat issued a series of statements on the subject, which failed to satisfy the United States, so in the end the State Department virtually dictated the text that Arafat read at the opening of his press conference in Geneva on 14 December. “I repeat for the record,” stated Arafat, “that we totally and absolutely renounce all forms of terrorism, including individual, group and state terrorism. Between Geneva and Algiers we have made our position crystal clear.” The statement unconditionally accepted Resolutions 242 and 338 and clearly recognized Israel’s right to exist. All the conditions that Henry Kissinger had laid down in 1975 for dealing with the PLO had now been met. One of the last major foreign policy acts of the outgoing Reagan administration was to recognize the PLO and to open a substantive dialogue with it. This dialogue was conducted by the American ambassador in Tunis. President Reagan stated publicly that the special commitment of the United States to Israel’s security and well-being remained unshakable."}}
  119. ^ Shlaim 2015: "To Shamir it was crystal clear, once again, that the PLO had not abandoned the path of terror. For him the PLO had always been and would forever remain a terrorist organization. His response to the momentous changes taking place in the Palestinian camp was a reaffirmation of his previous position: no to withdrawal from the occupied territories, no to recognition of the PLO, no to negotiation with the PLO, no to a Palestinian state. Shamir called the U.S. decision to enter into a dialogue with the PLO a “grave error.” He saw it as a threat to the long-standing American-Israeli collaboration in support of the territorial status quo. “For the PLO,” explained Shamir, “a Palestinian state is a minimum. Therefore, anyone who engages in negotiations with it in effect accepts this principle. What else can one talk about with the PLO, if not about a Palestinian state?” Vice-Premier Peres described the opening of the U.S.-PLO dialogue as “a sad day for all of us.” But he felt that Israel had to come up with its own peace initiative, since it was impossible to preserve the status quo."}}
  120. ^ a b Pappé 2022.
  121. ^ a b c Quandt, William B. (2005). Peace Process. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24631-7.
  122. ^ a b Khalidi 2020.
  123. ^ Slater 2020, Chapter 14: "On the contrary, in August 1996 the PLO honored its commitment to revoke its original charter, which had denied the legitimacy of Israel and called for the armed liberation of all of Palestine. As well, by 1996 the PA and its police forces had become increasingly successful in their efforts to end the terrorism of Hamas and other Islamic extremists, even cooperating with the Israeli forces. As a result, there were now far fewer terrorist attacks than in the preceding few years.."
  124. ^ Shlaim 2001, Chapter 12.
  125. ^ a b c Christison, Kathleen (2000). Perceptions of Palestine. University of California Press. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-520-21718-8.
  126. ^ Cleveland, William L.; Bunton, Martin (2010). A History of the Modern Middle East. ReadHowYouWant.com, Limited. ISBN 978-1-4587-8155-0.
  127. ^ Slater 2020
  128. ^ a b Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2007). Scars of War, Wounds of Peace. Oxford University Press. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-19-532542-3.
  129. ^ Dennis Ross and the Peace Process: Subordinating Palestinian Rights to Israeli "Needs".
  130. ^ Human Rights Watch, An Analysis of the Wye River Memorandum
  131. ^ Amnesty International, The United States, Israel and the Palestinian Authority
  132. ^ Dennis Ross (2005). The Missing Peace. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-52980-2.
  133. ^ Watson 2020, pp. 211–236: "The Palestinian side has repeatedly run afoul of its obligation to refrain from incitement and hostile propaganda."
  134. ^ Watson 2020, pp. 211–236: "the Palestinian record of compliance with these obligations is at best mixed...the PA’s record on security cooperation has been mixed... The PA has a mixed record on fighting terror group"
  135. ^ a b c Chomsky, Noam (1999). Fateful Triangle. Pluto Press. pp. Chapter 10. ISBN 978-0-7453-1530-0.
  136. ^ a b c Finkelstein, Norman G. (2018). Gaza. University of California Press. pp. Chapter 2. ISBN 978-0-520-29571-1.
  137. ^ Kimmerling, Baruch (2003). Politicide. Verso Books. pp. The Road to Sharonism. ISBN 978-1-85984-517-2.
  138. ^ a b Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2022). Prophets Without Honor. Oxford University Press. pp. e-book section 38. ISBN 978-0-19-006047-3. Camp David failed because of the two sides' conflicting interpretations of the terms of reference of the peace process. The Israelis came to the negotiations with the conviction inherent in the letter of the Oslo Accords that this was an open-ended process where no preconceived solutions existed and where every one of the core issues would be open to negotiation so that a reasonable point of equilibrium between the needs of the parties could be found. The Palestinians saw the negotiations as a step in a journey where they would get their rights as if this were a clear-cut process of decolonization based on "international legitimacy" and "all UN relevant resolutions."
