La escultura en el subcontinente indio , en parte debido a que el clima del subcontinente indio dificulta la supervivencia a largo plazo de los materiales orgánicos, consiste esencialmente en esculturas de piedra, metal o terracota . Está claro que hubo una gran cantidad de pintura y escultura en madera y marfil durante estos períodos, pero solo quedan unas pocas supervivientes. Las principales religiones indias , después de comienzos vacilantes, habían desarrollado el uso de la escultura religiosa hacia principios de la era común , y el uso de la piedra se estaba extendiendo cada vez más.
La primera escultura conocida en el subcontinente indio es de la civilización del valle del Indo , y una tradición más extendida de pequeñas figuras de terracota, en su mayoría de mujeres o animales, que la precede. [1] Después del colapso de la civilización del valle del Indo hay pocos registros de esculturas más grandes hasta la era budista, aparte de un tesoro de figuras de cobre de (algo controvertidamente) c. 1500 a. C. de Daimabad . [2] Por lo tanto, la gran tradición de la escultura monumental india en piedra parece comenzar relativamente tarde, con el reinado de Asoka de 270 a 232 a. C., y los Pilares de Ashoka que erigió alrededor de la India, llevando sus edictos y rematados con famosas esculturas de animales, en su mayoría leones, de los cuales seis sobreviven. [3] Grandes cantidades de esculturas figurativas, en su mayoría en relieve, sobreviven de las primeras estupas de peregrinación budista, sobre todo Sanchi ; estas probablemente se desarrollaron a partir de una tradición que usaba madera que también abrazó el hinduismo . [4]
Durante los siglos II al I a. C., en el extremo norte de la India, en el arte grecobudista de Gandhara (lo que hoy es el sur de Afganistán y el norte de Pakistán ), las esculturas se volvieron más explícitas y representaban episodios de la vida y las enseñanzas de Buda.
Las esculturas hindúes, jainistas y budistas de arenisca rosa de Mathura de los siglos I al III d.C. reflejaban tanto las tradiciones indias nativas como las influencias occidentales recibidas a través del arte grecobudista de Gandhara, y establecieron efectivamente la base para la escultura religiosa india posterior. [4] El estilo se desarrolló y difundió por la mayor parte de la India bajo el Imperio Gupta (c. 320-550), que sigue siendo un período "clásico" para la escultura india, que abarca las cuevas de Ellora anteriores , [5] aunque las cuevas de Elefanta son probablemente un poco posteriores. [6] La escultura posterior a gran escala sigue siendo casi exclusivamente religiosa, y generalmente bastante conservadora, a menudo volviendo a poses simples de pie frontales para las deidades, aunque los espíritus asistentes, como las apsaras y los yakshi, a menudo tienen poses sensualmente curvas. La talla suele ser muy detallada, con un intrincado respaldo detrás de la figura principal en alto relieve. Los célebres bronces de la dinastía Chola (c. 850-1250) del sur de la India , muchos de ellos diseñados para ser llevados en procesiones, incluyen la forma icónica de Shiva como Nataraja , [7] con las enormes tallas de granito de Mahabalipuram [8] que datan de la dinastía Pallava anterior . [9]
Las primeras esculturas conocidas en el subcontinente indio pertenecen a la civilización del valle del Indo (3300-1700 a. C.). Entre ellas se encuentra la famosa bailarina de bronce . Sin embargo, estas figuras de bronce y piedra son raras y son superadas en número por las figurillas de cerámica y los sellos de piedra, que a menudo representan animales o deidades muy bien representados y elaborados. [10]
Parece que aparecen algunas representaciones muy tempranas de deidades en el arte de la civilización del valle del Indo (3300 a. C. - 1700 a. C.), pero el milenio siguiente, que coincide con el período védico , carece de tales restos. [11] Se ha sugerido que la religión védica primitiva se centraba exclusivamente en la adoración de fuerzas puramente "elementales de la naturaleza mediante sacrificios elaborados", que no se prestaban fácilmente a representaciones antropomorfológicas. [12]
Varios artefactos pueden pertenecer a la cultura del Tesoro de Cobre (II milenio a.C.), algunos de ellos sugiriendo características antropomorfológicas. [13] Las interpretaciones varían en cuanto al significado exacto de estos artefactos, o incluso la cultura y la periodización a la que pertenecían. [13] Algunos ejemplos de expresión artística también aparecen en diseños de cerámica abstracta durante la cultura de la cerámica negra y roja (1450-1200 a.C.) o la cultura de la cerámica gris pintada (1200-600 a.C.), con hallazgos en una amplia zona. [13]
La mayoría de los primeros hallazgos posteriores a este período corresponden a lo que se llama el "segundo período de urbanización" a mediados del primer milenio a. C., después de una brecha de unos mil años tras el colapso de la civilización del valle del Indo . [13] La representación antropomórfica de varias deidades aparentemente comenzó a mediados del primer milenio a. C., posiblemente como consecuencia de la afluencia de estímulos extranjeros iniciados con la conquista aqueménida del valle del Indo y el surgimiento de religiones locales alternativas que desafiaban al vedismo , como el budismo y el jainismo y los cultos populares locales. [11] Algunos artefactos rudimentarios de terracota pueden datar de este período, justo antes de la era Maurya. [14]
El arte que sobrevive del Imperio Maurya , que gobernó, al menos en teoría, la mayor parte del subcontinente indio entre 322 y 185 a. C., es principalmente escultura. Hubo un arte patrocinado por la corte imperial y patrocinado por los emperadores, especialmente Ashoka , y luego un estilo "popular" producido por todos los demás.
