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Programa nuclear de Irán

Irán tiene sitios de investigación, dos minas de uranio , un reactor de investigación e instalaciones de procesamiento de uranio que incluyen tres plantas de enriquecimiento de uranio conocidas . [1]

El programa nuclear iraní, que comenzó en la década de 1950 con el apoyo de los Estados Unidos en el marco del programa Átomos para la Paz , se orientó a la exploración científica con fines pacíficos. En 1970, Irán ratificó el Tratado de No Proliferación Nuclear (TNP), sometiendo sus actividades nucleares a las inspecciones del OIEA . Después de la Revolución iraní de 1979 , cesó la cooperación y el Irán continuó con su programa nuclear de manera clandestina.

El OIEA inició una investigación luego de que las declaraciones del Consejo Nacional de Resistencia de Irán en 2002 revelaran actividades nucleares iraníes no declaradas. [2] [3] En 2006, el incumplimiento de Irán con sus obligaciones en virtud del TNP llevó al Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas a exigir a Irán que suspendiera sus programas. En 2007, la Estimación Nacional de Inteligencia de los Estados Unidos (NIE) declaró que Irán detuvo un supuesto programa activo de armas nucleares en 2003. [4] En noviembre de 2011, el OIEA informó de pruebas creíbles de que Irán había estado realizando experimentos destinados a diseñar una bomba nuclear, y que la investigación podría haber continuado a menor escala después de ese momento. [5] [6] El 1 de mayo de 2018, el OIEA reiteró su informe de 2015, diciendo que no había encontrado pruebas creíbles de actividad de armas nucleares después de 2009. [7] [8] [9]

El reactor Bushehr I, en funcionamiento desde septiembre de 2011, marcó el ingreso de Irán al mercado de la energía nuclear con la ayuda de Rusia. Esto se convirtió en un hito importante para que Rosatom se convirtiera en el mayor actor en el mercado mundial de la energía nuclear. [10] Se prevé que alcance su capacidad máxima a fines de 2012; Irán también ha comenzado a construir una nueva planta nuclear Darkhovin de 300 MW y ha expresado planes para construir más plantas nucleares de tamaño mediano y minas de uranio en el futuro.

A pesar del Plan de Acción Integral Conjunto (PAIC) de 2015 destinado a abordar las preocupaciones nucleares de Irán, la retirada de Estados Unidos en 2018 provocó nuevas sanciones, lo que afectó a las relaciones diplomáticas. El OIEA certificó el cumplimiento de Irán hasta 2019, pero los incumplimientos posteriores tensaron el acuerdo. [11] [12] En un informe del OIEA de 2020, se dijo que Irán había incumplido el PAIC y se enfrentó a las críticas de los signatarios. [13] [14] En 2021, Irán se enfrentó al escrutinio por su afirmación de que el programa era exclusivamente para fines pacíficos, especialmente con referencias al crecimiento de satélites, misiles y armas nucleares. [15] En 2022, el director de la Organización de Energía Atómica de Irán, Mohammad Eslami, anunció un plan estratégico para 10 GWe de generación de electricidad nuclear. [16] En octubre de 2023, un informe del OIEA estimó que Irán había aumentado sus reservas de uranio 22 veces por encima del límite del Plan de Acción Integral Conjunto (PAIC) acordado en 2015. [17]

Historia

En un recorte de periódico iraní de 1968 se puede leer: "Una cuarta parte de los científicos iraníes especializados en energía nuclear son mujeres". La fotografía muestra a algunas doctoras iraníes posando delante del reactor de investigación de Teherán .

Década de 1950 - Década de 1960

El programa nuclear de Irán se inició en la década de 1950 con la ayuda de los Estados Unidos. [18] El 5 de marzo de 1957, se anunció un "acuerdo propuesto para la cooperación en la investigación de los usos pacíficos de la energía atómica" en el marco del programa Átomos para la Paz de la administración de Eisenhower . [19]

En 1967 se creó el Centro de Investigación Nuclear de Teherán (TNRC), dirigido por la Organización de Energía Atómica de Irán (AEOI). El TNRC estaba equipado con un reactor de investigación nuclear de 5 megavatios suministrado por la empresa estadounidense American Machine and Foundry , que funcionaba con uranio altamente enriquecido . [20] [21]

Irán firmó el Tratado de No Proliferación Nuclear (TNP) en 1968 y lo ratificó en 1970, sujetando su programa nuclear a la verificación del OIEA.

Un instituto de ciencias nucleares de la Organización del Tratado Central [22] fue trasladado de Bagdad a Teherán después de que Irak abandonara la CENTO.

