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Estación Espacial Internacional

La Estación Espacial Internacional ( ISS ) es una gran estación espacial que fue ensamblada y se mantiene en órbita terrestre baja gracias a la colaboración de cinco agencias espaciales y sus contratistas: NASA (Estados Unidos), Roscosmos (Rusia), ESA (Europa), JAXA (Japón) y CSA (Canadá). La ISS es la estación espacial más grande jamás construida. Su propósito principal es realizar experimentos en microgravedad y en el entorno espacial . [10]

Operativamente, la estación está dividida en dos secciones: el Segmento Orbital Ruso (ROS) ensamblado por Roscosmos, y el Segmento Orbital Estadounidense (USOS), ensamblado por la NASA, JAXA, ESA y CSA. Una característica sorprendente de la ISS es la Estructura de Armazón Integrada , que conecta los grandes paneles solares y radiadores a los módulos presurizados. Los módulos presurizados están especializados para funciones de investigación, habitación, almacenamiento, control de naves espaciales y esclusa de aire . Las naves espaciales visitantes atracan en la estación a través de sus ocho puertos de atraque y atraque . La ISS mantiene una órbita con una altitud promedio de 400 kilómetros (250 millas) [11] y da una vuelta alrededor de la Tierra en aproximadamente 93 minutos, completando 15,5 órbitas por día. [12]

El programa ISS combina dos planes previos para construir estaciones tripuladas en órbita terrestre: la Estación Espacial Freedom planificada por los Estados Unidos y la estación Mir-2 , planificada por la Unión Soviética. El primer módulo de la ISS se lanzó en 1998. Los módulos principales han sido lanzados por cohetes Proton y Soyuz y por el sistema de lanzamiento del transbordador espacial . Los primeros residentes de largo plazo, la Expedición 1 , llegaron el 2 de noviembre de 2000. Desde entonces, la estación ha estado ocupada continuamente durante 23 años y 332 días, la presencia humana continua más larga en el espacio. A marzo de 2024 , 279 personas de 22 países han visitado la estación espacial. [13] Se espera que la ISS tenga módulos adicionales (el Segmento Orbital Axiom , por ejemplo) y estará en servicio hasta fines de 2030, después de lo cual está previsto que sea desorbitada por una nave espacial dedicada de la NASA. [14]

Concepción

A principios de los años 70, cuando la carrera espacial se acercaba a su fin, Estados Unidos y la URSS comenzaron a contemplar diversas colaboraciones potenciales en el espacio exterior. Esto culminó en 1975 con el Proyecto de Prueba Apolo-Soyuz , el primer acoplamiento de naves espaciales de dos naciones con diferentes capacidades espaciales. El Proyecto de Prueba Apolo-Soyuz se consideró un éxito y también se contemplaron otras misiones conjuntas.

Uno de esos conceptos fue el International Skylab, que proponía lanzar la estación espacial de respaldo Skylab B para una misión que vería múltiples visitas de los vehículos tripulados Apollo y Soyuz . [15] Más ambicioso fue el Laboratorio Espacial Skylab-Salyut, que proponía acoplar el Skylab B a una estación espacial soviética Salyut . La caída de los presupuestos y el aumento de las tensiones de la Guerra Fría a fines de la década de 1970 hicieron que estos conceptos quedaran en el camino, junto con otro plan para que el transbordador espacial se acoplara a una estación espacial Salyut. [16]

A principios de la década de 1980, la NASA planeó lanzar una estación espacial modular llamada Freedom como contraparte de las estaciones espaciales Salyut y Mir . En 1984, la ESA fue invitada a participar en la Estación Espacial Freedom , y la ESA aprobó el laboratorio Columbus en 1987. [17] El Módulo Experimental Japonés (JEM), o Kibō , fue anunciado en 1985, como parte de la estación espacial Freedom en respuesta a una solicitud de la NASA en 1982.

A principios de 1985, los ministros de ciencia de los países de la Agencia Espacial Europea (ESA) aprobaron el programa Columbus , el esfuerzo espacial más ambicioso llevado a cabo por esa organización en ese momento. El plan encabezado por Alemania e Italia incluía un módulo que se acoplaría al Freedom y que tendría la capacidad de evolucionar hasta convertirse en un puesto avanzado orbital europeo de pleno derecho antes de finales de siglo. [18]

El aumento de los costos puso en duda estos planes a principios de la década de 1990. El Congreso no estaba dispuesto a proporcionar suficiente dinero para construir y operar Freedom , y exigió que la NASA aumentara la participación internacional para sufragar los costos crecientes o cancelarían todo el proyecto directamente. [19]

Al mismo tiempo, la URSS estaba llevando a cabo la planificación de la estación espacial Mir-2 y había comenzado a construir módulos para la nueva estación a mediados de la década de 1980. Sin embargo, el colapso de la Unión Soviética obligó a reducir considerablemente la escala de estos planes y pronto la Mir-2 estuvo en peligro de no ser lanzada nunca. [20] Con ambos proyectos de estaciones espaciales en peligro, los funcionarios estadounidenses y rusos se reunieron y propusieron que se combinaran. [21]

En septiembre de 1993, el vicepresidente estadounidense Al Gore y el primer ministro ruso Viktor Chernomyrdin anunciaron planes para una nueva estación espacial, que finalmente se convirtió en la Estación Espacial Internacional. [22] También acordaron, en preparación para este nuevo proyecto, que Estados Unidos participaría en el programa Mir, incluido el acoplamiento de transbordadores estadounidenses, en el programa Transbordador - Mir . [23]

Objetivo

La ISS fue concebida originalmente como laboratorio, observatorio y fábrica, y como base de transporte, mantenimiento y preparación en órbita terrestre baja para posibles misiones futuras a la Luna, Marte y asteroides. Sin embargo, no todos los usos previstos en el memorando de entendimiento inicial entre la NASA y Roscosmos se han materializado. [24] En la Política Espacial Nacional de los Estados Unidos de 2010 , se le asignaron a la ISS funciones adicionales para fines comerciales, diplomáticos [25] y educativos. [26]

Investigación científica

La Estación Espacial Internacional (ISS) ofrece una plataforma para realizar investigaciones científicas, con energía, datos, refrigeración y tripulación disponibles para apoyar los experimentos. Las naves espaciales pequeñas no tripuladas también pueden proporcionar plataformas para experimentos, especialmente aquellos que involucran gravedad cero y exposición al espacio, pero las estaciones espaciales ofrecen un entorno a largo plazo donde se pueden realizar estudios durante décadas, combinado con un fácil acceso para los investigadores humanos. [27] [28]

La ISS simplifica los experimentos individuales al permitir que grupos de experimentos compartan los mismos lanzamientos y el mismo tiempo de tripulación. La investigación se lleva a cabo en una amplia variedad de campos, que incluyen astrobiología , astronomía , ciencias físicas , ciencia de los materiales , clima espacial , meteorología e investigación humana , incluida la medicina espacial y las ciencias de la vida . [29] [30] [31] [32] Los científicos en la Tierra tienen acceso oportuno a los datos y pueden sugerir modificaciones experimentales a la tripulación. Si son necesarios experimentos de seguimiento, los lanzamientos programados rutinariamente de naves de reabastecimiento permiten que se lance nuevo hardware con relativa facilidad. [28] Las tripulaciones vuelan expediciones de varios meses de duración, proporcionando aproximadamente 160 horas-hombre por semana de trabajo con una tripulación de seis. Sin embargo, una cantidad considerable del tiempo de la tripulación se consume en el mantenimiento de la estación. [33]

El experimento más notable de la ISS es el Espectrómetro Magnético Alfa (AMS), que tiene como objetivo detectar materia oscura y responder a otras preguntas fundamentales sobre nuestro universo. Según la NASA, el AMS es tan importante como el Telescopio Espacial Hubble . Actualmente acoplado a la estación, no habría sido fácil acomodarlo en una plataforma satelital de vuelo libre debido a sus necesidades de energía y ancho de banda. [34] [35] El 3 de abril de 2013, los científicos informaron que el AMS podría haber detectado indicios de materia oscura . [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] Según los científicos, "los primeros resultados del Espectrómetro Magnético Alfa a bordo del espacio confirman un exceso inexplicable de positrones de alta energía en los rayos cósmicos que se dirigen a la Tierra". [ cita requerida ]

El entorno espacial es hostil para la vida. La presencia desprotegida en el espacio se caracteriza por un intenso campo de radiación (que consiste principalmente en protones y otras partículas subatómicas cargadas del viento solar , además de rayos cósmicos ), alto vacío, temperaturas extremas y microgravedad. [42] Algunas formas de vida simples llamadas extremófilos , [43] así como pequeños invertebrados llamados tardígrados [44] pueden sobrevivir en este entorno en un estado extremadamente seco a través de la desecación .

La investigación médica mejora el conocimiento sobre los efectos de la exposición prolongada al espacio en el cuerpo humano, incluida la atrofia muscular , la pérdida ósea y el desplazamiento de líquidos. Estos datos se utilizarán para determinar si son factibles los vuelos espaciales tripulados de larga duración y la colonización del espacio . En 2006, los datos sobre la pérdida ósea y la atrofia muscular sugirieron que habría un riesgo significativo de fracturas y problemas de movimiento si los astronautas aterrizaran en un planeta después de un largo crucero interplanetario, como el intervalo de seis meses necesario para viajar a Marte . [45] [46]

A bordo de la ISS se llevan a cabo estudios médicos en nombre del Instituto Nacional de Investigación Biomédica Espacial (NSBRI). Entre ellos, destaca el estudio de Ultrasonido Diagnóstico Avanzado en Microgravedad , en el que los astronautas realizan ecografías bajo la guía de expertos a distancia. El estudio considera el diagnóstico y el tratamiento de afecciones médicas en el espacio. Por lo general, no hay ningún médico a bordo de la ISS y el diagnóstico de afecciones médicas es un desafío. Se prevé que las ecografías guiadas a distancia tengan aplicación en la Tierra en situaciones de emergencia y atención rural donde el acceso a un médico capacitado es difícil. [47] [48] [49]

En agosto de 2020, los científicos informaron que se descubrió que las bacterias de la Tierra, en particular la bacteria Deinococcus radiodurans , que es altamente resistente a los peligros ambientales , sobrevivieron durante tres años en el espacio exterior , según estudios realizados en la Estación Espacial Internacional. Estos hallazgos respaldaron la noción de panspermia , la hipótesis de que la vida existe en todo el Universo , distribuida de diversas formas, incluido el polvo espacial , los meteoroides , los asteroides , los cometas , los planetoides o las naves espaciales contaminadas . [50] [51]

La teledetección de la Tierra, la astronomía y la investigación del espacio profundo en la ISS han aumentado significativamente durante la década de 2010 después de la finalización del Segmento Orbital de EE. UU . en 2011. A lo largo de los más de 20 años del programa de la ISS, los investigadores a bordo de la ISS y en tierra han examinado aerosoles , ozono , relámpagos y óxidos en la atmósfera de la Tierra, así como el Sol , los rayos cósmicos, el polvo cósmico , la antimateria y la materia oscura en el universo. Ejemplos de experimentos de teledetección de observación de la Tierra que han volado en la ISS son el Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 , ISS-RapidScat , ECOSTRESS , la Investigación de Dinámica de Ecosistemas Globales y el Sistema de Transporte de Aerosoles en las Nubes . Los telescopios y experimentos astronómicos basados ​​en la ISS incluyen SOLAR , el Explorador de la composición interior de las estrellas de neutrones , el Telescopio Electrónico Calorimétrico , el Monitor de imágenes de rayos X de todo el cielo (MAXI) y el Espectrómetro Magnético Alfa . [29] [52]

Caída libre

Miembro de la tripulación de la ISS almacenando muestras
Una comparación entre la combustión de una vela en la Tierra (izquierda) y en un entorno de caída libre, como el que se encuentra en la ISS (derecha)

La gravedad a la altitud de la ISS es aproximadamente un 90% tan fuerte como en la superficie de la Tierra, pero los objetos en órbita están en un estado continuo de caída libre , lo que resulta en un estado aparente de ingravidez . [53] Esta ingravidez percibida se ve perturbada por cinco efectos: [54]

Los investigadores están estudiando el efecto del entorno casi sin gravedad de la estación en la evolución, el desarrollo, el crecimiento y los procesos internos de plantas y animales. En respuesta a algunos de los datos, la NASA quiere investigar los efectos de la microgravedad en el crecimiento de tejidos tridimensionales similares a los humanos y los inusuales cristales de proteínas que se pueden formar en el espacio. [29]

La investigación de la física de los fluidos en microgravedad proporcionará mejores modelos del comportamiento de los fluidos. Debido a que los fluidos pueden combinarse casi por completo en microgravedad, los físicos investigan fluidos que no se mezclan bien en la Tierra. El examen de las reacciones que se ralentizan por la baja gravedad y las bajas temperaturas mejorará nuestra comprensión de la superconductividad . [29]

El estudio de la ciencia de los materiales es una importante actividad de investigación de la ISS, cuyo objetivo es obtener beneficios económicos mediante la mejora de las técnicas utilizadas en la Tierra. [55] Otras áreas de interés incluyen el efecto de la baja gravedad en la combustión, mediante el estudio de la eficiencia de la quema y el control de emisiones y contaminantes. Estos hallazgos pueden mejorar el conocimiento sobre la producción de energía y generar beneficios económicos y ambientales. [29]

Exploración

Un plano en 3D del complejo MARS-500 con base en Rusia , utilizado para realizar experimentos terrestres que complementan los preparativos basados ​​en la ISS para una misión humana a Marte.