  139. ^ Finkelstein 2007, pp. 352.
  140. ^ Finkelstein 2007, pp. 352 "In a letter to President Clinton, who presided over the proceedings, Palestinian representatives stated that their aim was implementation of U.N. Resolution 242 and that "[w]e are willing to accept adjustments of the border between the two countries, on condition that they be equivalent in value and importance." Repeatedly the Palestinian negotiators asked: "Will you accept the June 4border [as the basis of discussion]? Will you accept the principle of the exchange of territories?" The Israeli position was that "[w]e can’t accept the demand for a return to the borders of June 1967as a pre-condition for the negotiation," while Clinton "literally yells," in response to the Palestinian view that "international legitimacy means Israeli retreat to the border of June 4,1967," that "[t]his isn’t the Security Council here. This isn't the U.N. General Assembly.""
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  146. ^ Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2022). Prophets Without Honor. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-006047-3. I myself am on record as having said, "If I were a Palestinian, I would have rejected what was offered at the Camp David Summit." This book stands by this assertion.
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  148. ^ Slater 2020: "After Camp David, a new mythology emerged perpetrated by Barak and his foreign minister Shlomo Ben-Ami, with the support of Dennis Ross, Clinton’s secretary of state Madeleine Albright, and to a considerable extent Clinton himself. The mythology holds that at Camp David, Barak made a generous and unprecedented offer to the Palestinians, only to be met by a shocking if not perverse rejection by Arafat who then ordered a violent uprising at just the moment when the chances for peace had never been greater. For example, shortly after the conclusion of Camp David, Ben-Ami gave a long interview with Haaretz, claiming that Arafat did not go to Camp David to reach a compromise settlement but rather treated the negotiations as "a huge camouflage net behind which he sought to undermine the very idea of two states for two nations. . . . Camp David collapsed over the fact that [the Palestinians] refused to get in the game. They refused to make a counterproposal . . . and didn’t succeed in conveying . . . that at some point the demands would have an end."49 The implied premise of Barak and Ben-Ami was that Arafat thought the Palestinians held all the cards, so that if he held out long enough, he would eventually reach his goal: the destruction of Israel in stages and the takeover of all of historic Palestine. This view became widely accepted in US and Israeli public opinion... This and other Camp David mythologies have been rejected, both at the time and in retrospect, by nearly all scholars and knowledgeable journalists and by most Israeli and US officials who participated in the negotiations. In particular, they were challenged in interviews and memoirs by the leading Israeli negotiators, among them Ron Pundak, Yossi Beilin, Oden Era, Shaul Arieli, Yossi Ginosser, Moshe Amirav, and General Amnon Lipkin-Shahak, chief of staff of the IDF in 1995–1998. As well, the mythologies were strongly—and subsequently, publicly—rejected by Israel’s leading military intelligence officials, including Ami Ayalon, the 2000 head of Shin Bet, and Matti Steinberg, his chief advisor—and by Amos Malka, head of the IDF’s military intelligence bureau, and his second in command, Ephraim Lavie."
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  213. ^ Cited in Roy 2016 "This situation has not substantially changed: In late 2012, the World Bank reported that “access to Gaza remains highly controlled, and only consumer goods and construction material for donor-supervised projects are allowed in. Products from Gaza to the West Bank and Israeli markets.. are prohibited. Only small shipments of certain agricultural and manufactured products are exported to other markets through donor-supported projects. East Jerusalem, which is considered a highly lucrative market, is beyond reach.” The virtual ban on exports from Gaza has not been lifted to this day (August 2014). Israel has claimed security reasons, but since the prohibitions involved such items as furniture destined for PA schools in the West Bank,» citrus fruit to West Bank grocers, and textiles to Israeli companies,” it is difficult not to conclude that the restrictions have little if anything to do with security. Instead, their purpose clearly is to maintain the separation of Gaza and the West Bank. Indeed, Israeli security officials themselves have attribut- ed the export ban “to a political decision to separate Gaza from the West Bank.” The government terms the policy a “political-security” necessity.*° Significantly, “decisions regarding [the] sale of goods from Gaza to the West Bank.. could only be made by the prime minister’s office.””’ Diminution of the Private Sector: Some Statistics Among the consequences of the blockade (worsened by severe economic restrictions and continuing military assaults) is the extreme degradation of Gaza’s private sector and productive base...The Israeli government officially justifies closure as a security measure despite the fact that the Israeli security establishment itself has stated that closure is of limited value against extremist attacks"
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  256. ^ Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2022). Prophets Without Honor. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-006047-3. The Israelis came to the negotiations with the conviction inherent in the letter of the Oslo Accords that this was an open-ended process where no preconceived solutions existed and where every one of the core issues would be open to negotiation so that a reasonable point of equilibrium between the needs of the parties could be found. The Palestinians saw the negotiations as a step in a journey where they would get their rights as if this were a clear-cut process of decolonization based on 'international legitimacy' and 'all UN relevant resolutions.'
