Los indios americanos son personas con ascendencia de la India que son ciudadanos de los Estados Unidos. Los términos indio asiático e indio oriental se utilizan para evitar confusiones con los nativos americanos en los Estados Unidos , a quienes también se les conoce como "indios" o "indios americanos". Con una población de más de 4,9 millones, los indios americanos representan aproximadamente el 1,35% de la población de los EE. UU. y son el grupo más grande de estadounidenses de Asia meridional , el grupo más grande de asiáticos solos, [10] y el grupo más grande de estadounidenses de Asia después de los estadounidenses de origen chino . Los indios americanos son el grupo étnico con mayores ingresos en los Estados Unidos. [11]
A partir del siglo XVII, los miembros de la Compañía de las Indias Orientales trajeron sirvientes indios a las colonias americanas . [16] También hubo algunos esclavos indios orientales en los Estados Unidos durante la era colonial americana. [17] [18] En particular, los registros judiciales de la década de 1700 indican que varios "indios orientales" fueron retenidos como esclavos en Maryland y Delaware. [19] Se dice que, tras su libertad, se mezclaron con la población afroamericana libre , considerada " mulatos ". [20]
Tres hermanos de la "actual India o Pakistán" obtuvieron su libertad en 1710 y se casaron con una mujer de una tribu de nativos americanos en Virginia. [21] El pueblo Nansemond actual traza su linaje a partir de este matrimonio mixto. [22]
Siglo XIX
Miembros de la tribu Nansemond , descendientes de indios orientales, nativos americanos y afroamericanos, c. 1900, Institución Smithsonian.
En 1900, había más de 2.000 sijs indios viviendo en los Estados Unidos, principalmente en California . [24] Al menos un académico ha establecido el nivel más bajo, encontrando un total de 716 inmigrantes indios en los EE. UU. entre 1820 y 1900. [25] La emigración de la India fue impulsada por las dificultades que enfrentaban los agricultores indios, incluidos los desafíos que planteaba el sistema colonial de tenencia de tierras para los pequeños terratenientes, y por la sequía y la escasez de alimentos, que empeoraron en la década de 1890. Al mismo tiempo, las compañías navieras canadienses, actuando en nombre de los empleadores de la costa del Pacífico, reclutaron a agricultores sijs con oportunidades económicas en Columbia Británica . [26]
La presencia de indios en Estados Unidos también contribuyó a desarrollar el interés por las religiones orientales en el país y tuvo influencia en filosofías estadounidenses como el trascendentalismo . La llegada de Swami Vivekananda a Chicago con motivo de la Feria Mundial condujo a la creación de la Sociedad Vedanta . [25]
Siglo XX
El primer Gurudwara Sikh fue establecido en 1912 por los primeros agricultores inmigrantes Sikh en Stockton, California.
Escapando de los ataques racistas en Canadá, los sikhs emigraron a los estados de la costa del Pacífico de EE. UU. en la década de 1900 para trabajar en los aserraderos de Bellingham y Everett, Washington . [27] Los trabajadores sikhs se concentraron más tarde en los ferrocarriles y comenzaron a migrar a California; alrededor de 2.000 indios fueron empleados por las principales líneas ferroviarias como Southern Pacific Railroad y Western Pacific Railroad entre 1907 y 1908. [28] Algunos estadounidenses blancos, resentidos por la competencia económica y la llegada de personas de diferentes culturas, respondieron a la inmigración sikh con racismo y ataques violentos. [29] Los disturbios de Bellingham en Bellingham, Washington, el 5 de septiembre de 1907, personificaron la baja tolerancia en los EE. UU. hacia los indios y los sikhs, a quienes los lugareños llamaban " hindúes ". Si bien el racismo antiasiático estaba arraigado en la política y la cultura de Estados Unidos a principios del siglo XX, los indios también fueron racializados por su anticolonialismo, y los funcionarios estadounidenses, que presionaron por la expansión imperial occidental en el extranjero, los calificaron de amenaza "hindú". [30] Aunque se los etiquetaba como hindúes, la mayoría de los indios eran sijs. [30]
A principios del siglo XX, una serie de leyes estatales y federales restringieron la inmigración india y los derechos de los inmigrantes indios en los EE. UU. A lo largo de la década de 1910, las organizaciones nativistas estadounidenses hicieron campañas para poner fin a la inmigración desde la India, que culminaron con la aprobación de la Ley de Zonas Asiáticas Prohibidas en 1917. [29] En 1913, la Ley de Tierras Extranjeras de California impidió que los no ciudadanos poseyeran tierras. [31] Sin embargo, los inmigrantes asiáticos evitaron el sistema al hacer que amigos anglosajones o sus propios hijos nacidos en los EE. UU. fueran propietarios legales de la tierra en la que trabajaban. En algunos estados, las leyes contra el mestizaje hicieron ilegal que los hombres indios se casaran con mujeres blancas. Sin embargo, era legal que las razas "morenas" se mezclaran. Muchos hombres indios, especialmente hombres punjabíes, se casaron con mujeres hispanas, y los matrimonios punjabíes-mexicanos se convirtieron en una norma en Occidente. [32] [33]
Bhicaji Balsara se convirtió en el primer indio conocido en obtener la ciudadanía estadounidense naturalizada. Como parsi , se lo consideraba un "miembro puro de la secta persa" y, por lo tanto, una "persona blanca libre". En 1910, el juez Emile Henry Lacombe del Distrito Sur de Nueva York le dio la ciudadanía a Balsara con la esperanza de que el fiscal de los Estados Unidos impugnara su decisión y la apelara para crear "una interpretación autorizada" de la ley. El fiscal de los Estados Unidos se adhirió a los deseos de Lacombe y llevó el asunto al Tribunal de Apelaciones del Circuito en 1910. El Tribunal de Apelaciones del Circuito acordó que los parsis están clasificados como blancos. [34] Por los mismos motivos, otra decisión de un tribunal federal otorgó la ciudadanía a AK Mozumdar . [35] Estas decisiones contrastaban con la declaración de 1907 del fiscal general de los Estados Unidos Charles J. Bonaparte : "... bajo ninguna interpretación de la ley los nativos de la India británica pueden ser considerados personas blancas". [35] Después de la Ley de Inmigración de 1917 , la inmigración india a los EE. UU. disminuyó. La entrada ilegal a través de la frontera mexicana se convirtió en la forma de ingresar al país para los inmigrantes punjabíes. El Valle Imperial de California tenía una gran población de punjabíes que ayudaban a estos inmigrantes y les brindaban apoyo. Los inmigrantes pudieron mezclarse con esta población relativamente homogénea. El Partido Ghadar , un grupo en California que hizo campaña por la independencia india , facilitó el cruce ilegal de la frontera mexicana, utilizando fondos de esta migración "como un medio para reforzar las finanzas del partido". [36] El Partido Ghadar cobraba diferentes precios para ingresar a los EE. UU. dependiendo de si los inmigrantes punjabíes estaban dispuestos a afeitarse la barba y cortarse el cabello. Se estima que entre 1920 y 1935, alrededor de 1.800 a 2.000 inmigrantes indios ingresaron ilegalmente a los EE. UU. [36]
A Bhagat Singh Thind se le negó la ciudadanía dos veces porque no se lo consideraba blanco. [37]
En 1920, la población de estadounidenses de ascendencia india era de aproximadamente 6.400. [38] En 1923, la Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos dictaminó en Estados Unidos v. Bhagat Singh Thind que los indios no eran elegibles para la ciudadanía porque no eran "personas blancas libres". [39] El tribunal también argumentó que la "gran masa de nuestro pueblo" rechazaría la asimilación con los indios. [40] Además, el tribunal dictaminó que, según la comprensión popular de la raza, el término "persona blanca" se refería a personas de ascendencia del norte o del oeste de Europa en lugar de "caucásicos" en el sentido más técnico. [41] A más de cincuenta indios se les revocó la ciudadanía después de esta decisión, pero Sakharam Ganesh Pandit luchó contra la desnaturalización . Era abogado y estaba casado con una estadounidense blanca, y recuperó su ciudadanía en 1927. Sin embargo, no se le permitió ninguna otra naturalización después del fallo, lo que llevó a que unos 3.000 indios abandonaran los EE. UU. entre 1920 y 1940. Muchos otros indios no tenían medios para regresar a la India. [39]
Los indios comenzaron a ascender en la escala social mediante la obtención de una educación superior. Por ejemplo, en 1910, Dhan Gopal Mukerji fue a la Universidad de California en Berkeley cuando tenía 20 años. Fue autor de muchos libros infantiles y ganó la Medalla Newbery en 1928 por su libro Gay-Neck: The Story of a Pigeon . [42] Sin embargo, se suicidó a la edad de 46 años mientras sufría de depresión. Otro estudiante, Yellapragada Subbarow , se mudó a los EE. UU. en 1922. Se convirtió en bioquímico en la Universidad de Harvard y "descubrió la función del trifosfato de adenosina (ATP) como fuente de energía en las células y desarrolló el metotrexato para el tratamiento del cáncer". Sin embargo, al ser extranjero, se le negó la titularidad en Harvard. Gobind Behari Lal , quien fue a la Universidad de California, Berkeley en 1912, se convirtió en el editor científico del San Francisco Examiner y fue el primer indio americano en ganar el Premio Pulitzer de periodismo. [43]
Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , la política estadounidense reabrió la puerta a la inmigración india, aunque lentamente al principio. La Ley Luce-Celler de 1946 permitió una cuota de 100 indios por año para inmigrar a los EE. UU. También permitió a los inmigrantes indios naturalizarse y convertirse en ciudadanos de los EE. UU., revirtiendo efectivamente el fallo de 1923 de la Corte Suprema en Estados Unidos v. Bhagat Singh Thind . [44] La Ley de Naturalización de 1952, también conocida como Ley McCarran-Walter , derogó la Ley de la Zona Prohibida de 1917, pero limitó la inmigración desde la antigua Zona Prohibida a un total de 2000 por año. En 1910, el 95% de todos los indios estadounidenses vivían en la costa occidental de los Estados Unidos. En 1920, esa proporción disminuyó al 75%; en 1940, era del 65%, ya que más indios estadounidenses se mudaron a la costa este. En ese año, los indios americanos eran residentes registrados en 43 estados. La mayoría de los indios americanos en la costa oeste vivían en áreas rurales, pero en la costa este se convirtieron en residentes de áreas urbanas. En la década de 1940, los precios de la tierra aumentaron y el programa Bracero trajo a miles de trabajadores invitados mexicanos para trabajar en granjas, lo que ayudó a que los agricultores indios americanos de segunda generación pasaran a "ocupaciones comerciales, no agrícolas, desde la gestión de pequeñas tiendas y supermercados, hasta la operación de servicios de taxi y la conversión en ingenieros". En Stockton y Sacramento, un nuevo grupo de inmigrantes indios del estado de Gujarat abrió varios pequeños hoteles. [45] En 1955, 14 de las 21 empresas hoteleras en San Francisco estaban dirigidas por hindúes gujarati. [46] En la década de 1980, los indios poseían alrededor de 15.000 moteles, aproximadamente el 28% de todos los hoteles y moteles en los EE. UU . [47]