La ISS ofrece un emplazamiento en la relativa seguridad de la órbita baja terrestre para probar los sistemas de las naves espaciales que serán necesarios para misiones de larga duración a la Luna y Marte. Esto proporciona experiencia en operaciones, mantenimiento y actividades de reparación y sustitución en órbita. Esto ayudará a desarrollar habilidades esenciales para operar naves espaciales más alejadas de la Tierra, reducir los riesgos de la misión y mejorar las capacidades de las naves espaciales interplanetarias. [56] En referencia al experimento MARS-500 , un experimento de aislamiento de la tripulación realizado en la Tierra, la ESA afirma: "Mientras que la ISS es esencial para responder a preguntas sobre el posible impacto de la ingravidez, la radiación y otros factores específicos del espacio, aspectos como el efecto del aislamiento y el confinamiento a largo plazo pueden abordarse de manera más apropiada mediante simulaciones terrestres". [57] Sergey Krasnov, director de los programas de vuelos espaciales tripulados de la agencia espacial rusa, Roscosmos, sugirió en 2011 que se podría llevar a cabo una "versión más corta" de MARS-500 en la ISS. [58]

En 2009, destacando el valor del marco de asociación en sí, Sergey Krasnov escribió: "En comparación con socios que actúan por separado, los socios que desarrollan capacidades y recursos complementarios podrían darnos mucha más seguridad del éxito y la seguridad de la exploración espacial. La ISS está ayudando a seguir avanzando en la exploración espacial cercana a la Tierra y la realización de futuros programas de investigación y exploración del sistema solar, incluidos la Luna y Marte". [59] Una misión tripulada a Marte puede ser un esfuerzo multinacional que involucre a agencias espaciales y países fuera de la actual asociación de la ISS. En 2010, el director general de la ESA, Jean-Jacques Dordain, declaró que su agencia estaba lista para proponer a los otros cuatro socios que se invitara a China, India y Corea del Sur a unirse a la asociación de la ISS. [60] El jefe de la NASA, Charles Bolden, declaró en febrero de 2011: "Es probable que cualquier misión a Marte sea un esfuerzo global". [61] Actualmente, la legislación federal de los EE. UU. impide la cooperación de la NASA con China en proyectos espaciales sin la aprobación del FBI y el Congreso. [62]

Educación y difusión cultural

Manuscritos originales de Julio Verne exhibidos por la tripulación dentro del vehículo todoterreno Jules Verne

La tripulación de la ISS ofrece oportunidades a los estudiantes en la Tierra mediante la realización de experimentos desarrollados por ellos mismos, demostraciones educativas, la participación de los estudiantes en versiones para el aula de los experimentos de la ISS y la interacción directa con los estudiantes mediante la radio y el correo electrónico. [63] [64] La ESA ofrece una amplia gama de materiales didácticos gratuitos que se pueden descargar para su uso en las aulas. [65] En una lección, los estudiantes pueden navegar por un modelo 3D del interior y el exterior de la ISS y enfrentarse a desafíos espontáneos que resolver en tiempo real. [66]

La Agencia Japonesa de Exploración Aeroespacial (JAXA) tiene como objetivo inspirar a los niños a "practicar la artesanía" y aumentar su "conciencia de la importancia de la vida y sus responsabilidades en la sociedad". [67] A través de una serie de guías educativas, los estudiantes desarrollan una comprensión más profunda del pasado y el futuro a corto plazo de los vuelos espaciales tripulados, así como de la Tierra y la vida. [68] [69] En los experimentos "Semillas en el espacio" de la JAXA, se exploran los efectos de mutación de los vuelos espaciales en las semillas de las plantas a bordo de la ISS mediante el cultivo de semillas de girasol que han volado en la ISS durante unos nueve meses. En la primera fase de utilización de Kibō , desde 2008 hasta mediados de 2010, investigadores de más de una docena de universidades japonesas llevaron a cabo experimentos en diversos campos. [70]

Las actividades culturales son otro objetivo importante del programa de la ISS. Tetsuo Tanaka, director del Centro de Medio Ambiente y Utilización Espacial de la JAXA, ha dicho: "Hay algo en el espacio que conmueve incluso a las personas que no están interesadas en la ciencia". [71]

La radioafición en la Estación Espacial Internacional (ARISS, por sus siglas en inglés) es un programa de voluntariado que alienta a estudiantes de todo el mundo a seguir carreras en ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y matemáticas, a través de oportunidades de comunicación por radioafición con la tripulación de la Estación Espacial Internacional. ARISS es un grupo de trabajo internacional, integrado por delegaciones de nueve países, incluidos varios de Europa, además de Japón, Rusia, Canadá y Estados Unidos. En las zonas donde no se puede utilizar equipo de radio, los altavoces conectan a los estudiantes con estaciones terrestres que, a su vez, conectan las llamadas con la estación espacial. [72]

Grabación de voz hablada del astronauta de la ESA Paolo Nespoli sobre la ISS, producida en noviembre de 2017 para Wikipedia

First Orbit es un largometraje documental de 2011 sobre Vostok 1 , el primer vuelo espacial tripulado alrededor de la Tierra. Al hacer coincidir la órbita de la ISS con la de Vostok 1 lo más fielmente posible, en términos de trayectoria terrestre y hora del día, el documentalista Christopher Riley y el astronauta de la ESA Paolo Nespoli pudieron filmar la vista que Yuri Gagarin vio en su pionero vuelo espacial orbital. Este nuevo metraje fue cortado junto con las grabaciones de audio originales de la misión Vostok 1 obtenidas del Archivo Estatal Ruso. Nespoli está acreditado como director de fotografía de este documental, ya que grabó la mayoría del metraje él mismo durante la Expedición 26/27 .[ 73] La película se transmitió en un estreno mundial en YouTube en 2011 bajo una licencia gratuita a través del sitio web firstorbit.org . [74]

En mayo de 2013, el comandante Chris Hadfield filmó un vídeo musical de " Space Oddity " de David Bowie a bordo de la estación, que fue publicado en YouTube. [75] [76] Fue el primer vídeo musical filmado en el espacio. [77]

En noviembre de 2017, mientras participaba en la Expedición 52/53 en la Estación Espacial Internacional, Paolo Nespoli realizó dos grabaciones de su voz hablada (una en inglés y otra en su italiano nativo) para usarlas en artículos de Wikipedia . Se trata del primer contenido creado en el espacio específicamente para Wikipedia. [78] [79]

En noviembre de 2021, se anunció una exhibición de realidad virtual llamada The Infinite que muestra la vida a bordo de la ISS. [80]

Construcción

Fabricación

Armonía en las instalaciones de procesamiento de la Estación Espacial

La Estación Espacial Internacional es producto de una colaboración global y sus componentes se fabrican en todo el mundo.

Los módulos del Segmento Orbital Ruso , incluidos Zarya y Zvezda , se produjeron en el Centro Espacial de Investigación y Producción Estatal Khrunichev en Moscú. Zvezda se fabricó inicialmente en 1985 como un componente para la estación espacial Mir-2 , que nunca se lanzó. [81] [82]

Gran parte del segmento orbital estadounidense , incluidos los módulos Destiny y Unity , la estructura de celosía integrada y los paneles solares , se construyeron en el Centro Marshall de Vuelos Espaciales de la NASA en Huntsville, Alabama y en la Instalación de Ensamblaje Michoud en Nueva Orleans . [81] Estos componentes se sometieron a un ensamblaje y procesamiento final para el lanzamiento en el Edificio de Operaciones y Verificación y la Instalación de Procesamiento de la Estación Espacial (SSPF) en el Centro Espacial Kennedy en Florida. [83]

El Segmento Orbital de los Estados Unidos también alberga el módulo Columbus aportado por la Agencia Espacial Europea y construido en Alemania, el módulo Kibō aportado por Japón y construido en el Centro Espacial Tsukuba y el Instituto de Ciencias Espaciales y Astronáuticas , junto con el Canadarm2 y el Dextre , un proyecto conjunto canadiense-estadounidense. Todos estos componentes fueron enviados a la SSPF para su procesamiento de lanzamiento. [81] [84]

Asamblea

Animación del montaje de la Estación Espacial Internacional

El montaje de la Estación Espacial Internacional, un gran proyecto de arquitectura espacial , comenzó en noviembre de 1998. [7]

Los módulos del segmento ruso se lanzaron y acoplaron de forma autónoma, con la excepción de Rassvet . Otros módulos y componentes fueron entregados por el transbordador espacial , que luego tuvieron que ser instalados por astronautas de forma remota utilizando brazos robóticos o durante caminatas espaciales, más formalmente conocidas como actividades extravehiculares (EVAs). Para el 5 de junio de 2011, los astronautas habían realizado más de 159 EVA para agregar componentes a la estación, lo que totalizó más de 1000 horas en el espacio. [85] [86]

Zarya y Unity , los dos primeros módulos de la ISS, fotografiados en mayo de 2000

La base de la ISS se estableció con el lanzamiento del módulo Zarya, de fabricación rusa, a bordo de un cohete Proton el 20 de noviembre de 1998. Zarya proporcionó propulsión, control de actitud , comunicaciones y energía eléctrica. Dos semanas después, el 4 de diciembre de 1998, el Unity, de fabricación estadounidense, fue transportado a bordo del transbordador espacial Endeavour en la misión STS-88 y se unió a Zarya . Unity proporcionó la conexión entre los segmentos ruso y estadounidense de la estación y proporcionaría puertos para conectar futuros módulos y naves espaciales visitantes.

Si bien la conexión de dos módulos construidos en continentes diferentes por naciones que alguna vez fueron rivales acérrimos fue un hito significativo, estos dos módulos iniciales carecían de sistemas de soporte vital y la ISS permaneció sin tripulación durante los siguientes dos años. En ese momento, la estación rusa Mir todavía estaba habitada.

El punto de inflexión llegó en julio de 2000 con el lanzamiento del módulo Zvezda . Equipado con alojamiento y sistemas de soporte vital, Zvezda permitió la presencia humana continua a bordo de la estación. La primera tripulación, la Expedición 1 , llegó ese noviembre a bordo de la Soyuz TM-31 . [87] [88]

La ISS creció de forma constante durante los años siguientes, con módulos entregados tanto por cohetes rusos como por el transbordador espacial.

La Expedición 1 llegó a mitad de camino entre los vuelos del transbordador espacial de las misiones STS-92 y STS-97 . Estos dos vuelos agregaron segmentos de la Estructura de Armazón Integrada de la estación , que proporcionó a la estación comunicaciones en banda Ku , control de actitud adicional necesario para la masa adicional del USOS y paneles solares adicionales. [89] Durante los siguientes dos años, la estación continuó expandiéndose. Un cohete Soyuz-U entregó el compartimento de acoplamiento Pirs . Los transbordadores espaciales Discovery , Atlantis y Endeavour entregaron el laboratorio estadounidense Destiny y la esclusa de aire Quest , además del brazo robótico principal de la estación, el Canadarm2 , y varios segmentos más de la Estructura de Armazón Integrada.

La tragedia golpeó en 2003 con la pérdida del transbordador espacial Columbia , que dejó en tierra al resto de la flota de transbordadores y detuvo la construcción de la ISS.

