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Paraíso fiscal

Un paraíso fiscal es un término, a menudo utilizado de manera peyorativa, para describir un lugar con tasas impositivas muy bajas para inversores no domiciliados , incluso si las tasas oficiales pueden ser más altas. [a] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

En algunas definiciones más antiguas, un paraíso fiscal también ofrece secreto financiero . [b] [6] Sin embargo, mientras que los países con altos niveles de secreto pero también altas tasas de impuestos, más notablemente los Estados Unidos y Alemania en las clasificaciones del Índice de Secreto Financiero (FSI), [c] pueden aparecer en algunas listas de paraísos fiscales, a menudo se los omite de las listas por razones políticas o por falta de conocimiento de la materia. En contraste, los países con niveles más bajos de secreto pero también bajas tasas de impuestos "efectivas", más notablemente Irlanda en las clasificaciones del FSI, aparecen en la mayoría de las § listas de paraísos fiscales. [9] El consenso sobre las tasas impositivas efectivas ha llevado a los académicos a señalar que el término "paraíso fiscal" y " centro financiero offshore " son casi sinónimos. [10] En realidad, muchos centros financieros offshore no tienen prácticas fiscales dañinas y están a la vanguardia entre los centros financieros con respecto a las prácticas AML y la presentación de informes fiscales internacionales.

Los avances de la última década han reducido sustancialmente la capacidad de las personas o corporaciones de utilizar los paraísos fiscales para la evasión fiscal (no pago ilegal de impuestos adeudados). Estos incluyen el fin del secreto bancario en muchas jurisdicciones, incluida Suiza, tras la aprobación de la Ley de Cumplimiento Fiscal de Cuentas Extranjeras de los EE. UU. y la adopción del CRS por la mayoría de los países, incluidos los paraísos fiscales típicos, un acuerdo multilateral de intercambio automático de datos de los contribuyentes, iniciativa de la OCDE . [11] [12] Los países del CRS requieren que los bancos y otras entidades identifiquen la residencia de los titulares de cuentas, los propietarios beneficiarios de las entidades corporativas [13] [14] [15] [16] y registren los saldos de las cuentas anuales y comuniquen dicha información a las agencias tributarias locales, que informarán a las agencias tributarias donde residen los titulares de cuentas o los propietarios beneficiarios de las corporaciones. [17] El CRS pretende terminar con el secreto financiero offshore y la evasión fiscal dando a las agencias tributarias el conocimiento para gravar los ingresos y activos offshore. Sin embargo, las corporaciones muy grandes y complejas, como las multinacionales , aún pueden transferir ganancias a paraísos fiscales corporativos utilizando esquemas intrincados.

Los paraísos fiscales tradicionales, como Jersey , son abiertos en cuanto a las tasas impositivas cero, por lo que tienen pocos tratados fiscales bilaterales . Los paraísos fiscales corporativos modernos tienen tasas impositivas "principales" distintas de cero y altos niveles de cumplimiento de la OCDE , y por lo tanto tienen grandes redes de tratados fiscales bilaterales. Sin embargo, sus herramientas de erosión de la base imponible y traslado de beneficios ("BEPS") permiten a las empresas lograr tasas impositivas "efectivas" más cercanas a cero, no solo en el paraíso sino en todos los países con los que el paraíso tiene tratados fiscales; colocándolos en listas de paraísos fiscales. Según estudios modernos, los 10 principales paraísos fiscales incluyen paraísos centrados en las corporaciones como los Países Bajos, Singapur, Irlanda y el Reino Unido, mientras que Luxemburgo, Hong Kong, las Islas Caimán, Bermudas, las Islas Vírgenes Británicas y Suiza figuran como importantes paraísos fiscales tradicionales y principales paraísos fiscales corporativos. Los paraísos fiscales corporativos a menudo sirven como "conductos" hacia los paraísos fiscales tradicionales. [18] [19] [20]

El uso de paraísos fiscales genera una pérdida de ingresos fiscales para países que no son paraísos fiscales. Las estimaciones de la escala financiera de impuestos evitados varían, pero las más creíbles estiman que oscilan entre 100.000 y 250.000 millones de dólares al año. [21] [22] [23] [24] Además, el capital depositado en paraísos fiscales puede abandonar permanentemente la base imponible (erosión de la base imponible). Las estimaciones del capital depositado en paraísos fiscales también varían: las más creíbles oscilan entre 7 y 10 billones de dólares (hasta el 10% de los activos globales). [25] El daño de los paraísos fiscales tradicionales y corporativos se ha observado particularmente en los países en desarrollo, donde los ingresos fiscales son necesarios para construir infraestructura. [26] [27] [28]

Más del 15% [d] de los países son a veces etiquetados como paraísos fiscales. [4] [9] Los paraísos fiscales son en su mayoría economías exitosas y bien gobernadas, y ser un paraíso ha traído prosperidad. [31] [32] Los 10-15 principales países de PIB per cápita , excluyendo los exportadores de petróleo y gas, son paraísos fiscales. Debido a § El PIB per cápita inflado (debido a los flujos contables BEPS), los paraísos son propensos al sobreapalancamiento (el capital internacional fija incorrectamente el precio de la deuda artificial al PIB). Esto puede conducir a graves ciclos crediticios y/o crisis inmobiliarias/bancarias cuando se fijan de nuevo los precios de los flujos de capital internacionales. El Celtic Tiger de Irlanda y la posterior crisis financiera de 2009-13 son un ejemplo. [33] Jersey es otro. [34] La investigación muestra § Estados Unidos como el mayor beneficiario, y el uso de paraísos fiscales por parte de las corporaciones estadounidenses maximizó los ingresos del tesoro estadounidense. [35]

El enfoque histórico en la lucha contra los paraísos fiscales (por ejemplo, los proyectos de la OCDE y el FMI ) se ha centrado en normas comunes, transparencia e intercambio de datos. [36] El auge de los paraísos fiscales corporativos que cumplen con los requisitos de la OCDE, cuyas herramientas BEPS fueron responsables de la mayoría de los impuestos perdidos, [37] [26] [23] condujo a críticas a este enfoque, frente a los impuestos reales pagados. [38] [39] Las jurisdicciones con impuestos más altos, como Estados Unidos y muchos estados miembros de la Unión Europea, se apartaron del Proyecto BEPS de la OCDE en 2017-18 para introducir regímenes fiscales anti-BEPS, destinados a aumentar los impuestos netos pagados por las corporaciones en los paraísos fiscales corporativos (por ejemplo, la Ley de recortes de impuestos y empleos de los EE. UU. de 2017 ("TCJA"), los regímenes fiscales GILTI-BEAT-FDII y pasar a un sistema fiscal "territorial" híbrido, y el régimen propuesto de impuesto a los servicios digitales de la UE y la base imponible corporativa consolidada común de la UE ). [38]

Historia

Descripción general

Si bien ya en la Antigua Grecia se registran zonas de baja tributación, los académicos en materia fiscal identifican lo que conocemos como paraísos fiscales como un fenómeno moderno, [40] [41] y señalan las siguientes fases en su desarrollo:

Eventos notables

Definiciones

Contexto

No existe un consenso establecido sobre una definición específica de lo que constituye un paraíso fiscal. Esta es la conclusión de organizaciones no gubernamentales , como la Tax Justice Network en 2018, [58] de la investigación de 2008 de la Oficina de Responsabilidad Gubernamental de los Estados Unidos , [74] de la investigación de 2015 del Servicio de Investigación del Congreso de los Estados Unidos , [75] de la investigación de 2017 del Parlamento Europeo, [76] y de destacados investigadores académicos sobre paraísos fiscales. [77]

Sin embargo, la cuestión es importante, ya que ser etiquetado como un "paraíso fiscal" tiene consecuencias para un país que busca desarrollarse y comerciar en virtud de tratados fiscales bilaterales. Cuando Irlanda fue incluida en la "lista negra" por el miembro del G20 Brasil en 2016, el comercio bilateral disminuyó. [78] [79]

Académico no cuantitativo (1994-2016)

Uno de los primeros artículos importantes sobre los paraísos fiscales [80] fue el artículo Hines-Rice de 1994 de James R. Hines Jr. [54]. Es el artículo más citado sobre investigación de paraísos fiscales [81] , incluso a finales de 2017 [82] , y Hines es el autor más citado sobre investigación de paraísos fiscales [81] . Además de ofrecer información sobre los paraísos fiscales, adoptó la opinión de que la diversidad de países que se convierten en paraísos fiscales era tan grande que las definiciones detalladas eran inadecuadas. Hines simplemente señaló que los paraísos fiscales eran: "un grupo de países con tasas impositivas inusualmente bajas". Hines reafirmó este enfoque en un artículo de 2009 con Dhammika Dharmapala [4] .

En diciembre de 2008, Dharmapala escribió que el proceso de la OCDE había eliminado en gran medida la necesidad de incluir el "secreto bancario" en cualquier definición de paraíso fiscal y que ahora se trataba "en primer lugar, de tasas de impuestos corporativos bajas o nulas", [77] y que esta se ha convertido en la definición general del "diccionario financiero" de un paraíso fiscal. [1] [2] [3]

Hines perfeccionó su definición en 2016 para incorporar la investigación sobre los incentivos para los paraísos fiscales en materia de gobernanza, que es ampliamente aceptada en el léxico académico. [10] [80] [83]

Los paraísos fiscales suelen ser estados pequeños y bien gobernados que imponen tasas impositivas bajas o nulas a los inversores extranjeros.

—  James R. Hines Jr. "Empresas multinacionales y paraísos fiscales", The Review of Economics and Statistics (2016) [5]

OCDE-FMI (1998-2018)

En abril de 1998, la OCDE elaboró ​​una definición de paraíso fiscal, que se refiere a aquellos países que cumplen "tres de cuatro" criterios. [84] [85] Se elaboró ​​como parte de su iniciativa "Competencia fiscal perjudicial: un problema mundial emergente". [86] En 2000, cuando la OCDE publicó su primera lista de paraísos fiscales, [29] no incluía a ningún país miembro de la OCDE, ya que se consideraba que todos ellos habían participado en el nuevo Foro Mundial sobre Transparencia e Intercambio de Información con Fines Fiscales de la OCDE , y por lo tanto no cumplirían los criterios ii y iii . Como la OCDE nunca ha incluido a ninguno de sus 35 miembros como paraísos fiscales, Irlanda, Luxemburgo, los Países Bajos y Suiza a veces se definen como los "paraísos fiscales de la OCDE". [87]

En 2017, sólo Trinidad y Tobago cumplía la definición de la OCDE de 1998; por lo tanto, esa definición cayó en descrédito. [56] [88]

  1. Ningún impuesto o impuesto nominal sobre el ingreso relevante;
  2. Falta de intercambio efectivo de información;
  3. Falta de transparencia;
  4. No hay actividades sustanciales (por ejemplo, tolerancia de empresas de placas de bronce ) .†

(†) El cuarto criterio fue retirado tras las objeciones de la nueva administración estadounidense de Bush en 2001, [36] y en el informe de la OCDE de 2002 la definición pasó a ser "dos de tres criterios". [9]

La definición de la OCDE de 1998 es la más frecuentemente invocada por los "paraísos fiscales de la OCDE". [89] Sin embargo, esa definición (como se señaló anteriormente) perdió credibilidad cuando, en 2017, bajo sus parámetros, solo Trinidad y Tobago calificó como paraíso fiscal y desde entonces ha sido ampliamente descartada por los académicos de paraísos fiscales, [77] [83] [45] incluida la investigación del Servicio de Investigación del Congreso de los EE. UU. de 2015 sobre paraísos fiscales, por ser restrictiva y permitir que los paraísos de baja tributación de Hines (por ejemplo, a los que se aplica el primer criterio) eviten la definición de la OCDE mejorando la cooperación de la OCDE (por lo que el segundo y el tercer criterio no se aplican). [75]

Por lo tanto, la evidencia (aunque indudablemente sea limitada) no sugiere ningún impacto de la iniciativa de la OCDE sobre la actividad en los paraísos fiscales. [...] Por lo tanto, no se puede esperar que la iniciativa de la OCDE tenga un gran impacto en los usos corporativos de los paraísos fiscales, incluso si (o cuando) la iniciativa se implemente plenamente.