La participación de los gobiernos de Estados Unidos y Europa occidental en el programa nuclear de Irán continuó hasta la Revolución iraní de 1979 que derrocó al último Sha de Irán . [23] Después de la Revolución, la mayor parte de la cooperación nuclear internacional con Irán se interrumpió. En 1981, los funcionarios iraníes concluyeron que el desarrollo nuclear del país debía continuar. Se llevaron a cabo negociaciones con Francia a fines de la década de 1980 y con Argentina a principios de la década de 1990, y se alcanzaron acuerdos. En la década de 1990, Rusia formó una organización de investigación conjunta con Irán, proporcionando a Irán expertos nucleares rusos e información técnica. [10]

Década de 1970

El Sha aprobó planes para construir hasta 23 centrales nucleares para el año 2000. [24] En marzo de 1974, el Sha imaginó un momento en el que el suministro mundial de petróleo se agotaría, y declaró: "El petróleo es un material noble, demasiado valioso para quemarlo... Prevemos producir, lo antes posible, 23.000 megavatios de electricidad utilizando plantas nucleares". [25]

Las empresas estadounidenses y europeas se apresuraron a hacer negocios en Irán. [26] Bushehr , la primera planta, suministraría energía a la ciudad de Shiraz . En 1975, la firma alemana Kraftwerk Union AG, una empresa conjunta de Siemens AG y AEG , firmó un contrato por valor de entre 4.000 y 6.000 millones de dólares para construir la planta de reactor de agua a presión . La construcción de los dos reactores de 1.196 MWe debía haberse completado en 1981.

En 1975, el 10 por ciento de las acciones de Eurodif que poseía Suecia pasó a manos de Irán. La filial francesa Cogéma y el gobierno iraní crearon la empresa Sofidif ( Société franco–iranienne pour l'enrichissement de l'uranium par diffusion gazeuse ) con el 60 y el 40 por ciento de las acciones, respectivamente. A su vez, Sofidif adquirió una participación del 25 por ciento en Eurodif, lo que dio a Irán su participación del 10 por ciento en Eurodif. El Sha prestó 1.000 millones de dólares (y otros 180 millones de dólares en 1977) para la construcción de la fábrica de Eurodif, con el fin de tener derecho a comprar el 10 por ciento de la producción de la planta.

En 1976, el presidente estadounidense Gerald Ford firmó una directiva que ofrecía a Irán la oportunidad de comprar y operar una planta de reprocesamiento construida en Estados Unidos para extraer plutonio del combustible de los reactores. [27] El documento de estrategia de Ford decía que la "introducción de la energía nuclear satisfará las crecientes necesidades de la economía de Irán y liberará las reservas de petróleo restantes para la exportación o la conversión en petroquímicos ".

Una evaluación de la CIA sobre la proliferación de armas nucleares en 1974 afirmaba: "Si [el Sha] está vivo a mediados de los años 1980... y si otros países [en particular la India] han seguido adelante con el desarrollo de armas, no tenemos dudas de que Irán seguirá su ejemplo". [28]

Posrevolución, 1979-1989

Tras la Revolución de 1979 , se interrumpió la mayor parte de la cooperación nuclear internacional con Irán. Kraftwerk Union detuvo el trabajo en el proyecto Bushehr en enero de 1979, con un reactor completado al 50 por ciento y el otro al 85 por ciento, y se retiró completamente del proyecto en julio de 1979. La compañía dijo que basaron su acción en el impago de Irán de 450 millones de dólares en pagos atrasados, [29] mientras que otras fuentes afirman que se debió a la presión estadounidense. [30] [31] Estados Unidos también cortó el suministro de combustible altamente enriquecido para el Centro de Investigación Nuclear de Teherán , lo que lo obligó a cerrar durante varios años. Eurodif también dejó de suministrar uranio enriquecido a Irán. [30] [32] Irán argumentó más tarde que estas experiencias indican que las instalaciones y los suministros de combustible extranjeros son una fuente poco confiable de suministro de combustible nuclear. [30] [33]

En 1981, los funcionarios gubernamentales iraníes concluyeron que el desarrollo nuclear del país debía continuar. Los informes al OIEA incluían que un sitio en el Centro de Tecnología Nuclear de Isfahán (ENTEC) actuaría "como centro para la transferencia y el desarrollo de tecnología nuclear, así como para contribuir a la formación de la experiencia local y la mano de obra necesaria para sostener un programa muy ambicioso en el campo de la tecnología de reactores nucleares y la tecnología del ciclo del combustible". El OIEA también fue informado sobre el departamento de materiales de Entec, que era responsable de la fabricación de pastillas de UO2 , y el departamento químico, cuyo objetivo era la conversión de U3O8 en UO de grado nuclear .2. [34]