La ISS vista desde el transbordador espacial Atlantis durante la misión STS-132 , fotografiada en mayo de 2010

El ensamblaje se reanudó en 2006 con la llegada de la STS-115 con Atlantis , que entregó el segundo conjunto de paneles solares de la estación. Varios segmentos de armazón más y un tercer conjunto de paneles se entregaron en las STS-116 , STS-117 y STS-118 . Como resultado de la importante expansión de las capacidades de generación de energía de la estación, se pudieron acomodar más módulos, y se agregaron el módulo estadounidense Harmony y el laboratorio europeo Columbus . A estos pronto les siguieron los dos primeros componentes del laboratorio japonés Kibō . En marzo de 2009, la STS-119 completó la estructura de armazón integrada con la instalación del cuarto y último conjunto de paneles solares. La sección final de Kibō se entregó en julio de 2009 en la STS-127 , seguida por el módulo ruso Poisk . El módulo estadounidense Tranquility fue entregado en febrero de 2010 durante la misión STS-130 , junto con la Cúpula , seguido por el penúltimo módulo ruso, Rassvet , en mayo de 2010. Rassvet fue entregado por el transbordador espacial Atlantis en la misión STS-132 a cambio de la entrega por parte de Rusia Proton del módulo Zarya financiado por Estados Unidos en 1998. [90] El último módulo presurizado del USOS, Leonardo , fue llevado a la estación en febrero de 2011 en el vuelo final del Discovery , STS-133 . [91]

El nuevo módulo de investigación primaria de Rusia, Nauka , se acopló en julio de 2021, [92] junto con el brazo robótico europeo que puede reubicarse en diferentes partes de los módulos rusos de la estación. [93] La última incorporación de Rusia, el módulo Prichal , se acopló en noviembre de 2021. [94]

A partir de noviembre de 2021, la estación consta de 18 módulos presurizados (incluidas las esclusas de aire) y la estructura de celosía integrada.

Estructura

La ISS funciona como una estación espacial modular, lo que permite agregar o quitar módulos de su estructura para una mayor adaptabilidad.

A continuación se muestra un diagrama de los componentes principales de la estación. El nodo Unity se conecta directamente al laboratorio Destiny ; para mayor claridad, se muestran separados. También se observan casos similares en otras partes de la estructura.

Clave para los colores de fondo del cuadro:

Módulos presurizados

Zaria

Zarya vista por el transbordador espacial Endeavour durante la misión STS-88

Zarya ( en ruso : Заря , lit.  'Amanecer' [c] ), también conocido como Bloque de Carga Funcional (en ruso: Функционально-грузовой блок ), fue el componente inaugural de la ISS. Lanzado en 1998, inicialmente sirvió como fuente de energía, almacenamiento, propulsión y sistema de guía de la ISS. A medida que la estación ha crecido, el papel de Zarya ha pasado principalmente al almacenamiento, tanto interno como en sus tanques de combustible externos. [95]

Zarya, descendiente de la nave espacial TKS utilizada en el programa Salyut , fue construida en Rusia pero es propiedad de los Estados Unidos. Su nombre, que significa "amanecer", simboliza el comienzo de una nueva era de cooperación espacial internacional. [96]

Unidad

La unidad vista desde el transbordador espacial Endeavour durante la misión STS-88

Unity , también conocido como Nodo 1 , es el componente inaugural construido en Estados Unidos de la ISS. [97] [98] Sirviendo como conexión entre los segmentos ruso y estadounidense, este módulo cilíndrico cuenta con seis ubicaciones de mecanismo de atraque común ( adelante , atrás , babor , estribor , cenit y nadir ) para conectar módulos adicionales. Con 4,57 metros (15,0 pies) de diámetro y 5,47 metros (17,9 pies) de longitud, Unity fue construido en acero por Boeing para la NASA en el Centro Marshall de Vuelos Espaciales en Huntsville, Alabama . Fue el primero de los tres nodos de conexión ( Unity , Harmony y Tranquility ) que forman la columna vertebral estructural del segmento estadounidense de la ISS. [99]

Estrella

La estrella vista por el transbordador espacial Atlantis durante la misión STS-106

Zvezda (en ruso: Звезда , lit. 'estrella'), lanzada en julio de 2000, es el núcleo del segmento orbital ruso de la ISS. Inicialmente, proporcionaba alojamiento esencial y sistemas de soporte vital y permitió la primera presencia humana continua a bordo de la estación. Si bien los módulos adicionales han ampliado las capacidades de la ISS, Zvezda sigue siendo el centro de comando y control del segmento ruso y es donde las tripulaciones se reúnen durante las emergencias. [100] [101] [102]

Zvezda, descendiente de la nave espacial DOS del programa Salyut, fue construida por RKK Energia y lanzada a bordo de un cohete Proton . [103]

Destino

El módulo Destiny se instala en la ISS

El laboratorio Destiny es la principal instalación de investigación para los experimentos estadounidenses en la ISS. El módulo, la primera estación de investigación orbital permanente de la NASA desde Skylab, fue construido por Boeing y lanzado a bordo del transbordador espacial Atlantis durante la misión STS-98 . Desde entonces, Destiny estuvo conectado a Unity durante un período de cinco días en febrero de 2001 y ha sido un centro de investigación científica. [104] [105] [106]

En Destiny , los astronautas realizan experimentos en campos como la medicina, la ingeniería, la biotecnología, la física, la ciencia de los materiales y las ciencias de la Tierra. Investigadores de todo el mundo se benefician de estos estudios. El módulo también alberga sistemas de soporte vital, incluido el sistema de generación de oxígeno . [107]

Esclusa de aire conjunta Quest

Módulo de esclusa de aire conjunta Quest

La esclusa de aire conjunta Quest permite realizar actividades extravehiculares (EVA) utilizando la unidad de movilidad extravehicular (EMU) estadounidense o el traje espacial ruso Orlan . [108]

Antes de su instalación, la realización de EVA desde la ISS era un desafío debido a una variedad de diferencias de sistema y diseño. Solo el traje Orlan podía usarse desde la cámara de transferencia en el módulo Zvezda (que no era una esclusa de aire construida específicamente para ese fin) y la unidad electromagnética solo podía usarse desde la esclusa de aire en un transbordador espacial visitante, que no podía acomodar al Orlan. [109]

Lanzado a bordo del transbordador espacial Atlantis durante la misión STS-104 en julio de 2001 y acoplado al módulo Unity, Quest es una estructura de 6,1 metros de largo (20 pies) y 4,0 metros de ancho (13 pies) construida por Boeing. [110] Alberga la esclusa de aire para la tripulación para la salida de los astronautas, una esclusa de aire para el equipo de almacenamiento de trajes y tiene instalaciones para acomodar a los astronautas durante sus procedimientos de pre-respiración nocturna para prevenir la enfermedad por descompresión. [109]

La esclusa de aire para la tripulación, derivada del transbordador espacial, cuenta con equipos esenciales como iluminación, pasamanos y un conjunto de interfaz umbilical (UIA) que proporciona soporte vital y sistemas de comunicación para hasta dos trajes espaciales simultáneamente. Estos pueden ser dos EMU, dos trajes Orlan o uno de cada diseño.

Poisk

Poisk (en ruso: По́иск , lit. 'Búsqueda'), también conocido como el Mini-Módulo de Investigación 2 (en ruso: Малый исследовательский модуль 2 ), sirve como esclusa de aire secundaria en el segmento ruso de la ISS y apoya el acoplamiento de las naves espaciales Soyuz y Progress, facilita las transferencias de propulsor desde esta última. [111] Lanzado el 10 de noviembre de 2009 acoplado a una nave espacial Progress modificada , llamada Progress M-MIM2 . [112] [113]

Poisk proporciona instalaciones para mantener los trajes espaciales Orlan y está equipado con dos escotillas que se abren hacia adentro, un cambio de diseño con respecto a Mir , que encontró una situación peligrosa causada por una escotilla que se abría hacia afuera demasiado rápido debido a una pequeña cantidad de presión de aire restante en la esclusa de aire. [114] Desde la partida de Pirs en 2021, se ha convertido en la única esclusa de aire en el segmento ruso.

Armonía

Harmony (centro) se muestra conectada a Columbus , Kibo y Destiny . El PMA-2 oscuro mira hacia la cámara. Las posiciones del nadir y el cenit están abiertas.

Harmony , o Nodo 2 , es el centro de conexión central del segmento estadounidense de la ISS, que une los módulos de laboratorio de Estados Unidos, Europa y Japón. También se lo ha denominado el "centro de servicios públicos" de la ISS, ya que proporciona energía, datos y sistemas de soporte vital esenciales. El módulo también alberga dormitorios para cuatro miembros de la tripulación. [115]

Lanzado el 23 de octubre de 2007 a bordo del transbordador espacial Discovery en la misión STS-120 , [116] [117] Harmony se adjuntó inicialmente a la Unity [118] [119] antes de ser reubicado en su posición permanente en la parte delantera del laboratorio Destiny el 14 de noviembre de 2007. [120] Esta expansión agregó un espacio habitable significativo a la ISS, marcando un hito clave en la construcción del segmento estadounidense.

Tranquilidad

Tranquilidad en 2011

Tranquility , también conocido como Nodo 3 , es un módulo de la Estación Espacial Internacional. Contiene sistemas de control ambiental, sistemas de soporte vital , un baño, equipo de ejercicio y una cúpula de observación .

La Agencia Espacial Europea y la Agencia Espacial Italiana encargaron la fabricación del módulo Tranquility a Thales Alenia Space . El 20 de noviembre de 2009, en una ceremonia se transfirió la propiedad del módulo a la NASA. [121] El 8 de febrero de 2010, la NASA lanzó el módulo en la misión STS-130 del transbordador espacial .

Colón

El módulo Columbus en la ISS

Columbus es un laboratorio científico que forma parte de la ISS y constituye la mayor contribución individual a la estación realizada por la Agencia Espacial Europea.

Al igual que los módulos Harmony y Tranquility , el laboratorio Columbus fue construido en Turín , Italia, por Thales Alenia Space . El equipo funcional y el software del laboratorio fueron diseñados por EADS en Bremen , Alemania. También se integró en Bremen antes de ser enviado al Centro Espacial Kennedy en Florida en un jet Airbus Beluga . Fue lanzado a bordo del transbordador espacial Atlantis el 7 de febrero de 2008, en el vuelo STS-122 . Está diseñado para diez años de operación. El módulo está controlado por el Centro de Control Columbus , ubicado en el Centro de Operaciones Espaciales Alemán , parte del Centro Aeroespacial Alemán en Oberpfaffenhofen cerca de Múnich , Alemania.

La Agencia Espacial Europea ha gastado 1.400 millones de euros (unos 1.600 millones de dólares estadounidenses ) en la construcción del Columbus , incluidos los experimentos que transporta y la infraestructura de control terrestre necesaria para operarlos. [122]

Kibo

Kibō con sus instalaciones expuestas a la derecha

Kibō ( en japonés :きぼう, lit. ' esperanza ' ) , también conocido como el Módulo Experimental Japonés , es la instalación de investigación de Japón en la Estación Espacial Internacional. Es el módulo individual más grande de la Estación Espacial Internacional y consta de un laboratorio presurizado, una instalación expuesta para realizar experimentos en el entorno espacial, dos compartimentos de almacenamiento y un brazo robótico. Unido al módulo Harmony , Kibō se ensambló en el espacio durante tres misiones del transbordador espacial: STS-123 , STS-124 y STS-127 . [123]

Cúpula

Las ventanas de la Cúpula con las contraventanas abiertas

La Cúpula es un módulo observatorio de la ISS construido por la ESA . Su nombre deriva de la palabra italiana cupola , que significa " cúpula ". Sus siete ventanas se utilizan para realizar experimentos, acoplamientos y observaciones de la Tierra. Fue lanzada a bordo de la misión STS-130 del transbordador espacial el 8 de febrero de 2010 y acoplada al módulo Tranquility (Nodo 3). Con la Cúpula acoplada, el ensamblaje de la ISS alcanzó el 85 por ciento de su finalización. La ventana central de la Cúpula tiene un diámetro de 80 cm (31 pulgadas). [124]

Rasvet®

Módulo Rassvet con equipamiento MLM (que consta de esclusa de aire para experimentos, radiadores RTOd y puesto de trabajo ERA) en KSC

Rassvet (en ruso: Рассвет , lit. 'primera luz'), también conocido como Minimódulo de Investigación 1 (en ruso: Малый исследовательский модуль 1 ) y anteriormente conocido como Módulo de Carga de Acoplamiento , se utiliza principalmente para el almacenamiento de carga y como puerto de atraque para naves espaciales visitantes en el segmento ruso de la ISS. Rassvet reemplazó al Módulo de Acoplamiento y Almacenamiento cancelado y utilizó un diseño basado en gran medida en el Módulo de Acoplamiento Mir construido en 1995.