—  Dhammika Dharmapala , “¿Qué problemas y oportunidades generan los paraísos fiscales?” (diciembre de 2008) [77]

En abril de 2000, el Foro de Estabilidad Financiera (o FSF) definió el concepto relacionado de un centro financiero extraterritorial (o OFC), [90] que el FMI adoptó en junio de 2000, produciendo una lista de 46 OFC . [57] La ​​definición del FSF-FMI se centró en las herramientas BEPS que ofrecen los paraísos, y en la observación de Hines de que los flujos contables de las herramientas BEPS son "desproporcionados" y, por lo tanto, distorsionan las estadísticas económicas del paraíso. La lista del FSF-FMI capturó nuevos paraísos fiscales corporativos, como los Países Bajos, que Hines consideró demasiado pequeños en 1994. [9] En abril de 2007, el FMI utilizó un enfoque más cuantitativo para generar una lista de 22 OFC principales , [47] y en 2018 enumeró los ocho OFC principales que manejan el 85% de todos los flujos. [37] Desde aproximadamente 2010, los académicos tributarios consideraron que los OFC y los paraísos fiscales eran términos sinónimos . [10] [91] [92]

Cuantitativo académico (2010-2018)

En octubre de 2010, Hines publicó una lista de 52 paraísos fiscales , que había escalado cuantitativamente mediante el análisis de los flujos de inversión corporativa. [30] Los paraísos más grandes de Hines estaban dominados por paraísos fiscales corporativos, que Dharmapala señaló en 2014 representaban la mayor parte de la actividad global de paraísos fiscales según las herramientas BEPS. [93] La lista de Hines de 2010 fue la primera en estimar los diez paraísos fiscales globales más grandes, solo dos de los cuales, Jersey y las Islas Vírgenes Británicas, estaban en la lista de la OCDE de 2000.

En julio de 2017, el grupo CORPNET de la Universidad de Ámsterdam ignoró cualquier definición de paraíso fiscal y se centró en un enfoque puramente cuantitativo, analizando 98 millones de conexiones corporativas globales en la base de datos Orbis . Las listas de CORPNET de los cinco principales OFC conducto y los cinco principales OFC sumideros coincidieron con 9 de los 10 principales paraísos de la lista de Hines de 2010, y solo diferían en el Reino Unido, que solo transformó su código fiscal en 2009-12 . [59] El estudio de CORPNET sobre los OFC conducto y sumideros dividió la comprensión de un paraíso fiscal en dos clasificaciones: [60] [94]

En junio de 2018, el académico fiscal Gabriel Zucman ( et alia ) publicó una investigación que también ignoró cualquier definición de paraíso fiscal, pero estimó el "traslado de beneficios" corporativo (es decir, BEPS ) y la "rentabilidad corporativa mejorada" que Hines y Dharmapala habían observado. [64] Zucman señaló que la investigación de CORPNET subrepresentaba los paraísos asociados con empresas de tecnología estadounidenses, como Irlanda y las Islas Caimán , ya que Google, Facebook y Apple no aparecen en Orbis. [95] Aun así, la lista de Zucman de 2018 de los 10 principales paraísos también coincidió con 9 de los 10 principales paraísos de la lista de Hines de 2010, pero con Irlanda como el mayor paraíso mundial. [65] Estas listas (Hines 2010, CORPNET 2017 y Zucman 2018), y otras, que siguieron un enfoque puramente cuantitativo, mostraron un consenso firme en torno a los mayores paraísos fiscales corporativos.

Definiciones relacionadas

En octubre de 2009, la Red de Justicia Fiscal introdujo el Índice de Secreto Financiero ("FSI") y el término "jurisdicción de secreto" [58] para destacar cuestiones relacionadas con los países que cumplen con los requisitos de la OCDE y que tienen tasas impositivas elevadas y no aparecen en las listas académicas de paraísos fiscales, pero que tienen problemas de transparencia. El FSI no evalúa las tasas impositivas ni los flujos BEPS en su cálculo; pero a menudo se lo malinterpreta como una definición de paraíso fiscal en los medios financieros [c], en particular cuando incluye a los EE. UU. y Alemania como las principales "jurisdicciones de secreto". [96] [97] [98] Sin embargo, muchos tipos de paraísos fiscales también se clasifican como jurisdicciones de secreto.

Agrupaciones

Si bien los paraísos fiscales son diversos y variados, los académicos fiscales a veces reconocen tres "agrupaciones" principales de paraísos fiscales cuando analizan la historia de su desarrollo: [40] [41] [51] [50]

Paraísos fiscales relacionados con Europa

Como se analiza en § Historia, el primer centro de paraíso fiscal reconocido fue el triángulo Zúrich-Zug-Liechtenstein creado a mediados de la década de 1920, al que luego se unió Luxemburgo en 1929. [40] La privacidad y el secreto se establecieron como un aspecto importante de los paraísos fiscales europeos. Sin embargo, los paraísos fiscales europeos modernos también incluyen paraísos fiscales centrados en las empresas, que mantienen niveles más altos de transparencia de la OCDE, como los Países Bajos e Irlanda. [f] Los paraísos fiscales europeos actúan como una parte importante de los flujos globales hacia los paraísos fiscales, y tres de los cinco principales OFC de Conduit globales son europeos (por ejemplo, los Países Bajos, Suiza e Irlanda). [60] Cuatro paraísos fiscales relacionados con Europa aparecen en las diversas listas notables de los 10 principales paraísos fiscales, a saber: los Países Bajos, Irlanda, Suiza y Luxemburgo.

Paraísos fiscales relacionados con el Imperio Británico

Los Territorios Británicos de Ultramar (misma escala geográfica) incluyen los principales paraísos fiscales globales, tanto tradicionales como corporativos, incluido el propio Reino Unido.

Muchos paraísos fiscales son antiguas o actuales dependencias del Reino Unido y aún utilizan las mismas estructuras jurídicas básicas. [41] Seis paraísos fiscales relacionados con el Imperio Británico aparecen en las listas de los 10 principales paraísos fiscales del §, a saber: paraísos fiscales del Caribe (por ejemplo, Bermudas, las Islas Vírgenes Británicas y las Islas Caimán), paraísos fiscales de las Islas del Canal (por ejemplo, Jersey) y paraísos fiscales asiáticos (por ejemplo, Singapur y Hong Kong). Como se analiza en el § Historia, el Reino Unido creó su primera "empresa no residente" en 1929 y lideró el mercado de centros financieros extraterritoriales de eurodólares después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. [40] [41] Desde la reforma de su código tributario corporativo en 2009-2012, el Reino Unido ha resurgido como un importante paraíso fiscal centrado en las corporaciones. [59] Dos de los cinco principales OFC de Conduit globales pertenecen a este grupo (por ejemplo, el Reino Unido y Singapur). [60]

En noviembre de 2009, Michael Foot, ex funcionario del Banco de Inglaterra e inspector bancario de las Bahamas, presentó un informe integrado sobre las tres dependencias de la Corona británica (Guernsey, Isla de Man y Jersey) y los seis territorios de ultramar (Anguila, Bermudas, Islas Vírgenes Británicas, Islas Caimán, Gibraltar, Islas Turcas y Caicos), "para identificar las oportunidades y los desafíos como centros financieros extraterritoriales", para el Tesoro de Su Majestad . [99] [100]

Paraísos fiscales relacionados con los mercados emergentes

Como se analiza en § Historia, la mayoría de estos paraísos fiscales datan de fines de los años 1960 y efectivamente copiaron las estructuras y servicios de los grupos antes mencionados. [40] La mayoría de estos paraísos fiscales no son miembros de la OCDE, o en el caso de los paraísos fiscales relacionados con el Imperio Británico, no tienen un miembro senior de la OCDE en su núcleo. [40] [51] Algunos han sufrido reveses durante varias iniciativas de la OCDE para frenar los paraísos fiscales (por ejemplo, Vanuatu y Samoa). [40] Sin embargo, otros como Taiwán (para AsiaPAC) y Mauricio (para África), han crecido materialmente en las últimas décadas. [51] Taiwán ha sido descrito como la "Suiza de Asia", con un enfoque en el secreto. [101] Aunque ningún paraíso fiscal relacionado con mercados emergentes se ubica en los cinco principales OFC de conducto globales o en ninguna de las § listas de los 10 principales paraísos fiscales, tanto Taiwán como Mauricio se ubican en los diez principales OFC de sumidero globales. [60]

Liza

Tipos de listas

Hasta la fecha se han elaborado tres tipos principales de listas de paraísos fiscales: [75]

  1. Gubernamentales, cualitativas: estas listas son cualitativas y políticas; [102] nunca enumeran a los miembros (ni entre sí) y la investigación académica las ignora en gran medida; [77] [45] la UE tenía 16 países en su lista de 2023 , Rusia es el único país de la OCDE o la UE, o § Los 10 principales paraísos fiscales. [62] [63]
  2. Índice de Secreto Financiero (aunque el FSI es una lista de "jurisdicciones de secreto financiero", y no específicamente paraísos fiscales). [c]
  3. No gubernamentales, cuantitativos: siguiendo un enfoque cuantitativo objetivo, pueden clasificar la escala relativa de los refugios individuales; los más conocidos son:

La investigación también destaca indicadores proxy , de los cuales los dos más destacados son:

  1. Inversiones fiscales en Estados Unidos : una "prueba de sentido" de un paraíso fiscal es si las personas o entidades se reubican en una jurisdicción con impuestos más bajos para evitar legalmente las altas tasas impositivas corporativas en Estados Unidos y, además, debido a la ventaja que supone para una empresa multinacional tener su sede en un régimen impositivo territorial como Irlanda. Los tres principales destinos de todas las inversiones fiscales corporativas en Estados Unidos desde 1983 son: Irlanda (n.° 1), Bermudas (n.° 2) y el Reino Unido (n.° 3); [105]
  2. Tablas de PIB per cápita : Otra "prueba de sentido" de un paraíso fiscal es la distorsión en sus datos de PIB de las herramientas BEPS basadas en IP y las herramientas BEPS basadas en deuda. Excluyendo los países no petroleros y gasíferos (por ejemplo, Qatar, Noruega) y las microjurisdicciones, los países con el PIB per cápita más alto resultante son paraísos fiscales, encabezados por: Luxemburgo (n.° 1), Singapur (n.° 2) e Irlanda (n.° 3).

Los 10 principales paraísos fiscales

El aumento posterior a 2010 en las técnicas cuantitativas de identificación de paraísos fiscales ha dado como resultado una lista más estable de los mayores paraísos fiscales. Dharmapala señala que, como los flujos BEPS corporativos dominan la actividad de los paraísos fiscales, estos son en su mayoría paraísos fiscales corporativos. [93] Nueve de los diez principales paraísos fiscales en el estudio de Gabriel Zucman de junio de 2018 también aparecen en las diez listas principales de los otros dos estudios cuantitativos desde 2010. Cuatro de los cinco principales OFC de Conduit están representados; sin embargo, el Reino Unido solo transformó su código tributario en 2009-2012. [59] Los cinco principales OFC de Sink están representados, aunque Jersey solo aparece en la lista de Hines de 2010.