Los restos más significativos del arte monumental Maurya incluyen los restos del palacio real y la ciudad de Pataliputra , una barandilla monolítica en Sarnath , el Bodhimandala o el altar que descansa sobre cuatro pilares en Bodhgaya , los chaitya -halls tallados en la roca en las cuevas de Barabar cerca de Gaya , los pilares que no llevan edictos y los que llevan edictos, las esculturas de animales que coronan los pilares con relieves animales y botánicos que decoran los ábacos de los capiteles y la mitad delantera de la representación de un elefante tallado en bulto redondo en una roca viva en Dhauli . [15]
Este período marcó la aparición de la escultura india en piedra; muchas esculturas anteriores probablemente eran de madera y no han sobrevivido. Los capiteles de animales elaboradamente tallados que sobrevivieron de algunos pilares de Ashoka son las obras más conocidas y entre las más bellas, sobre todo el capitel de león de Ashoka de Sarnath que ahora es el emblema nacional de la India . Coomaraswamy distingue entre el arte de la corte y un arte más popular durante el período Maurya. El arte de la corte está representado por los pilares y sus capiteles, [16] y el arte popular sobreviviente por algunas piezas de piedra y muchas obras más pequeñas en terracota .
La superficie sumamente pulida de las esculturas de la corte suele denominarse pulimento Maurya . Sin embargo, esto no parece ser del todo fiable como herramienta de diagnóstico para una fecha Maurya, ya que algunas obras de períodos considerablemente posteriores también lo tienen. El Didarganj Yakshi , que ahora se cree que es del siglo II d. C., es un ejemplo.
Las artes de terracota realizadas durante los períodos pre-Maurya y Maurya se perfeccionaron aún más durante los períodos Shunga y Chandraketugarh surgió como un centro importante para las artes de terracota del período Shunga. Mathura, que tiene su base en el período pre-Maurya, también surgió como un centro importante para el arte jainista, hindú y budista.
La dinastía Satavahana gobernó gran parte del Decán y, a veces, otras áreas, incluida Maharashtra , entre aproximadamente el siglo II a. C. y el siglo II d. C. Era una dinastía hindú , que hizo muchas donaciones generosas a los monjes budistas ; algunas reinas pueden haber sido budistas. Los restos más significativos de su mecenazgo escultórico son las estupas Sanchi y Amaravati , [18] junto con una serie de complejos excavados en la roca.
Las estupas de Sanchi fueron construidas por el emperador Ashoka y luego ampliadas por los shungas y los satavahanas. El principal trabajo de decoración del lugar con la puerta y la barandilla de Torana fue realizado por el imperio satavahana.
Entre el siglo II a. C. y el siglo II d. C., bajo los Satavahanas, se construyeron varias cuevas budistas a lo largo de las zonas costeras de Maharashtra y estos templos rupestres estaban decorados con esculturas de la era Satavahana y, por lo tanto, no solo son algunas de las primeras representaciones artísticas, sino también evidencia de la antigua arquitectura india.
La escuela de arte budista Amaravati fue uno de los tres principales centros de escultura budista junto con Mathura y Gandhara y floreció bajo Satavahanas, muchas esculturas de piedra caliza y tabletas que alguna vez fueron estupas budistas enlucidas brindan una visión fascinante de las principales escuelas de arte budistas tempranas.