Rassvet fue entregado el 14 de mayo de 2010 en el transbordador espacial Atlantis en la misión STS-132 a cambio de la entrega por parte de la compañía rusa Proton del módulo Zarya financiado por Estados Unidos en 1998. [125] Rassvet fue asignado a Zarya poco después. [126]

Esclusa de aire para ciencia (o experimento)

Esclusa de aire experimental atracada en Nauka

La esclusa de aire, ShK, está diseñada para una carga útil con dimensiones de hasta 1200 mm × 500 mm × 500 mm (47 in × 20 in × 20 in), tiene un volumen de 2,1 m 3 , un peso de 1050 kg y consume 1,5 kW de energía en el pico. Antes de atracar el MLM a la ISS, la esclusa de aire se guarda como parte del MRM1 . [127] El 4 de mayo de 2023, a las 01:00 UTC, la cámara fue movida por el manipulador ERA y atracada al puerto de acoplamiento activo delantero del centro de acoplamiento presurizado del módulo Nauka durante la caminata espacial VKD-57. Está previsto que se utilice:

Leonardo

El módulo multipropósito permanente Leonardo (PMM) es un módulo de la Estación Espacial Internacional. Fue lanzado al espacio a bordo del transbordador espacial en la misión STS-133 el 24 de febrero de 2011 y se instaló el 1 de marzo. Leonardo se utiliza principalmente para el almacenamiento de repuestos, suministros y desechos en la ISS, que hasta entonces se almacenaban en muchos lugares diferentes dentro de la estación espacial. También es el área de higiene personal para los astronautas que viven en el segmento orbital estadounidense . El PMM Leonardo era un módulo logístico multipropósito (MPLM) antes de 2011, pero se modificó a su configuración actual. Anteriormente era uno de los dos MPLM utilizados para llevar carga hacia y desde la ISS con el transbordador espacial. El módulo recibió su nombre en honor al erudito italiano Leonardo da Vinci .

Módulo de actividad expandible de Bigelow

Progresión de la expansión de BEAM

El módulo de actividad expandible Bigelow (BEAM) es un módulo de estación espacial expandible experimental desarrollado por Bigelow Aerospace , bajo contrato con la NASA, para pruebas como módulo temporal en la Estación Espacial Internacional (ISS) desde 2016 hasta al menos 2020. Llegó a la ISS el 10 de abril de 2016, [130] fue atracado en la estación el 16 de abril en el Nodo Tranquility 3, y fue expandido y presurizado el 28 de mayo de 2016. En diciembre de 2021, Bigelow Aerospace transfirió la propiedad del módulo a la NASA, como resultado del cese de la actividad de Bigelow. [131]

Adaptadores de acoplamiento internacionales

El adaptador de acoplamiento internacional (IDA) es un adaptador del sistema de acoplamiento de la nave espacial desarrollado para convertir la APAS-95 en el sistema de acoplamiento de la NASA (NDS). Se coloca un IDA en cada uno de los dos adaptadores de acoplamiento presurizados (PMA) abiertos de la ISS , ambos conectados al módulo Harmony .

Actualmente hay dos adaptadores de acoplamiento internacionales instalados a bordo de la estación. Originalmente, se planeó instalar el IDA-1 en el PMA-2, ubicado en el puerto delantero de Harmony , y el IDA-2 se instalaría en el PMA-3 en el cenit de Harmony . Después de que el IDA 1 fuera destruido en un incidente de lanzamiento , el IDA-2 se instaló en el PMA-2 el 19 de agosto de 2016, [132] mientras que el IDA-3 se instaló más tarde en el PMA-3 el 21 de agosto de 2019. [133]

Módulo de esclusa de aire Bishop

Módulo de esclusa de aire Bishop de NanoRacks instalado en la ISS

El módulo de esclusa de aire Bishop de NanoRacks es un módulo de esclusa de aire financiado comercialmente que se lanzó a la ISS en SpaceX CRS-21 el 6 de diciembre de 2020. [134] [135] El módulo fue construido por NanoRacks , Thales Alenia Space y Boeing. [136] Se utilizará para desplegar CubeSats , pequeños satélites y otras cargas útiles externas para la NASA, CASIS y otros clientes comerciales y gubernamentales. [137]

Nauka

Nauka y Prichal se acoplaron a la ISS

Nauka (en ruso: Наука , lit. 'Ciencia'), también conocido como Módulo de Laboratorio Multipropósito, Actualización (en ruso: Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль, усоверше́нствованный ), es un componente de la ISS financiado por Roscosmos que se lanzó el 21 de julio de 2021 a las 14:58 UTC. En los planes originales de la ISS, Nauka iba a utilizar la ubicación del Módulo de Acoplamiento y Estiba (DSM), pero el DSM fue reemplazado posteriormente por el módulo Rassvet y trasladado al puerto nadir de Zarya . El Nauka se acopló con éxito al puerto nadir de Zvezda el 29 de julio de 2021, a las 13:29 UTC, reemplazando el módulo Pirs .

Tenía un adaptador de acoplamiento temporal en su puerto nadir para misiones tripuladas y no tripuladas hasta la llegada de Prichal, donde justo antes de su llegada fue retirado por una nave espacial Progress que salía. [138]

Prichal

Prichal (en ruso: Причал , lit. 'muelle') es un módulo esférico de 4 toneladas (8800 lb) que sirve como centro de acoplamiento para el segmento ruso de la ISS. Lanzado en noviembre de 2021, Prichal proporciona puertos de acoplamiento adicionales para las naves espaciales Soyuz y Progress, así como para posibles módulos futuros. Prichal cuenta con seis puertos de acoplamiento: adelante, atrás, babor, estribor, cenit y nadir. Uno de estos puertos, equipado con un sistema de acoplamiento híbrido activo, le permitió acoplarse al módulo Nauka. Los cinco puertos restantes son híbridos pasivos, lo que permite el acoplamiento de Soyuz, Progress y módulos más pesados, así como futuras naves espaciales con sistemas de acoplamiento modificados. A partir de 2024, los puertos de acoplamiento delantero, trasero, babor y estribor siguen cubiertos. Prichal inicialmente estaba destinado a ser un elemento del ahora cancelado Complejo de Experimentos y Ensamblaje Pilotado Orbital . [139] [140] [141] [142]

Elementos no presurizados

La ISS tiene una gran cantidad de componentes externos que no requieren presurización. El más grande de ellos es la Estructura Integrada en Armazón (ITS), en la que se montan los principales paneles solares y radiadores térmicos de la estación. [143] La ITS consta de diez segmentos separados que forman una estructura de 108,5 metros (356 pies) de largo. [7]

La estación estaba destinada a tener varios componentes externos más pequeños, como seis brazos robóticos, tres plataformas de estiba externas (ESP) y cuatro transportadores logísticos ExPRESS (ELC). [144] [145] Si bien estas plataformas permiten que los experimentos (incluidos MISSE , STP-H3 y Robotic Refueling Mission ) se desplieguen y realicen en el vacío del espacio al proporcionar electricidad y procesar datos experimentales localmente, su función principal es almacenar unidades de reemplazo orbital (ORU) de repuesto. Las ORU son piezas que se pueden reemplazar cuando fallan o superan su vida útil de diseño, incluidas bombas, tanques de almacenamiento, antenas y unidades de batería. Dichas unidades son reemplazadas por astronautas durante EVA o por brazos robóticos. [146] Varias misiones del transbordador se dedicaron a la entrega de ORU, incluidas STS-129 , [147] STS-133 [148] y STS-134. [149] Hasta enero de 2011 , solo se había utilizado otro modo de transporte de ORU: el buque de carga japonés HTV-2  , que entregó un FHRC y un CTC-2 a través de su paleta expuesta (EP). [150] [ necesita actualización ]

También hay instalaciones de exposición más pequeñas montadas directamente en los módulos de laboratorio; la Instalación Expuesta Kibō sirve como un " porche " externo para el complejo Kibō , [151] y una instalación en el laboratorio europeo Columbus proporciona conexiones de energía y datos para experimentos como la Instalación de Exposición de Tecnología Europea [152] [153] y el Conjunto de Reloj Atómico en el Espacio . [154] Un instrumento de detección remota , SAGE III-ISS , fue entregado a la estación en febrero de 2017 a bordo del CRS-10 , [155] y el experimento NICER fue entregado a bordo del CRS-11 en junio de 2017. [156] La carga útil científica más grande montada externamente en la ISS es el Espectrómetro Magnético Alfa (AMS), un experimento de física de partículas lanzado en STS-134 en mayo de 2011 y montado externamente en el ITS. El AMS mide los rayos cósmicos para buscar evidencia de materia oscura y antimateria. [157] [158]

La plataforma comercial Bartolomeo External Payload Hosting Platform, fabricada por Airbus, se lanzó el 6 de marzo de 2020 a bordo del CRS-20 y se adjuntó al módulo europeo Columbus . Proporcionará 12 ranuras adicionales para carga útil externa, que complementarán las ocho de los transportadores logísticos ExPRESS , las diez de Kibō y las cuatro de Columbus . El sistema está diseñado para recibir mantenimiento de forma robótica y no requerirá la intervención de astronautas. Lleva el nombre del hermano menor de Cristóbal Colón. [159] [160] [161]

Equipamiento MLM

En mayo de 2010, el equipo para Nauka se lanzó en la misión STS-132 (como parte de un acuerdo con la NASA) y fue entregado por el transbordador espacial Atlantis . Con un peso de 1,4 toneladas métricas, el equipo se adjuntó al exterior de Rassvet (MRM-1). Incluía una articulación de codo de repuesto para el brazo robótico europeo (ERA) (que se lanzó con Nauka ) y un puesto de trabajo portátil ERA utilizado durante las EVA, así como un radiador de calor adicional RTOd y hardware interno junto con la esclusa de aire presurizada para experimentos. [129]

El radiador RTOd agrega capacidad de enfriamiento adicional a Nauka , lo que permite que el módulo albergue más experimentos científicos. [129]

El ERA se utilizó para retirar el radiador RTOd de Rassvet y se transfirió a Nauka durante la caminata espacial VKD-56. Más tarde se activó y se desplegó por completo en la caminata espacial VKD-58. [162] Este proceso llevó varios meses. También se transfirió una plataforma de trabajo portátil en agosto de 2023 durante la caminata espacial VKD-60, que se puede unir al extremo del ERA para permitir que los cosmonautas "viajen" en el extremo del brazo durante las caminatas espaciales. [163] [164] Sin embargo, incluso después de varios meses de equipar las EVA y la instalación del radiador de calor RTOd, seis meses después, el radiador RTOd funcionó mal antes del uso activo de Nauka (el propósito de la instalación del RTOd es irradiar calor de los experimentos de Nauka). El mal funcionamiento, una fuga, hizo que el radiador RTOd fuera inutilizable para Nauka. Esta es la tercera fuga del radiador de la ISS después de las fugas del radiador de Soyuz MS-22 y Progress MS-21 . Si no se dispone de un RTOd de repuesto, los experimentos de Nauka tendrán que depender del radiador de lanzamiento principal de Nauka y el módulo nunca podría utilizarse en toda su capacidad. [165] [166]

Otro equipamiento de MLM es una interfaz de carga útil externa de 4 segmentos llamada medio de fijación de cargas útiles grandes (Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO). [167] Entregado en dos partes a Nauka por Progress MS-18 (parte LCCS) y Progress MS-21 (parte SCCCS) como parte del proceso de equipamiento de activación del módulo. [168] [169] [170] [171] Fue llevado al exterior e instalado en el punto de base orientado hacia atrás del ERA en Nauka durante la caminata espacial VKD-55. [172] [173] [174] [175]

Brazos robóticos y grúas de carga

La estructura de celosía integrada (ITS) sirve como base para el sistema de manipulación remota principal de la estación, el sistema de servicio móvil (MSS), que se compone de tres componentes principales:

En la misión STS-134 se añadió un dispositivo de agarre a Zarya para permitir que el Canadarm2 se desplazara lentamente hacia el ROS. [149] También se instaló durante la misión STS-134 el Sistema de Sensores de la Pértiga del Orbitador (OBSS) de 15 m (50 pies), que se había utilizado para inspeccionar las placas del escudo térmico en las misiones del Transbordador Espacial y que se puede utilizar en la estación para aumentar el alcance del MSS. [149] El personal en la Tierra o en la ISS puede operar los componentes del MSS mediante control remoto, realizando trabajos fuera de la estación sin necesidad de caminatas espaciales.