Los estudios reflejan el ascenso de Irlanda y Singapur, dos importantes sedes regionales de algunos de los mayores usuarios de herramientas BEPS, como Apple , Google y Facebook . [106] [107] [108] En el primer trimestre de 2015, Apple completó la mayor acción BEPS de la historia, cuando transfirió US$300 mil millones de propiedad intelectual a Irlanda, lo que el economista premio Nobel Paul Krugman llamó " economía de duendes ". En septiembre de 2018, utilizando los datos de impuestos de repatriación de la TCJA, la NBER enumeró los principales paraísos fiscales como: "Irlanda, Luxemburgo, Países Bajos, Suiza, Singapur, Bermudas y [los] paraísos fiscales del Caribe". [66] [67]

(*) Aparece como uno de los diez principales paraísos fiscales en las tres listas; 9 paraísos fiscales importantes cumplen este criterio, Irlanda, Singapur, Suiza y los Países Bajos (los paraísos fiscales intermediarios) y las Islas Caimán, las Islas Vírgenes Británicas, Luxemburgo, Hong Kong y Bermudas (los paraísos fiscales receptores) .
(†) También aparece como uno de los 5 paraísos fiscales intermediarios (Irlanda, Singapur, Suiza, los Países Bajos y el Reino Unido), en la investigación de CORPNET de 2017; o
(‡) También aparece como uno de los 5 principales paraísos fiscales receptores (Islas Vírgenes Británicas, Luxemburgo, Hong Kong, Jersey, Bermudas), en la investigación de CORPNET de 2017.
(Δ) Identificado en la primera y más grande lista de la OCDE de 2000 de 35 paraísos fiscales (la lista de la OCDE solo contenía a Trinidad y Tobago en 2017). [29] [56]

El consenso más fuerte entre los académicos con respecto a los paraísos fiscales más grandes del mundo es, por lo tanto, el siguiente: Irlanda, Singapur, Suiza y los Países Bajos (los principales OFC conducto), y las Islas Caimán, las Islas Vírgenes Británicas, Luxemburgo, Hong Kong y Bermudas (los principales OFC sumidero), con el Reino Unido (un importante OFC conducto) aún en transformación.

De estos diez paraísos fiscales principales, todos, excepto el Reino Unido y los Países Bajos, figuraban en la lista original de Hines-Rice de 1994. El Reino Unido no era un paraíso fiscal en 1994, y Hines estimó que la tasa impositiva efectiva de los Países Bajos en 1994 era superior al 20%. (Hines identificó a Irlanda como el país con la tasa impositiva efectiva más baja, con un 4%). Cuatro de ellos: Irlanda, Singapur, Suiza (3 de los 5 principales paraísos fiscales de los países de origen) y Hong Kong (uno de los 5 principales paraísos fiscales de los países de destino), figuraban en la subcategoría de los 7 principales paraísos fiscales de la lista de Hines-Rice de 1994 , lo que pone de relieve la falta de progreso en la reducción de los paraísos fiscales. [54]

En términos de indicadores proxy , esta lista, excluyendo a Canadá, contiene los siete países que recibieron más de una inversión fiscal estadounidense desde 1982 (ver aquí ). [105] Además, seis de estos importantes paraísos fiscales están entre los 15 primeros en términos de PIB per cápita , y de los otros cuatro, tres de ellos, los lugares del Caribe, no están incluidos en las tablas de PIB per cápita del FMI y el Banco Mundial.

En un informe conjunto del FMI de junio de 2018 sobre el efecto de los flujos BEPS en los datos económicos mundiales, ocho de los países mencionados anteriormente (excluidos Suiza y el Reino Unido) fueron citados como los principales paraísos fiscales del mundo. [37]

Los 20 principales paraísos fiscales

La lista más larga de investigaciones cuantitativas no gubernamentales sobre paraísos fiscales es la del estudio de la Universidad de Ámsterdam CORPNET de julio de 2017 sobre paraísos fiscales de conducto y de sumideros , con 29 (5 paraísos fiscales de conducto y 25 de sumideros). A continuación se enumeran los 20 paraísos fiscales más grandes (5 paraísos fiscales de conducto y 15 de sumideros), que coinciden con otras listas principales, como se indica a continuación:

(*) Aparece como uno de los 10 principales paraísos fiscales en las tres listas cuantitativas, Hines 2010, ITEP 2017 y Zucman 2018 (arriba); los nueve de esos 10 principales paraísos fiscales se enumeran a continuación.
(♣) Aparece en la lista de James Hines de 2010 de 52 paraísos fiscales; 17 de las 20 ubicaciones a continuación están en la lista de James Hines de 2010.
(Δ) Identificado en la lista más grande de la OCDE de 2000 de 35 paraísos fiscales (la lista de la OCDE solo contenía a Trinidad y Tobago en 2017); solo cuatro de las ubicaciones a continuación estuvieron alguna vez en una lista de la OCDE. [29]
(↕) Identificado en la primera lista de la Unión Europea de 2017 de 17 paraísos fiscales; [61] solo una de las ubicaciones a continuación está en la lista de la UE de 2017.

Los Estados soberanos que figuran principalmente como grandes paraísos fiscales corporativos son:

Estados soberanos o regiones autónomas que figuran a la vez como importantes paraísos fiscales corporativos y como importantes paraísos fiscales tradicionales:

"Descubriendo centros financieros offshore": lista de centros financieros offshore hundidos ordenada por valor

Estados soberanos (incluidos los de facto) que figuran principalmente como paraísos fiscales tradicionales (pero que tienen tipos impositivos distintos de cero):

Los estados soberanos o subnacionales que son paraísos fiscales muy tradicionales (es decir, con una tasa impositiva explícita del 0 %) incluyen (lista más completa en la tabla opuesta):

Listas históricas amplias de paraísos fiscales

La investigación posterior a 2010 sobre los paraísos fiscales se centra en el análisis cuantitativo (que puede clasificarse) y tiende a ignorar los paraísos fiscales muy pequeños sobre los que los datos son limitados, ya que el paraíso se utiliza para la evasión fiscal individual en lugar de la evasión fiscal corporativa. La última lista amplia y creíble de paraísos fiscales globales sin clasificar es la lista de James Hines de 2010 de 52 paraísos fiscales. Se muestra a continuación, pero se amplió a 55 para incluir los paraísos identificados en el estudio de OFC Conduit and Sink de julio de 2017 que no se consideraron paraísos en 2010, a saber, el Reino Unido, Taiwán y Curazao. La lista de James Hines de 2010 contiene 34 de los 35 paraísos fiscales originales de la OCDE; [29] y en comparación con los § 10 principales paraísos fiscales y § 20 principales paraísos fiscales anteriores, muestran que los procesos de la OCDE se centran en el cumplimiento de los paraísos pequeños.

  1. AndorraΔ
  2. Anguila‡Δ
  3. Antigua y BarbudaΔ
  4. ArubaΔ
  5. Bahamas‡Δ
  6. Bahréin↕Δ
  7. Barbados↕Δ
  8. Belice‡Δ
  9. Islas Bermudas‡
  10. Islas Vírgenes Británicas‡Δ
  11. Islas Caimán‡
  12. Islas CookΔ
  13. Costa Rica
  14. [Curaçao‡] no está en la lista de Hines
  15. Chipre‡
  16. Yibuti
  17. DominicaΔ
  18. Gibraltar‡Δ
  19. Granada↕Δ
  20. GuernseyΔ
  21. Hong Kong‡
  22. Irlanda†
  23. Isla de ManΔ
  24. Jersey‡Δ
  25. Jordán
  26. Líbano
  27. Liberia‡Δ
  28. Liechtenstein‡Δ
  29. Luxemburgo‡
  30. Macao↕
  31. MaldivasΔ
  32. Malta‡
  33. Islas Marshall‡↕Δ
  34. Mauricio‡
  35. Micronesia
  36. Mónaco‡Δ
  37. MontserratΔ
  38. Nauru‡Δ
  39. Países Bajos† y AntillasΔ
  40. NiueΔ
  41. Panamá↕Δ
  42. Samoa‡↕Δ
  43. San Marino
  44. Seychelles‡Δ
  45. Singapur†
  46. San Cristóbal y NievesΔ
  47. Santa Lucía↕Δ
  48. San Martín
  49. San Vicente y las Granadinas‡Δ
  50. Suiza†
  51. [Taiwán‡] no está en la lista de Hines
  52. TongaΔ
  53. Islas Turcas y CaicosΔ
  54. [Reino Unido†] no está en la lista de Hines
  55. VanuatuΔ

(†) Identificado como uno de los 5 conductos por CORPNET en 2017; la lista anterior tiene 5 de los 5.
(‡) Identificado como uno de los 24 sumideros más grandes por CORPNET en 2017; la lista anterior tiene 23 de los 24 (falta Guyana).
(↕) Identificado en la primera lista de 2017 de la Unión Europea de 17 paraísos fiscales; la lista anterior contiene 8 de los 17. [61]
(Δ) Identificado en la primera y más grande lista de la OCDE de 2000 de 35 paraísos fiscales (la lista de la OCDE solo contenía a Trinidad y Tobago en 2017); la lista anterior contiene 34 de los 35 (faltan las Islas Vírgenes de los Estados Unidos). [29]

Casos inusuales

Entidades dedicadas en EE.UU.:

Los principales Estados soberanos que figuran en listas de secreto financiero (por ejemplo, el Índice de Secreto Financiero ), pero no en listas de paraísos fiscales corporativos o de paraísos fiscales tradicionales, son:

Ni Estados Unidos ni Alemania han aparecido en ninguna lista de paraísos fiscales elaborada por los principales líderes académicos en investigación sobre paraísos fiscales, a saber, James R. Hines Jr. , Dhammika Dharmapala o Gabriel Zucman . No se conocen casos de empresas extranjeras que hayan ejecutado inversiones fiscales a Estados Unidos o Alemania con fines fiscales, una característica básica de un paraíso fiscal corporativo. [105]

Antiguos paraísos fiscales

Escala

Descripción general

Cartel publicado por la HMRC británica para combatir la evasión fiscal en el extranjero

La estimación de la escala financiera de los paraísos fiscales se complica por su inherente falta de transparencia. [38] Incluso las jurisdicciones que cumplen con los requisitos de transparencia de la OCDE, como Irlanda, Luxemburgo y los Países Bajos, ofrecen herramientas de secreto alternativas (por ejemplo, fideicomisos, QIAIF y ULL ) que pueden utilizarse para el secreto de los UBO. [137] Por ejemplo, cuando la Comisión Europea descubrió que la tasa impositiva de Apple en Irlanda era del 0,005% , encontraron que Apple había utilizado ULL irlandeses para evitar la presentación de cuentas públicas irlandesas desde principios de los años 1990. [138]

Además, a veces hay confusión entre las cifras que se centran en la cantidad de impuestos anuales perdidos debido a los paraísos fiscales (que se estima en cientos de miles de millones de dólares) y las cifras que se centran en la cantidad de capital que reside en los paraísos fiscales (que se estima en muchos billones de dólares). [137]

A marzo de 2019 , los métodos más creíbles utilizados para estimar la escala financiera han sido: [137]

  1. Datos bancarios. Estimación del monto de capital en el sistema bancario privado y/o extraterritorial a través de los registros bancarios del FMI y el BIS ; asociado con varias ONG.
  2. Datos de cuentas nacionales. Estimación de la cantidad de capital que no está conciliado en los datos de cuentas nacionales globales ; asociado con el académico en materia tributaria Gabriel Zucman .
  3. Datos corporativos. Estimación de los flujos BEPS de multinacionales que no pagan impuestos; asociado con estudios de académicos tributarios (Hines, Zucman), ONG y OCDE-FMI.