En 1983, funcionarios del OIEA ayudaron a Irán en los aspectos químicos de la fabricación de combustible, ingeniería química y aspectos de diseño de plantas piloto para la conversión de uranio, corrosión de materiales nucleares, fabricación de combustible LWR y desarrollo de plantas piloto para la producción de UO de grado nuclear.
2
. [34] Sin embargo, el gobierno de los Estados Unidos "intervino directamente" para desalentar la asistencia del OIEA en materia de UO.
2
y la producción de UF6 . [35] Un ex funcionario estadounidense dijo que "lo detuvimos de inmediato". Irán estableció más tarde una cooperación bilateral sobre cuestiones relacionadas con el ciclo del combustible con China, pero China también acordó abandonar la mayor parte del comercio nuclear pendiente con Irán, incluida la construcción del UF6.
6
planta, debido a la presión de EE.UU. [34]

En abril de 1984, el BND filtró un informe según el cual Irán podría tener una bomba nuclear en dos años con uranio paquistaní; este fue el primer informe público de inteligencia occidental sobre un programa de armas nucleares posrevolucionario en Irán. [36] Más tarde ese año, el líder de la minoría del Senado de los EE. UU., Alan Cranston, afirmó que Irán estaba a siete años de poder construir su propia arma nuclear. [37]

Durante la guerra entre Irán e Irak , los dos reactores de Bushehr resultaron dañados por múltiples ataques aéreos iraquíes y el trabajo en el programa nuclear se paralizó. Irán notificó las explosiones al Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica y se quejó de la inacción internacional y del uso de misiles de fabricación francesa en el ataque. [38] [39] A finales de 2015, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani reveló que Irán consideró la posibilidad de desarrollar armas de destrucción masiva durante la guerra contra Irak. [40]

En 1985, Irán empezó a presionar a Francia para que recuperase su deuda con la inversión de Eurodif y le entregase uranio enriquecido. A partir de la primavera de 1985, se tomaron rehenes franceses en el Líbano; en 1986, se perpetraron atentados terroristas en París y fue asesinado el director de Eurodif , Georges Besse . En su investigación La République atomique, France-Iran le pacte nucléaire , David Carr-Brown y Dominique Lorentz señalaron la responsabilidad de los servicios de inteligencia iraníes. Sin embargo, más tarde se comprobó que el asesinato fue cometido por el grupo terrorista de izquierdas Action directe . El 6 de mayo de 1988, el primer ministro francés, Jacques Chirac, firmó un acuerdo con Irán: Francia aceptaba a Irán como accionista de Eurodif y le entregaba uranio enriquecido "sin restricciones".

En 1987-88, la Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica de Argentina firmó un acuerdo con Irán para ayudar a convertir el reactor de combustible HEU a uranio poco enriquecido al 19,75 por ciento , y para suministrar este último combustible a Irán. [41] Según un informe argentino de 2006, durante finales de la década de 1980 y principios de la de 1990, Estados Unidos presionó a Argentina para que terminara su cooperación nuclear con Irán, y desde principios de 1992 hasta 1994 se llevaron a cabo negociaciones entre Argentina e Irán con el objetivo de restablecer los tres acuerdos hechos en 1987-88. [42] Algunos han vinculado ataques como el ataque de 1992 a la embajada de Israel en Buenos Aires y el atentado a la AMIA como parte de una campaña iraní para presionar a Argentina para que honrara los acuerdos. [43] [44] El uranio fue entregado en 1993. [45]

1990–2002

Desde principios de los años 1990, Rusia formó una organización de investigación conjunta con Irán llamada Persépolis que proporcionaba a Irán expertos nucleares rusos, así como información técnica. Cinco instituciones rusas, incluida Roscosmos , ayudaron a Teherán a mejorar sus misiles. El intercambio de información técnica con Irán fue aprobado personalmente por el director del SVR, Trubnikov. [46] El presidente Boris Yeltsin tenía una "política de dos vías" que ofrecía tecnología nuclear comercial a Irán y discutía los temas con Washington. [47]

En 1991, Francia reembolsó más de 1.600 millones de dólares, mientras que Irán siguió siendo accionista de Eurodif a través de Sofidif . Sin embargo, Irán se abstuvo de solicitar el uranio producido. [48] [49]

En 1992, Irán invitó a los inspectores del OIEA a visitar todos los sitios e instalaciones que les pidieron. El Director General Blix informó que todas las actividades observadas eran compatibles con el uso pacífico de la energía atómica. [50] [51] Las visitas del OIEA incluyeron instalaciones no declaradas y el naciente proyecto de extracción de uranio de Irán en Saghand . Ese mismo año, funcionarios argentinos revelaron (bajo presión de los EE. UU.) que su país había cancelado una venta a Irán de equipo nuclear civil por valor de 18 millones de dólares. [52]

En 1995, Irán firmó un contrato con Rosatom para reanudar los trabajos en la planta de Bushehr, parcialmente completada, instalando en el edificio Bushehr I existente un  reactor de agua presurizada VVER -1000 de 915 MWe .