La Ley de Inmigración y Nacionalidad de 1965 abrió drásticamente la entrada a los EE. UU. a inmigrantes distintos de los grupos tradicionales del norte de Europa, lo que alteraría significativamente la mezcla demográfica en los EE. UU. [48] No todos los indios estadounidenses vinieron directamente de la India; algunos se mudaron a los EE. UU. a través de comunidades indias en otros países , incluidos el Reino Unido , Canadá , Sudáfrica , las antiguas colonias británicas de África Oriental , [49] (a saber, Kenia , Tanzania y Uganda , Mauricio ), la región de Asia y el Pacífico ( Malasia , Singapur , Australia y Fiji ), [49] y el Caribe ( Guyana , Trinidad y Tobago , Surinam y Jamaica ). [49] Desde 1965 hasta mediados de la década de 1990, la inmigración a largo plazo desde la India promedió alrededor de 40.000 personas por año. Desde 1995 en adelante, el flujo de inmigración india aumentó significativamente, alcanzando un máximo de alrededor de 90.000 inmigrantes en el año 2000. [50]
El comienzo del siglo XXI marcó una ola significativa en la tendencia migratoria de la India a los Estados Unidos. El surgimiento de la industria de la tecnología de la información en ciudades indias como Bangalore , Chennai , Pune , Mumbai e Hyderabad condujo a una gran cantidad de migraciones a los EE. UU. principalmente desde los estados de Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala y Tamil Nadu en el sur de la India. Hay poblaciones considerables de personas de los estados de Punjab , Andhra Pradesh , Maharashtra , Telangana , Gujarat , Bengala Occidental , Karnataka , Kerala y Tamil Nadu en los Estados Unidos. [51] Los indios comprenden más del 80% de todas las visas H-1B . [52] Los indios estadounidenses se han convertido en la etnia más rica de Estados Unidos, con un ingreso familiar promedio de $ 126,891, casi el doble del promedio de EE. UU. de $ 65,316. [53]
Desde el año 2000, un gran número de estudiantes han comenzado a migrar a los Estados Unidos para cursar estudios superiores. Según diversas estimaciones, más de 500.000 estudiantes indios estadounidenses asisten a instituciones de educación superior cada año. [54] [55] Según el informe Opendoors del Instituto de Educación Internacional (IIE), 202.014 nuevos estudiantes de la India se inscribieron en instituciones educativas estadounidenses. [56]
El 20 de enero de 2021, Kamala Harris , que es india estadounidense, hizo historia como la primera mujer vicepresidenta de los Estados Unidos . [57] Fue elegida vicepresidenta como compañera de fórmula del presidente Joe Biden en las elecciones presidenciales de 2020. Este fue un hito importante en la historia de los indios estadounidenses y, además de Harris, otros 20 indios estadounidenses fueron nominados para puestos clave en la administración. [58]
Demografía
Porcentaje de población con ascendencia india en 2010
Según el censo de los Estados Unidos de 2010 , [62] la población india asiática en los Estados Unidos creció de casi 1.678.765 en 2000 (0,6% de la población estadounidense) a 2.843.391 en 2010 (0,9% de la población estadounidense), una tasa de crecimiento del 69,37% , uno de los grupos étnicos de más rápido crecimiento en los Estados Unidos. [63]
La ciudad de Nueva York en sí también contiene, con diferencia, la mayor población india americana de todas las ciudades de América del Norte, estimada en 246.454 en 2017. [65] Monroe Township , condado de Middlesex , en el centro de Nueva Jersey , clasificada como la ciudad pequeña más segura de los Estados Unidos, [66] ha mostrado una de las tasas de crecimiento más rápidas de su población india en el hemisferio occidental , aumentando de 256 (0,9%) en el censo de 2000 [67] a un estimado de 5.943 (13,6%) en 2017, [68] lo que representa un aumento del 2.221,5% durante ese período. Profesionales adinerados y ciudadanos mayores , un clima templado con numerosos cinturones verdes , benefactores caritativos de los esfuerzos de ayuda de COVID en India en coordinación oficial con Monroe Township, camiones de comida india y actores de Bollywood con segundas residencias, todos juegan en el crecimiento de la población india en el municipio, así como su relativa proximidad a la Universidad de Princeton . Para 2022, la población india superó un tercio de la población de Monroe Township, y el apodo de Edison -South se había desarrollado, en referencia a la estatura de Little India de ambos municipios del condado de Middlesex, Nueva Jersey . [69] En 2014, 12.350 indios inmigraron legalmente al área estadística central de Nueva York-Norte de Nueva Jersey-Long Island, NY-NJ-PA; [70] En febrero de 2022, la aerolínea india Air India, así como la aerolínea estadounidense United Airlines, ofrecían vuelos directos desde el área metropolitana de la ciudad de Nueva York hacia y desde Delhi y Mumbai . En mayo de 2019, Delta Air Lines anunció un servicio de vuelo sin escalas entre Nueva York JFK y Mumbai, que comenzaría el 22 de diciembre de 2019. [71] Y en noviembre de 2021, American Airlines comenzó un servicio de vuelo sin escalas entre Nueva York JFK y Delhi con IndiGo Air compartiendo código en este vuelo. Al menos 24 enclaves indio-americanos caracterizados como una Pequeña India han surgido en el Área Metropolitana de la Ciudad de Nueva York.
Las tres comunidades indias americanas más antiguas, que datan de alrededor de 1910, se encuentran en zonas agrícolas menos pobladas de California, entre ellas Stockton y Yuba City en el Valle Central , así como en el Valle Imperial . Todas ellas eran asentamientos principalmente sikh.
Áreas metropolitanas de EE. UU. con importantes poblaciones indias asiáticas
Población india asiática en áreas estadísticas combinadas de los Estados Unidos de América según el censo de 2020 [72]
Estados/territorios
La siguiente tabla muestra el número de personas en cada estado que se identificaron como "hindúes" en los censos de 1910, 1920, 1930 y 1940, así como el número de personas que se identificaron como "indios asiáticos" en cada estado a partir del censo de 1980. [73] Entre los censos de 1910 y 1940, " hindú " era una categoría censal para la raza, [73] un término que ahora se asocia con la religión pero que entonces se refería a los asiáticos del sur en general. [74] En ese momento, la población estadounidense del sur de Asia era 85% sikh, 12% musulmana y 3% hindú, [75] [76] pero a todos se les denominaba hindúes. [75] [77] La liberalización de la ley de inmigración a mediados de siglo ha llevado a una migración más diversa desde la India, y la proporción de sikhs entre los estadounidenses de origen indio ha caído al 8%. [9]
Lista de comunidades por número de indios asiáticos (según el censo de 2010)
En los últimos años, especialmente tras el inicio en 1990 del programa de visas H-1B y el auge de las puntocom , se ha producido un cambio en la población indoamericana, que pasó de estar dominada por inmigrantes de Gujarat y Punjab a estar cada vez más representada de forma más amplia, incluidos inmigrantes de Andhra Pradesh y Telangana , Tamil Nadu , así como inmigrantes de Kerala , Karnataka y Maharashtra . [86] [87] Entre 2010 y 2021, el telugu pasó de ser el sexto idioma del sur de Asia más hablado a ser el tercero más hablado, mientras que el punjabi pasó de ser el cuarto idioma del sur de Asia más hablado en los Estados Unidos a convertirse en el séptimo más hablado. Existen diferencias significativas entre estos grupos en términos de factores socioeconómicos como la educación, la ubicación geográfica y los ingresos; en 2021, el 81% de los estadounidenses que hablaban telugu en casa hablaban inglés muy bien, mientras que solo el 59% de los estadounidenses que hablaban punjabi en casa hacían lo mismo. [88] [89]
Estatus socioeconómico
Estados Unidos acoge la segunda diáspora india más grande del planeta
Desde el censo de 1990 hasta el de 2000, la población india asiática aumentó un 105,87%. Mientras tanto, la población estadounidense aumentó sólo un 7,6%. En 2000, la población nacida en la India en los Estados Unidos era de 1,007 millones. En 2006, de los 1.266.264 inmigrantes legales en los Estados Unidos, 58.072 eran de la India. Entre 2000 y 2006, 421.006 inmigrantes indios fueron admitidos en los Estados Unidos, frente a los 352.278 durante el período 1990-1999. [91] Con un 16,4% de la población asiática, los indios americanos constituyen el tercer grupo étnico asiático-americano más grande, después de los chino-americanos y los filipino-americanos . [92] [93] [94]
Un estudio conjunto de la Universidad Duke y la Universidad de California en Berkeley reveló que los inmigrantes indios han fundado más empresas de ingeniería y tecnología entre 1995 y 2005 que los inmigrantes del Reino Unido, China, Taiwán y Japón juntos. [95] El porcentaje de empresas emergentes de Silicon Valley fundadas por inmigrantes indios ha aumentado del 7% en 1999 al 15,5% en 2006, como se informó en el estudio de 1999 de AnnaLee Saxenian [96] y su trabajo actualizado en 2006 en colaboración con Vivek Wadhwa . [97] Los indios estadounidenses han ascendido a puestos superiores en muchas empresas importantes (por ejemplo, IBM, PepsiCo, MasterCard, Google, Facebook, Microsoft, Cisco, Oracle, Adobe, Softbank, Cognizant, Sun Microsystems). Un estudio de 2014 indica que el 23% de los graduados de las escuelas de negocios indias aceptan un trabajo en los Estados Unidos. [98]
Los indios americanos superan continuamente a todos los demás grupos étnicos socioeconómicamente según las estadísticas del censo de los EE. UU. [99] Thomas Friedman de The New York Times , en su libro de 2005 The World Is Flat , explica esta tendencia en términos de fuga de cerebros , por la cual una muestra de las personas mejores y más brillantes de la India emigran a los Estados Unidos para buscar mejores oportunidades financieras. [100] Los indios forman el segundo grupo más grande de médicos después de los estadounidenses caucásicos no hispanos (3,9%) a partir de la encuesta de 1990, y la proporción de médicos indios aumentó a aproximadamente el 6% en 2005. [101]
Según Pew Research , en 2015, de los indios americanos de 25 años o más, el 72% había obtenido una licenciatura y el 40% había obtenido un título de posgrado, mientras que, de todos los estadounidenses, el 19% había obtenido una licenciatura y el 11% había obtenido un título de posgrado. [102]
Ingresos del hogar
En 2019, el ingreso familiar medio de los inmigrantes indios fue mucho más alto que el de la población total de inmigrantes y nativos. Los indios en general tienen ingresos mucho más altos que el total de la población de inmigrantes y nativos.