Las ONG han elaborado muchas otras "estimaciones aproximadas" que son derivados burdos del primer método ("datos bancarios") y que a menudo son criticadas por tomar interpretaciones y conclusiones erróneas de los datos bancarios y financieros globales agregados para producir estimaciones erróneas. [137] [139]

El precio de los servicios offshore: una revisión(2012–2014)

Un estudio notable sobre el efecto financiero fue Price of Offshore: Revisited in 2012–2014, del ex economista jefe de McKinsey & Company, James S. Henry . [140] [141] [142] Henry realizó el estudio para la Tax Justice Network (TJN) y, como parte de su análisis, hizo una crónica de la historia de las estimaciones financieras pasadas de varias organizaciones. [137] [38]

Henry utilizó principalmente datos bancarios globales de varias fuentes regulatorias para estimar que: [141] [142]

  1. Entre 21 y 32 billones de dólares de activos globales (más del 20% de la riqueza mundial) “se han invertido prácticamente libres de impuestos [...] en más de 80 jurisdicciones de secreto offshore”; [143]
  2. Se pierden entre 190.000 y 255.000 millones de dólares en ingresos fiscales anuales debido a lo anterior;
  3. Entre 7,3 y 9,3 billones de dólares están representados por individuos de un subconjunto de 139 países de “ingresos bajos y medios” para los que hay datos disponibles;
  4. Estas cifras sólo incluyen "activos financieros" y no incluyen activos como bienes raíces, metales preciosos, etc.

La credibilidad de Henry y la profundidad de su análisis hicieron que el informe atrajera la atención internacional. [140] [144] [145] El TJN complementó su informe con otro informe sobre las consecuencias del análisis en términos de desigualdad global y pérdida de ingresos para las economías en desarrollo. [146] El informe fue criticado por un informe de 2013 financiado por Jersey Finance (un grupo de presión para el sector de servicios financieros en Jersey), y escrito por dos académicos estadounidenses, Richard Morriss y Andrew Gordon. [139] En 2014, el TJN emitió un informe en respuesta a estas críticas. [147] [148]

La riqueza oculta de las naciones(2015)

En 2015, el economista fiscal francés Gabriel Zucman publicó La riqueza oculta de las naciones , en la que utilizó datos de cuentas nacionales globales para calcular la cantidad de posiciones netas de activos extranjeros de los países ricos que no se declaran porque se encuentran en paraísos fiscales. Zucman estimó que entre el 8 y el 10% de la riqueza financiera mundial de los hogares, o más de 7,6 billones de dólares estadounidenses, se encontraba en paraísos fiscales. [25] [27] [149] [38]

Zucman publicó varios artículos en coautoría sobre el uso de los paraísos fiscales por parte de las corporaciones, titulados "The Missing Profits of Nations" (2016-2018), [21] [22] y "The Exorbitant Tax Privilege" (2018), [66] [67] que mostraban que las corporaciones protegen de impuestos a más de 250 mil millones de dólares por año. Zucman demostró que casi la mitad de ellas son corporaciones estadounidenses, [68] y que fue el motor de cómo las corporaciones estadounidenses acumularon depósitos en efectivo en el extranjero de 1 a 2 billones de dólares desde 2004. [69] El análisis de Zucman (et alia) mostró que las cifras del PIB mundial estaban materialmente distorsionadas por los flujos BEPS multinacionales. [150] [38]

Un estudio de 2022 realizado por Zucman y coautores estimó que el 36% de las ganancias de las empresas multinacionales se trasladan a paraísos fiscales. [151] Si las ganancias se hubieran reasignado a su fuente nacional, "las ganancias nacionales aumentarían alrededor de un 20% en los países de la Unión Europea con impuestos elevados, un 10% en los Estados Unidos y un 5% en los países en desarrollo, mientras que caerían un 55% en los paraísos fiscales". [151]

Informes de la OCDE y el FMI (desde 2007)

En 2007, la OCDE estimó que el capital mantenido en el extranjero ascendía a entre 5 y 7 billones de dólares, lo que representa aproximadamente el 6-8% del total de las inversiones mundiales bajo gestión. [152] En 2017, como parte del Proyecto BEPS de la OCDE, estimó que entre 100 y 240 mil millones de dólares en ganancias corporativas estaban siendo protegidas de la tributación a través de actividades BEPS llevadas a cabo a través de jurisdicciones de tipo paraíso fiscal. [23] [38]

En 2018, la revista trimestral del FMI Finance & Development publicó una investigación conjunta entre el FMI y académicos tributarios titulada "Piercing the Veil", que estimaba que alrededor de 12 billones de dólares de inversión corporativa global en todo el mundo eran "solo inversiones corporativas fantasma" estructuradas para evitar impuestos corporativos, y se concentraban en ocho lugares importantes. [37] En 2019, el mismo equipo publicó otra investigación titulada "The Rise of Phantom Investments", que estimaba que un alto porcentaje de la inversión extranjera directa (IED) global era "fantasma", y que "las cáscaras corporativas vacías en los paraísos fiscales socavan la recaudación de impuestos en las economías avanzadas, de mercados emergentes y en desarrollo". [26] La investigación destacó a Irlanda y estimó que más de dos tercios de la IED de Irlanda era "fantasma". [153] [154]

Incentivos

Prosperidad

En varios trabajos de investigación, James R. Hines Jr. demostró que los paraísos fiscales eran, por lo general, naciones pequeñas pero bien gobernadas y que ser un paraíso fiscal había traído consigo una prosperidad significativa. [31] [32] En 2009, Hines y Dharmapala sugirieron que aproximadamente el 15% de los países son paraísos fiscales, pero se preguntaron por qué más países no se habían convertido en paraísos fiscales dada la prosperidad económica observable que podría traer. [4]

Hoy en día hay alrededor de 40 paraísos fiscales importantes en el mundo, pero los considerables beneficios económicos que aparentemente se obtienen al convertirse en un paraíso fiscal plantean la pregunta de por qué no hay más.

—  Dhammika Dharmapala , James R. Hines Jr. , ¿Qué países se convierten en paraísos fiscales? (2009) [4]

Hines y Dharmapala concluyeron que la gobernanza era un tema importante para los países más pequeños que intentaban convertirse en paraísos fiscales. Sólo los países con una gobernanza sólida y una legislación en la que las empresas y los inversores extranjeros confiaran podrían convertirse en paraísos fiscales. [4] La visión positiva de Hines y Dharmapala sobre los beneficios financieros de convertirse en un paraíso fiscal, además de ser dos de los principales líderes académicos en la investigación sobre los paraísos fiscales, los puso en un agudo conflicto con las organizaciones no gubernamentales que abogan por la justicia fiscal , como la Red de Justicia Fiscal, que los acusó de promover la evasión fiscal. [155] [156] [157]

PIB per cápita

Los paraísos fiscales tienen una alta puntuación en términos de PIB per cápita , ya que sus estadísticas económicas "principales" están infladas artificialmente por los flujos BEPS que se suman al PIB del paraíso, pero no son gravables en el paraíso. [37] [158] Como los mayores facilitadores de los flujos BEPS, los paraísos fiscales centrados en las empresas, en particular, conforman la mayoría de las 10-15 principales tablas de PIB per cápita, excluyendo las naciones de petróleo y gas (véase la tabla siguiente). La investigación sobre los paraísos fiscales sugiere que una alta puntuación de PIB per cápita, en ausencia de recursos naturales materiales, es un indicador indirecto importante de un paraíso fiscal. [47] En el centro de la definición del FSF-FMI de un centro financiero extraterritorial se encuentra un país donde los flujos financieros BEPS son desproporcionados con respecto al tamaño de la economía autóctona. [47] La ​​transacción BEPS de "economía de duendes" de Apple en Irlanda en el primer trimestre de 2015 fue un ejemplo dramático, que provocó que Irlanda abandonara sus métricas de PIB y PNB en febrero de 2017, a favor de una nueva métrica, el ingreso nacional bruto modificado o GNI*.

La inflación artificial del PIB puede atraer capital extranjero infravalorado (que utiliza la métrica de deuda/PIB "principal" del refugio), lo que produce fases de mayor crecimiento económico. [32] Sin embargo, el mayor apalancamiento conduce a ciclos crediticios más severos, en particular cuando la naturaleza artificial del PIB está expuesta a los inversores extranjeros. [33] [159]

El economista ganador del Premio Nobel Paul Krugman calificó la reexpresión de las cuentas nacionales de Irlanda en 2015, como resultado de la reestructuración del primer trimestre de 2015 de las herramientas BEPS de Apple, como "economía de duendes".

Notas:

  1. Los datos provienen de la Lista de países por PIB (PPA) per cápita y las cifras, cuando se muestran (marcadas con ‡), son USD per cápita para lugares que no son paraísos fiscales.
  2. "Los 10 principales paraísos fiscales" en la tabla se refiere a los § 10 principales paraísos fiscales anteriores; 6 de los 9 paraísos fiscales que aparecen en total en los § 10 principales paraísos fiscales están representados arriba (Irlanda, Singapur, Suiza, Países Bajos, Luxemburgo y Hong Kong), y los 3 paraísos restantes (Islas Caimán, Bermudas, Islas Vírgenes Británicas) no aparecen en las tablas de PIB per cápita del Banco Mundial y el FMI.
  3. "Conduit OFC" y "Sink OFC" se refieren al estudio Conduit and Sink OFC de 2017 de CORPNET de la Universidad de Ámsterdam.

Aceptación

En 2018, el destacado economista de paraísos fiscales, Gabriel Zucman , demostró que la mayoría de las disputas sobre impuestos corporativos se dan entre jurisdicciones con impuestos elevados, y no entre jurisdicciones con impuestos elevados y jurisdicciones con impuestos bajos. [162] La investigación de Zucman (et alia) mostró que las disputas con paraísos fiscales importantes, como Irlanda, Luxemburgo y los Países Bajos, son en realidad bastante raras. [64] [163]

Demostramos teórica y empíricamente que, en el actual sistema tributario internacional, las autoridades fiscales de los países con altos impuestos no tienen incentivos para combatir el traslado de beneficios a paraísos fiscales. En cambio, centran sus esfuerzos de aplicación de la ley en reubicar los beneficios contabilizados en otros países con altos impuestos, robándose en la práctica ingresos entre sí. Esta falla de la política puede explicar la persistencia del traslado de beneficios a países con bajos impuestos a pesar de los altos costos que ello implica para los países con altos impuestos.

—  Gabriel Zucman , Harvard Kennedy School (mayo de 2018) [164]

Beneficios

Promotores del crecimiento

Un área controvertida de investigación sobre los paraísos fiscales es la sugerencia de que los paraísos fiscales en realidad promueven el crecimiento económico global al resolver problemas percibidos en los regímenes fiscales de las naciones con impuestos más altos (por ejemplo, el debate anterior sobre el sistema fiscal "mundial" de los EE. UU. como ejemplo). Líderes académicos importantes en la investigación de los paraísos fiscales, como Hines, [165] Dharmapala, [77] y otros, [166] citan evidencia de que, en ciertos casos, los paraísos fiscales parecen promover el crecimiento económico en países con impuestos más altos y pueden respaldar regímenes fiscales híbridos beneficiosos de impuestos más altos sobre la actividad doméstica, pero impuestos más bajos sobre el capital o los ingresos de origen internacional:

No está claro el efecto de los paraísos fiscales sobre el bienestar económico en países con altos impuestos, aunque la disponibilidad de paraísos fiscales parece estimular la actividad económica en países cercanos con altos impuestos.

—  James R. Hines Jr. , "Resumen: Paraísos fiscales" (2007) [31]

Los paraísos fiscales cambian la naturaleza de la competencia fiscal entre otros países, permitiéndoles muy posiblemente mantener altas tasas impositivas internas que son efectivamente mitigadas para los inversionistas internacionales móviles cuyas transacciones se canalizan a través de paraísos fiscales. [..] De hecho, los países que se encuentran cerca de paraísos fiscales han exhibido un crecimiento del ingreso real más rápido que aquellos más alejados, posiblemente en parte como resultado de los flujos financieros y sus efectos en el mercado.