En 1996, Estados Unidos convenció a China de que se retirara de un contrato para construir una planta de conversión de uranio. Sin embargo, los chinos proporcionaron planos de la instalación a los iraníes, quienes informaron al OIEA de que seguirían trabajando en el programa; el director del OIEA, Mohamed El Baradei, incluso visitó el lugar de construcción. [53]

Panorama del período 2002-2012

Instalación IR-40 en Arak

En 2002, el Consejo Nacional de Resistencia de Irán (NCRI) expuso la existencia de una instalación de enriquecimiento de uranio no revelada en Natanz , lo que generó preocupaciones emergentes sobre el programa nuclear de Irán. [54] [55] En 2003, después de que el gobierno iraní reconoció formalmente las instalaciones, la Agencia de Energía Atómica las inspeccionó, encontrando que tenían un programa nuclear más avanzado de lo que había sido previamente anticipado por la inteligencia estadounidense. [56] Ese mismo año, el Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica (OIEA) informó por primera vez que Irán no había declarado actividades sensibles de enriquecimiento y reprocesamiento. [3] El enriquecimiento puede usarse para producir uranio para combustible de reactor o (a niveles de enriquecimiento más altos) para armas. [57] Irán dice que su programa nuclear es pacífico, [58] y luego había enriquecido uranio a menos del 5 por ciento, consistente con el combustible para una planta de energía nuclear civil. [59] Irán también afirmó que se vio obligado a recurrir al secreto después de que la presión estadounidense causara que varios de sus contratos nucleares con gobiernos extranjeros fracasaran. [60] Después de que la Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA informara al Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU sobre el incumplimiento por parte de Irán de su acuerdo de salvaguardias , el Consejo exigió que Irán suspendiera sus actividades de enriquecimiento nuclear [61] mientras que el presidente iraní Mahmoud Ahmadinejad ha argumentado que las sanciones son "ilegales", impuestas por "potencias arrogantes", y que Irán ha decidido continuar con la supervisión de su autodenominado programa nuclear pacífico a través de "su vía legal apropiada", el Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica. [62] El descubrimiento inicial de la instalación de enriquecimiento en Natanz, así como la negativa de Irán a cooperar plenamente con el OIEA, aumentaron las tensiones entre Irán y las potencias occidentales. [63]

Tras las acusaciones públicas sobre las actividades nucleares no declaradas de Irán, el OIEA inició una investigación que concluyó en noviembre de 2003 que Irán había incumplido sistemáticamente sus obligaciones en virtud de su acuerdo de salvaguardias del TNP de informar sobre esas actividades al OIEA, aunque tampoco informó de ninguna prueba de vínculos con un programa de armas nucleares. La Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA retrasó la constatación formal de incumplimiento hasta septiembre de 2005, e informó de ello al Consejo de Seguridad en febrero de 2006. Después de que la Junta de Gobernadores informara al Consejo de Seguridad sobre el incumplimiento de Irán de su acuerdo de salvaguardias, el Consejo exigió que Irán suspendiera sus programas de enriquecimiento. El Consejo impuso sanciones después de que Irán se negara a hacerlo. Un informe del Congreso de Estados Unidos de mayo de 2009 sugería que "Estados Unidos, y más tarde los europeos, argumentaron que el engaño de Irán significaba que debía renunciar a su derecho a enriquecer uranio, una posición que probablemente se negociaría en las conversaciones con Irán". [64]

A cambio de suspender su programa de enriquecimiento, se le ofreció a Irán "un acuerdo integral a largo plazo que permitiría el desarrollo de relaciones y cooperación con Irán basadas en el respeto mutuo y el establecimiento de la confianza internacional en la naturaleza exclusivamente pacífica del programa nuclear iraní". [65] Sin embargo, Irán se ha negado sistemáticamente a renunciar a su programa de enriquecimiento, argumentando que el programa es necesario para su seguridad energética, que esos "acuerdos a largo plazo" son inherentemente poco fiables y lo privarían de su derecho inalienable a la tecnología nuclear pacífica. En junio de 2009, inmediatamente después de las controvertidas elecciones presidenciales iraníes , Irán aceptó inicialmente un acuerdo para renunciar a su arsenal de uranio poco enriquecido a cambio de combustible para un reactor de investigación médica, pero luego se echó atrás del acuerdo. [66] Actualmente, trece estados poseen instalaciones operativas de enriquecimiento o reprocesamiento, [67] y varios otros han expresado interés en desarrollar programas de enriquecimiento autóctonos. [68]