El sistema de manipulación remota de Japón , que presta servicio a la instalación expuesta de Kibō , [179] se lanzó en el STS-124 y está conectado al módulo presurizado de Kibō . [180] El brazo es similar al brazo del transbordador espacial, ya que está conectado permanentemente en un extremo y tiene un efector final de enganche para accesorios de pinza estándar en el otro.

El brazo robótico europeo , que dará servicio al ROS, se lanzó junto con el módulo Nauka . [181] El ROS no requiere que se manipulen naves espaciales o módulos, ya que todas las naves espaciales y módulos se acoplan automáticamente y pueden descartarse de la misma manera. La tripulación utiliza las dos grúas de carga Strela ( en ruso : Стрела́ , lit.  'Flecha') durante las EVA para mover a la tripulación y el equipo por el ROS. Cada grúa Strela tiene una masa de 45 kg (99 lb).

Módulo anterior

Pir

Pirs (en ruso: Пирс, lit. 'muelle') fue lanzado el 14 de septiembre de 2001, como Misión de Ensamblaje 4R de la ISS, en un cohete ruso Soyuz-U, utilizando una nave espacial Progress modificada , Progress M-SO1 , como etapa superior. Pirs fue desacoplado por Progress MS-16 el 26 de julio de 2021, a las 10:56 UTC, y desorbitó el mismo día a las 14:51 UTC para dejar espacio para que el módulo Nauka se acoplara a la estación espacial. Antes de su partida, Pirs sirvió como la principal esclusa de aire rusa en la estación, y se utilizó para almacenar y reacondicionar los trajes espaciales rusos Orlan.

Componentes planificados

Segmento de axioma

Representación del segmento orbital Axiom en construcción

En enero de 2020, la NASA adjudicó a Axiom Space un contrato para construir un módulo comercial para la ISS. El contrato se enmarca en el programa NextSTEP2 . La NASA negoció con Axiom sobre la base de un contrato de precio fijo firme para construir y entregar el módulo, que se acoplará al puerto delantero del módulo Harmony (Nodo 2) de la estación espacial . Aunque la NASA solo ha encargado un módulo, Axiom planea construir un segmento completo que consta de cinco módulos, incluido un módulo de nodo, una instalación de investigación y fabricación orbital, un hábitat para la tripulación y un "observatorio de la Tierra con grandes ventanas". Se espera que el segmento de Axiom aumente en gran medida las capacidades y el valor de la estación espacial, lo que permitirá tripulaciones más numerosas y vuelos espaciales privados de otras organizaciones. Axiom planea convertir el segmento en una estación espacial independiente una vez que la ISS sea desmantelada, con la intención de que actúe como sucesora de la ISS. [182] [183] ​​[184] El Canadarm 2 también ayudará a atracar los módulos de la Estación Espacial Axiom en la ISS y continuará sus operaciones en la Estación Espacial Axiom después del retiro de la ISS a fines de la década de 2020. [185]

A partir de diciembre de 2023, Axiom Space espera lanzar el primer módulo, Hab One, a fines de 2026. [186]

Vehículo de desorbitación de EE.UU.

El vehículo de desorbitación estadounidense es una nave espacial proporcionada por la NASA destinada a realizar una desorbitación y desaparición controlada de la estación después del final de su vida operativa en 2030. En junio de 2024, la NASA otorgó a SpaceX un contrato para construir el vehículo de desorbitación. [187]

Componentes cancelados

Varios módulos desarrollados o planeados para la estación fueron cancelados durante el curso del programa ISS. Las razones incluyen restricciones presupuestarias, los módulos que se volvieron innecesarios y rediseños de la estación después del desastre de Columbia en 2003. El módulo de alojamiento de centrífugas estadounidense habría albergado experimentos científicos en diferentes niveles de gravedad artificial . [188] El módulo de habitación estadounidense habría servido como alojamiento de la estación. En cambio, los alojamientos ahora están distribuidos por toda la estación. [189] El módulo de control provisional estadounidense y el módulo de propulsión de la ISS habrían reemplazado las funciones de Zvezda en caso de un fallo en el lanzamiento. [190] Se planearon dos módulos de investigación rusos para investigación científica. [191] Se habrían acoplado a un módulo de acoplamiento universal ruso . [192] La plataforma de energía científica rusa habría suministrado energía al segmento orbital ruso independientemente de los paneles solares ITS.

Módulos 1 y 2 de Science Power (componentes reutilizados)

El módulo de potencia científica 1 ( SPM-1 , también conocido como NEM-1 ) y el módulo de potencia científica 2 ( SPM-2 , también conocido como NEM-2 ) son módulos que originalmente se planearon para llegar a la ISS no antes de 2024 y acoplarse al módulo Prichal , que está acoplado al módulo Nauka . [142] [193] En abril de 2021, Roscosmos anunció que el NEM-1 se reutilizaría para funcionar como el módulo central de la propuesta Estación de Servicio Orbital Rusa (ROSS), que se lanzaría no antes de 2027 [194] y se acoplaría al módulo Nauka de vuelo libre . [195] [196] El NEM-2 puede convertirse en otro módulo "base" central, que se lanzaría en 2028. [197]

Base X

Diseñado por Bigelow Aerospace . En agosto de 2016, Bigelow negoció un acuerdo con la NASA para desarrollar un prototipo terrestre de tamaño real de Deep Space Habitation basado en el B330 en el marco de la segunda fase de Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships. El módulo se denominó Expandable Bigelow Advanced Station Enhancement (XBASE), ya que Bigelow esperaba probar el módulo conectándolo a la Estación Espacial Internacional. Sin embargo, en marzo de 2020, Bigelow despidió a sus 88 empleados y, a partir de febrero de 2024, la empresa permanece inactiva y se considera extinta, [198] [199] lo que hace que parezca poco probable que el módulo XBASE se lance alguna vez.

Demostración de la centrífuga Nautilus-X

En 2011 se presentó una propuesta para la primera demostración en el espacio de una centrífuga de escala suficiente para generar efectos de gravedad parcial artificial. Se diseñó para que se convirtiera en un módulo de sueño para la tripulación de la ISS. El proyecto se canceló en favor de otros proyectos debido a limitaciones presupuestarias. [200]

Sistemas de a bordo

Soporte vital

Los sistemas críticos son el sistema de control de la atmósfera, el sistema de suministro de agua, las instalaciones de suministro de alimentos, los equipos de saneamiento e higiene y los equipos de detección y extinción de incendios. Los sistemas de soporte vital del Segmento Orbital Ruso están contenidos en el módulo de servicio Zvezda . Algunos de estos sistemas se complementan con equipos en el USOS. El laboratorio Nauka cuenta con un conjunto completo de sistemas de soporte vital.

Sistemas de control atmosférico

Un diagrama de flujo que muestra los componentes del sistema de soporte vital de la ISS.
Las interacciones entre los componentes del Sistema de Control Ambiental y Soporte Vital de la ISS (ECLSS)

La atmósfera a bordo de la ISS es similar a la de la Tierra . [201] La presión atmosférica normal en la ISS es de 101,3 kPa (14,69 psi); [202] la misma que a nivel del mar en la Tierra. Una atmósfera similar a la de la Tierra ofrece beneficios para la comodidad de la tripulación y es mucho más segura que una atmósfera de oxígeno puro, debido al mayor riesgo de un incendio como el responsable de las muertes de la tripulación del Apolo 1. [203] [ se necesita una mejor fuente ] Se han mantenido condiciones atmosféricas similares a las de la Tierra en todas las naves espaciales rusas y soviéticas. [204]

El sistema Elektron a bordo de Zvezda y un sistema similar en Destiny generan oxígeno a bordo de la estación. [205] La tripulación tiene una opción de respaldo en forma de oxígeno embotellado y botes de generación de oxígeno de combustible sólido (SFOG), un sistema generador de oxígeno químico . [206] El dióxido de carbono se elimina del aire mediante el sistema Vozdukh en Zvezda . Otros subproductos del metabolismo humano, como el metano de los intestinos y el amoníaco del sudor, se eliminan mediante filtros de carbón activado . [206]

Parte del sistema de control de la atmósfera de ROS es el suministro de oxígeno. La unidad Elektron, los generadores de combustible sólido y el oxígeno almacenado proporcionan una redundancia triple. El suministro principal de oxígeno es la unidad Elektron, que produce O 2 y H 2 mediante electrólisis del agua y expulsa el H 2 por la borda. El sistema de 1 kW (1,3 hp) utiliza aproximadamente un litro de agua por miembro de la tripulación por día. Esta agua se trae desde la Tierra o se recicla de otros sistemas. Mir fue la primera nave espacial en utilizar agua reciclada para la producción de oxígeno. El suministro secundario de oxígeno se proporciona quemando cartuchos Vika productores de oxígeno (véase también ISS ECLSS ). Cada "vela" tarda entre 5 y 20 minutos en descomponerse a 450-500 °C (842-932 °F), produciendo 600 litros (130 gal imp; 160 gal EE. UU.) de O 2 . Esta unidad se opera manualmente. [207]

El Segmento Orbital de EE.UU. (USOS) cuenta con suministros redundantes de oxígeno, desde un tanque de almacenamiento presurizado en el módulo de esclusa de aire Quest entregado en 2001, complementado diez años más tarde por el Sistema Avanzado de Circuito Cerrado (ACLS) construido por la ESA en el módulo Tranquility (Nodo 3), que produce O 2 por electrólisis. [208] El hidrógeno producido se combina con dióxido de carbono de la atmósfera de la cabina y se convierte en agua y metano.

Control de potencia y térmico

Los paneles solares de doble cara proporcionan energía eléctrica a la ISS. Estas células bifaciales recogen la luz solar directa en un lado y la luz reflejada desde la Tierra en el otro, y son más eficientes y funcionan a una temperatura más baja que las células de una sola cara que se utilizan habitualmente en la Tierra. [209]

El segmento ruso de la estación, como la mayoría de las naves espaciales, utiliza 28  V  de CC de bajo voltaje provenientes de dos paneles solares giratorios montados en Zvezda . El USOS utiliza 130–180 V de CC del panel fotovoltaico del USOS. La energía se estabiliza y distribuye a 160 V de CC y se convierte a los 124 V de CC requeridos por el usuario. El mayor voltaje de distribución permite utilizar conductores más pequeños y livianos, a expensas de la seguridad de la tripulación. Los dos segmentos de la estación comparten energía con convertidores.