—  James R. Hines Jr. , “Las islas del tesoro”, pág. 107 (2010) [30]

El artículo más citado sobre la investigación de los centros financieros extraterritoriales ("CFE"), [167] un término estrechamente relacionado con los paraísos fiscales, señaló los aspectos positivos y negativos de los CFE en las economías vecinas con altos impuestos o economías de origen, y marginalmente se pronunció a favor de los CFE. [168]

CONCLUSIÓN: Utilizando muestras tanto bilaterales como multilaterales, encontramos empíricamente que los centros financieros offshore exitosos alientan el mal comportamiento en los países de origen ya que facilitan la evasión fiscal y el lavado de dinero [...] No obstante, los centros financieros offshore creados para facilitar actividades indeseables aún pueden tener consecuencias positivas no deseadas. [...] Concluimos tentativamente que los OFC se caracterizan mejor como "simbiontes".

—  Andrew K. Rose, Mark M. Spiegel, "Centros financieros offshore: ¿Parásitos o simbiontes?", The Economic Journal , (septiembre de 2007) [168]

Sin embargo, otros académicos notables en materia tributaria cuestionan firmemente estas opiniones, como el trabajo de Slemrod y Wilson, quienes en su § Important papers on tax havens, etiquetan a los paraísos fiscales como parásitos de las jurisdicciones con regímenes tributarios normales, que pueden dañar sus economías. [169] Además, los grupos de campaña por la justicia fiscal han sido igualmente críticos con Hines y otros en estas opiniones. [156] [157] Una investigación realizada en junio de 2018 por el FMI mostró que gran parte de la inversión extranjera directa ("IED") que provenía de paraísos fiscales hacia países con impuestos más altos, en realidad se había originado en el país con impuestos más altos, [37] y, por ejemplo, que la mayor fuente de IED en el Reino Unido, en realidad era del Reino Unido, pero se invirtió a través de paraísos fiscales. [170]

Es fácil desdibujar los límites con las teorías económicas más controvertidas sobre los efectos de los impuestos corporativos en el crecimiento económico y sobre si deberían existir impuestos corporativos. Otros investigadores que han examinado los paraísos fiscales, como Zucman , destacan la injusticia de los paraísos fiscales y ven los efectos como una pérdida de ingresos para el desarrollo de la sociedad. [171] Sigue siendo un área controvertida con defensores de ambos lados. [172]

Recibos de impuestos de EE.UU.

Un hallazgo del trabajo de Hines-Rice de 1994 , reafirmado por otros, [166] fue que: las bajas tasas impositivas extranjeras [de los paraísos fiscales] en última instancia mejoran las recaudaciones impositivas de los EE. UU . [54] Hines demostró que, como resultado de no pagar impuestos extranjeros mediante el uso de paraísos fiscales, las multinacionales estadounidenses evitaron acumular créditos impositivos extranjeros que reducirían su obligación tributaria en los EE. UU. Hines volvió a este hallazgo varias veces, y en su trabajo de 2010, "Treasure Islands", donde mostró cómo las multinacionales estadounidenses utilizaron paraísos fiscales y herramientas BEPS para evitar los impuestos japoneses sobre sus inversiones japonesas, señaló que esto estaba siendo confirmado por otra investigación empírica a nivel de empresa. [35] Las observaciones de Hines influirían en la política estadounidense hacia los paraísos fiscales, incluidas las reglas de " marcar la casilla " [h] de 1996, y la hostilidad estadounidense a los intentos de la OCDE de frenar las herramientas BEPS de Irlanda, [i] [36] y por qué, a pesar de la divulgación pública de la evasión fiscal por parte de empresas como Google, Facebook y Apple, con las herramientas BEPS irlandesas, Estados Unidos ha hecho poco para detenerlas. [166]

Las multinacionales estadounidenses registran más de la mitad de sus ganancias no estadounidenses en paraísos fiscales utilizando herramientas BEPS ( BEA , 2016 ). [66] [67]

Las tasas impositivas extranjeras más bajas implican créditos menores por impuestos extranjeros y mayores recaudaciones impositivas finales en Estados Unidos (Hines y Rice, 1994). [54] Dyreng y Lindsey (2009), [35] ofrecen evidencia de que las empresas estadounidenses con filiales extranjeras en ciertos paraísos fiscales pagan impuestos extranjeros más bajos e impuestos estadounidenses más altos que las grandes empresas estadounidenses similares en otros aspectos.

—  James R. Hines Jr. , “Las islas del tesoro”, pág. 107 (2010) [30]

Una investigación realizada entre junio y septiembre de 2018 confirmó que las multinacionales estadounidenses son los mayores usuarios globales de paraísos fiscales y herramientas BEPS. [68] [69] [150]

Las multinacionales estadounidenses utilizan los paraísos fiscales [j] más que las multinacionales de otros países que han mantenido sus regulaciones sobre las corporaciones extranjeras controladas. Ningún otro país de la OCDE que no sea un paraíso fiscal registra una proporción tan alta de ganancias extranjeras contabilizadas en paraísos fiscales como Estados Unidos. [...] Esto sugiere que la mitad de todas las ganancias globales transferidas a paraísos fiscales son transferidas por multinacionales estadounidenses. En cambio, alrededor del 25% se acumula en países de la UE, el 10% en el resto de la OCDE y el 15% en países en desarrollo (Tørsløv et al., 2018).

—  Gabriel Zucman , Thomas Wright, “El privilegio fiscal exorbitante”, Documentos de trabajo del NBER (septiembre de 2018). [66] [67]
Distribución de las ganancias corporativas de EE. UU. (como porcentaje del PIB de EE. UU.) registradas en lugares extranjeros (datos de BEA) [173]

En 2019, grupos no académicos, como el Consejo de Relaciones Exteriores , se dieron cuenta de la magnitud del uso que hacen las empresas estadounidenses de los paraísos fiscales:

Más de la mitad de los beneficios que las empresas estadounidenses declaran haber obtenido en el extranjero se registran en unos pocos paraísos fiscales, lugares que, por supuesto, no son en realidad el hogar de los clientes, trabajadores y contribuyentes que facilitan la mayor parte de sus negocios. Una corporación multinacional puede canalizar sus ventas globales a través de Irlanda, pagar regalías a su filial holandesa y luego canalizar los ingresos a su filial bermudeña, aprovechando la tasa impositiva corporativa nula de Bermudas.

—  Brad Setser , "La estafa global oculta en la ley de reforma fiscal de Trump, al descubierto", The New York Times (febrero de 2019). [173]

Los grupos de justicia fiscal interpretaron la investigación de Hines como una competencia fiscal entre Estados Unidos y naciones con impuestos más altos (es decir, el erario público estadounidense obtiene impuestos excesivos a expensas de otros). La TCJA de 2017 parece respaldar esta opinión, ya que el erario público estadounidense puede imponer un impuesto de repatriación del 15,5 % sobre más de un billón de dólares de ganancias no gravadas en el extranjero acumuladas por multinacionales estadounidenses con herramientas BEPS a partir de ingresos no estadounidenses. Si estas multinacionales estadounidenses hubieran pagado impuestos sobre estas ganancias no estadounidenses en los países en los que se obtuvieron, habría habido una pequeña responsabilidad adicional por impuestos estadounidenses. La investigación de Zucman y Wright (2018) estimó que la mayor parte del beneficio de repatriación de la TCJA fue para los accionistas de las multinacionales estadounidenses, y no para el erario público estadounidense. [66] [k]

Los académicos que estudian los paraísos fiscales atribuyen el apoyo de Washington al uso de los paraísos fiscales por parte de las corporaciones estadounidenses a un compromiso político entre Washington y otras naciones de la OCDE con impuestos más altos, para compensar las deficiencias del sistema fiscal "mundial" de Estados Unidos. [174] [175] Hines había abogado por un cambio a un sistema fiscal "territorial", como el que utilizan la mayoría de las demás naciones, lo que eliminaría la necesidad de las multinacionales estadounidenses de contar con paraísos fiscales. En 2016, Hines, junto con académicos fiscales alemanes, demostró que las multinacionales alemanas hacen poco uso de los paraísos fiscales porque su régimen fiscal, un sistema "territorial", elimina cualquier necesidad de ellos. [176]

La investigación de Hines fue citada por el Consejo de Asesores Económicos ("CEA") al redactar la legislación TCJA en 2017 y abogar por pasar a un marco de sistema tributario "territorial" híbrido. [177] [178]

Conceptos

Hay una serie de conceptos notables en relación con la forma en que las personas y las empresas interactúan con los paraísos fiscales: [45] [179]

Estado capturado

Some authors on tax havens describe them as "captured states" by their offshore finance industry, suggesting the legal, taxation and other requirements of the professional service firms operating from the tax haven are given higher priority to any conflicting State needs.[50][180] The term has been particularly used for smaller tax havens,[181] with examples being Delaware, the Seychelles,[182] and Jersey.[183] However, the term "captured state" has also been used for larger and more established OECD and EU offshore financial centres or tax havens.[184][185][186] Ronen Palan has noted that even where tax havens started out as "trading centres", they can eventually become "captured" by "powerful foreign finance and legal firms who write the laws of these countries which they then exploit".[187] Tangible examples include the public disclosure in 2016 of Amazon Inc's Project Goldcrest tax structure, which showed how closely the State of Luxembourg worked with Amazon for over two years to help it avoid global taxes.[188][189] Other examples include how the Dutch Government removed provisions to prevent corporate tax avoidance by creating the Dutch Sandwich BEPS tool, which Dutch law firms then marketed to US corporations:

[When] former venture-capital executive at ABN Amro Holding NV Joop Wijn becomes State Secretary of Economic Affairs in May 2003 [, ... it is] not long before the Wall Street Journal reports about his tour of the US, during which he pitches the new Netherlands tax policy to dozens of American tax lawyers, accountants, and corporate tax directors. In July 2005, he decides to abolish the provision that was meant to prevent tax dodging by American companies, in order to meet criticism from tax consultants.

— Oxfam/De Correspondent, "How the Netherlands became a Tax Haven", 31 May 2017.[190][191]

Preferential tax ruling

Preferential tax rulings (PTR) can be used by a jurisdiction for benign reasons, for example, tax incentives to encourage urban renewal. However, PTRs can also be used to provide aspects of tax regimes normally found in traditional tax havens.[45] For example, while British citizens pay full taxes on their assets, foreign citizens legally resident in the UK pay no taxes on their global assets, as long as they are left outside the UK; thus, for a foreign resident, the UK behaves in a similar way to a traditional tax haven.[192] Some tax academics say that PTRs make the distinction with traditional tax havens "matter of degree more than anything else".[45][193] The OECD has made the investigation of PTRs a key part of its long-term project of combatting Harmful Tax Practices, started in 1998; by 2019, the OECD had investigated over 255 PTRs.[194] The 2014 Lux Leaks disclosure revealed 548 PTRs issued by the Luxembourg authorities to corporate clients of PriceWaterhouseCoopers. When the EU Commission fined Apple US$13 billion in 2016, the largest tax fine in history, they claimed Apple had received "preferential tax rulings" in 1991 and 2007.[138][195]

Tax inversion

Corporations can move their legal headquarters from a higher-tax home jurisdiction to a tax haven by executing a tax inversion. A "naked tax inversion" is where the corporate had little prior business activities in the new location. The first tax inversion was the "naked inversion" of McDermott International to Panama in 1983.[55][53] The US Congress effectively banned "naked inversions" for US corporates by introducing IRS regulation 7874 in the American Jobs Creation Act of 2004.[53] A "merger tax inversion" is where the corporate overcomes IRS 7874 by merging with a corporation that has a "substantive business presence" in the new location.[53] The requirement for a substantive business presence meant that US corporations could only invert to larger tax havens, and particularly OECD tax havens and EU tax havens. Further tightening of regulations by the US Treasury in 2016, as well as the 2017 TCJA US tax reform, reduced the tax benefits of a US corporation inverting to a tax haven.[53]

Base erosion and profit shifting

Even when a corporation executes a tax inversion to a tax haven, it also needs to shift (or earnings strip) its untaxed profits to the new tax haven.[53] These are called base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) techniques.[93] Notable BEPS tools like the Double Irish with a Dutch Sandwich were used by US corporations to build up untaxed offshore cash reserves of US$1–2 trillion in tax havens like Bermuda (e.g., Apple's Bermuda Black Hole) from 2004 to 2017.[196] As discussed in § Financial scale, in 2017, the OECD estimated that BEPS tools shielded US$100 to US$200 billion in annual corporate profits from tax; while in 2018, Zucman estimated that the figure was closer to US$250 billion per annum. This was despite the 2012–2016 OECD BEPS Project. In 2015, Apple executed the largest recorded BEPS transaction in history when it moved US$300 billion of its IP to Ireland, in what was called a hybrid-tax inversion.