Para hacer frente a las preocupaciones de que su programa de enriquecimiento pueda ser desviado a usos no pacíficos, [69] Irán ofreció imponer restricciones adicionales a su programa de enriquecimiento, incluyendo, por ejemplo, la ratificación del Protocolo Adicional para permitir inspecciones más estrictas por parte del Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica, el funcionamiento de la instalación de enriquecimiento de uranio en Natanz como un centro de combustible multinacional con la participación de representantes extranjeros, la renuncia al reprocesamiento de plutonio y la fabricación inmediata de todo el uranio enriquecido en barras de combustible. [70] La oferta de Irán de abrir su programa de enriquecimiento de uranio a la participación privada y pública extranjera refleja las sugerencias de un comité de expertos del OIEA que se formó para investigar los métodos para reducir el riesgo de que las actividades sensibles del ciclo del combustible pudieran contribuir a las capacidades nacionales de armas nucleares. [71] Algunos expertos no gubernamentales de los Estados Unidos han respaldado este enfoque. [72] [73]

En todos los demás casos en que la Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA llegó a la conclusión de que no se cumplían las salvaguardias en relación con el enriquecimiento o reprocesamiento clandestino, la resolución implicó (en los casos de Irak [74] y Libia [75] [76] [77] ) o se espera que implique (en el caso de Corea del Norte [78] [79] ) como mínimo el fin de actividades sensibles del ciclo del combustible. Según Pierre Goldschmidt , ex subdirector general y jefe del departamento de salvaguardias del OIEA, y Henry D. Sokolski , director ejecutivo del Centro de Educación sobre Políticas de No Proliferación , algunos otros casos de incumplimiento de las salvaguardias notificados por la Secretaría del OIEA (Corea del Sur, Egipto) nunca se comunicaron al Consejo de Seguridad porque la Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA nunca llegó a una conclusión formal de incumplimiento. [80] [81] Aunque el caso de Corea del Sur involucraba el enriquecimiento de uranio a niveles cercanos al grado de armas, [82] el propio país informó voluntariamente sobre la actividad aislada [83] y Goldschmidt ha argumentado que "las consideraciones políticas también jugaron un papel dominante en la decisión de la junta" de no hacer una constatación formal de incumplimiento. [84]

Un informe del Servicio de Investigación del Congreso de Estados Unidos del 23 de marzo de 2012 cita un informe del OIEA del 24 de febrero que dice que Irán había almacenado 240 libras de uranio enriquecido al 20 por ciento como una indicación de su capacidad para enriquecer a niveles más altos. [85] La política autoritaria de Irán puede plantear desafíos adicionales a un programa científico que requiere la cooperación entre muchos especialistas técnicos. [86] Algunos expertos sostienen que el enfoque intenso en el programa nuclear de Irán resta valor a la necesidad de un compromiso diplomático más amplio. [87] [88] Los funcionarios de inteligencia estadounidenses entrevistados por The New York Times en marzo de 2012 dijeron que seguían evaluando que Irán no había reiniciado su programa de armamento, que según la Estimación de Inteligencia Nacional de 2007 Irán había interrumpido en 2003, aunque han encontrado evidencia de que algunas actividades relacionadas con el armamento han continuado. Se dice que el Mossad israelí comparte esta creencia. [89]

2002–2006

Primera reunión de los tres países miembros de la UE , Palacio de Sa'dabad , Teherán, 21 de octubre de 2003. Ministros de los tres países miembros de la UE y el principal negociador de Irán, Hassan Rouhani

El 14 de agosto de 2002, Alireza Jafarzadeh , portavoz del Consejo Nacional de Resistencia de Irán , reveló públicamente la existencia de dos instalaciones nucleares en construcción: una instalación de enriquecimiento de uranio en Natanz (parte de la cual es subterránea) y una instalación de agua pesada en Arak . Se ha sugerido firmemente que las agencias de inteligencia ya sabían sobre estas instalaciones, pero los informes habían sido clasificados. [2]

El OIEA solicitó inmediatamente acceso a esas instalaciones y más información y cooperación del Irán en relación con su programa nuclear. [90] Según los acuerdos vigentes en ese momento para la aplicación del acuerdo de salvaguardias del Irán con el OIEA, [91] el Irán no estaba obligado a permitir las inspecciones del OIEA de una nueva instalación nuclear hasta seis meses antes de que se introdujera material nuclear en ella. En ese momento, el Irán ni siquiera estaba obligado a informar al OIEA de la existencia de la instalación. Esta cláusula de los "seis meses" era la norma para la aplicación de todos los acuerdos de salvaguardias del OIEA hasta 1992, cuando la Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA decidió que las instalaciones debían ser informadas durante la fase de planificación, incluso antes de que comenzara la construcción. El Irán fue el último país en aceptar esa decisión, y sólo lo hizo el 26 de febrero de 2003, después de que comenzara la investigación del OIEA. [3]