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  263. ^ Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2022). "The Occupation's Traits of Permanence". Prophets Without Honor. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-006047-3. But the abject submission of the Palestinians and the ever deepening system of occupation and discrimination in the territories are Israel's sole and exclusive responsibility. As brilliantly explained by Michael Sfard, this is a system built on three pillars: the gun, the settlements, and the law that formalizes the network of colonization.1 Under the mantle of security claims, the Jewish state has created in the Palestinian territories one of the most efficient occupation regimes in history, which is, moreover, also cost-effective, for it is the international community's donor money to the Palestinian Authority that saves the occupier the burden of having to directly administer the territories. This leaves Israel free to cater to its insatiable security needs with draconic measures, such as limiting the Palestinians' freedom of movement, erecting walls that separate communities, dotting roads with checkpoints where innocent people are manhandled, activating sophisticated intelligence mechanisms that control the lives of an ever growing number of suspects, conducting surprise searches of private houses in the middle of the night, and carrying out arbitrary administrative detentions. If this were not enough, vigilantes among the settlers, some known as "the Youth of the Hills," constantly harass Palestinian communities, destroy orchard trees, and arbitrarily apply a "price tag" of punishments to innocent civilians for whatever terrorist attack might have been perpetrated by a Palestinian squad. Underlying this very serious problem of the unpardonable depravity of settlers' extremism is the even more serious problem that has to do with the involvement of the entire Israeli body politic in maintaining and continuously expanding a regime of dominance in the territories. For too long, the peace process has served as a curtain behind which the policy of practical annexation has flourished.
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  265. ^ Scott-Baumann 2023: "The Israeli government proceeded to annex East Jerusalem. This act violated international law, and the United Nations General Assembly condemned it... Furthermore, Israel confiscated a large swath of land to the east of the city that would, in time, form a barrier of Israeli settlements surrounding the city, thus cutting off the Palestinian population of Jerusalem from its West Bank hinterland.2"
  266. ^ a b c Sela 2002, pp. 491–498
  267. ^ Avraham Sela (2002). Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 495. ISBN 978-0-8264-1413-7. Arab-Jewish tensions stemmed from incidents in and around the Temple Mount (al-haram al-sharif) and provocative actions by Jewish extremists against Arabs. Particularly frustrating from a Palestinian viewpoint were the constant efforts made by the Israeli authorities to settle Jews in purely Arab neighborhoods by purchasing Arab or church property, or to appropriate inhabited Arab property by legal means on the grounds that it had been originally owned by Jews
  268. ^ "Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel (Unofficial translation)" Archived 5 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine. www.knesset.gov.il. Passed by the Knesset on the 17th Av, 5740 (30 July 1980).
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  273. ^ Reiter, Yitzhak (2017). Contested Holy Places in Israel–Palestine: Sharing and Conflict Resolution. Routledge. p. xiii. ISBN 9781351998857.
  274. ^ Breger, Marshall J.; Reiter, Yitzhak; Hammer, Leonard (2010). "Regulation of holy places in the West Bank and Gaza". Holy Places in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict : Confrontation and Co-Existence. Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 9780203867457.
  275. ^ Gold, Dore (2007). The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, the West, and the Future of the Holy City. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing. pp. 5–6.