The largest BEPS tools are the ones that use intellectual property (IP) accounting to shift profits between jurisdictions. The concept of a corporation charging its costs from one jurisdiction against its profits in another jurisdiction (i.e. transfer pricing) is well understood and accepted. However, IP enables a corporation to "revalue" its costs dramatically. For example, a major piece of software might have cost US$1 billion to develop in salaries and overheads. IP accounting enables the legal ownership of the software to be relocated to a tax haven where it can be revalued to being worth US$100 billion, which becomes the new price at which it is charged out against global profits. This creates a shifting of all global profits back to the tax haven. IP has been described as "the leading corporate tax avoidance vehicle".[197][198]

Corporate tax haven

2018 Global Innovation Property Centre (GIPC) Legal Systems League Table: Patents Sub-Category[199]

Traditional OFCs, such as Cayman, BVI, Guernsey or Jersey are clear about their corporate tax neutrality. Because of this, they tend not to sign full bilateral tax treaties with other higher-tax jurisdictions. Instead, the receipts from investment structures in those jurisdictions are subject to full withholding tax set by the relevant onshore jurisdiction. The British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies all provide full tax transparency and automatic tax reporting to onshore tax authorities via CRS, FACTA.

Other tax havens, for example in Europe or Asia, maintain higher non-zero "headline" rates of corporate taxation, but instead provide complex and confidential BEPS tools and PTRs which bring the "effective" corporate tax rate closer to zero; they all feature prominently in the leading jurisdictions for IP law (see graphic). These "corporate tax havens" (or Conduit OFCs), further increase respectability by requiring the corporate using their BEPS tools/PTRs to maintain a "substantial presence" in the haven; this is called an employment tax, and can cost the corporate circa 2–3% of revenues. However, these initiatives enable the corporate tax haven to maintain large networks of full bilateral tax treaties, that allow corporates based in the haven to shift global untaxed profits back to the haven (and on to Sink OFCs, as shown above). These "corporate tax havens" strongly deny any association with being a tax haven and maintain high levels of compliance and transparency, with many being OECD-whitelisted (and are OECD or EU members). Many of the § Top 10 tax havens are "corporate tax havens".

Conduits and Sinks

In 2017, the University of Amsterdam's CORPNET research group published the results of their multi-year big data analysis of over 98 million global corporate connections. CORPNET ignored any prior definition of a tax haven or any legal or tax structuring concepts, to instead follow a purely quantitative approach. CORPNET's results split the understanding of tax havens into Sink OFCs, which are traditional tax havens to which corporates route untaxed funds, and Conduit OFCs, which are the jurisdictions that create the OECD-compliant tax structures that enable the untaxed funds to be routed from the higher-tax jurisdictions to the Sink OFCs. Despite following a purely quantitative approach, CORPNET's top 5 Conduit OFCs and top 5 Sink OFCs closely match the other academic § Top 10 tax havens. CORPNET's Conduit OFCs contained several major jurisdictions considered OECD and/or EU tax havens, including the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and Ireland.[60][94][200] Conduit OFCs are strongly correlated with modern "corporate tax havens" and Sink OFCs with the "traditional tax havens".

Tax-free wrapper

As well as corporate structures, tax havens also provide tax-free (or "tax neutral") legal wrappers for holding assets, also known as special purpose vehicles (SPVs) or special purpose companies (SPCs).[50] These SPVs and SPCs are not only free of all taxes, duties, and VAT, but are tailored to the regulatory requirements, and the banking requirements of specific segments.[50] For example, the zero-tax Section 110 SPV is a major wrapper in the global securitization market.[200] This SPV offers features including orphan structures, which is facilitated to support requirements for bankruptcy remoteness, which would not be appropriate in larger financial centres, as it could damage the local tax base, but are needed by banks in securitizations. The Cayman Islands SPC is a structure used by asset managers as it can accommodate asset classes such as intellectual property ("IP") assets, cryptocurrency assets, and carbon credit assets; competitor products include the Irish QIAIF and Luxembourg's SICAV.[201]

Data leaks

Some businesses in tax havens have been subject to the illegal obtaining and either public or non-public disclosures of client account data, the most notable being:

Liechtenstein tax affair (2008)

In 2008, the German Federal Intelligence Service paid €4.2 million to Heinrich Kieber, a former IT data archivist of LGT Treuhand, a Liechtenstein bank, for a list of 1,250 customer account details of the bank.[202] Investigations and arrests followed relating to charges of illegal tax evasion.[203] The German authorities shared the data with US IRS, and the British HMRC paid GBP£100,000 for the same data.[204] The authorities in several other European countries, Australia and Canada also received the data. Liechtenstein's authorities strongly protested the case and issued an arrest order against the man suspected of having leaked the data.[205]

British Virgin Islands offshore leaks (2013)

In April 2013, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) released a searchable 260 gigabyte database of 2.5 million tax haven client files anonymously leaked to the ICIJ and analyzed with 112 journalists in 58 countries.[206][207] The majority of clients came from mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, the Russian Federation, and former Soviet republics; with the British Virgin Islands identified as the most important tax haven for Chinese clients, and Cyprus an important tax haven location for Russian clients.[208] Various prominent names were contained in the leaks including: François Hollande's campaign manager, Jean-Jacques Augier; Mongolia's finance minister, Bayartsogt Sangajav; the president of Azerbaijan; the wife of Russia's Deputy Prime Minister; and Canadian politician Anthony Merchant.[209]

Luxembourg leaks (2014)

In November 2014, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) released 28,000 documents totalling 4.4 gigabytes of confidential information about Luxembourg's confidential private tax rulings give to PricewaterhouseCoopers from 2002 to 2010 to the benefits of its clients in Luxembourg. This ICIJ investigation disclosed 548 tax rulings for over 340 multinational companies based in Luxembourg. The LuxLeaks' disclosures attracted international attention and comment about corporate tax avoidance schemes in Luxembourg and elsewhere. This scandal contributed to the implementation of measures aiming at reducing tax dumping and regulating tax avoidance schemes beneficial to multinational companies.[210][211]

Swiss leaks (2015)

In February 2015, French newspaper Le Monde, was given over 3.3 gigabytes of confidential client data relating to a tax evasion scheme allegedly operated with the knowledge and encouragement of the British multinational bank HSBC via its Swiss subsidiary, HSBC Private Bank (Suisse). The source was French computer analyst Hervé Falciani who provided data on accounts held by over 100,000 clients and 20,000 offshore companies with HSBC in Geneva; the disclosure has been called "the biggest leak in Swiss banking history". Le Monde called upon 154 journalists affiliated with 47 different media outlets to process the data, including The Guardian, Süddeutsche Zeitung, and the ICIJ.[212][213]

Panama papers (2015)

Countries with politicians, public officials or close associates named in the leak in April 2016

In 2015, 11.5 million documents totalling 2.6 terabytes, detailing financial and attorney-client information for more than 214,488 offshore entities, some dating back to the 1970s, that were taken from the Panamanian law firm Mossack Fonseca, were anomalously leaked to German journalist Bastian Obermayer in Süddeutsche Zeitung (SZ). Given the unprecedented scale of the data, SZ worked with the ICIJ, as well as Journalists from 107 media organizations in 80 countries who analyzed the documents. After more than a year of analysis, the first news stories were published on 3 April 2016. The documents named prominent public figures from around the globe including British prime minister David Cameron and the Icelandic prime minister Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson.[214]

Paradise papers (2017)

In 2017, 13.4 million documents totalling 1.4 terabytes, detailing both personal and major corporate client activities of the offshore magic circle law firm Appleby, covering 19 tax havens, were leaked to the German reporters Frederik Obermaier and Bastian Obermayer in Süddeutsche Zeitung (SZ). As with the Panama Papers in 2015, SZ worked with the ICIJ and over 100 media organizations to process the documents. They contain the names of more than 120,000 people and companies including Apple, AIG, Prince Charles, Queen Elizabeth II, the President of Colombia Juan Manuel Santos, and then-U.S. Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross. At 1.4 terabytes in size, this is second only to the Panama Papers of 2016 as the biggest data leak in history.[215]

Pandora Papers (2021)

In October 2021, 11.9 million leaked documents with 2.9 terabytes of data were leaked by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists (ICIJ). The leak exposed the secret offshore accounts of 35 world leaders, including current and former presidents, prime ministers, and heads of state as well as more than 100 billionaires, celebrities, and business leaders.

In a report dated 15 June 2023,[216] certain chilling admissions were made by the Parliament of the European Union regarding the conduct and publicity surrounding the Pandora Papers data breach:

[The Parliament] Stresses the importance of defending the freedom of journalists to report on issues of public interest without facing the threat of costly legal action, including when they receive confidential, secret or restricted documents, datasets or other materials, regardless of their origin. (§2)

[The Parliament] Regrets the lack of democratic accountability in the process of drawing up the "EU list of non-cooperative jurisdictions for tax purposes"; recalls that the Council seems sometimes to be guided by diplomatic or political motives rather than objective assessments when deciding to move countries from the "grey list" to the "black list" and vice-versa; stresses that this undermines the credibility, predictability and usefulness of the lists; calls for Parliament to be consulted in the preparation of the list and for an extensive revision of the screening criteria (§78)

[The Parliament] notes that despite the implementation of European and national legislation on beneficial ownership transparency, as reported by non-governmental organisations, the quality of data in some EU public registers requires improvement (§60)

Countermeasures

The various countermeasures that higher-tax jurisdictions have taken against tax havens can be grouped into the following types:

Transparency

US FATCA

In 2010, Congress passed the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA), which requires foreign financial institutions (FFI) of broad scope – banks, stock brokers, hedge funds, pension funds, insurance companies, trusts – to report directly to the US Internal Revenue Service (IRS) all clients who are U.S. persons. Starting January 2014, FATCA requires FFIs to provide annual reports to the IRS on the name and address of each U.S. client, as well as the largest account balance in the year and total debits and credits of any account owned by a U.S. person.[217] In addition, FATCA requires any foreign company not listed on a stock exchange or any foreign partnership which has 10% U.S. ownership to report to the IRS the names and tax identification number (TIN) of any U.S. owner. FATCA also requires U.S. citizens and green card holders who have foreign financial assets in excess of $50,000 to complete a new Form 8938 to be filed with the 1040 tax return, starting with fiscal year 2010.[218]