En mayo de 2003, poco después de la invasión estadounidense de Irak , algunos elementos del gobierno de Mohamed Jatamí hicieron una propuesta confidencial para un "Gran Pacto" a través de los canales diplomáticos suizos. Ofrecía una transparencia total del programa nuclear de Irán y la retirada del apoyo a Hamás y Hezbolá , a cambio de garantías de seguridad de los Estados Unidos y una normalización de las relaciones diplomáticas. La administración Bush no respondió a la propuesta, ya que altos funcionarios estadounidenses dudaban de su autenticidad. Según se informa, la propuesta fue ampliamente aprobada por el gobierno iraní, incluido el líder supremo, el ayatolá Jamenei . [92] [93] [94]

Declaración de Teherán del 21 de octubre de 2003, de derecha a izquierda: Joschka Fischer , Hassan Rouhani , Dominique de Villepin y Jack Straw .

Francia, Alemania y el Reino Unido (los tres países de la UE ) emprendieron una iniciativa diplomática con Irán para resolver las cuestiones relativas a su programa nuclear. El 21 de octubre de 2003, en Teherán, el Gobierno iraní y los ministros de Asuntos Exteriores de los tres países de la UE emitieron una declaración conocida como la Declaración de Teherán [95] en la que Irán aceptaba cooperar con el OIEA, firmar y aplicar un Protocolo Adicional como medida voluntaria de fomento de la confianza y suspender sus actividades de enriquecimiento y reprocesamiento durante el curso de las negociaciones. A cambio, los tres países de la UE aceptaron explícitamente reconocer los derechos nucleares de Irán y discutir las formas en que Irán podría proporcionar "garantías satisfactorias" respecto de su programa de energía nuclear, después de lo cual Irán obtendría un acceso más fácil a la tecnología moderna. Irán firmó un Protocolo Adicional el 18 de diciembre de 2003 y aceptó actuar como si el protocolo estuviera en vigor, presentando los informes requeridos al OIEA y permitiendo el acceso requerido a los inspectores del OIEA, en espera de que Irán ratificara el Protocolo Adicional.

El 10 de noviembre de 2003, el OIEA informó [96] de que "es evidente que el Irán ha incumplido en varios casos y durante un período prolongado las obligaciones que le impone su Acuerdo de Salvaguardias en lo que respecta a la notificación de material nuclear y su procesamiento y utilización, así como a la declaración de las instalaciones en las que se ha procesado y almacenado dicho material". El Irán tenía la obligación de informar al OIEA de su importación de uranio de China y de su posterior utilización en actividades de conversión y enriquecimiento de uranio. También tenía la obligación de informar sobre los experimentos de separación de plutonio. Sin embargo, la República Islámica incumplió su promesa de permitir al OIEA realizar sus inspecciones y suspendió el acuerdo del Protocolo Adicional esbozado anteriormente en octubre de 2005.

En este video de ISNA se ve a Gholam Reza Aghazadeh y a funcionarios de la AEOI con una muestra de óxido nitroso durante un anuncio público el 11 de abril de 2006 en Mashhad , en el que se afirmaba que Irán había logrado completar con éxito el ciclo del combustible por sí solo.

Una lista completa de las "violaciones" específicas de Irán a su acuerdo de salvaguardias, que el OIEA describió como parte de un "patrón de ocultamiento", se puede encontrar en un informe del OIEA del 15 de noviembre de 2004 sobre el programa nuclear de Irán. [97] Irán atribuyó su falta de información sobre ciertas adquisiciones y actividades al obstruccionismo de los EE.UU., que según se informa incluyó presionar al OIEA para que dejara de proporcionar asistencia técnica al programa de conversión de uranio de Irán en 1983. [60] [98] Sobre la cuestión de si Irán tenía un programa oculto de armas nucleares, el informe del OIEA de noviembre de 2003 afirma que no encontró "ninguna prueba" de que las actividades no declaradas previamente estuvieran relacionadas con un programa de armas nucleares, pero también que no pudo concluir que el programa nuclear de Irán fuera exclusivamente pacífico.

En junio de 2004 se inició la construcción del IR-40 , un reactor de agua pesada de 40 MW .