En una encuesta de 2019, se descubrió que los hogares encabezados por un inmigrante indio tenían un ingreso medio de 132.000 dólares, en comparación con los 64.000 y 66.000 dólares de todos los hogares inmigrantes y nacidos en Estados Unidos, respectivamente. Los inmigrantes indios también tenían muchas menos probabilidades de vivir en la pobreza (5%) que los inmigrantes en general (14%) o los nacidos en Estados Unidos (12%). [103]
Según datos del censo de EE. UU. de 2022, el ingreso familiar indioamericano promedio es ahora de $151,485.
Religión
Composición religiosa de los indios americanos (2018) [9]
Comunidades de hindúes , cristianos , musulmanes , sijs , personas irreligiosas y un número menor de jainistas , budistas , zoroastrianos y judíos indios han establecido sus creencias religiosas (o irreligiosas) en los Estados Unidos. Según una investigación del Pew Research Center de 2023 , el 48% se considera hindú, el 15% cristiano (7% católico, 4% protestante evangélico, 4% protestante no evangélico), el 18% no afiliado , el 8% musulmán, el 8% sij y el 3% miembro de otra religión. [9]
El primer centro religioso de una religión india que se estableció en los EE. UU. fue un gurudwara sij en Stockton, California, en 1912. Hoy en día hay muchos gurudwaras sijs, templos hindúes, mezquitas musulmanas, iglesias cristianas y templos budistas y jainistas en los 50 estados.
Desde su llegada a los Estados Unidos a finales del siglo XIX, las mujeres y los hombres sikhs han hecho contribuciones notables a la sociedad estadounidense. En 2007, se estimó que había entre 250.000 y 500.000 sikhs viviendo en los Estados Unidos, con las poblaciones más grandes viviendo en las costas este y oeste, junto con poblaciones adicionales más pequeñas en Detroit , Chicago y Austin . Estados Unidos también tiene un número de conversos no punjabíes al sijismo. Los hombres sikhs son típicamente identificables por sus barbas sin afeitar y turbantes (cubiertas para la cabeza), artículos de su fe. Muchas organizaciones como World Sikh Organisation (WSO), Sikh Riders of America, SikhNet, Sikh Coalition, SALDEF, United Sikhs y National Sikh Campaign continúan educando a la gente sobre el sijismo. Hay muchos templos sikh " Gurudwaras " presentes en todos los estados de los Estados Unidos.
Los primeros seguidores del jainismo llegaron a Estados Unidos en el siglo XX. La inmigración jainista se hizo más significativa en la segunda mitad del siglo XX. Desde entonces, Estados Unidos se ha convertido en el epicentro de la diáspora jainista. Los jainistas en Estados Unidos también son uno de los seguidores con mayores ingresos socioeconómicos de cualquier religión en Estados Unidos. La Federación de Asociaciones Jainistas en América del Norte es una organización paraguas de congregaciones jainistas locales estadounidenses y canadienses. [113] A diferencia de la India y el Reino Unido, la comunidad jainista en Estados Unidos no encuentra diferencias sectarias: tanto Digambara como Śvētāmbara comparten un techo común. [ cita requerida ]
La gran comunidad parsi e iraní está representada por la Federación de Asociaciones Zoroástricas de América del Norte . [128] Los judíos indios son quizás el grupo religioso organizado más pequeño entre los indios estadounidenses, y consta de aproximadamente 350 miembros en los EE. UU. Forman la Congregación Judía India de EE. UU., con su sede en la ciudad de Nueva York. [129]
Deepavali/Diwali, Eid/Ramadán como vacaciones escolares
Se han realizado esfuerzos en Millburn , [130] Monroe Township, West Windsor-Plainsboro , Bernards Township y North Brunswick, Nueva Jersey , [131] Long Island , así como en la ciudad de Nueva York (finalmente con éxito), [141] [142] entre otros distritos escolares de la región metropolitana, para hacer de Diwali un día festivo en el calendario escolar. Según el Star-Ledger , el concejal de Edison, Nueva Jersey, Sudhanshu Prasad, ha notado el compromiso de los padres en hacer de Deepavali un día festivo allí; mientras que en Jersey City, las cuatro escuelas con importantes poblaciones indias asiáticas celebran la festividad invitando a los padres a los edificios escolares para las festividades. [131] La escuela primaria Mahatma Gandhi está ubicada en Passaic, Nueva Jersey . [143] También se están realizando esfuerzos para hacer de Diwali y Eid días festivos oficiales en los 24 distritos escolares del condado de Middlesex. [144] Al menos 12 distritos escolares en Long Island cerraron por Diwali en 2022, [145] y más de 20 en Nueva Jersey. [146]
Al igual que los términos "asiático-estadounidense" o " sudasiático-estadounidense ", el término "indio-estadounidense" también es una etiqueta general que se aplica a una variedad de puntos de vista, valores, estilos de vida y apariencias. Aunque los indio-estadounidenses asiáticos conservan una alta identidad étnica, se sabe que se asimilan a la cultura estadounidense al mismo tiempo que conservan la cultura de sus antepasados. [147]
Deep Foods , fundada en 1977 en Nueva Jersey, es una de las empresas de alimentos indios más grandes de EE. UU. [148] Especializada en comida india congelada, sus productos se vendieron en alrededor de 20 000 tiendas en 2024. [149]
Indios americanos notables en la industria de los negocios y la tecnología
Tamil, Gujarati, Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Punjabi, Malayalam, and Hindi radio stations are available in areas with high Indian populations, for example, Punjabi Radio USA, Easy96.com in the New York City metropolitan area, KLOK 1170 AM in San Francisco, KSJO Bolly 92.3FM in San Jose, RBC Radio; Radio Humsafar, Desi Junction in Chicago; Radio Salaam Namaste and FunAsia Radio in Dallas; and Masala Radio, FunAsia Radio, Sangeet Radio, Radio Naya Andaz in Houston and Washington Bangla Radio on Internet from the Washington DC Metro Area. There are also some radio stations broadcasting in Tamil within these communities.[150][151] Houston-based Kannada Kaaranji radio focuses on a multitude of programs for children and adults.[152]
AVS (Asian Variety Show) and Namaste America are South Asian programming available in most of the U.S. that is free to air and can be watched with a television antenna.
In July 2005, MTV premiered a spin-off network called MTV Desi which targets Indian Americans.[153] It has been discontinued by MTV.
In 2012, the film Not a Feather, but a Dot directed by Teju Prasad, was released which investigates the history, perceptions and changes in the Indian American community over the last century.
The annual New York City India Day Parade, held on or approximately every August 15 since 1981, is the world's largest Indian Independence Day parade outside of India[155] and is hosted by The Federation of Indian Associations (FIA). According to the website of Baruch College of the City University of New York, "The FIA, which came into being in 1970 is an umbrella organization meant to represent the diverse Indian population of NYC. Its mission is to promote and further the interests of its 500,000 members and to collaborate with other Indian cultural organization. The FIA acts as a mouth piece for the diverse Indian Asian population in United States, and is focused on furthering the interests of this diverse community. The parade begins on East 38th Street and continues down Madison Avenue in Midtown Manhattan until it reaches 28th Street. At the review stand on 28th Street, the grand marshal and various celebrities greet onlookers. Throughout the parade, participants find themselves surrounded by the saffron, white and green colors of the Indian flag. They can enjoy Indian food, merchandise booths, live dancing and music present at the Parade. After the parade is over, various cultural organizations and dance schools participate in program on 23rd Street and Madison Avenue until 6PM."[156] The New York/New Jersey metropolitan region's second-largest India Independence Day parade takes place in Little India, Edison/Iselin in Middlesex County, New Jersey, annually in August.
Sikh Day Vaisakhi Parade
The world's largest Sikh Day Parade outside India celebrating Vaisakhi and the season of renewal is held in Manhattan annually in April. The parade is widely regarded as being one of the most colourful parades.[157]
1635: An "East Indian" is documented present in Jamestown, Virginia.[158][17]
1680: Due to anti-miscegenation laws, a mixed-race girl born to an Indian father and an Irish mother is classified as mulatto and sold into slavery.[16]
1790: The first officially confirmed Indian immigrant arrives in the United States from Madras, South India, on a British ship.[159][160]
1909: Bhicaji Balsara becomes the first known Indian-born person to gain naturalised U.S. citizenship. As a Parsi, he was considered a "pure member of the Persian sect" and therefore a free White person. The judge Emile Henry Lacombe, of the Southern District of New York, only gave Balsara citizenship on the hope that the United States attorney would indeed challenge his decision and appeal it to create "an authoritative interpretation" of the law. The U.S. attorney adhered to Lacombe's wishes and took the matter to the Circuit Court of Appeals in 1910. The Circuit Court of Appeal agrees that Parsis are classified as white.[34]
1913: A. K. Mozumdar becomes the second Indian-born person to earn U.S. citizenship, having convinced the Spokane district judge that he was "Caucasian" and met the requirements of naturalization law that restricted citizenship to free White persons. In 1923, as a result of United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, his citizenship was revoked.
1914: Dhan Gopal Mukerji obtains a graduate degree from Stanford University, studying also at University of California, Berkeley and later goes on to win the Newbery Medal in 1928, and thus becomes the first successful India-born man of letters in the United States, as well as the first popular Indian writer in English.