  276. ^ Golden, Jonathan (2004). "Targeting Heritage: The Abuse of Symbolic Sites in Modern Conflicts". In Rowan, Yorke M.; Baram, Uzi (eds.). Marketing heritage: archaeology and the consumption of the past. Rowman Altamira. pp. 183–202. ISBN 978-0-7591-0342-9. Archived from the original on 9 October 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
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  278. ^ Peled, Alisa Rubin (2001). Debating Islam in the Jewish State: The Development of Policy toward Islamic Institutions in Israel. State University of New York Press. p. 96. OCLC 929622466. In general, Israeli policy towards holy places can be considered a success with regard to its primary goal: facilitating Israel's acceptance into the international community of nations. However, the repeated failure of the Muslim Affairs Department to fulfill its mandate of protecting the Muslim holy places in Israel has been a largely forgotten chapter in Israeli history that deserves reexamination
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  285. ^ Khalidi 2024, Fateh, the PLO, and the PA: The Palestinian Para-State: "Outside Palestine, meanwhile, live between 4 and 6 million Palestinians (reliable figures are not available). They exist in situations ranging from the utter misery (since 1982) of those in refugee camps in Lebanon,2 to a wide diversity of conditions, some of them quite comfortable, in various other Arab countries, Europe, and the United States. These Palestinians 'of the diaspora' (al-shatat in Arabic) possess a variety of passports, laissez-passers, and refugee documents, some of which are looked upon with great suspicion by certain states, and some of them face harsh restrictions on their movement in consequence. The largest single group of Palestinians of the diaspora, between 2 and 3 million, carry Jordanian passports, and most of them live in Jordan. What unites the overwhelming majority of these 4 to 6 million people is that they or their parents or grandparents were obliged to leave their homes and became refugees in 1948 or afterward, and that they are barred from living in any part of their ancestral homeland, Palestine."
  286. ^ Slater 2020, p. 265: "Refugees. Israel agreed that the refugee problem was a regrettable humanitarian issue, Barak stated, and would recognize the right of the Palestinians to return to their own state, but that "no right of return to Israeli territory would prevail." However, he continued, Israel was prepared to admit several hundred refugees annually for a ten- to fifteen-year period, under a family unification program. In a later interview, Barak made it clear that the "family unification program" was not based on any Palestinian rights: "No Israeli prime minister will accept even one refugee on the basis of the right of return.""
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  288. ^ Slater 2020, p. 251: "The Palestinian Position. Since 1948 the official or public position of Arafat, the PLO, Arafat’s successor Mahmoud Abbas, and the Palestinian Authority has been—and, rhetorically at least, still is—that the Palestinian refugees as well as their descendants have the right to return to their lands, homes, and villages. Arafat reiterated that "demand" at Camp David, though he and other Palestinian leaders repeatedly assured the Americans and the Israelis that their real goal was Israeli acceptance only of the "principle" of refugee return, as distinct from implementing that "right" in practice."
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  298. ^ See for example, Masalha, Nur-eldeen (1988). "On Recent Hebrew and Israeli Sources for the Palestinian Exodus, 1947–49". Journal of Palestine Studies. 18 (1): 121–137. doi:10.2307/2537599. JSTOR 2537599. And Childers, Irskine (12 May 1961). "The Other Exodus". The Spectator. London.
  299. ^ Honig-Parnass, Tikva (2011). The False Prophets of Peace: Liberal Zionism and the Struggle for Palestine. Haymarket Books. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-60846-130-1. Makdisi rightly argues that almost every law of South African Apartheid has its equivalent in Israel today.18 A significant example is the Law of Return (1950), which even Kretzmer claims is explicitly discriminatory against Palestinian citizens.... The Law of Return, which determines the second-class citizenship of Palestinians, is recognized as a fundamental principle in Israel and "is possibly even its very raison d'etre as a Jewish state."19
  300. ^ Schmidt, Yvonne (2008). Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories. GRIN Verlag oHG. pp. 245–246. ISBN 978-3-638-94450-2. In any case has the Law of Return, 1950 discriminatory effect for Palestinian Arab people since it allows any Jew to immigrate to Israel, while – at the same time – it deprives all native Palestinian Arab refugees residing outside the borders of the state of Israel of their fundamental right to return to their homes and villages from which they were expelled or took flight in the course of the 1948 war that broke out because of the establishment of Israel.
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  308. ^ Finkelstein, Norman G. (2012). Knowing Too Much: Why the American Jewish Romance with Israel is Coming to an End. New York: OR Books. pp. Chapter 10. ISBN 978-1-935928-77-5.