En virtud de los términos del Acuerdo de París, [99] el 14 de noviembre de 2004, el negociador nuclear jefe de Irán anunció una suspensión voluntaria y temporal de su programa de enriquecimiento de uranio (el enriquecimiento no es una violación del TNP) y la implementación voluntaria del Protocolo Adicional, después de la presión del Reino Unido, Francia y Alemania en nombre de la Unión Europea . En ese momento se dijo que la medida era una medida voluntaria de fomento de la confianza, que continuaría durante un período de tiempo razonable (se mencionaron seis meses como referencia) mientras continuaban las negociaciones con la UE-3. El 24 de noviembre, Irán intentó modificar los términos de su acuerdo con la UE para excluir un puñado de equipos de este acuerdo para trabajos de investigación. Esta solicitud fue abandonada cuatro días después. Según Seyed Hossein Mousavian , uno de los representantes iraníes en las negociaciones del Acuerdo de París, los iraníes dejaron en claro a sus homólogos europeos que Irán no consideraría un fin permanente al enriquecimiento de uranio:

Antes de que se firmara el texto del Acuerdo de París, el Dr. Rohani... subrayó que no debían comprometerse a no hablar ni siquiera a pensar en una cesación. Los embajadores transmitieron su mensaje a sus ministros de Asuntos Exteriores antes de la firma del texto acordado en París... Los iraníes dejaron claro a sus homólogos europeos que si estos últimos pedían una terminación completa de las actividades del ciclo del combustible nuclear de Irán, no habría negociaciones. Los europeos respondieron que no pedían tal terminación, sino sólo una garantía de que el programa nuclear de Irán no se desviaría hacia fines militares. [100]

En febrero de 2005, Irán presionó a los tres países de la UE para que aceleraran las conversaciones, a lo que se negaron. [101] Las conversaciones avanzaron poco debido a las posiciones divergentes de las dos partes. [102] Bajo la presión de los Estados Unidos, los negociadores europeos no pudieron aceptar el enriquecimiento en suelo iraní. Aunque los iraníes presentaron una oferta que incluía restricciones voluntarias al volumen y la producción de enriquecimiento, fue rechazada. Los tres países de la UE rompieron un compromiso que habían asumido de reconocer el derecho de Irán, en virtud del TNP, al uso pacífico de la energía nuclear. [103]

A principios de agosto de 2005, después de la elección de Mahmud Ahmadineyad como presidente en junio, Irán retiró los sellos de su equipo de enriquecimiento de uranio en Isfahán , [104] lo que los funcionarios del Reino Unido calificaron de "violación del Acuerdo de París" [105] aunque se puede argumentar que la UE violó los términos del Acuerdo de París al exigir que Irán abandonara el enriquecimiento nuclear. [106] Varios días después, la UE-3 ofreció a Irán un paquete a cambio del cese permanente del enriquecimiento. Según se informa, incluía beneficios en los campos político, comercial y nuclear, así como suministros a largo plazo de materiales nucleares y garantías de no agresión por parte de la UE (pero no de los EE. UU.). [105] El subdirector de la AEOI, Mohammad Saeedi, rechazó la oferta como "muy insultante y humillante" [105] y los analistas independientes la caracterizaron como una "caja vacía". [107] El anuncio de Irán de que reanudaría el enriquecimiento de uranio precedió en varios meses a la elección de Ahmadinejad. La demora en la reanudación del programa se hizo para permitir que el OIEA reinstalara el equipo de vigilancia. La reanudación efectiva del programa coincidió con la elección de Ahmadinejad y el nombramiento de Ali Larijani como negociador jefe en materia nuclear. [108]

Alrededor de 2005, Alemania se negó a seguir exportando equipo nuclear o a reembolsar el dinero que Irán había pagado por dicho equipo en la década de 1980. [29]

En agosto de 2005, con la ayuda de Pakistán, [109] un grupo de expertos del gobierno de los Estados Unidos y científicos internacionales llegó a la conclusión de que los rastros de uranio apto para bombas encontrados en Irán provenían de equipo paquistaní contaminado y no eran evidencia de un programa de armas clandestino en Irán. [110] En septiembre de 2005, el Director General del OIEA, Mohamed ElBaradei, informó que "la mayoría" de los rastros de uranio altamente enriquecido encontrados en Irán por los inspectores del organismo provenían de componentes de centrifugadoras importados, lo que validó la afirmación de Irán de que los rastros se debían a la contaminación. Fuentes de Viena y del Departamento de Estado habrían declarado que, a todos los efectos prácticos, la cuestión del UME había sido resuelta. [111]

En un discurso pronunciado ante las Naciones Unidas el 17 de septiembre de 2005, Ahmadinejad sugirió que el enriquecimiento de uranio por parte de Irán podría ser gestionado por un consorcio internacional, en el que Irán compartiría la propiedad con otros países. La oferta fue rechazada de plano por la UE y los Estados Unidos. [103]

La Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA aplazó una decisión formal sobre el caso nuclear de Irán durante dos años después de 2003, mientras que Irán continuó cooperando con los tres países de la UE. El 24 de septiembre de 2005, después de que Irán abandonara el Acuerdo de París, la Junta concluyó que Irán había incumplido su acuerdo de salvaguardias, basándose principalmente en hechos que se habían comunicado ya en noviembre de 2003. [112]