OECD CRS

In 2014, the OECD followed FATCA with the Common Reporting Standard, an information standard for the automatic exchange of tax and financial information on a global level (which would already be needed by FATCA to process data). Participating in the CRS from 2017 onwards are Australia, the Bahamas, Bahrain, Bermuda, Brazil, British Virgin Islands, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Cayman Islands, Chile, China, the Cook Islands, Guernsey, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Jersey, Kuwait, Lebanon, Macau, Malaysia, Mauritius, Monaco, New Zealand, Panama, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and Uruguay.[219]

Blacklists

OECD

At the London G20 summit on 2 April 2009, G20 countries agreed to define a blacklist for tax havens, to be segmented according to a four-tier system, based on compliance with an "internationally agreed tax standard".[220] The list as per 2 April 2009 can be viewed on the OECD website.[221] The four tiers were:

  1. Those that have substantially implemented the standard (includes most countries but China still excludes Hong Kong and Macau).
  2. Tax havens that have committed to – but not yet fully implemented – the standard (includes Montserrat, Nauru, Niue, Panama, and Vanuatu)
  3. Financial centres that have committed to – but not yet fully implemented – the standard (includes Guatemala, Costa Rica and Uruguay).
  4. Those that have not committed to the standard (an empty category)

Those countries in the bottom tier were initially classified as being 'non-cooperative tax havens'. Uruguay was initially classified as being uncooperative. However, upon appeal the OECD stated that it did meet tax transparency rules and thus moved it up. The Philippines took steps to remove itself from the blacklist and Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak had suggested earlier that Malaysia should not be in the bottom tier.[222]

In April 2009 the OECD announced through its chief Angel Gurria that Costa Rica, Malaysia, the Philippines and Uruguay have been removed from the blacklist after they had made "a full commitment to exchange information to the OECD standards."[223] Despite calls from the former French President Nicolas Sarkozy for Hong Kong and Macau to be included on the list separately from China, they are as yet not included independently, although it is expected that they will be added at a later date.[220]

Government response to the crackdown has been broadly supportive, although not universal.[224] Luxembourg Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker has criticised the list, stating that it has "no credibility", for failing to include various states of the USA which provide incorporation infrastructure which are indistinguishable from the aspects of pure tax havens to which the G20 object.[225] As of 2012, 89 countries have implemented reforms sufficient to be listed on the OECD's white list.[226]

European Union

In December 2017, EU Commission adopted a "blacklist" of territories to encourage compliance and cooperation: American Samoa, Bahrain, Barbados, Grenada, Guam, South Korea, Macau, the Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Namibia, Palau, Panama, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates.[61] In addition, the Commission produced a "greylist" of 47 jurisdictions which had already committed to cooperate with the EU to change their rules on tax transparency and cooperation.[227] Only one of the EU's 17 blacklisted tax havens, namely Samoa, was in § Top 20 tax havens above. The EU lists did not include any OECD or EU jurisdictions, or any of the § Top 10 tax havens.[62][63][228][229] A few weeks later in January 2018, EU Taxation Commissioner Pierre Moscovici, called Ireland and the Netherlands, "tax black holes".[230][231] After only a few months the EU reduced the blacklist further,[232] and by November 2018, it contained only five jurisdictions: American Samoa, Guam, Samoa, Trinidad & Tobago, and the US Virgin Islands.[233] However, by March 2019, the EU blacklist was expanded to 15 jurisdictions including Bermuda, a Top 10 tax haven and the 5th largest Sink OFC.[234]

On 27 March 2019, the European Parliament voted by 505 in favour to 63 against of accepting a new report that likened Luxembourg, Malta, Ireland and the Netherlands, and Cyprus to "display[ing] traits of a tax haven and facilitate aggressive tax planning".[71][235] However, despite this vote, the EU Commission is not obliged to include these EU jurisdictions on the blacklist.[70]

Portugal

Since the early 2000s Portugal has adopted a specific list of jurisdictions deemed as tax havens by the Government, associated to said list are a set of tax penalties on Portuguese resident taxpayers. Nevertheless, the list has been critiqued[236] for not being objective nor rational from an economic standpoint.

Specific

Anti-inversion

To prevent naked tax inversions of US corporations to mostly Caribbean-type tax havens (e.g. Bermuda and the Cayman Islands), the US Congress added Regulation 7874 to the IRS code with the passing of the American Jobs Creation Act of 2004. Although the legislation was effective, further US Treasury regulations were required in 2014–2016 to prevent the much larger merger tax inversions, which culminated with the effective block of the proposed 2016 US$160 billion of Pfizer-Allergan in Ireland. Since these changes, there have been no further material US tax inversions.

Anti-BEPS

At the 2012 G20 Los Cabos summit, it was agreed that the OECD undertake a project to combat base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) activities by corporates. An OECD BEPS Multilateral Instrument, consisting of "15 Actions" designed to be implemented domestically and through bilateral tax treaty provisions, were agreed at the 2015 G20 Antalya summit. The OECD BEPS Multilateral Instrument ("MLI"), was adopted on 24 November 2016 and has since been signed by over 78 jurisdictions; it came into force in July 2018. The MLI has been criticised for "watering down" several of its proposed initiatives, including country–by–country–reporting ("CbCr"), and for providing several opt-outs which several OECD and EU tax havens availed of. The US did not sign the MLI.

Anti-Double Irish

The Double Irish was the largest BEPS tool in history which by 2015, was shielding over US$100 billion in mostly US corporate profits from US taxation. When the EU Commission fined Apple €13 billion for using an illegal hybrid-Double Irish structure, their report noted that Apple had been using the structure from at least as far back as 1991.[237] Several Senate and congressional inquiries in Washington cited public knowledge of the Double Irish from 2000 onwards. However, it was not the US who finally forced Ireland to close the structure in 2015, but the EU Commission;[238] and existing users were given until 2020 to find alternative arrangements, two of which (e.g. Single malt arrangement) were already operating.[239][240] The lack of action by the US, similar to their position with the OECD MLI (above), has been attributed to the § U.S. as the largest user and beneficiary of tax havens. However, some commentators note the § Fundamental reform of the US corporate tax code by the 2017 TCJA may change this.[241]

Fundamental

United Kingdom

After losing 22 tax inversions from 2007 to 2010, mostly to Ireland, the UK decided to completely reform its corporate tax code.[242] From 2009 to 2012 the UK reduced its headline corporate tax rate from 28% to 20% (and eventually to 19%), changed the British corporate tax code from a "worldwide tax system" to a "territorial tax system", and created new IP-based BEPS tools including a low-tax patent box.[242] In 2014, The Wall Street Journal reported that "In U.S. tax inversion Deals, U.K. is now a winner".[243] In a 2015 presentation, HMRC showed that many of the outstanding British inversions from 2007 to 2010 period had returned to the UK as a result of the tax reforms (most of the rest had entered into subsequent transactions and could not return, including Shire).[244]

United States

The US followed a broadly similar reform to the UK with the passing of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 (TCJA), which reduced the US headline corporate tax rate from 35% to 21%, changed the US corporate tax code from a "worldwide tax system" to a hybrid–"territorial tax system", and created new IP-based BEPS tools such as the FDII tax, as well as other anti-BEPS tools such as the BEAT tax.[245][246] In advocating for the TCJA, the President's Council of Economic Advisors (CEA) heavily relied on the work of academic James R. Hines Jr. on the US corporate use of tax havens and the likely responses of US corporations to the TCJA.[82] Since the TCJA, Pfizer has guided global aggregate tax rates that are very similar to what they expected in their aborted 2016 inversion with Allergan plc in Ireland.

International

In January 2019, the OECD released a policy note regarding new proposals to combat the BEPS activities of multinationals, which commentators labeled "BEPS 2.0". In its press release, the OECD announced its proposals had the backing of the U.S., as well as China, Brazil, and India. The new proposals contain more fundamental reforms to corporate taxation around the taxing of profits where a product is consumed, rather than where the product's value is created (as currently done). Although the EU had been a long-term advocate of this concept, the US had traditionally blocked it. However, it is believed the passing of the 2017 TCJA has changed Washington's view on US corporate use of tax havens, who still remain the largest users of tax havens in the world. In response to this new OECD initiative, the EU, and the French in particular, dropped their "Digital Tax" proposal in favour of allowing the OECD BEPS 2.0 initiative reach a conclusion, which it is scheduled to do by 2020.

In 2021 the G20 and OECD produced a report suggesting a change in how multinational enterprises (MNE) are taxed. Defining a MNE as a business with global turnover above 20 billion euros and profitability before tax above 10%. The object being to allocate the profit in excess of the 10% permitted between all nations where the MNE derived turnover. The report had been agreed by 139 OECD member jurisdictions as of 9 June 2023.[247]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ Many corporate–focused tax havens have high nominal rates of taxation (e.g. Netherlands at 25%, United Kingdom at 19%, Singapore at 17%, and Ireland at 12.5%), but maintain a tax regime that excludes sufficient items from taxable income to bring the effective rates of taxation closer to zero
  2. ^ Since the post–2000 OECD–IMF–FATF initiatives on reducing banking secrecy and increasing transparency, modern academics consider the secrecy component to be redundant. See § Definitions.
  3. ^ a b c The FSI is often misquoted as a ranking of "tax havens", however the FSI does not quantify tax avoidance or BEPS flows like modern quantitative tax haven lists; the FSI it is a qualitative scoring of secrecy indicators, and does not score some of the most common secrecy tools—the unlimited liability company, the trust, and various special purpose vehicles (e.g. Irish QIAIFs and L–QIAIFs)—few of which are required to file public accounts in major tax havens, such as Ireland and the United Kingdom.[7][8]
  4. ^ The list of sovereign states numbered 206 as at September 2018, so 15% equates to just over 30 tax havens; the OECD's 2000 list had 35 tax havens,[29] the James Hines 2010 list had 52 tax havens,[30] the 2017 Conduit and Sink OFCs study lists 29 states.
  5. ^ The European Parliament vote is not binding on the EU Commission to formally include these "EU tax havens" in the official EU list of tax havens (blacklist or greylist); to be binding, it must be a unanimous vote by all member states.[70]
  6. ^ Ireland is also connected to the British Empire–related tax havens as Ireland's common law legal system, and company tax system, are more derived from the UK, then from Continental Europe.
  7. ^ a b The ITEP list only focuses on Fortune 500 Companies; its strong correlation with tax haven lists derived from global studies highlights that U.S multinationals are the most dominant source of global tax avoidance, and users of tax havens.
  8. ^ Before 1996, the United States, like other high-income countries, had anti-avoidance rules—known as "controlled foreign corporations" provisions—designed to immediately tax in the United States some foreign income (such as royalties and interest) conducive of profit shifting. In 1996, the IRS issued regulations that enabled U.S. multinationals to avoid some of these rules by electing to treat their foreign subsidiaries as if they were not corporations but disregarded entities for tax purposes. This move is called "checking the box" because that is all that needs to be done on IRS form 8832 to make it work and use Irish BEPS tools on non-U.S. revenues was a compromise to keep U.S. multinationals from leaving the U.S. (page 10.)[66]
  9. ^ The U.S. refused to sign the OECD BEPS Multilateral Instrument ("MLI") on the 24 November 2016.
  10. ^ The paper lists tax havens as: Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Switzerland, Singapore, Bermuda and Caribbean havens (page 6.)
  11. ^ Zucman and Wright's analysis assumed that U.S. multinationals were going to pay a U.S. 35% rate eventually (e.g. they would repatriate their untaxed offshore cash at some stage in the future); if the assumption is made that they were going to permanently leave their offshore cash outside of the U.S., then the U.S. exchequer was the main beneficiary

Further reading

Academic papers

The following are the most cited papers on "tax havens", as ranked on the IDEAS/RePEc database of economic papers, at the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis.[81]

Papers marked (‡) were cited by the EU Commission 2017 summary as the most important research on tax havens.[80]