Los paneles solares de USOS están dispuestos en cuatro pares de alas, para una producción total de 75 a 90 kilovatios. [2] Estos paneles normalmente siguen al Sol para maximizar la generación de energía. Cada panel tiene alrededor de 375 m2 ( 4036 pies cuadrados) de área y 58 m (190 pies) de largo. En la configuración completa, los paneles solares siguen al Sol rotando el cardán alfa una vez por órbita; el cardán beta sigue cambios más lentos en el ángulo del Sol con el plano orbital. El modo Night Glider alinea los paneles solares paralelos al suelo por la noche para reducir la importante resistencia aerodinámica a la altitud orbital relativamente baja de la estación. [210]

La estación originalmente utilizaba baterías recargables de níquel-hidrógeno ( NiH 2 ) para obtener energía continua durante los 45 minutos de cada órbita de 90 minutos en que es eclipsada por la Tierra. Las baterías se recargan en el lado diurno de la órbita. Tenían una vida útil de 6,5 años (más de 37 000 ciclos de carga/descarga) y se reemplazaban regularmente durante los 20 años de vida útil previstos de la estación. [211] A partir de 2016, las baterías de níquel-hidrógeno fueron reemplazadas por baterías de iones de litio , que se espera que duren hasta el final del programa de la ISS. [212]

Los grandes paneles solares de la estación generan una diferencia de voltaje de alto potencial entre la estación y la ionosfera. Esto podría provocar la formación de arcos eléctricos a través de las superficies aislantes y la pulverización de las superficies conductoras a medida que los iones son acelerados por la envoltura de plasma de la nave espacial. Para mitigar esto, las unidades de contacto de plasma crean rutas de corriente entre la estación y el plasma espacial ambiental. [213]

Diagrama del sistema de control térmico activo externo (EATCS) de la ISS

The station's systems and experiments consume a large amount of electrical power, almost all of which is converted to heat. To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes. If the PTCS cannot keep up with the heat load, an External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature. The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid ammonia loop. From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then the ammonia is cycled back to the station.[214] The EATCS provides cooling for all the US pressurised modules, including Kibō and Columbus, as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 trusses. It can reject up to 70 kW. This is much more than the 14 kW of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on STS-105 and installed onto the P6 Truss.[215]

Communications and computers

The ISS relies on various radio communication systems to provide telemetry and scientific data links between the station and mission control centres. Radio links are also used during rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crew members, flight controllers and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes.[216]

The Russian Orbital Segment primarily uses the Lira antenna mounted on Zvezda for direct ground communication.[63][217] It also had the capability to utilize the Luch data relay satellite system,[63] which was in a state of disrepair when the station was built,[63][218][219] but was restored to operational status in 2011 and 2012 with the launch of Luch-5A and Luch-5B.[220] Additionally, the Voskhod-M system provides internal telephone communications and VHF radio links to ground control.[221]

The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links: S band (audio, telemetry, commanding – located on the P1/S1 truss) and Ku band (audio, video and data – located on the Z1 truss) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary orbit, allowing for almost continuous real-time communications with Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston, Texas.[63][222][216] Data channels for the Canadarm2, European Columbus laboratory and Japanese Kibō modules were originally also routed via the S band and Ku band systems, with the European Data Relay System and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role.[222][223]

UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station.[63] Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV used a laser attached to the spacecraft and the Proximity Communications Equipment attached to Zvezda to accurately dock with the station.[224][225]

The US Orbital Segment of the ISS is equipped with approximately 100 commercial off-the-shelf laptops running Windows or Linux.[226] These devices are modified to use the station's 28V DC power system and with additional ventilation since heat generated by the devices can stagnate in the weightless environment. NASA prefers to keep a high commonality between laptops and spare parts are kept on the station so astronauts can repair laptops when needed.[227]

The laptops are divided into two groups: the Portable Computer System (PCS) and Station Support Computers (SSC).

PCS laptops run Linux and are used for connecting to the station's primary Command & Control computer (C&C MDM), which runs on Debian Linux,[228] a switch made from Windows in 2013 for reliability and flexibility.[229] The primary computer supervises the critical systems that keep the station in orbit and supporting life.[226] Since the primary computer has no display or keyboards, astronauts use a PCS laptop to connect as remote terminals via a USB to 1553 adapter.[230] The primary computer experienced failures in 2001,[231] 2007,[232] and 2017. The 2017 failure required a spacewalk to replace external components.[233]

SSC laptops are used for everything else on the station, including reviewing procedures, managing scientific experiments, communicating over e-mail or video chat, and for entertainment during downtime.[226] SSC laptops connect to the station's wireless LAN via Wi-Fi, which connects to the ground via the Ku band. While originally this provided speeds of 10 Mbit/s download and 3 Mbit/s upload from the station,[234] NASA upgraded the system in 2019 and increased the speeds to 600 Mbit/s.[235] ISS crew members have access to the internet.[236][237]

Operations

Expeditions

Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews. Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to the safe minimum of two following the destruction of the NASA Shuttle Columbia. From Expedition 13 the crew gradually increased to six around 2010.[238][239] With the arrival of crew on US commercial vehicles beginning in 2020,[240] NASA has indicated that expedition size may be increased to seven crew members, the number for which ISS was originally designed.[241][242]

Gennady Padalka, member of Expeditions 9, 19/20, 31/32, and 43/44, and Commander of Expedition 11, has spent more time in space than anyone else, a total of 878 days, 11 hours, and 29 minutes.[243] Peggy Whitson has spent the most time in space of any American, totalling 675 days, 3 hours and 48 minutes during her time on Expeditions 5, 16, and 50/51/52 and Axiom Mission 2.[244][245]

Private flights

Travellers who pay for their own passage into space are termed spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are sometimes referred to as "space tourists", a term they generally dislike.[d] As of June 2023, thirteen space tourists have visited the ISS; nine were transported to the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft, and four were transported on American SpaceX Dragon 2 spacecraft. For one-tourist missions, when professional crews change over in numbers not divisible by the three seats in a Soyuz, and a short-stay crewmember is not sent, the spare seat is sold by MirCorp through Space Adventures. Space tourism was halted in 2011 when the Space Shuttle was retired and the station's crew size was reduced to six, as the partners relied on Russian transport seats for access to the station. Soyuz flight schedules increased after 2013, allowing five Soyuz flights (15 seats) with only two expeditions (12 seats) required.[253] The remaining seats were to be sold for around US$40 million each to members of the public who could pass a medical exam. ESA and NASA criticised private spaceflight at the beginning of the ISS, and NASA initially resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for his own passage to the ISS.[e]

Anousheh Ansari became the first self-funded woman to fly to the ISS as well as the first Iranian in space. Officials reported that her education and experience made her much more than a tourist, and her performance in training had been "excellent."[254] She did Russian and European studies involving medicine and microbiology during her 10-day stay. The 2009 documentary Space Tourists follows her journey to the station, where she fulfilled "an age-old dream of man: to leave our planet as a 'normal person' and travel into outer space."[255]

In 2008, spaceflight participant Richard Garriott placed a geocache aboard the ISS during his flight.[256] This is currently the only non-terrestrial geocache in existence.[257] At the same time, the Immortality Drive, an electronic record of eight digitised human DNA sequences, was placed aboard the ISS.[258]

After a 12-year hiatus, the first two wholly space tourism-dedicated private spaceflights to the ISS were undertaken. Soyuz MS-20 launched in December 2021, carrying visiting Roscosmos cosmonaut Alexander Misurkin and two Japanese space tourists under the aegis of the private company Space Adventures;[259][260] in April 2022, the company Axiom Space chartered a SpaceX Dragon 2 spacecraft and sent its own employee astronaut Michael Lopez-Alegria and three space tourists to the ISS for Axiom Mission 1,[261][262][263] followed in May 2023 by one more tourist, John Shoffner, alongside employee astronaut Peggy Whitson and two Saudi astronauts for the Axiom Mission 2.[264][265]

Fleet operations

A wide variety of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's activities. Flights to the ISS include 37 Space Shuttle, 89 Progress,[f] 71 Soyuz, 5 ATV, 9 HTV, 2 Boeing Starliner, 43 SpaceX Dragon[g] and 20 Cygnus missions.[266]

There are currently eight docking ports for visiting spacecraft, with four additional ports installed but not yet put into service:[267]

  1. Harmony forward (with PMA 2 & IDA 2)
  2. Harmony zenith (with PMA 3 & IDA 3)
  3. Harmony nadir (CBM port)
  4. Unity nadir (CBM port)
  5. Prichal aft[h]
  6. Prichal forward[h]
  7. Prichal nadir
  8. Prichal port[h]
  9. Prichal starboard[h]
  10. Poisk zenith
  11. Rassvet nadir
  12. Zvezda aft

Forward ports are at the front of the station according to its normal direction of travel and orientation (attitude). Aft is at the rear of the station. Nadir is Earth facing, zenith faced away from Earth. Port is to the left if pointing one's feet towards the Earth and looking in the direction of travel and starboard is to the right.

Cargo spacecraft that will perform an orbital re-boost of the station will typically dock at an aft or nadir-facing port.

Crewed

Commercial Crew Program vehicles Starliner and Dragon

As of 25 March 2024, 280 people representing 23 countries had visited the space station, many of them multiple times. The United States has sent 163 people, Russia has 57, Japan has sent 11, Canada has sent nine, Italy has sent six, France and Germany have each sent four, Saudi Arabia, Sweden and the United Arab Emirates have each sent two, and there has been one person from Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Israel, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Netherlands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom.[268]

Uncrewed

Uncrewed spaceflights are made primarily to deliver cargo, however several Russian modules have also docked to the outpost following uncrewed launches. Resupply missions typically use the Russian Progress spacecraft, former European ATVs, Japanese Kounotori vehicles, and the American Dragon and Cygnus spacecraft.

Currently docked/berthed

Rendering of the ISS and visiting vehicles. Live link at nasa.gov.

All dates are UTC. Departure dates are the earliest possible (NET) and may change.

Scheduled missions

All dates are UTC. Launch dates are the earliest possible (NET) and may change.

Docking and berthing of spacecraft

The Progress M-14M resupply vehicle approaching the ISS in 2012. More than 50 unpiloted Progress spacecraft have delivered supplies during the lifetime of the station.

The Russian spacecraft and can autonomously rendezvous and dock with the station without human intervention. Once within approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi), the spacecraft begins receiving radio signals from the Kurs docking navigation system on the station. As the spacecraft nears the station, laser-based optical equipment precisely aligns the craft with the docking port and controls the final approach. While the crew on the ISS and spacecraft monitor the procedure, their role is primarily supervisory, with intervention limited to issuing abort commands in emergencies. Although initial development costs were substantial, the system's reliability and standardized components have yielded significant cost reductions for subsequent missions.[270]

The American SpaceX Dragon 2 cargo and crewed spacecraft can autonomously rendezvous and dock with the station without human intervention. However, on crewed Dragon missions, the astronauts have the capability to intervene and fly the vehicle manually.[271]

Japan's Kounotori 4 berthing

Other automated cargo spacecraft typically use a semi-automated process when arriving and departing from the station. These spacecraft are instructed to approach and park near the station. Once the crew on board the station is ready, the spacecraft is commanded to come close to the station, so that it can be grappled by an astronaut using the Mobile Servicing System robotic arm. The final mating of the spacecraft to the station is achieved using the robotic arm (a process known as berthing). Spacecraft using this semi-automated process include the American Cygnus and the Japanese HTV-X. The now-retired American SpaceX Dragon 1, European ATV and Japanese HTV also used this process.

Launch and docking windows

Prior to a spacecraft's docking to the ISS, navigation and attitude control (GNC) is handed over to the ground control of the spacecraft's country of origin. GNC is set to allow the station to drift in space, rather than fire its thrusters or turn using gyroscopes. The solar panels of the station are turned edge-on to the incoming spacecraft, so residue from its thrusters does not damage the cells. Before its retirement, Shuttle launches were often given priority over Soyuz, with occasional priority given to Soyuz arrivals carrying crew and time-critical cargoes, such as biological experiment materials.[272]

Repairs

Spare parts are called ORUs; some are externally stored on pallets called ELCs and ESPs.
Dos paneles solares negros y naranjas, que se muestran desiguales y con un gran desgarro visible. Un miembro de la tripulación con un traje espacial, sujeto al extremo de un brazo robótico, sostiene un entramado entre dos velas solares.
While anchored on the end of the Orbiter Boom Sensor System during STS-120, astronaut Scott Parazynski performs makeshift repairs to a US solar array that damaged itself when unfolding.
Mike Hopkins during a spacewalk

Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Some units can be replaced using robotic arms. Most are stored outside the station, either on small pallets called ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs) or share larger platforms called External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) which also hold science experiments. Both kinds of pallets provide electricity for many parts that could be damaged by the cold of space and require heating. The larger logistics carriers also have local area network (LAN) connections for telemetry to connect experiments. A heavy emphasis on stocking the USOS with ORU's occurred around 2011, before the end of the NASA shuttle programme, as its commercial replacements, Cygnus and Dragon, carry one tenth to one quarter the payload.

Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons. Serious problems include an air leak from the USOS in 2004,[273] the venting of fumes from an Elektron oxygen generator in 2006,[274] and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during STS-117 that left the station without thruster, Elektron, Vozdukh and other environmental control system operations. In the latter case, the root cause was found to be condensation inside electrical connectors leading to a short circuit.[275]

During STS-120 in 2007 and following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during unfurling that the solar array had torn and was not deploying properly.[276] An EVA was carried out by Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock. Extra precautions were taken to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to sunlight.[277] The issues with the array were followed in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on the starboard side of the station. Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic bearing surfaces, so the joint was locked to prevent further damage.[278][279] Repairs to the joints were carried out during STS-126 with lubrication and the replacement of 11 out of 12 trundle bearings on the joint.[280][281]

In September 2008, damage to the S1 radiator was first noticed in Soyuz imagery. The problem was initially not thought to be serious.[282] The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel had peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly because of micro-meteoroid or debris impact. On 15 May 2009, the damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut off from the rest of the cooling system by the computer-controlled closure of a valve. The same valve was then used to vent the ammonia from the damaged panel, eliminating the possibility of an ammonia leak.[282] It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover struck the S1 radiator after being jettisoned during an EVA in 2008, but its effect, if any, has not been determined.