1917: The Barred Zone Act passes in Congress through two-thirds majority, overriding President Woodrow Wilson's earlier veto. Asians, including Indians, are barred from entering the United States.
1918: Due to anti-miscegenation laws, there was significant controversy in Arizona when an Indian farmer B. K. Singh married the sixteen-year-old daughter of one of his White American tenants.[161]
1918: Private Raghunath N. Banawalkar is the first Indian American recruited into the U.S. Army on February 25, 1918, and serves in the Sanitary Detachment of the 305th Infantry Regiment, 77th Division, American Expeditionary Forces in France. Gassed while on active service in October 1918 and subsequently awarded Purple Heart medal.[162]
1918: Earliest record of LGBT Indian Americans—Jamil Singh in Sacramento, California[163]
1922: Yellapragada Subbarao, a Telugu from the state of Andhra Pradesh in Southern India arrived in Boston on October 26, 1922. He discovered the role of phosphocreatine and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in muscular activity, which earned him an entry into biochemistry textbooks in the 1930s. He obtained his Ph.D. the same year, and went on to make other major discoveries; including the synthesis of aminopterin (later developed into methotrexate), the first cancer chemotherapy.
1946: President Harry S. Truman signs into law the Luce–Celler Act of 1946, returning the right to Indian Americans to immigrate to the United States and become naturalized citizens.
1956: Dalip Singh Saund elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from California. He was re-elected to a second and third term, winning over 60% of the vote. He is also the first Asian immigrant from any country to be elected to Congress.
1962: Zubin Mehta appointed music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, becoming the first person of Indian origin to become the principal conductor of a major American orchestra. Subsequently, he was appointed principal conductor of the New York Philharmonic.
1965: President Lyndon Johnson signs the INS Act of 1965 into law, eliminating per-country immigration quotas and introducing immigration on the basis of professional experience and education. Satinder Mullick is one of the first to immigrate under the new law in November 1965—sponsored by Corning Glass Works.
1968: Hargobind Khorana shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Marshall W. Nirenberg and Robert W. Holley for discovering the mechanisms by which RNA codes for the synthesis of proteins. He was then on faculty at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, but later moved to MIT.
1974: Mafat and Tulsi Patel open the first location of Patel Brothers on Devon Avenue in Chicago, one of the first Indian grocery chains in America
1975: Launch of India-West, a leading newspaper covering issues of relevance to the Indian American community.
1983: Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar won the Nobel Prize for Physics; Asian Indian Women in America[165] attended the first White House Briefing for Asian American Women. (AAIWA, formed in 1980, is the 1st Indian women's organization in North America.)
1989: Launch of RBC Radio, the first South Asian-Indian radio station in the United States.[166]
1990: Shiva Subramanya (an India-born Nuclear Physicist and Space Scientist working at TRW, Inc) became the first South Asian and first Indian American to win the Medal of Merit, the AFCEA's highest award for a civilian and one of the America's top defense award, in recognition of his exceptional service to AFCEA and the fields of Command, Control, Communications, Computers and Intelligence (C4I).[167]
1994: Guitarist Kim Thayil, of Indian origin, wins Grammy award for his Indian inspired guitarwork on the album Superunknown by his band Soundgarden.
1994: Raj Reddy received the ACM Turing Award (with Edward Feigenbaum) "For pioneering the design and construction of large scale artificial intelligence systems, demonstrating the practical importance and potential commercial impact of artificial intelligence technology."
2008: Treasury Secretary Henry Paulson appoints Neel Kashkari as the Interim U.S. Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability.
2008: Raj Chetty appointed as professor of economics at Harvard University the age of 29, one of the youngest ever to receive tenure of professorship in the Department of Economics at Harvard.
2010: Year marks the most candidates of Indian origin, running for political offices in the United States, including candidates such as Ami Bera.
2010: State Representative Nikki Haley is elected Governor of South Carolina and becomes the first Indian American woman and second Indian American in general to serve as governor of a U.S. state.
2013: Arun M Kumar appointed as assistant secretary and director general of the U.S. and Foreign Commercial Service, International Trade Administration in the Department of Commerce.[170]
2016: Pramila Jayapal, Ro Khanna, and Raja Krishnamoorthi are elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. This puts the total number of people of Indian and South Asian origin in Congress at 5, the largest in history.
2019: Seven out of the eight winners of the Scripps National Spelling Bee (Saketh Sundar, Abhijay Kodali, Shruthika Padhy, Sohum Sukhatankar, Christopher Serrao, Rohan Raja, and Rishik Gandhasri), are Indian Americans. They have broken the spelling bee according to several experts and have dominated this American institution.[172]
2022: Aruna Miller elected the first Asian-American lieutenant governor of Maryland and first South Asian woman elected lieutenant governor in the U.S.[183]
According to the official U.S. racial categories employed by the United States Census Bureau, Office of Management and Budget and other U.S. government agencies, American citizens or resident aliens who marked "Asian Indian" as their ancestry or wrote in a term that was automatically classified as an Asian Indian became classified as part of the Asian race at the 2000 Census.[186] As with other modern official U.S. government racial categories, the term "Asian" is in itself a broad and heterogeneous classification, encompassing all peoples with origins in the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.
In previous decades, Indian Americans were also variously classified as White American, the "Hindu race," and "other."[187] Even today, where individual Indian Americans do not racially self-identify, and instead report Muslim, Jewish, and Zoroastrian as their "race" in the "some other race" section without noting their country of origin, they are automatically tallied as white.[188] This may result in the counting of persons such as Indian Muslims, Indian Jews, and Indian Zoroastrians as white, if they solely report their religious heritage without their national origin.
Current issues
Discrimination
In the 1980s, a gang known as the Dotbusters specifically targeted Indian Americans in Jersey City, New Jersey with violence and harassment.[189] Studies of racial discrimination, as well as stereotyping and scapegoating of Indian Americans have been conducted in recent years.[190] In particular, racial discrimination against Indian Americans in the workplace has been correlated with Indophobia due to the rise in outsourcing/offshoring, whereby Indian Americans are blamed for U.S. companies offshoring white-collar labor to India.[191][192] According to the offices of the Congressional Caucus on India, many Indian Americans are severely concerned of a backlash, though nothing serious has taken place.[192] Due to various socio-cultural reasons, implicit racial discrimination against Indian Americans largely go unreported by the Indian American community.[190]
Numerous cases of religious stereotyping of American Hindus (mainly of Indian origin) have also been documented.[193]
Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, there have been scattered incidents of Indian Americans becoming mistaken targets for hate crimes. In one example, a Sikh, Balbir Singh Sodhi, was murdered at a Phoenix gas station by a white supremacist. This happened after September 11, and the murderer claimed that his turban made him think that the victim was a Middle Eastern American.[194] In another example, a pizza deliverer was mugged and beaten in Massachusetts for "being Muslim" though the victim pleaded with the assailants that he was in fact a Hindu.[195] In December 2012, an Indian American in New York City was pushed from behind onto the tracks at the 40th Street-Lowery Street station in Sunnyside and killed.[196] The police arrested a woman, Erika Menendez, who admitted to the act and justified it, stating that she shoved him onto the tracks because she believed he was "a Hindu or a Muslim" and she wanted to retaliate for the attacks of September 11, 2001.[197]
In 2004, New York Senator Hillary Clinton joked at a fundraising event with South Asians for Nancy Farmer that Mahatma Gandhi owned a gas station in downtown St. Louis, fueling the stereotype that gas stations are owned by Indians and other South Asians. She clarified in the speech later that she was just joking, but still received some criticism for the statement later on for which she apologized again.[198]
On April 5, 2006, the Hindu Mandir of Minnesota was vandalized allegedly on the basis of religious discrimination.[199] The vandals damaged temple property leading to $200,000 worth of damage.[200][201][202]
On August 11, 2006, Senator George Allen allegedly referred to an opponent's political staffer of Indian ancestry as "macaca" and commenting, "Welcome to America, to the real world of Virginia." Some members of the Indian American community saw Allen's comments, and the backlash that may have contributed to Allen losing his re-election bid, as demonstrative of the power of YouTube in the 21st century.[203]
In 2006, then DelawareSenator and current U.S PresidentJoe Biden was caught on microphone saying: "In Delaware, the largest growth in population is Indian Americans moving from India. You cannot go to a 7-Eleven or a Dunkin' Donuts unless you have a slight Indian accent. I'm not joking."[204]
On February 22, 2017, recent immigrants Srinivas Kuchibhotla and Alok Madasani were shot at a bar in Olathe, Kansas by Adam Purinton, a white American who mistook them for persons of Middle Eastern descent, yelling "get out of my country" and "terrorist." Kuchibhotla died instantly while Madasani was injured, but later recovered.[205]
Punjabi Sikh Americans in Indianapolis suffered many losses in their community on April 15, 2021, during the Indianapolis FedEx shooting in which gunman Brandon Scott Hole, with a currently unknown motive, entered a FedEx warehouse and killed eight people, half of whom were Sikh. The Sikh victims were Jaswinder Singh, Jasvinder Kaur, Amarjit Sekhon, and Amarjeet Johal. 90% of the workers at the facility were Sikh according to some accounts.[206] Another Sikh, Taptejdeep Singh, was one of the nine people killed in the San Jose shooting on May 26, 2021.[207]
Immigration
Indians are among the largest ethnic groups legally immigrating to the United States. The immigration of Indians has taken place in several waves since the first Indian moved to the United States in the 1700s. A major wave of immigration to California from the region of Punjab took place in the first decade of the 20th century. Another significant wave followed in the 1950s which mainly included students and professionals. The elimination of immigration quotas in 1965 spurred successively larger waves of immigrants in the late 1970s and early 1980s. With the technology boom of the 1990s, the largest influx of Indians arrived between 1995 and 2000. This latter group has also caused surge in the application for various immigration benefits including applications for green card. This has resulted in long waiting periods for people born in India from receiving these benefits.