Stone sculpture was much later to arrive in South India than the north, and the earliest period is only represented by the Gudimallam Lingam with a standing figure of Shiva, from the southern tip of Andhra Pradesh. The "mysteriousness" of this "lies in the total absence so far of any object in an even remotely similar manner within many hundreds of miles, and indeed anywhere in South India".[19] It is some 5 ft in height and one foot thick; the penis is relatively naturalistic, with the glans shown clearly. The stone is local, and the style described by Harle as "Satavahana-related".[19] It is dated to the 3rd century BCE,[20] or 2nd/1st century BCE.[19]
Though the hardness of local granites, the relatively limited penetration of Buddhism and Jainism in the deep south, and a presumed persistent preference for wood have all been proposed as factors in the late development of stone architecture and sculpture in the south, "the mystery remains".[21] The form of the Gudimallam Lingam, for example, would be a natural one to evolve in wood, using a straight tree trunk very efficiently, but to say that it did so is pure speculation in our present state of knowledge. Wooden sculpture, and architecture, has remained common in Kerala, where stone is hard to come by, but this means survivals are very largely limited to the last few centuries.[22]
Kushan art is highlighted by the appearance of extensive Buddhist arts in the form of Mathuras, Gandharan and Amaravathi schools of art.
Mathura art flourished in the ancient city of Mathura and predominantly red sandstone has been used in making Buddhist and Jain sculptures.
Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE. Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealistic realism of Hellenistic art and the first representations of the Buddha in human form, which have helped define the artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Buddhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present. Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hellenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuries after they had declined around the Mediterranean, as late as the 5th century CE. Some aspects of Greek art were adopted while others did not spread beyond the Greco-Buddhist area; in particular the standing figure, often with a relaxed pose and one leg flexed, and the flying cupids or victories, who became popular across Asia as apsaras. Greek foliage decoration was also influential, with Indian versions of the Corinthian capital appearing.[27]
Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time, but only through some of his symbols.[28] This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.
The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250 BCE – 130 BCE), located in today's Afghanistan, from which Hellenistic culture radiated into the Indian subcontinent with the establishment of the small Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and then the Kushans, the interaction of Greek and Buddhist culture flourished in the area of Gandhara, in today's northern Pakistan, before spreading further into India, influencing the art of Mathura, and then the Hindu art of the Gupta empire, which was to extend to the rest of South-East Asia. The influence of Greco-Buddhist art also spread northward towards Central Asia, strongly affecting the art of the Tarim Basin and the Dunhuang Caves, and ultimately the sculpted figure in China, Korea, and Japan.[29]
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Gupta art is the style of art, surviving almost entirely as sculpture, developed under the Gupta Empire, which ruled most of northern India, with its peak between about 300 and 480 CE, surviving in much reduced form until c. 550. The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak and golden age of North Indian art for all the major religious groups.[30] Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, while the production of the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures continued to expand, the latter often on a very large scale. The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which continued to flourish, with the art of Gandhara, the centre of Greco-Buddhist art just beyond the northern border of Gupta territory, continuing to exert influence. Other centres emerged during the period, especially at Sarnath. Both Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.
It is customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that were not actually under Gupta control, in particular art produced under the Vakataka dynasty who ruled the Deccan c. 250–500.[31] Their region contained very important sites such as the Ajanta Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in this period, and the Ellora Caves which were probably begun then. Also, although the empire lost its western territories by about 500, the artistic style continued to be used across most of northern India until about 550,[32] and arguably around 650.[33] It was then followed by the "Post-Gupta" period, with (to a reducing extent over time) many similar characteristics; Harle ends this around 950.[34]Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in Mathura, Varanasi/Sarnath and to a lesser extent Nalanda.[35] The distinctively different stones used for sculptures exported from the main centres described below aids identification greatly.[36]
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Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often near life-size, figures of the major deities, respectively Buddha, Vishnu and Shiva. The dynasty had a partiality to Vishnu, who now features more prominently, where the Kushan imperial family generally had preferred Shiva. Minor figures such as yakshi, which had been very prominent in preceding periods, are now smaller and less frequently represented, and the crowded scenes illustrating Jataka tales of the Buddha's previous lives are rare.[37] When scenes include one of the major figures and other less important ones, there is a great difference in scale, with the major figures many times larger. This is also the case in representations of incidents from the Buddha's life, which earlier had showed all the figures on the same scale.[38]
The lingam was the central murti in most temples. Some new figures appear, including personifications of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, not yet worshipped, but placed on either side of entrances; these were "the two great rivers encompassing the Gupta heartland".[39] The main bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time,[40] as in the paintings at Ajanta. Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all show the same style,[41] and there is a "growing likeness of form" between figures from the different religions, which continued after the Gupta period.[32]