  309. ^ Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2007). Scars of War, Wounds of Peace. Oxford University Press. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-19-532542-3. A massive repatriation of Palestinian refugees would have clashed irreconcilably with the most vital and fundamental ethos of the new State of Israel, indeed with its very raison d'être, namely the consolidation of a Jewish state through the mass immigration of the survivors of the Nazi Holocaust in Europe and the uprooted and dispossessed Jews of North Africa and the Arab Middle East... No Israeli statesman, either in 1948 or in 2005, would conceive of peace based on the massive repatriation of Palestinian refugees as an offer the Jewish state could accept and yet survive. The ethos of Zionism was twofold; it was about demography – ingathering the exiles in a viable Jewish state with as small an Arab minority as possible – and land.
  310. ^ Quigley, John B. (2005). The Case for Palestine. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3539-9. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of Israel said that returning Palestinians might be a fifth column and a demographic threat to Israel as a Jewish state.
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  312. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1999). Fateful Triangle. Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-601-2. Evidently, the indigenous population also has a "security problem"; in fact, the Palestinians have already suffered the catastrophe that Israelis justly fear.
  313. ^ Khalidi 2013, Introduction: "Similarly, in this lexicon, "security" is an absolute priority of Israel's, the need for which is invariably described as rooted in genuine, deep-seated existential fears. "Israeli security" therefore takes precedence over virtually everything else, including international law and the human rights of others. It is an endlessly expansive concept that includes a remarkable multitude of things, such as whether pasta or generator parts can be brought into the Gaza Strip, or whether miserably poor Palestinian villagers can be allowed water cisterns.1 By contrast, in spite of the precarious nature of their situation, Palestinians are presumed not to have any significant concerns about their security. This is the case even though nearly half the Palestinian population have lived for more than two generations under a grinding military occupation without the most basic human, civil, or political rights, and the rest have for many decades been dispersed from their ancestral homeland, many of them living under harsh, authoritarian Arab governments."
  314. ^ Ben-Ami, Shlomo (2022). "The Occupation's Traits of Permanence". Prophets Without Honor. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-006047-3. The Israeli debate over the occupied territories is, then, not just an ideological divide between right and left; it is also overwhelmingly influenced by the all-encompassing "security network" that injects a security rationale into every political move.
  315. ^ Slater 2020, p. 221: "In any event, there was no legitimate security argument at all for the Israeli seizure of Arab East Jerusalem immediately after the 1967 war and for subsequently settling religious fanatics in the West Bank. The real motivating forces for most of the postwar Israeli expansionism into the West Bank and East Jerusalem were clearly "Greater Israel" nationalism and religious messianism. If anything, as many Israeli security experts pointed out at the time, the "need" to defend the settlers was a security liability...Israeli governments have long cited "security" as the reason they need to maintain occupation of Arab territories—but when Israel withdrew from Lebanon and Egyptian territory, the attacks against it ended. It is unlikely that an Israeli withdrawal from the Palestinian territories would have a different result—and if it did, there would be little to prevent Israel from reinvading and occupying those territories. Moreover, in those circumstances repression of any continuing Palestinian violence would have a legitimacy that it currently lacks. For these reasons, Israel has a security problem with the Palestinians only in the same way that colonial powers had “security problems” with nationalist uprisings that eventually forced them to withdraw."
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  321. ^ Baconi 2018, Military Resistance Comes Undone: "On February 25, 1994, an American Jewish settler named Baruch Goldstein walked into the Ibrahimi Mosque in the West Bank city of Hebron during prayer time. Standing behind the rows of kneeling figures in front of him, Goldstein opened fire. Within minutes, twenty-nine Muslim worshippers had been killed and close to one hundred injured. The atrocity jolted the nascent Israeli-Palestinian bilateral negotiations that had gathered pace in the wake of the First Intifada, prompted by the PLO’s strategic redirection in 1988. Less than six months before the Hebron attack, in September 1993, PLO chairman Yasser Arafat and Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin had awkwardly shaken hands in a widely publicized event on the South Lawn of the White House. The leaders had assembled in the American capital to sign the Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, popularly known as the Oslo Accords, referring to the capital city where the secretive talks leading to the agreement had taken place. Following the signing, negotiations between Israel and the PLO in the form of a "peace process" were launched.1 Goldstein’s attack served as a reminder of the bloody challenges this process faced. Forty-one days after the shooting, once the time allotted for Muslim ritual mourning had been respected, a member of Hamas approached a bus stop in Afula, a city in northern Israel. Standing next to fellow passengers, the man detonated a suicide vest, killing seven Israelis. This was on April 6, 1994, a day that marked Hamas’s first lethal suicide bombing in Israel."
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  324. ^ Hourani, Albert Habib (2010). A History of the Arab Peoples. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8. In places the barrier separated farmers from their lands, even children from their schools, while preventing Palestinians from travelling within the West Bank or seeking work in Israel.