As of 2012, over 330,000 Indians were on the visa wait list, third only to Mexico and The Philippines.[208]
In December, 2015, over 30 Indian students seeking admission in two U.S. universities—Silicon Valley University and the Northwestern Polytechnic University—were denied entry by Customs and Border Protection and were deported to India. Conflicting reports suggested that the students were deported because of the controversies surrounding the above-mentioned two universities. However, another report suggested that the students were deported as they had provided conflicting information at the time of their arrival in the U.S. to what was mentioned in their visa application. "According to the U.S. Government, the deported persons had presented information to the border patrol agent which was inconsistent with their visa status," read an advisory published by Ministry of External Affairs (India) which was published in the Hindustan Times.[209]
Following the incident, the Indian government asked the U.S. government to honour the visas given by its embassies and consulates. In response, the United States embassy advised the students considering studying in the U.S. to seek assistance from Education USA.[209][210]
Citizenship
Unlike many countries, India does not allow dual citizenship.[211] Consequently, many Indian citizens residing in U.S., who do not want to lose their Indian nationality, do not apply for American citizenship (ex. Raghuram Rajan[212]). However, many Indian Americans obtain Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) status, which allows them to live and work in India indefinitely.
Marriage
Arranged marriages and relationships have been a common cultural tradition in many South Asian cultures, particularly among Indian communities. Arranged marriages and relationships can take many different forms, and that the experiences of those involved can vary greatly depending on a variety of circumstances, including cultural background, familial values, and individual preferences. Although many individuals marry each other out of love for one another, long-term compatibility—rather than love—is frequently prioritized in these arranged marriages. A number of variables could be important in the selecting process, including caste, education, financial standing, and family values. The public's perception of arranged marriages is changing, particularly among younger people. In an effort to strike a balance between family participation and personal preference, some people may decide to combine aspects of both love and planned marriages.[213]
Income disparities
Although Indian Americans have the highest average and median household income of any demographic group in America, there exist significant and severe income disparities among various communities of Indian Americans. In Long Island, the average family income of Indian Americans was roughly $273,000, while in Fresno, the average family income of Indian Americans was only $24,000, an eleven-fold difference.[214]
In the 2000s, a majority of Indian Americans have tended to identify as moderates, and have often leaned Democratic in several recent elections. In the 2012 presidential election, a poll from the National Asian American Survey reported that 68% of Indian Americans planned to vote for Barack Obama.[222] Polls before the 2004 presidential election showed Indian Americans favoring Democratic candidate John Kerry over RepublicanGeorge W. Bush by a 53% to 14% margin, with 30% undecided at the time.[223]
In 2020, Harris briefly ran for President of the United States and was later chosen as the Democratic Party's vice-presidential nominee, running alongside Joe Biden.[235] She is currently the presumptive candidate for the Democratic ticket in the 2024 General Election.
Indian Americans have played a significant role in promoting better India–United States relations, turning the cold attitude of American legislators to a positive perception of India in the post-Cold War era.[237]
Dalip Singh Saund was in 1956 the first Asian American, Indian American, and member of a non-Abrahamic faith (Sikhism) to be elected to the United States Congress.
^Laryssa Wirstiuk (April 21, 2014). "Neighborhood Spotlight: Journal Square". Jersey City Independent. Archived from the original on June 30, 2018. Retrieved December 26, 2014.
^"Supplemental Table 2. Persons Obtaining Lawful Permanent Resident Status by Leading Core Based Statistical Areas (CBSAs) of Residence and Region and Country of Birth: Fiscal Year 2014". U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Archived from the original on August 4, 2016. Retrieved June 1, 2016.
^"Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2013 Supplemental Table 2". U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Archived from the original on May 1, 2015. Retrieved June 1, 2016.
^"Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2012 Supplemental Table 2". U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Archived from the original on December 22, 2014. Retrieved June 1, 2016.
^"US Census Data". U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved September 21, 2024.
^Terrazas, Aaron (June 9, 2010). "Indian Immigrants in the United States". migrationpolicy.org. Archived from the original on July 21, 2015. Retrieved November 9, 2016.
^"Do you speak Telugu? Welcome to America". BBC News. October 21, 2018. Archived from the original on December 13, 2019.
^https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf Archived February 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine see page 3
^ a b c d"Religion Among Asian Americans". Pew Research Center. October 11, 2023. Retrieved October 14, 2023.
^"Indians surpass Chinese as largest 'Asian-alone' group in U.S." NBC News. September 26, 2023. Retrieved September 28, 2023.
^Multiple sources:
Kochhar, Rakesh; Cilluffo, Anthony (July 12, 2018). "Income Inequality in the U.S. Is Rising Most Rapidly Among Asians". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on April 4, 2021. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
"S0201 | SELECTED POPULATION PROFILE IN THE UNITED STATES". United States Census Bureau (UCSB). Archived from the original on December 12, 2021. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
"The Economic Status of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the Wake of the Great Recession" (PDF). United States Department of Labor. September 4, 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 4, 2014. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
"Indians in America make $100,000 on average: Highest-earning ethnic group". Dubai, United Arab Emirates: Gulf News. September 23, 2019. Archived from the original on March 6, 2021. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
Chidanand Rajghatta (August 24, 2021). "March of the desis in US: Best educated, richest, and growing". The Times of India. Archived from the original on April 18, 2022. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
"Indians in US wealthier with average household earning of $123,700: Report". The Times of India. August 25, 2021. Archived from the original on August 25, 2021. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
Chaubey, Santosh (November 4, 2020). "Indian-Americans: Wealthiest Immigrant Group in US With An Increasingly Formidable Political Voice". News18. Archived from the original on November 4, 2020. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
Trottman, Melanie (October 14, 2016). "Indian Americans are the Highest-Paid Asian Americans, Labor Department Report Shows". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on April 18, 2022. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
Trottman, Melanie (October 15, 2016). "Indian Americans are the highest-paid Asian Americans, Labor Department report shows". Business Standard. Archived from the original on October 18, 2016. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
"Indian Americans are the highest paid community in the US: Labor Dept. report". The American Bazaar. October 14, 2016. Archived from the original on November 8, 2020. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
Phillips, Matt (October 23, 2014). "Indians in the US make the most because they studied the most". Quartz. Archived from the original on October 26, 2014. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
Bleiweis, Robin (March 4, 2021). "The Economic Status of Asian American and Pacific Islander Women". Center for American Progress. Archived from the original on November 10, 2021. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
Hanna, Mary; Batalova, Jeanne (October 16, 2020). "Indian Immigrants in the United States". Migration Policy Institute (MPI). Archived from the original on January 28, 2021. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
Guo, Jeff (January 6, 2016). "Why Indian-American Women Make More Money Than White Guys". NDTV. Archived from the original on January 7, 2016. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
Samson, Carl (October 14, 2016). "Indians Are the Highest Earning Out Of All Asian-Americans". NextShark. Archived from the original on October 17, 2016. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
^Koshy, Susan (1998). "Category Crisis: South Asian Americans and Questions of Race and Ethnicity". Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies. 7 (3): 285–320. doi:10.1353/dsp.1998.0013. ISSN 1911-1568. S2CID 143516386. Archived from the original on June 23, 2016. Retrieved June 1, 2016.
^Aspinall, Peter J. (June 1, 2003). "Who is Asian? A category that remains contested in population and health research". Journal of Public Health. 25 (2): 91–97. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdg021. ISSN 1741-3842. PMID 12848395.
^"About Race". The United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on December 29, 2020. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
^"Demographic Information | SAALT". Archived from the original on August 11, 2020. Retrieved August 13, 2020.
^ a b cThakur, Pradeep (2009). Indian Americans (Part 1). Lulu.com. pp. 15–17. ISBN 978-81-908705-5-9. Archived from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved August 26, 2020.
^ a bFrancis C.Assisi (May 16, 2007). "Indian Slaves in Colonial America". India Currents. Archived from the original on November 27, 2012. Retrieved May 11, 2013.
^Meyers, Debra; Perreault, Melanie (2006). Colonial Chesapeake: New Perspectives. Lexington Books. p. 83.
^Brown, Thomas; Sims, Leah (2006). Colonial Chesapeake : new perspectives. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 81–97. ISBN 0739110926.
^Heinegg, Paul (2021). Free African Americans of Maryland and Delaware : from the colonial period to 1810 (Second ed.). [Baltimore, Md.] ISBN 978-0806359281.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Heinegg, Paul (1995). Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland, and Delaware: Indian Families Bass & Weaver. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing. Retrieved December 24, 2019.
^Dr. Helen C. Rountree, "Nansemond History" Archived 2011-07-23 at the Wayback Machine, Nansemond Tribal Association, accessed 16 Sep 2009
^"St. Johns County 1850 Federal Census". usgwararchives.net. Retrieved October 5, 2022.
^Richard T. Schaefer (March 20, 2008). "Indian Americans". Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. SAGE Publications. p. 801. ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2. Archived from the original on February 17, 2017. Retrieved October 15, 2016.
^ a bRangaswamy 2000, p. 41.
^Rangaswamy 2000, p. 42.
^"The 1907 Bellingham Riots in Historical Context - Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project". depts.washington.edu. Retrieved September 19, 2022.
^Rangaswamy 2000, pp. 42–43.
^ a bTakaki 1998, p. 297.
^ a bSeema Sohi (2014). Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism in North America. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-19-937625-4. Indians in North America, nearly 90 percent of whom where Sikhs from the state of Punjab, were also racialized through colonial gendered discourses. During the early decades of the twentieth century, US Immigration, Justice, and State Department officials cast Indian anti-colonialists as a "Hindoo" menace
^Takaki 1998, pp. 203, 300.
^Takaki 1998, pp. 309–310.
^Chakravorty, Kapur & Singh 2017, p. 17.
^ a bPostmodernism & a Sociology...(c). University of Arkansas Press. pp. 143–. ISBN 978-1-61075-322-7. Archived from the original on May 1, 2020. Retrieved September 9, 2017.
^ a bTakaki 1998, p. 298.
^ a bChakravorty, Kapur & Singh 2017, p. 18.
^"Court Rules Hindu Not a 'White Person'; Bars High Caste Native of India From Naturalization as an American Citizen". The New York Times. February 20, 1923. Retrieved October 11, 2021.
^Takaki 1998, p. 294.
^ a bRangaswamy 2000, p. 44.
^Zhao, X. & Park, E.J.W. (2013). Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History. Greenwood. pp. 1142. ISBN 978-1-59884-239-5
^Takaki 1998, p. 299.
^Makhijani, Pooja (October 3, 2017). "What a Forgotten Children's Book Reveals About the Publishing Industry". The Atlantic. Retrieved March 15, 2022.
^Chakravorty, Kapur & Singh 2017, p. 19.