The Indian stylistic tradition of representing the body as a series of "smooth, very simplified planes" is continued, though poses, especially in the many standing figures, are subtly tilted and varied, in contrast to the "columnar rigidity" of earlier figures.[42] The detail of facial parts, hair, headgear, jewellery and the haloes behind figures are carved very precisely, giving a pleasing contrast with the emphasis on broad swelling masses in the body.[43] Deities of all the religions are shown in a calm and majestic meditative style; "perhaps it is this all-pervading inwardness that accounts for the unequalled Gupta and post-Gupta ability to communicate higher spiritual states".[32]
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The Pala Empire ruled a large area in north and east India between the 8th and 12th centuries CE, mostly later inherited by the Sena Empire. During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp.[44]
Though the Pala monarchs are recorded as patronizing religious establishments in a general sense, their patronage of any specific work of art cannot be documented by the surviving evidence, which is mostly inscriptions.[45] However, there are much larger numbers of images that are dated, as compared to other Indian regions and periods, helping greatly the reconstruction of stylistic development.[46]
Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold.[47]
The temples of Khajuraho, a complex of Hindu and Jain temples, were constructed from the 9th to the 11th centuries by the Chandela dynasty. They are considered one of the best examples of Indian art and architecture.[48]
The temples have a rich display of intricately carved sculptures. While they are famous for their erotic sculptures, sexual themes cover less than a tenth of the temple sculpture. The sculptures depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various secular and spiritual values important in Hindu tradition.[48]
After the Gudimallam lingam (see above), the earliest dynasty of southern India to leave stone sculpture on a large scale was the long-lasting Pallava dynasty which ruled much of south-east India between 275 and 897, although the major sculptural projects come from the later part of the period. A number of significant Hindu temples survive, with rich sculptural decoration. Initially these tend to be rock-cut, as are most of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (7th and 8th centuries), perhaps the best-known examples of Pallava art and architecture Many of these exploit natural outcrops of rock, which are carved away on all sides until a building is left. Others, like the Shore Temple, are constructed in the usual way, and others cut into a rock face like most other rock-cut architecture. The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, is "the largest and most elaborate sculptural composition in India",[49] a relief carved on a near-vertical rock face some 29 metres (86 feet) wide, featuring hundreds of figures, including a life-size elephant (late 7th century).
Other Pallava temples with sculpture surviving in good condition are the Kailasanathar Temple, Vaikunta Perumal Temple and others at Kanchipuram,[50] and the cave temples at Mamandur. The Pallava style in stone reliefs is influenced by the hardness of the stone mostly used; the relief is less deep and detail such as jewellery minimized, compared to further north. The figures are more slender and "delicately built and project sweetness and unmannered delicacy and refinement";[51] much the same figure type is continued in Chola sculpture in both stone and bronze. In large narrative panels some of the subjects are distinctively Tamil, such as Korravai (Durga as goddess of victory), and Somaskanda, a seated family group of Shiva, his consort Parvati and Skanda (Murugan) as a child.[52]
The "imperial" Chola dynasty begins about 850, controlling much of the south, with a slow decline from about 1150. Large numbers of temples were constructed, which mostly suffered far less from Muslim destruction than those further north. These were heavily decorated with stone relief sculpture, both large narrative panels and single figures, mostly in niches on the outside. The Pallava style was broadly continued.
Chola bronzes, the largest mostly about half life-size, are some of the most iconic and famous sculptures of India, using a similar elegant but powerful style to the stone pieces. They were created using the lost wax technique. The sculptures were of Shiva in various avatars with his consort Parvati, and Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi, among other deities.[53] Even large bronzes had the advantage that they were light enough to be used in processions for festivals.
The most iconic among these is the bronze figure of Shiva as Nataraja, the lord of dance. In his upper right hand he holds the damaru, the drum of creation.[54] In his upper left hand he holds the agni, the flame of destruction. His lower right hand is lifted in the gesture of the abhaya mudra. His right foot stands upon the demon Apasmara, the embodiment of ignorance.[55]
The Vijayanagara Empire was the last major Hindu empire, constructing very large temples at Hampi, the capital, of which much remains in generally good condition, despite the Mughal army spending a year destroying the city after its fall.[56] Temples are often highly decorated, in a style that further elaborates the late Chola style, and was influential for later South Indian temples. Rows of horses rearing out from columns became a favourite and spectacular device. By the end of the period hugely expanded multi-storey gopurams had become the most prominent feature of templeas, as they have remained in the major temples of the south. The large numbers of figures on these were now mostly made from brightly painted stucco.
During this period, European styled statues were erected in city squares, as monuments to the British Empire's power. Statues of Queen Victoria, George V, and various Governor-Generals of India were erected. Such statues were removed from public places after independence, and placed within museums. However, some still stand at their original location, such as Statue of Queen Victoria, Bangalore.
Modern Indian sculptors include D.P Roy Choudhury, Ramkinkar Baij, Pilloo Pochkhanawala, Mrinalini Mukherjee, Adi Davierwala, Sankho Chaudhuri and Chintamoni Kar.[57] The National Gallery of modern Art has a large collection of modern Indian sculpture.[57] Contemporary Indian sculptors include Sudarshan Shetty, Ranjini Shettar, Anita Dube and Rajeshree Goody.
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