In the early hours of 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems.[283][284][285] The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down.

Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed because of an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on 11 August removed the failed pump module.[286][287] A third EVA was required to restore Loop A to normal functionality.[288][289]

The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the US company Boeing,[290] which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump.[283]

The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. Each MBSU has two power channels that feed 160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the station. In late 2011, MBSU-1 ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health. While still routing power correctly, it was scheduled to be swapped out at the next available EVA. A spare MBSU was already on board, but a 30 August 2012 EVA failed to be completed when a bolt being tightened to finish installation of the spare unit jammed before the electrical connection was secured.[291] The loss of MBSU-1 limited the station to 75% of its normal power capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operations until the problem could be addressed.

On 5 September 2012, in a second six-hour EVA, astronauts Sunita Williams and Akihiko Hoshide successfully replaced MBSU-1 and restored the ISS to 100% power.[292]

On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system. The faulty cooling system had failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's science experiments. Astronauts had to brave a "mini blizzard" of ammonia while installing the new pump. It was only the second Christmas Eve spacewalk in NASA history.[293]

Mission control centres

The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at mission control centres across the globe, primarly the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center in Houston and the RKA Mission Control Center (TsUP) in Moscow, with support from Tsukuba Space Center in Japan, Payload Operations and Integration Center in Huntsville, Alabama, U.S., Columbus Control Center in Munich, Germany and Mobile Servicing System Control at the Canadian Space Agency’s headquarters in Saint-Hubert, Quebec.

Life aboard

Living quarters

Cosmonaut Nikolai Budarin at work inside the Zvezda service module crew quarters

The living and working space on the International Space Station is larger than a six-bedroom house (complete with seven sleeping quarters, two bathrooms, a gym, and a 360-degree view bay window).[294]

Crew activities

Engineer Gregory Chamitoff looking out of a window

A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then eats breakfast and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up.[295]

The time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).[296] The windows are covered during night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly follow the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the Space Shuttle mission.[297][298][299]

The station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two "sleep stations" in the Zvezda, one in Nauka and four more installed in Harmony.[300][301][302][303] The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The ROS crew quarters in Zvezda include a small window, but provide less ventilation and sound proofing. A crew member can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop.[304][305][306] Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment.[307] It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads.[304] During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and colour temperatures adjusted.[308][309]

Reflection and material culture

Reflection of individual and crew characteristics are found particularly in the decoration of the station and expressions in general, such as religion.[310] The latter has produced a certain material economy between the station and Russia in particular.[311]

The micro-society of the station, as well as wider society, and possibly the emergence of distinct station cultures,[312] is being studied by analyzing many aspects, from art to dust accumulation, as well as archaeologically how material of the ISS has been discarded.[313]

Food and personal hygiene

* Both toilets are a Russian design.
Nine astronauts seated around a table covered in open cans of food strapped down to the table. In the background a selection of equipment is visible, as well as the salmon-coloured walls of the Unity node.
The crews of Expedition 20 and STS-127 enjoy a meal inside Unity.
Main dining desk in Node 1
Fresh fruits and vegetables are grown in the ISS.

On the USOS, most of the food aboard is vacuum sealed in plastic bags; cans are rare because they are heavy and expensive to transport. Preserved food is not highly regarded by the crew and taste is reduced in microgravity,[304] so efforts are taken to make the food more palatable, including using more spices than in regular cooking. The crew looks forward to the arrival of any spacecraft from Earth as they bring fresh fruit and vegetables. Care is taken that foods do not create crumbs, and liquid condiments are preferred over solid to avoid contaminating station equipment. Each crew member has individual food packages and cooks them in the galley, which has two food warmers, a refrigerator (added in November 2008), and a water dispenser that provides heated and unheated water.[305] Drinks are provided as dehydrated powder that is mixed with water before consumption.[305][306] Drinks and soups are sipped from plastic bags with straws, while solid food is eaten with a knife and fork attached to a tray with magnets to prevent them from floating away. Any food that floats away, including crumbs, must be collected to prevent it from clogging the station's air filters and other equipment.[306]

Showers on space stations were introduced in the early 1970s on Skylab and Salyut 3.[314]: 139  By Salyut 6, in the early 1980s, the crew complained of the complexity of showering in space, which was a monthly activity.[315] The ISS does not feature a shower; instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container. Crews are also provided with rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water.[307][316]

There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in Zvezda and Tranquility.[305] These Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Astronauts first fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal.[304] A lever operates a powerful fan and a suction hole slides open: the air stream carries the waste away. Solid waste is collected in individual bags which are stored in an aluminium container. Full containers are transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal.[305][317] Liquid waste is evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically correct "urine funnel adapters" attached to the tube so that men and women can use the same toilet. The diverted urine is collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it is recycled into drinking water.[306] In 2021, the arrival of the Nauka module also brought a third toilet to the ISS.[318]

Crew health and safety

Overall

On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the Astronaut Twin Study. Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a year in space on the ISS, while his twin spent the year on Earth. Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the other.[319][320]

In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious blood flow and clot problems while on board the ISS, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers.[321][322]

Radiation

Video of the Aurora Australis, taken by the crew of Expedition 28 on an ascending pass from south of Madagascar to just north of Australia over the Indian Ocean

The ISS is partially protected from the space environment by Earth's magnetic field. From an average distance of about 70,000 km (43,000 mi) from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the magnetosphere begins to deflect solar wind around Earth and the space station. Solar flares are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning. In 2005, during the initial "proton storm" of an X-3 class solar flare, the crew of Expedition 10 took shelter in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose.[323][324]

Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an aurora. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and chromosomes of lymphocytes; being central to the immune system, any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower immunity experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Protective shielding and medications may lower the risks to an acceptable level.[45]

Radiation levels on the ISS are between 12 and 28.8 milli rads per day,[325] about five times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew, as Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other types of radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere. For example, on a 12-hour flight, an airline passenger would experience 0.1 millisieverts of radiation, or a rate of 0.2 millisieverts per day; this is one fifth the rate experienced by an astronaut in LEO. Additionally, airline passengers experience this level of radiation for a few hours of flight, while the ISS crew are exposed for their whole stay on board the station.[326]

Stress

There is considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance.[327] Cosmonaut Valery Ryumin wrote in his journal during a particularly difficult period on board the Salyut 6 space station: "All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut two men in a cabin measuring 18 feet by 20 [5.5 m × 6 m] and leave them together for two months."

NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station Mir. Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation from peers and family. The latter is still often a cause of stress on the ISS, such as when the mother of NASA astronaut Daniel Tani died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child.

A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment.[328] ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months.

The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak a different language. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language; second- and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who speak many languages. Astronauts must speak English and Russian, and knowing additional languages is even better.[329]

Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs. Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down. They may also have difficulty measuring distances. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking.[330]

Medical

A man running on a treadmill, smiling at the camera, with bungee cords stretching down from his waistband to the sides of the treadmill
Astronaut Frank De Winne, attached to the TVIS treadmill with bungee cords aboard the ISS

The physiological effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy, deterioration of the skeleton (osteopenia), fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, and puffiness of the face.[45]

Sleep is regularly disturbed on the ISS because of mission demands, such as incoming or departing spacecraft. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high. The atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon naturally, so fans are required at all times to process the air which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-G) environment.

To prevent some of the adverse effects on the body, the station is equipped with: two TVIS treadmills (including the COLBERT); the ARED (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enables various weightlifting exercises that add muscle without raising (or compensating for) the astronauts' reduced bone density;[331] and a stationary bicycle. Each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment.[304][305] Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill.[332][333]

Microbiological environmental hazards

Hazardous molds that can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations. They can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. They can also be harmful to the crew's health. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the LOCAD-PTS (a portable test system) which identifies common bacteria and molds faster than standard methods of culturing, which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth.[334] Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence of five Enterobacter bugandensis bacterial strains on the ISS (none of which are pathogenic to humans), that microorganisms on the ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.[335][336]

Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mold-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against fungi.[337] Since 2016, a series of ESA-sponsored experiments have been conducted to test the anti-bacterial properties of various materials, with the goal of developing "smart surfaces" that mitigate bacterial growth in multiple ways, using the best method for a particular circumstance. Dubbed "Microbial Aerosol Tethering on Innovative Surfaces" (MATISS), the programme involves deployment of small plaques containing an array of glass squares covered with different test coatings. They remain on the station for six months before being returned to earth for analysis.[338] The most recent and final experiment of the series was launched on 5 June 2023 aboard the SpaceX CRS-28 cargo mission to ISS, comprising four plaques. Whereas previous experiments in the series were limited to analysis by light microsocopy, this experiment uses quartz glass made of pure silica, which will allow spectrographic analysis. Two of the plaques were returned after eight months and the remaining two after 16 months.[339]

In April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study had been conducted into the microorganisms and fungi present on the ISS. The experiment was performed over a period of 14 months on three different flight missions, and involved taking samples from 8 predefined locations inside the station, then returning them to earth for analysis. In prior experiments, analysis was limited to culture-based methods, thus overlooking microbes which cannot be grown in culture. The present study used molecular-based methods in addition to culturing, resulting in a more complete catalog. The results may be useful in improving the health and safety conditions for astronauts, as well as better understanding other closed-in environments on Earth such as clean rooms used by the pharmaceutical and medical industries.[340][341]

Noise

Space flight is not inherently quiet, with noise levels exceeding acoustic standards as far back as the Apollo missions.[342][343] For this reason, NASA and the International Space Station international partners have developed noise control and hearing loss prevention goals as part of the health program for crew members. Specifically, these goals have been the primary focus of the ISS Multilateral Medical Operations Panel (MMOP) Acoustics Subgroup since the first days of ISS assembly and operations.[344][345] The effort includes contributions from acoustical engineers, audiologists, industrial hygienists, and physicians who comprise the subgroup's membership from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

When compared to terrestrial environments, the noise levels incurred by astronauts and cosmonauts on the ISS may seem insignificant and typically occur at levels that would not be of major concern to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration – rarely reaching 85 dBA. But crew members are exposed to these levels 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with current missions averaging six months in duration. These levels of noise also impose risks to crew health and performance in the form of sleep interference and communication, as well as reduced alarm audibility.

Over the 19 plus year history of the ISS, significant efforts have been put forth to limit and reduce noise levels on the ISS. During design and pre-flight activities, members of the Acoustic Subgroup have written acoustic limits and verification requirements, consulted to design and choose the quietest available payloads, and then conducted acoustic verification tests prior to launch.[344]: 5.7.3  During spaceflights, the Acoustics Subgroup has assessed each ISS module's in flight sound levels, produced by a large number of vehicle and science experiment noise sources, to assure compliance with strict acoustic standards. The acoustic environment on ISS changed when additional modules were added during its construction, and as additional spacecraft arrive at the ISS. The Acoustics Subgroup has responded to this dynamic operations schedule by successfully designing and employing acoustic covers, absorptive materials, noise barriers, and vibration isolators to reduce noise levels. Moreover, when pumps, fans, and ventilation systems age and show increased noise levels, this Acoustics Subgroup has guided ISS managers to replace the older, noisier instruments with quiet fan and pump technologies, significantly reducing ambient noise levels.

NASA has adopted most-conservative damage risk criteria (based on recommendations from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and the World Health Organization), in order to protect all crew members. The MMOP Acoustics Subgroup has adjusted its approach to managing noise risks in this unique environment by applying, or modifying, terrestrial approaches for hearing loss prevention to set these conservative limits. One innovative approach has been NASA's Noise Exposure Estimation Tool (NEET), in which noise exposures are calculated in a task-based approach to determine the need for hearing protection devices (HPDs). Guidance for use of HPDs, either mandatory use or recommended, is then documented in the Noise Hazard Inventory, and posted for crew reference during their missions. The Acoustics Subgroup also tracks spacecraft noise exceedances, applies engineering controls, and recommends hearing protective devices to reduce crew noise exposures. Finally, hearing thresholds are monitored on-orbit, during missions.