^"Roots in the Sand — the Archives". PBS. Archived from the original on November 14, 2016. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
^Chakravorty, Kapur & Singh 2017, p. 335.
^BHATTACHARJEE, YUDHIJIT (September 4, 2018). "How Indian Americans Came to Run Half of All U.S. Motels". Culture & History. Archived from the original on May 15, 2019. Retrieved March 9, 2019.
^Takaki 1998, p. 446.
^Jennifer Ludden. "1965 immigration law changed face of America". NPR. Archived from the original on October 21, 2016. Retrieved December 9, 2016.
^ a b cRangaswamy, Padma (2007). Indian Americans (2007 Hardcover ed.). New York: Chelsea House. p. 55. ISBN 9780791087862. gujarati.
^Chakravorty, Kapur & Singh 2017, p. 55.
^Batalova, Jeanne Batalova Ari Hoffman and Jeanne (December 6, 2022). "Indian Immigrants in the United States". migrationpolicy.org. Retrieved February 23, 2023.
^"Three-fourths of H1B visa holders in 2018 are Indians: US report". The Economic Times. October 20, 2018. ISSN 0013-0389. Retrieved February 23, 2023.
^"Why Indians are the highest earning ethnic group in US? Harsh Goenka explains". Hindustan Times. January 15, 2023. Retrieved February 23, 2023.
^Sharma, Kritika (November 13, 2018). "India holds on to its position as one of the top two countries that send students to US". ThePrint. Archived from the original on January 2, 2020. Retrieved December 30, 2019.
^Sharma, Kritika (November 26, 2019). "21% fewer Indian students went abroad last year as US figures saw biggest drop". ThePrint. Archived from the original on December 30, 2019. Retrieved December 30, 2019.
^"IIE Open Doors / Fast Facts 2019". IIE Open Doors / Fast Facts 2019. Archived from the original on August 30, 2020. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
^"Kamala Harris sworn in as first female US vice-president – video". The Guardian. January 20, 2021. Archived from the original on February 7, 2021. Retrieved January 20, 2021.
^"Biden ropes in 20 Indian-Americans, 17 in key White House positions". The Hindu. January 17, 2021. Archived from the original on February 3, 2021. Retrieved January 20, 2021.
^"America's Asian Population Patterns 2000–2010". Proximityone.com. Archived from the original on March 23, 2013. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
^"U.S. Census Bureau Delivers Illinois' 2010 Census Population Totals, Including First Look at Race and Hispanic Origin Data for Legislative Redistricting". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 19, 2011. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
^"Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States". Census.gov. Archived from the original on July 25, 2008. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
^"American FactFinder — Results". Archived from the original on February 14, 2020. Retrieved January 30, 2016.
^"Census shows growth among Asian Indians". USA Today. May 17, 2011. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved September 1, 2017.
^"ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates New York-Newark, NY-NJ-CT-PA CSA". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved January 27, 2019.
^"ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES 2017 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates Asian Indian alone – New York City, New York". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 14, 2020. Retrieved February 11, 2019.
^Alix Martichoux (December 19, 2023). "These are the safest small towns and cities in every state: report". The Hill. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
^"Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1) 100-Percent Data". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
^"ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates – Monroe township, Middlesex County, New Jersey". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved February 11, 2019.
^"Monroe swears in 1st officer of Asian-Indian descent during Asian Pacific American Heritage month". m.youtube.com. May 25, 2022. Retrieved May 25, 2022.[title missing]
^"Supplemental Table 2. Persons Obtaining Lawful Permanent Resident Status by Leading Core Based Statistical Areas (CBSAs) of Residence and Region and Country of Birth: Fiscal Year 2014". Department of Homeland Security. Archived from the original on August 4, 2016. Retrieved May 31, 2016.
^Alex Gailey (May 1, 2019). "Delta picks New York City over Atlanta for nonstop Mumbai route". Atlanta Business Chronicle. Archived from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved May 4, 2019.
^"B02018 Asian Alone or in Any Combination by Selected Groups".
^ a b"Infographic: Government Collection of Race and Ethnicity Data". Center for American Progress. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^Pennington, Brian K. (2005), Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion, Oxford University Press, pp. 111–118, ISBN 978-0-19-803729-3, archived from the original on March 31, 2024, retrieved July 31, 2018
^ a b"First Arrivals - The Pluralism Project". Harvard University. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^Punjabis in America, from Migration, Mobility and Multiple Affiliations. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316337950.003. ISBN 978-1-107-11703-7. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^La Brack, Bruce (2005). "Sikhs in the United States". Encyclopedia of Diasporas. Springer. pp. 1094–1104. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-29904-4_112. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^ a b c"1930 Census: Volume 3. Population, Reports by States". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^"1940 Census of Population: Volume 2. Characteristics of the Population. Sex, Age, Race, Nativity, Citizenship, Country of Birth of Foreign-born White, School Attendance, Years of School Completed, Employment Status, Class of Worker, Major Occupation Group, and Industry Group". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^"1940 Census of Population: Characteristics of the Nonwhite Population by Race". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^"Asian and Pacific Islander Population in the United States 1980" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^"Asian Groups in the U.S. and all States: 1990" (PDF). Iowa Data Center (State Library of Iowa). Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^"DP1Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: 2000". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved July 23, 2024.
^Sanjoy Chakravorty, Devesh Kapur, and Nirvikar Singh (January 20, 2017). "America's "little Indias" are high-tech hubs, working-class neighborhoods, and everything in between". Retrieved June 2, 2023. The India-born came to the United States in three phases: the Early Movers (1965-1979), the Families (1980–1994), and the IT Generation (1995 onward)… Early Movers and the Families cohorts can be combined into a single group, Settlers 1.0 (1965– 1994), composed primarily of Punjabis and Gujaratis (and to a lesser extent, Urdu and Malayalam speakers). The IT Generation (1995 onward) can be called Settlers 2.0, and they were primarily Telugus, Tamils, and Hindi speakers (and to a lesser extent, Kannadigas, Marathis, and Bengalis). These two groups were distinguishable by age, tenure in the United States, educational attainment, industry and occupation, and income.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Sanjoy Chakravorty, Devesh Kapur, and Nirvikar Singh (January 20, 2017). "America's "little Indias" are high-tech hubs, working-class neighborhoods, and everything in between". Retrieved June 2, 2023. At the extremes—such as Punjabis and Telugus—the group outcomes were so different that one could argue they shared a country of origin, but little else. Settlers 2.0… were increasing in demographic dominance at this writing, and driving the key characteristics of settlement, education, and income for the overall Indian population. At the same time, the educational attainment and income differences between Settlers 1.0 and Settlers 2.0 raise serious questions about fragmentation in the Indian-American population and the long-term effects of such divergent paths.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ a b"B16001LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME BY ABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH FOR THE POPULATION 5 YEARS AND OVER". data.census.gov. Retrieved November 23, 2022.
^"Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: Fiscal Years 1820 to 2006". Archived from the original on August 4, 2016. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^United States Census Bureau. "US demographic census". Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved December 16, 2006.
^United States Census Bureau. "US demographic census". Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved November 19, 2006.
^United States Census Bureau. "US demographic census". Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved November 19, 2006.
^Assisi, Francis C. (January 4, 2007). "News & Analysis: Skilled Indian Immigrants Create Wealth for America". INDOlink. Archived from the original on June 8, 2011. Retrieved July 17, 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^Saxenian, AnnaLee (1999). "Silicon Valley's New Immigrant Entrepreneurs" (PDF). Public Policy Institute of California. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 31, 2016. Retrieved April 19, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^"The Face of Success, Part I: How the Indians Conquered Silicon Valley". Inc.com. January 13, 2012. Archived from the original on November 16, 2017. Retrieved December 19, 2017.
^"Report: 25% of Indian B-School Graduates get a job in Americas". IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Archived from the original on March 20, 2014. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
^"USA's best: Indian Americans top community — World — IBNLive". Ibnlive.in.com. February 20, 2009. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
^"MIT World » : The World is Flat". Mitworld.mit.edu. Archived from the original on March 28, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^Bouvier, Leon F. (February 1998). "Doctors and Nurses: A Demographic Profile | Center for Immigration Studies". Cis.org. Archived from the original on October 25, 2015. Retrieved November 9, 2016.
^"Indians in the U.S. Fact Sheet". POewsocialtrends.org. September 8, 2017. Archived from the original on January 18, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^"Indian Immigrants in the United States". migrationpolicy.org. October 16, 2020. Archived from the original on November 8, 2020. Retrieved November 4, 2020.
^Frances Kai-Hwa Wang (July 28, 2014). "World's Largest Hindu Temple Being Built in New Jersey". NBC News. Archived from the original on October 3, 2016. Retrieved January 30, 2017.
^"So, How Many Hindus Are There in the US?" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on August 9, 2010. Retrieved January 30, 2016.
^"Composite U.S. Demographics". Adherents.com. Archived from the original on February 4, 2013. Retrieved August 11, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^"Teaching About Religion". www.teachingaboutreligion.org. Archived from the original on December 30, 2006.
^Integrated Publishing. "Origin Of Hinduism In America". Tpub.com. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^"Council Of Hindu Temples In U.S." Archived from the original on April 18, 2006.
^"Hindu Temples in USA — HinduTemples in America". Hindutemples.us. Archived from the original on June 15, 2006. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^"US: 25-feet statue of Lord Hanuman reaches temple in Monroe ahead of Pran Pratishtha ceremony". The Economic Times (India). January 22, 2024. Retrieved September 7, 2024.
^"The Oldest Temple in the Hemisphere? It's In Queens!". Queens Gazette. May 21, 2020. Retrieved August 27, 2022.
^"About JAINA". Jaina.org. Archived from the original on April 11, 2012. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^"AZIZ ANSARI". AZIZ ANSARI. Archived from the original on May 11, 2020. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^"Muslim celebrities". CBS News. Archived from the original on May 29, 2020. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^"Welcome to Indian Muslim Council-USA". Archived from the original on October 23, 2006. Retrieved November 2, 2006.
^(Princeton), Princeton Forum on Asian Indian Ministries (US) (November 30, 2009). Pilgrims at the Crossroads: Asian Indian Christians at the North American Frontier. Institute for the Study of Asian American Christianity. pp. 27–32. ISBN 978-0-9819878-2-8.