Major books

(With at least 300 citations on Google Scholar)

Various articles

References

  1. ^ a b "Financial Times Lexicon: Definition of tax haven". Financial Times. June 2018. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018. A country with little or no taxation that offers foreign individuals or corporations residency so that they can avoid tax at home.
  2. ^ a b "Tax haven definition and meaning". Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017. A tax haven is a country or place which has a low rate of tax so that people choose to live there or register companies there in order to avoid paying higher tax in their own countries.
  3. ^ a b "Tax haven definition and meaning". Cambridge English Dictionary. 2018. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 17 June 2018. a place where people pay less tax than they would pay if they lived in their own country
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h Dhammika Dharmapala; James R. Hines Jr. (2009). "Which countries become tax havens?" (PDF). Journal of Public Economics. 93 (9–10): 1058–1068. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2009.07.005. S2CID 16653726. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2018. The 'tax havens' are locations with very low tax rates and other tax attributes designed to appeal to foreign investors.
  5. ^ a b James R. Hines Jr.; Anna Gumpert; Monika Schnitzer (2016). "Multinational Firms and Tax Havens". The Review of Economics and Statistics. 98 (4): 713–727. doi:10.1162/REST_a_00591. S2CID 54649623. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 16 August 2018. Tax havens are typically small, well-governed states that impose low or zero tax rates on foreign investors.
  6. ^ Shaxson, Nicholas (9 January 2011). "Explainer: what is a tax haven?". The Guardian. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  7. ^ "New report: is Apple paying less than 1% tax in the EU?". Tax Justice Network. 28 June 2018. Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 1 September 2018. The use of private 'unlimited liability company' (ULC) status, which exempts companies from filing financial reports publicly. The fact that Apple, Google and many others continue to keep their Irish financial information secret is due to a failure by the Irish government to implement the 2013 EU Accounting Directive, which would require full public financial statements, until 2017, and even then retaining an exemption from financial reporting for certain holding companies until 2022
  8. ^ "Ireland's playing games in the last chance saloon of tax justice". Richard Murphy. 4 July 2018. Archived from the original on 8 July 2018. Retrieved 1 September 2018. Local subsidiaries of multinationals must always be required to file their accounts on public record, which is not the case at present. Ireland is not just a tax haven at present, it is also a corporate secrecy jurisdiction.
  9. ^ a b c d Laurens Booijink; Francis Weyzig (July 2007). "Identifying Tax Havens and Offshore Finance Centres" (PDF). Tax Justice Network and Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2018. Various attempts have been made to identify and list tax havens and offshore finance centres (OFCs). This Briefing Paper aims to compare these lists and clarify the criteria used in preparing them.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Gabriel Zucman (August 2013). "The Missing Wealth of Nations: Are Europe and The U.S. Net Debtors or Net Creditors?" (PDF). The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 128 (3): 1321–1364. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.371.3828. doi:10.1093/qje/qjt012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2018. Tax havens are low-tax jurisdictions that offer businesses and individuals opportunities for tax avoidance' (Hines, 2008). In this paper, I will use the expression 'tax haven' and 'offshore financial center' interchangeably (the list of tax havens considered by Dharmapala and Hines (2009) is identical to the list of offshore financial centers considered by the Financial Stability Forum (IMF, 2000), barring minor exceptions)
  11. ^ "Standard for Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information in Tax Matters | READ online". oecd-ilibrary.org. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  12. ^ "CRS by jurisdiction". www.oecd.org.
  13. ^ "Standard for Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information in Tax Matters | READ online". oecd-ilibrary.org. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  14. ^ "Standard for Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information in Tax Matters | READ online". oecd-ilibrary.org. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  15. ^ "Standard for Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information in Tax Matters | READ online". oecd-ilibrary.org. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  16. ^ "Standard for Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information in Tax Matters | READ online". oecd-ilibrary.org. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  17. ^ "Standard for Automatic Exchange of Financial Account Information in Tax Matters | READ online". oecd-ilibrary.org. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  18. ^ a b "Netherlands and UK are biggest channels for corporate tax avoidance". The Guardian. 25 July 2017. Archived from the original on 24 May 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
  19. ^ a b "Is the U.K. Already the Kind of Tax Haven It Claims It Won't Be?". Bloomberg News. 31 July 2017. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
  20. ^ "Tax Havens Can Be Surprisingly Close to Home". Bloomberg View. 11 April 2017. Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 23 May 2018.
  21. ^ a b c "Zucman:Corporations Push Profits Into Corporate Tax Havens as Countries Struggle in Pursuit, Gabrial Zucman Study Says". Wall Street Journal. 10 June 2018. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2018. Such profit shifting leads to a total annual revenue loss of $250 billion globally
  22. ^ a b c Gabriel Zucman (April 2018). "The Missing Profits of Nations" (PDF). p. 68. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 15 May 2018.
  23. ^ a b c "BEPS Project Background Brief" (PDF). OECD. January 2017. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 July 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2018. With a conservatively estimated annual revenue loss of USD 100 to 240 billion, the stakes are high for governments around the world. The impact of BEPS on developing countries, as a percentage of tax revenues, is estimated to be even higher than in developed countries.
  24. ^ "Tax havens cost governments $200 billion a year. It's time to change the way global tax works". World Economic Forum. 27 February 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
  25. ^ a b c Gabriel Zucman (August 2014). "Taxing across Borders: Tracking Personal Wealth and Corporate Profits". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 28 (4): 121–48. doi:10.1257/jep.28.4.121.
  26. ^ a b c Jannick Damgaard; Thomas Elkjaer; Niels Johannesen (September 2019). "The Rise of Phantom Investments". Finance & Development IMF Quarterly. 56 (3).
  27. ^ a b Gabriel Zucman (8 November 2017). "The desperate inequality behind global tax dodging". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 March 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2019. The equivalent of 10% of global GDP is held offshore by rich individuals in the form of bank deposits, equities, bonds and mutual fund shares, most of the time in the name of faceless shell corporations, foundations and trusts.
  28. ^ "Every cent lost to tax havens could be used to strengthen our health and social systems". openDemocracy. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
  29. ^ a b c d e f g "Towards Global Tax Co-operation" (PDF). OECD. April 2000. p. 17. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2018. TAX HAVENS: 1.Andorra 2.Anguilla 3.Antigua and Barbuda 4.Aruba 5.Bahamas 6.Bahrain 7.Barbados 8.Belize 9.British Virgin Islands 10.Cook Islands 11.Dominica 12.Gibraltar 13.Grenada 14.Guernsey 15.Isle of Man 16.Jersey 17.Liberia 18.Liechtenstein 19.Maldives 20.Marshall Islands 21.Monaco 22.Montserrat 23.Nauru 24.Net Antilles 25.Niue 26.Panama 27.Samoa 28.Seychelles 29.St. Lucia 30.St. Kitts & Nevis 31.St. Vincent and the Grenadines 32.Tonga 33.Turks & Caicos 34.U.S. Virgin Islands 35.Vanuatu
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  31. ^ a b c James R. Hines Jr. (2007). "Tax Havens" (PDF). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2016. Retrieved 16 August 2018. Tax havens are low-tax jurisdictions that offer businesses and individuals opportunities for tax avoidance. They attract disproportionate shares of world foreign direct investment, and, largely as a consequence, their economies have grown much more rapidly than the world as a whole over the past 25 years.
  32. ^ a b c James R. Hines Jr. (2005). "Do Tax Havens Flourish" (PDF). Tax Policy and the Economy. 19: 65–99. doi:10.1086/tpe.19.20061896. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 August 2017. Retrieved 31 May 2018. ABSTRACT: Per capita real GDP in tax haven countries grew at an average annual rate of 3.3 percent between 1982 and 1999, which compares favorably to the world average of 1.4 percent.
  33. ^ a b Heike Joebges (January 2017). "CRISIS RECOVERY IN A COUNTRY WITH A HIGH PRESENCE OF FOREIGN-OWNED COMPANIES: The Case of Ireland" (PDF). IMK Macroeconomic Policy Institute, Hans-Böckler-Stiftung. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
  34. ^ a b Oliver Bullough (8 December 2015). "The fall of Jersey: how a tax haven goes bust". The Guardian. Jersey bet its future on finance but since 2007 it has fallen on hard times and is heading for bankruptcy. Is the island's perilous present Britain's bleak future?
  35. ^ a b c Scott Dyreng; Bradley P. Lindsey (12 October 2009). "Using Financial Accounting Data to Examine the Effect of Foreign Operations Located in Tax Havens and Other Countries on US Multinational Firms' Tax Rates". Journal of Accounting Research. 47 (5): 1283–1316. doi:10.1111/j.1475-679X.2009.00346.x. Finally, we find that US firms with operations in some tax haven countries have higher federal tax rates on foreign income than other firms. This result suggests that in some cases, tax haven operations may increase US tax collections at the expense of foreign country tax collections.
  36. ^ a b c James K. Jackson (11 March 2010). "The OECD Initiative on Tax Havens" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 June 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2018. As a result of the Bush Administration's efforts, the OECD backed away from its efforts to target "harmful tax practices" and shifted the scope of its efforts to improving exchanges of tax information between member countries.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g Damgaard, Jannick; Elkjaer, Thomas; Johannesen, Niels (June 2018). "Piercing the Veil of Tax Havens". Finance & Development, IMF Quarterly. 55 (2). Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018. The eight major pass-through economies—the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Hong Kong SAR, the British Virgin Islands, Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Ireland, and Singapore—host more than 85 percent of the world's investment in special purpose entities, which are often set up for tax reasons.
  38. ^ a b c d e f g Nicholas Shaxson (September 2019). "Tackling Tax Havens". Finance & Development IMF Quarterly. 56 (3).
  39. ^ Alex Cobham (11 September 2017). "New UN tax handbook: Lower-income countries vs OECD BEPS failure". Tax Justice Network. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2018.
  40. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Ronen Palan (1 October 2009). "History of Tax Havens". History & Policy. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2019.
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  42. ^ "[T]he tax haven is a creature of the twentieth century, and began to be used extensively because of the high levels of tax which prevailed after the First World War" at ¶26.1, Tolley's International Tax Planning (2002), ISBN 0-7545-1339-4
  43. ^ See generally, Introduction to Tolley's International Initiatives Affecting Financial Havens (2001), ISBN 0-406-94264-1
  44. ^ The Personen- und Gesellschaftsrecht of 20 January 1926
  45. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Ronen Palan (1 October 2009). "History of Tax Havens". History and Policy. Archived from the original on 22 August 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2018. The OECD is clearly ill-equipped to deal with tax havens, not least as many of its members, including the UK, Switzerland, Ireland and the Benelux countries are themselves considered tax havens
  46. ^ Calabrese, Matteo; Majerus, Benoît (2023). "Archaeology of a Treasure Island: Actors and Practices of Holding Companies in Luxembourg (1929–1940)". Contemporary European History: 1–18. doi:10.1017/S0960777323000437. ISSN 0960-7773.
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  48. ^ Dieter Haller (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar – A Tale of One City: An Ethnography. Transcript Verlag.
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  56. ^ a b c Vanessa Houlder (September 2017). "Trinidad & Tobago left as the last blacklisted tax haven". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2019. Alex Cobham of the Tax Justice Network said: It's disheartening to see the OECD fall back into the old pattern of creating 'tax haven' blacklists on the basis of criteria that are so weak as to be near enough meaningless, and then declaring success when the list is empty."
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  62. ^ a b c "Outbreak of 'so whatery' over EU tax haven blacklist". Irish Times. 7 December 2017. Archived from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 19 August 2018. It was certainly an improvement on the list recently published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, which featured only one name – Trinidad & Tobago – but campaigners believe the European Union has much more to do if it is to prove it is serious about addressing tax havens.
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