  325. ^ Shlaim 2015, Chaper 19: "The barrier followed a route that ran almost entirely through land occupied by Israel in June 1967"
  326. ^ Baconi 2018, Chapter 3: "Rather than building the wall on Israeli land or along the 1967 borders, however, the structure snaked through Palestinian territories, unilaterally seizing more than 10 percent of the West Bank, including whole neighborhoods around East Jerusalem as well as major settlement blocs that were integrated into this de facto border. The structure split whole Palestinian villages in half and had an immediate effect on the freedom of movement for Palestinians within the occupied territories. Jewish settlers living illegally within the same land continued to be linked into Israel through exclusive Jewish-only highways and bypass roads. On July 20, 2004, the International Court of Justice issued an advisory opinion ruling that the wall was illegal, to no effect.4 With Israel’s planned disengagement from the Gaza Strip and the construction of advanced "security" infrastructure, Sharon was actively restructuring the framework of Israel’s occupation."
  327. ^ Erakat, Noura (2019). "Notes". Justice for Some: Law and the Question of Palestine. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-0883-2. Its 2004 decision held that the construction of the wall in the West Bank, as opposed to along the 1949 armistice line, violated the Palestinian right to self-determination, contravened the Fourth Geneva Convention, and could not be justified as a measure of Israeli self-defense. It advised Israel to "terminate its breaches of international law; it is under an obligation to cease forthwith the works of construction of the wall being built in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including in and around East Jerusalem, to dismantle forthwith the structure therein situated." The court also observed that all states had an obligation "not to recognize the illegal situation resulting from the construction of the wall and not to render aid or assistance in maintaining the situation created by such construction."
  328. ^ Finkelstein, Norman G. (2012). "Appendix". Knowing Too Much. New York: OR Books. ISBN 978-1-935928-77-5. In its advisory opinion the ICJ voiced concern that "the construction of the wall and its associated régime create a 'fait accompli' on the ground that could well become permanent."115 Taking note of this ICJ concern, Israel's High Court rejoined that the ICJ lacked a "factual basis" for reaching definite conclusions.116 Not just the ICJ, however, but also many respected human rights organizations expressed such worries. B'Tselem concluded that the "underlying reason" of the wall's route was "to establish facts on the ground that would perpetuate the existence of settlements and facilitate their future annexation into Israel." Likewise, Human Rights Watch concluded that the "existing and planned route of the barrier appears to be designed chiefly to incorporate and make contiguous with Israel illegal civilian settlements." Likewise, Amnesty International concluded that Israel was building the wall to "consolidate its control over land which is being used for illegal Israeli settlements," and that "the very expensive and sophisticated structure of the fence/wall indicates that it is likely intended as a permanent structure."117
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  376. ^ Norman Finkelstein. Gaza: An Inquest into Its Martyrdom. Univ of California Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-520-96838-7. Israeli officials alleged that total Palestinian deaths came to 1,166, of whom at least 60 percent were "terrorists." The discrepancy in the ratio of Palestinian combatant to civilian deaths partly resulted from disagreement on the proper classification of Gazan police. See Shay Fogelman, "Shock and Awe," Haaretz (31 December 2010). The broad consensus among human rights organizations was that these police should overwhelmingly be classified as civilians because they did not take a direct part in hostilities and were not members of Palestinian armed groups. The veracity of Israeli figures could be tested by scrutinizing the "under 16" subclassification. Whereas Israel alleged that 89 Palestinians under age 16 were killed, B'Tselem reported that 252 Palestinians under 16 were killed and that it had "copies of birth certificates and death certificates along with other documents regarding the vast majority of the minors who were killed." For critical analysis of Israeli casualty figures, see Public Committee against Torture in Israel (PCATI), No Second Thoughts: The changes in the Israeli Defense Forces' combat doctrine in light of "Operation Cast Lead" (2009), pp. 9–11. This study showed that Israel abruptly altered the figures it tabulated for Palestinian deaths, and concluded that "the casualty estimates provided by other sources (around 1,400 killed) are more credible than those provided by the IDF Spokesperson." Even the largely apologetic US Department of State 2009 Human Rights Report put the number of dead "at close to 1,400 Palestinians, including more than 1,000 civilians."
  377. ^ a b c d "Country Overviews – Occupied Palestinian Territory". United Nations Mine Action Service. 2009. Archived from the original on 26 September 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2010.

Bibliography

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