^"Our History - St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India".
^George., Pothan, Sidney (1963). The Syrian Christians of Kerala. Asia Publishing House. OCLC 907131962.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Traditional Indian Churches in the US at a Glance Archived August 19, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, usindian.org Archived August 19, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
^Goans of the North Atlantic. By Clifford Pereira. In Migration, technology, and transculturation: A global Perspective. Edited by Myna German and Padmini Banerjee. Center for International and Global Studies. 2011. Lindenwood University Press. St. Charles MO, USA. ISBN 978-0-9846307-4-5
^"Indian Church, Churches and places of worship in the US. Asian Church in America, Indians, NRIs and Immigrants in America from Garamchai.Com". Garamchai.Com ... Archived from the original on August 10, 2007. Retrieved July 17, 2010.
^Arles, Siga. "Evangelism in the Changing Context of India" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 20, 2012. Retrieved January 30, 2016.
^"A Merry Indian American Christmas". Archived from the original on July 14, 2011.
^"India prepares to mark Indian Christian Day on July 3". Crux. July 2, 2022. Retrieved November 8, 2022.
^"Eastern Catholics share their culture, experiences at Chicago gathering". Chicago Catholic. Retrieved November 8, 2022.
^"St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Diocese". www.stthomasdiocese.org. Retrieved November 8, 2022.
^"Home". F E Z A N A. Archived from the original on October 20, 2006. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^"Indian Jewish Congregation of USA Newsletter" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 28, 2008. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^ a b cKatherine Davis, Religion News Service (February 25, 2014). "Hindus in New Jersey school district want a day off for Diwali". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
^ a b c d e fEugene Paik (February 5, 2012). "N.J. districts weigh new holiday, Diwali, for school year". The Star-Ledger. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
^Anna Rahmanan (October 21, 2022). "NYC schools will officially close for Diwali starting 2023". TimeOut New York. Retrieved October 21, 2022. The mayor declared Diwali a public school holiday in New York City beginning next year.
^"Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010 Demographic Profile Data Bergen County, New Jersey". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
^"ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES – 2013 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
^Chris Harris (February 24, 2015). "Glen Rock schools to close for Diwali". North Jersey Media Group. Archived from the original on February 24, 2015. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
^Richard De Santa (December 1, 2014). "Glen Rock residents seek Diwali observance at district schools". North Jersey Media Group. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
^Monsy Alvarado (October 24, 2016). "Thousands attend countywide celebration of Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights". NorthJersey.com, part of the USA TODAY network. Retrieved October 24, 2016. "This is the first time in Bergen County that all religious organizations and community organizations are participating under this banner, the Indian Heritage Center," said Dinesh Khosla, president and one of the founders of the temple in Mahwah. "Ten families started the temple 20 years ago and we have over 3,000 members now."
^[1] Accessed April 3, 2023.
^Danielle Parhizkaran, photographer (March 20, 2023). "Photos: Fair Lawn community celebrates Holi". northjersey.com. Retrieved March 22, 2023.
^ a bMarc Santora and Sharon Otterman (March 4, 2015). "New York City Adds 2 Muslim Holy Days to Public School Calendar". The New York Times. Retrieved March 4, 2015.
^"Coalition urges NYC Mayor to add Diwali as public school holiday". The Indian Eye.net. October 7, 2009. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
^Matthew Fazelpoor (August 23, 2022). "Passaic City cuts ribbon on $241M educational campus". NJBIZ. Retrieved September 5, 2022.
^Rajan Zed (August 23, 2022). "All 24 Middlesex County school districts should close on the Diwali holiday". New Jersey Advance Media. Retrieved September 29, 2022. Hindus seek holiday status for Diwali in all 24 school districts of Middlesex County. Rajan Zed is the president of the Universal Society of Hindus. He says establishing a holiday on Diwali in all Middlesex County school districts will be a step in the right direction to meet the religious and spiritual needs of Hindu students, who make up a significant portion of the population in the county.
^"12 Long Island School Districts to Close on Diwali in 2022: Hindus Call for Diwali Holiday in all Long Island Schools". Yonkers Tribune. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
^Erin Vogt (April 29, 2022). "New School Holiday: 23 NJ Districts Have Diwali Off In 2022". New Jersey 101.5. Retrieved June 20, 2022.
^Mogelonsky, "Asian-Indian Americans," pp. 32–38
^Intersimone, Jenna (January 14, 2020). "Indian food giant Deep Indian Kitchen had humble beginnings in Union County garage". MyCentralJersey.com. Retrieved March 10, 2021.
^Fox, MeiMei. "4 CEOs Bringing International Flavors To The US Prepared Foods Market". Forbes. Retrieved July 11, 2024.
^"Thendral.com – First American Tamil Radio". April 12, 2004. Archived from the original on April 12, 2004. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^"A Telugu Radio Show — Every Saturday". Google Groups. June 11, 2008. Archived from the original on November 6, 2012. Retrieved July 17, 2010.
^"houstonkannada.com". houstonkannada.com. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
^"Music Videos, Reality TV Shows, Celebrity News, Top Stories | MTV". Mtvdesi.com. April 8, 2014. Archived from the original on May 18, 2006. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^Melanie Weir (May 13, 2023). "First Look at Mumbattan in New 'Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse' Trailer". ITM. Retrieved June 3, 2023. Yesterday, however, we got a sneak peek at one of the most interesting promised worlds: Mumbattan, a hybrid of Manhattan and Mumbai, where Pavitr Prabhakar lives.
^ a bKarina Cuevas (August 16, 2015). "Thousands celebrate at India Day Parade along Madison Avenue". Metro International. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
^"New York City (NYC) India Day Parade". The Weissman Center for International Business – Baruch College/City University of New York. Retrieved December 25, 2014.
^"2022 NYC Sikh, Persian Day Parades: Street Closures, Locations". patch.com. April 22, 2022. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
^Martha W. McCartney; Lorena S. Walsh; Ywone Edwards-Ingram; Andrew J. Butts; Beresford Callum (2003). "A Study of the Africans and African Americans on Jamestown Island and at Green Spring, 1619–1803" (PDF). Historic Jamestowne. National Park Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved May 11, 2013.
^García, Ofelia; Fishman, Joshua A. (2002). The Multilingual Apple: Languages in New York City — Google Books. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110172812. Archived from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2014.
^Okihiro, Gary Y. (2005). The Columbia Guide To Asian American History. Columbia University Press. p. 178. ISBN 9780231115117. Archived from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved May 10, 2013.
^"Chapter 9: Home Life". Echoes of Freedom: South Asian Pioneers in California, 1899–1965. The Library, University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on February 18, 2009. Retrieved January 8, 2009.
^Frank B. Tiebout, A History of the 305th Infantry (New York: 305th Infantry Auxiliary), 431.
^Shah, Nayan (2011). "Policing Strangers and Borderlands". Stranger Intimacy: Contesting Race, Sexuality, and the Law in the North American West. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 74–78. ISBN 978-0-520-27087-9.
^"Roots in the Sand — Bhagat Singh Thind". PBS. Archived from the original on August 28, 2017. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^"Asian Indian Women in America". Aiwausa.org. August 15, 1980. Archived from the original on March 2, 2021. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^Yatanoor, Chandrakant (2009). "India's Contribution to American Heritage". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 70 (3): 771–778. JSTOR 42742759.
^"A Meritorious Indian". Span Magazine (Page 26) - US Embassy, New Delhi. September 1990. Archived from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved November 30, 2020.
^""Mission Statement", South Asian American Digital Archive". Saadigitalarchive.org. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^"12th President of Cooper Union". Bharucha.org. Archived from the original on February 7, 2021. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^"Indian American Arun Kumar nominated to Top White House Post". Archived from the original on October 8, 2013. Retrieved October 6, 2013.
^Hefler, Jan. "Race-baiting ads backfired, says Sikh who broke barriers in South Jersey freeholder race" Archived December 3, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The Philadelphia Inquirer, November 8, 2017. Accessed December 2, 2017.
^Ryan Prior (May 31, 2019). "7 of the 8 Spelling Bee winners are Indian Americans. Here's why that's not surprising". CNN. Archived from the original on June 8, 2019. Retrieved September 22, 2019.
^"YouTube Star Lilly Singh is the First Woman of Indian-Origin to Host a U.S. Late Night Show -". Rolling Stone India. March 16, 2019. Archived from the original on October 11, 2019. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
^"The Prize in Economic Sciences 2019" (PDF) (Press release). Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. October 14, 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 14, 2019. Retrieved October 16, 2019.
^The Hindu Net Desk (October 14, 2019). "Abhijit Banerjee among three to receive Economics Nobel". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on October 14, 2019. Retrieved October 14, 2019.
^"Arvind Krishna Elected IBM Chairman". December 16, 2020. Retrieved October 22, 2021.
^"IBM names Indian-origin Arvind Krishna as CEO". Deccan Chronicle. Asian News International. January 31, 2020. Archived from the original on October 5, 2020. Retrieved October 8, 2020.
^Ray, Anulekha (November 7, 2020). "Kamala Harris, the first Indian-origin, woman vice president of United States". Live Mint. Retrieved August 12, 2022.
^"Anirudh Devgan, Cadence Design Systems Inc: Profile and Biography". Bloomberg News.
^Bond, Shannon (November 29, 2021). "Jack Dorsey steps down as Twitter CEO, Parag Agrawal succeeds him".
^"Starbucks names new CEO". CNN. September 2022.
^"Digital Federal Credit Union Names Shruti Miyashiro as President and Chief Executive Officer". May 15, 2023.
^"Aruna Miller makes history as first South Asian woman elected lieutenant governor in U.S." NBC News. November 9, 2022.
^Kafka, Peter (February 16, 2023). "YouTube CEO Susan Wojcicki is stepping down". Vox. Retrieved February 23, 2023.
^Shalal, Andrea; Lawder, David (May 3, 2023). "World Bank board elects US nominee Ajay Banga as president". Reuters. Retrieved May 9, 2023.
^"State and County QuickFacts". US Census Bureau. Archived from the original on March 27, 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014.