There have been no persistent mission-related hearing threshold shifts among US Orbital Segment crewmembers (JAXA, CSA, ESA, NASA) during what is approaching 20 years of ISS mission operations, or nearly 175,000 work hours. In 2020, the MMOP Acoustics Subgroup received the Safe-In-Sound Award for Innovation for their combined efforts to mitigate any health effects of noise.[346]

Fire and toxic gases

An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards. Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules.[347]

Orbit, environment, debris and visibility

Altitude and orbital inclination

The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of 370 km (230 mi) and a maximum of 460 km (290 mi),[348] in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator with an eccentricity of 0.007.[citation needed] This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas.[349][350] It travels at an average speed of 28,000 kilometres per hour (17,000 mph), and completes 15.5 orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit).[3][351] The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude (from about 350 km to about 400 km).[352][353] Other, more frequent supply spacecraft do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles.[28][354]

Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2 km a month on average. Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the Zvezda service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to Zvezda's aft port. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a second docking port to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed.[354] Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum[355] at an annual cost of about $210 million.[356]

Orbits of the ISS, shown in April 2013

The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station.[357] Initially, Zarya, the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module Zvezda docked and was transferred control. Zvezda contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System.[358] Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), Zvezda computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers. The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting.

Orientation

Zvezda uses gyroscopes (reaction wheels) and thrusters to turn itself. Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass. When gyroscopes 'saturate', thrusters are used to cancel out the stored momentum. In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14 kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly, this can result in a rare 'force fight' where the ROS GNC computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which itself has no thrusters.[359][360][361]

Docked spacecraft can also be used to maintain station attitude, such as for troubleshooting or during the installation of the S3/S4 truss, which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics.[362]

Orbital debris threats

The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris,[363] including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids,[364] are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and therefore are not as dangerous as smaller debris.[365][366] Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these objects are a threat because of their kinetic energy and direction in relation to the station. Spacewalking crew in spacesuits are also at risk of suit damage and consequent exposure to vacuum.[367]

Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage. The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS. On the USOS, Whipple Shields are used. The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made from 1.5–5.0 cm-thick (0.59–1.97 in) aluminium, a 10 cm-thick (3.9 in) intermediate layers of Kevlar and Nextel (a ceramic fabric),[368] and an outer layer of stainless steel, which causes objects to shatter into a cloud before hitting the hull, thereby spreading the energy of impact. On the ROS, a carbon fibre reinforced polymer honeycomb screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top.[369]

Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified.[370] If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. These Debris Avoidance Manoeuvres (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Ten DAMs had been performed by the end of 2009.[371][372][373] Usually, an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometres. If necessary, the altitude can also be lowered, although such a manoeuvre wastes propellant.[372][374] If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. Partial station evacuations have occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012, 16 June 2015,[375] November 2021,[376] and 27 June 2024.[377]

The November 2021 evacuation was caused by a Russian anti-satellite weapon test.[378][379] NASA administrator Bill Nelson said it was unthinkable that Russia would endanger the lives of everyone on ISS, including their own cosmonauts.[380]

Visibility from Earth

The ISS is visible in the sky to the naked eye as a visibly moving, bright white dot, when crossing the sky and being illuminated by the Sun, during twilight, the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit, outside of Earth's shadow, but the ground and sky are dark.[381] It crosses the skies at latitudes between the polar regions.[382] Depending on the path it takes across the sky, the time it takes the station to move across the horizon or from one to the other may be short or up to 10 minutes, while likely being only visible part of that time because of it moving into or out of Earth's shadow. It then returns around every 90 minutes, with the time of the day that it crosses the sky shifting over the course of some weeks, and therefore before returning to twilight and visible illumination.

Because of the size of its reflective surface area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other satellite flares), with an approximate maximum magnitude of −4 when in sunlight and overhead (similar to Venus), and a maximum angular size of 63 arcseconds.[383]

Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above (see Live viewing below) as well as smartphone applications that use orbital data and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow.[384][385][386][387]

In November 2012 NASA launched its "Spot the Station" service, which sends people text and email alerts when the station is due to fly above their town.[388] The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes.[349]

Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits. Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time. The three photos show the first, middle and last of the five passes on 5–6 June 2014.

Astrophotography

The ISS and HTV photographed from Earth by Ralf Vandebergh

Using a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers,[389] while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew.[390] The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours.[391]

Composite of six photos of the ISS transiting the gibbous Moon

Transits of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an eclipse (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers.[392][393]

International co-operation

A Commemorative Plaque honouring Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement signed on 28 January 1998

Involving five space programs and fifteen countries,[394] the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration programme in history.[394] The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties. A series of subsequent agreements govern other aspects of the station, ranging from jurisdictional issues to a code of conduct among visiting astronauts.[395]

Brazil was also invited to participate in the programme, the only developing country to receive such an invitation. Under the agreement framework, Brazil was to provide six pieces of hardware, and in exchange, would receive ISS utilization rights. However, Brazil was unable to deliver any of the elements due to a lack of funding and political priority within the country. Brazil officially dropped out of the ISS programme in 2007.[396][397]

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?"[398] (This latter claim is untrue: the ISS flies over all parts of the Earth between 51.6 degrees latitude north and south, approximately the latitude of Saratov.) Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation.[399] NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation Northrop Grumman has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.[400]

On 26 July 2022, Yury Borisov, Rogozin's successor as head of Roscosmos, submitted to Russian President Putin plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024.[401] However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of the space station, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans.[402]

Participating countries

End of mission

Originally the ISS was planned to be a 15-year mission.[403]Therefore, an end of mission had been worked on,[404] but was several times postponed due to the success and support for the operation of the station.[405] As a result, the oldest modules of the ISS have been in orbit for more than 20 years, with their reliability having decreased.[404] It has been proposed to use funds instead elsewhere, for example for a return to the Moon.[405] According to the Outer Space Treaty, the parties are legally responsible for all spacecraft or modules they launch.[406] An unmaintained station would pose an orbital and re-entry hazard.

Russia has stated that it plans to pull out of the ISS program after 2025.[407] However, Russian modules will provide orbital station-keeping until 2028.[404]

The US planned in 2009 to deorbit the ISS in 2016.[405] But on 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028.[408] In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House.[409][410] In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018.[411][412][413] Congress later passed similar provisions in its CHIPS and Science Act, signed into law by U.S. President Joe Biden on 9 August 2022.[414][415]

If until 2031 Commercial LEO Destinations providers are not sufficient to accommodate NASA's projects, NASA is suggesting to extend ISS operations beyond 2031.[416]

NASA's disposal plans

Many ISS resupply spacecraft have already undergone atmospheric re-entry, such as Jules Verne ATV.

NASA considered originally several possible disposal options: natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled de-orbit targeting a remote ocean area.[417]

NASA determined that random reentry carried an unacceptable risk of producing hazardous space debris that could hit people or property and re-boosting the station would be costly and could also create hazards.

Prior to 2010, plans had contemplated using a slightly modified Progress spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS. However, NASA concluded Progress would not be adequate for the job, and decided on a spacecraft specifically designed for the job.[418]

International Space Station is located in Pacific Ocean
International Space Station
Destination of the deorbiting ISS: the spacecraft cemetery (roughly centered on "Point Nemo", the oceanic pole of inaccessibility) in the Pacific Ocean

In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using the "U.S. Deorbit Vehicle" and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean that has come to be known as the spacecraft cemetery.[419] NASA plans to launch the deorbit vehicle in 2030, docking at the Harmony forward port.[420] The deorbit vehicle will remain attached, dormant, for about a year as the station's orbit naturally decays to 220 km (140 mi). The spacecraft would then conduct one or more orientation burns to lower the perigee to 150 km (93 mi), followed by a final deorbiting burn.[421][422]

NASA began planning for the deorbit vehicle after becoming wary of Russia pulling out of the ISS abruptly, leaving the other partners with few good options for a controlled reentry.[423] In June 2024, NASA selected SpaceX to develop the U.S. Deorbit Vehicle, a contract potentially worth $843 million. The vehicle will consist of an existing Cargo Dragon spacecraft which will be paired with a significantly lengthened trunk module which will be equipped with 46 Draco thrusters (instead of the normal 16) and will carry 30,000 kg (66,000 lb) of propellant, nearly six times the normal load. NASA is still working to secure all the necessary funding to build, launch and operate the deorbit vehicle.[14][423]

Post mission proposals and plans

The follow-up to NASA's program/strategy is the Commercial LEO Destinations Program, meant to allow private industry to build and maintain their own stations, and NASA procuring access as a customer, starting in 2028.[424] Similarly, the ESA has been seeking new private space stations to provide orbital services, as well as retrieve materials, from the ISS.[425][426] Currently Axiom Station is being planned to be assembled docked to the ISS, as a segment of the ISS, starting sometime after 2024.[404] Additionally there even have been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the ISS could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities,[427] including turning it into a space hotel.[405]

Russia previously has planned to use its orbital segment for the construction of its OPSEK station after the ISS is decommissioned. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (Nauka), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed to be attached to Nauka. These newly launched modules would still be well within their useful lives in 2024.[428] At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and Zvezda 2 as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth–Moon Lagrange points. However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded.[429]

Western space industry has suggested in 2022 using the ISS as a platform to develop orbital salvage capacities, by companies such as CisLunar Industries working on using space debris as fuel,[430] instead of plunging it into the ocean.[407]

NASA has stated that by July 2024 it has not seen any viable proposals for reuse of the ISS or parts of it.[416]

Cost

The ISS has been described as the most expensive single item ever constructed.[431] As of 2010, the total cost was US$150 billion. This includes NASA's budget of $58.7 billion ($89.73 billion in 2021 dollars) for the station from 1985 to 2015, Russia's $12 billion, Europe's $5 billion, Japan's $5 billion, Canada's $2 billion, and the cost of 36 shuttle flights to build the station, estimated at $1.4 billion each, or $50.4 billion in total. Assuming 20,000 person-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each person-day would cost $7.5 million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6 million ($5.5 million before inflation) per person-day of Skylab.[432]

In culture

The ISS has become an international symbol of human capabilities, particularly human cooperation and science,[433] defining a cooperative international approach and period, instead of a looming commercialized and militarized interplanetary world.[434]

In film

Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries Space Station 3D from 2002,[435] or A Beautiful Planet from 2016,[436] and films like Apogee of Fear (2012)[437] and Yolki 5 (2016)[438][439] the ISS is the subject of feature films such as The Day After Tomorrow (2004),[440] Love (2011),[441] together with the Chinese station Tiangong 1 in Gravity (2013),[442] Life (2017),[443] and I.S.S. (2023).[444]

In 2022, the movie The Challenge (Doctor's House Call) was filmed aboard the ISS, and was notable for being the first feature film in which both professional actors and director worked together in space.[445]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Pirs was connected to the nadir port of Zvezda now occupied by Nauka.
  2. ^ partially retracted
  3. ^ "Zarya" can have a lot of meanings: "daybreak", "dawn" (in the morning) or "afterglow", "evening glow", "sunset" (in the evening). But usually it means "dawn".
  4. ^ Privately funded travellers who have objected to the term include Dennis Tito, the first such traveller,[246] Mark Shuttleworth, founder of Ubuntu,[247] Gregory Olsen and Richard Garriott.[248][249] Canadian astronaut Bob Thirsk said the term does not seem appropriate, referring to his crewmate, Guy Laliberté, founder of Cirque du Soleil.[250] Anousheh Ansari denied being a tourist[251] and took offence at the term.[252]
  5. ^ ESA director Jörg Feustel-Büechl said in 2001 that Russia had no right to send 'amateurs' to the ISS. A 'stand-off' occurred at the Johnson Space Center between Commander Talgat Musabayev and NASA manager Robert Cabana who refused to train Dennis Tito, a member of Musabayev's crew along with Yuri Baturin. Musabayev argued that Tito had trained 700 hours in the last year and was as qualified as any NASA astronaut, and refused to allow his crew to be trained on the USOS without Tito. Cabana would not allow training to begin, and the commander returned with his crew to their hotel.
  6. ^ Including the modified DC-1, M-MIM2 and M-UM module transports
  7. ^ Includes both crewed and uncrewed missions
  8. ^ a b c d The Prichal aft, forward, port and starboard ports still have their protective covers in place and have yet to be used since the module originally docked at the station.

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Attributions

Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from Building ISS. National Archives and Records Administration.


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