^Assisi, Frank. Desparades. 2006. Are Desis White? Archived October 7, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
^Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results. 2007. May 21, 2007. "Race and Nationality Descriptions from the 2000 US Census and Bureau of Vital Statistics" Archived September 25, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Seer.cancer.gov
^Michel Marriott, New York Times (October 12, 1987). "In Jersey City, Indians Protest Violence". The New York Times. Jersey City (Nj). Archived from the original on May 6, 2017. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^ a b"Kavita Chhibber". Kavitachhibber.com. Archived from the original on January 2, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^ a bWorries about technical-job losses, discrimination Archived July 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, by Amy Yee, The Financial Times Ltd., 2004
^"Center for the study of history and memory". Dlib.indiana.edu. Archived from the original on October 7, 2008. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^"Brother of 1st hate crime murder victim post-9/11 reflects on progress, setbacks". NBC News. September 11, 2021. Retrieved February 23, 2023.
^"Hindu Beaten Because He's Muslim". CBS News. November 25, 2002. Archived from the original on November 4, 2013. Retrieved April 16, 2020.
^Santora, Marc; Maslin Nir, Sarah (December 28, 2012). "Woman Sought After 2nd Fatal Shove Onto Subway Tracks This Month". New York Times. Archived from the original on December 30, 2012. Retrieved December 31, 2012.
^Lee, Vivian (December 31, 2012). "Subway Victim Recalled as Always Lending a Hand". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 22, 2018. Retrieved December 31, 2012.
^Suhr, Jim (January 7, 2004). "Hillary Clinton regrets Gandhi joke — US news — Life — Race & ethnicity | NBC News". NBC News. Archived from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
^"Minneapolis Temple Attack Leaves Hindu Community In Shock". Hindu American Foundation. April 12, 2006. Archived from the original on May 12, 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014.
^"wcco.com – 600 Attend Forum About Hindu Temple Vandalism". Archived from the original on September 29, 2007.
^"Maple Grove citizens demonstrate support for Hindu Temple". Kare11.com. April 14, 2006. Archived from the original on September 12, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^indianexpress.com Archived February 5, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
^Andrew Leonard (November 9, 2006). "How the World Works: Hail Macaca!". Salon.com. Archived from the original on March 6, 2008. Retrieved February 7, 2008.
^"Biden explains Indian-American remarks". MSNBC. July 7, 2006. Archived from the original on May 26, 2020. Retrieved May 29, 2020.
^"Indian engineer killed in Kansas\". Hindustan Times. February 28, 2017. Archived from the original on March 1, 2017. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
^"Four Sikhs among victims of Indianapolis mass shooting". AP NEWS. April 20, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2021.
^JOCELYN GECKER and MARTHA MENDOZA. "Sikh American Taptejdeep Singh Among Victims of California Railyard Shooting; Died Trying to Warn Others". India West. Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 27, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2021.
^"Annual Report of Immigration Visa Applicants in the Family-sponsored and Employment-based preferences Registered at the National Visa Center as of November 1, 2012" (PDF). Bureau of Consular Affairs. United States Secretary of State. November 1, 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 17, 2013. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
^ a b"'Honour your own visas,' says India as US clarifies on deportation of Indians — Times of India". The Times of India. December 30, 2015. Archived from the original on January 3, 2016. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
^"EducationUSA". EducationUSA. Archived from the original on January 8, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^Dual Nationality: India and the United States Archived March 17, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
^"Raghuram Rajan taken aback by query about citizenship". Times of India. Archived from the original on November 11, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^Ralson, Helen (1997). "Arranged, 'Semi-Arranged' and 'Love' Marriages Among South Asian Immigrant Women in the Diaspora and Their Non-Migrant Sisters in India and Fiji: A Comparative Study". International Journal of Sociology of the Family. 27 (2): 43–68. ISSN 0020-7667. JSTOR 23070640.
^Singh, Sanjoy Chakravorty, Devesh Kapur, and Nirvikar (January 20, 2017). "America's "little Indias" are high-tech hubs, working-class neighborhoods, and everything in between". Quartz India. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved November 26, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Michael Hoefer; Nancy Rytina; Bryan C. Baker (January 2010). "Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2009" (PDF). DHS Office of Immigration Statistics. United States Department of Homeland Security. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 29, 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2011.
^"Illegal Indians in US". Archived from the original on August 15, 2009.
^Guillermo, Emil (December 1, 2014). "Numbers Reveal How Asian Undocumented Remain Hidden in America". NBC News. Archived from the original on May 8, 2019. Retrieved December 2, 2014.
^"USINPAC — US India Political Action Committee | Indian American Community". www.usinpac.com. October 31, 2011. Archived from the original on February 9, 2009. Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^"South Asian Americans Leading Together". Saalt.org. Archived from the original on May 21, 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014.
^"Desis Rising Up and Moving". Drumnyc.org. Archived from the original on May 21, 2014. Retrieved May 10, 2014.
^"Desis Rising Up and Moving (DRUM) materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)". Retrieved August 11, 2014.
^Ghosh, Palash (November 5, 2012). "Why Do Indian-Americans Love Barack Obama And The Democrats?". International Business Times. Archived from the original on March 26, 2021. Retrieved May 10, 2014.
^"Asia Times — Asia's most trusted news source". Atimes.com. September 16, 2004. Archived from the original on September 19, 2008. Retrieved August 11, 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^Vote Getters 26 May 2004. The New Republic.
^"Indian immigrants' son new La. governor". Yahoo! News. Archived from the original on October 23, 2007. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
^"Rep. Raja Krishnamoorthi takes oath and commits to middle class". Asian American Press. January 5, 2017. Archived from the original on February 2, 2017. Retrieved January 30, 2017.
^"State of Iowa Official Canvass Summary November 4, 2008 General Election" (PDF). Iowa Secretary of State. p. 26. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2009. Retrieved September 25, 2011.
^Clayworth, Jason (September 16, 2011). "UPDATE: Senator resigns, leaving slim Democratic majority in jeopardy; special election Nov. 8". Des Moines Register. Gannett Company. Archived from the original on July 7, 2012. Retrieved September 16, 2011.
^"Record Number Of Indian-American Women Running For Public Office In 2016". Forbes. March 17, 2016. Archived from the original on August 31, 2017. Retrieved July 8, 2016.
^"PM Golding congratulates Kamala Harris-daughter of Jamaican – on appointment as California's First Woman Attorney General". Jamaican Information Service. December 2, 2010. Archived from the original on January 15, 2012. Retrieved February 2, 2011.
^"California Attorney General Kamal Harris marries Douglas Emhof". The American Bazaar. September 2, 2014. Archived from the original on October 6, 2019. Retrieved November 9, 2016.
^"Why Kamala Harris is probably not thrilled with compliment". CalWatchdog.com. April 7, 2013. Archived from the original on November 8, 2016. Retrieved November 9, 2016.
^"Election Day 2016 updates: Trump defeats Clinton to become next president of U.S." Los Angeles Times. November 10, 2016. Archived from the original on January 15, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
^"Kamala Harris is elected California's new U.S. senator". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on June 29, 2019. Retrieved November 9, 2016.
^Jeff Zeleny, Dan Merica, Arlette Saenz, Maeve Reston and Eric Bradner (August 11, 2020). "Joe Biden picks Kamala Harris as his running mate". CNN. Archived from the original on October 23, 2020. Retrieved October 14, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^"Indian Lobbying and its Influence in US Decision Making – SAGE Publications Inc". Us.sagepub.com. Archived from the original on November 20, 2017. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
Further reading
Atkinson, David C. The burden of white supremacy: Containing Asian migration in the British empire and the United States (U North Carolina Press, 2016).
Bacon, Jean. Life Lines: Community, Family, and Assimilation among Asian Indian Immigrants (Oxford UP, 1996).
Bhalla, Vibha. "'Couch potatoes and super-women' Gender, migration, and the emerging discourse on housework among Asian Indian immigrants." Journal of American Ethnic History 27.4 (2008): 71–99. online Archived April 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
Chakravorty, Sanjoy; Kapur, Devesh; Singh, Nirvikar (2017). The Other One Percent: Indians in America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190648749.
Joshi, Khyati Y. New Roots in America's Sacred Ground: Religion, Race and Ethnicity in Indian America (Rutgers UP, 2006).
Khandelwal, Madhulika S. Becoming American, Being Indian: An Immigrant Community in New York City (Cornell UP, 2002).
Maira, Sunaina Marr. Desis in the House: Indian American Youth Culture in NYC (Temple UP, 2002).
Min, Pyong Gap, and Young Oak Kim. "Ethnic and sub-ethnic attachments among Chinese, Korean, and Indian immigrants in New York City." Ethnic and Racial Studies 32.5 (2009): 758–780.
Pavri, Tinaz. "Asian Indian Americans." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 1, Gale, 2014), pp. 165–178. online Archived March 26, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Rangaswamy, Padma (2000). Namasté America: Indian Immigrants in an American Metropolis. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-01981-6.
Rudrappa, Sharmila. Ethnic Routes to Becoming American: Indian Immigrants and the Cultures of Citizenship (Rutgers UP, 2004).
Schlund-Vials, Cathy J., Linda Trinh Võ, and K. Scott Wong, eds. Keywords for Asian American Studies (NYU Press, 2015).
Shukla, Sandhya. India Abroad: Diasporic Cultures of Postwar America and England (Princeton UP, 2003).
Sohi, Seema. Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism in North America (2014) excerpt Archived February 14, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
Takaki, Ronald (1998) [1989]. Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Revised and updated ed.). New York: Back Bay Books. ISBN 978-0-316-83130-7. OCLC 80125499.
Thernstrom, Stephan; Orlov, Ann; Handlin, Oscar, eds. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674375122, (1980), pp 296–301. available to borrow online
External links
The American Institute of India Studies (AIIS)
Madhusudan and Kiran C. Dhar India Studies Program at Indiana University Bloomington
From 1917 to 2017: Immigration, Exclusion, and "National Security" by Seema Sohi
Widely exhibited across museums in the US, historic photography project of Indians living in the late 1980s in America Archived May 15, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
.jpg/1280px-Sanjay_Gupta_(cropped).jpg)
_celebrations,_New_York_City_Jain_temple.JPG/1280px-Das_Lakshana_(Paryusana)_celebrations,_New_York_City_Jain_temple.JPG)
_(cropped).jpg/1280px-Dinesh_D'Souza_(50755833428)_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Sundar_Pichai_(cropped1).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Vivek_Murthy,_Surgeon_General_(profile).jpg)
.jpg/1280px-Kamala_Harris_Vice_Presidential_Portrait_(cropped).jpg)