El 4 de febrero de 2006, la Junta de 35 miembros votó 27 a 3 (con cinco abstenciones: Argelia , Belarús , Indonesia , Libia y Sudáfrica) a favor de informar sobre Irán al Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas. La medida fue patrocinada por la UE-3 y respaldada por los Estados Unidos. Dos miembros permanentes del Consejo, Rusia y China, aceptaron la remisión sólo con la condición de que el Consejo no tomara ninguna medida hasta marzo. Los tres miembros que votaron en contra de la remisión fueron Venezuela , Siria y Cuba . [113] [114] En respuesta, el 6 de febrero de 2006, Irán suspendió su aplicación voluntaria del Protocolo Adicional y toda otra cooperación voluntaria y no vinculante con el OIEA más allá de la requerida por su acuerdo de salvaguardias. [115]

A fines de febrero de 2006, el Director del OIEA, El Baradei, propuso un acuerdo por el cual Irán renunciaría al enriquecimiento a escala industrial y limitaría su programa a una instalación piloto de pequeña escala, y aceptaría importar su combustible nuclear de Rusia (véase banco de combustible nuclear ). Los iraníes indicaron que, si bien en principio no estarían dispuestos a renunciar a su derecho al enriquecimiento, estaban dispuestos a [116] considerar un compromiso. Sin embargo, en marzo de 2006, la administración Bush dejó en claro que no aceptaría ningún enriquecimiento en Irán. [117]

La Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA aplazó el informe oficial al Consejo de Seguridad sobre el incumplimiento del Irán (requerido por el Artículo XII.C del Estatuto del OIEA) [118] hasta el 27 de febrero de 2006. [119] La Junta normalmente toma decisiones por consenso, pero en una decisión poco frecuente adoptó la resolución por votación, con 12 abstenciones. [120]

El 11 de abril de 2006, Ahmadinejad anunció que Irán había enriquecido uranio con éxito en un discurso televisado desde la ciudad nororiental de Mashhad , donde dijo: "Estoy anunciando oficialmente que Irán se unió al grupo de aquellos países que tienen tecnología nuclear". El uranio fue enriquecido al 3,5 por ciento utilizando más de cien centrifugadoras.

El 13 de abril de 2006, después de que la Secretaria de Estado de los EE.UU. Condoleezza Rice dijera el día anterior que el Consejo de Seguridad debía considerar la posibilidad de adoptar "medidas enérgicas" para inducir a Teherán a cambiar el curso de sus ambiciones nucleares, Ahmadinejad prometió que Irán no se apartaría del enriquecimiento de uranio y que el mundo debía tratar a Irán como una potencia nuclear, diciendo: "Nuestra respuesta a quienes están enfadados porque Irán ha logrado completar el ciclo completo del combustible nuclear es sólo una frase. Les decimos: enfadémonos con nosotros y muéranse de ira", porque "no vamos a mantener conversaciones con nadie sobre el derecho de la nación iraní a enriquecer uranio". [121]

El 14 de abril de 2006, el Instituto de Ciencia y Seguridad Internacional publicó una serie de imágenes satelitales analizadas de las instalaciones nucleares iraníes de Natanz e Isfahán. [122] En estas imágenes se muestra una nueva entrada al túnel cerca de la Instalación de Conversión de Uranio de Isfahán y la continuación de la construcción en el sitio de enriquecimiento de uranio de Natanz. Además, una serie de imágenes que datan de 2002 muestran los edificios subterráneos de enriquecimiento y su posterior recubrimiento con tierra, hormigón y otros materiales. Ambas instalaciones ya estaban sujetas a las inspecciones y salvaguardias del OIEA.

El 28 de julio de 2006, el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas aprobó una resolución que daba a Irán hasta finales de agosto para suspender el enriquecimiento de uranio o enfrentarse a la amenaza de sanciones . [123]

Irán respondió a la demanda de detener el enriquecimiento de uranio el 24 de agosto de 2006, ofreciendo regresar a la mesa de negociaciones pero negándose a poner fin al enriquecimiento. [124]

El 30 de agosto de 2006, el presidente del Majlis, Qolam Ali Hadad-adel , dijo que Irán tenía derecho a "utilizar con fines pacíficos la tecnología nuclear y todos los demás funcionarios están de acuerdo con esta decisión", según la agencia de noticias semioficial de los estudiantes iraníes . "Irán abrió la puerta a las negociaciones para Europa y espera que la respuesta que se dio al paquete nuclear los lleve a la mesa de negociaciones". [124]

En la Resolución 1696 del 31 de julio de 2006, el Consejo de Seguridad exigió que Irán suspendiera todas las actividades relacionadas con el enriquecimiento y el reprocesamiento. [125]

En la Resolución 1737 del 26 de diciembre de 2006, el Consejo impuso una serie de sanciones a Irán por su incumplimiento de la Resolución 1696. [126] Estas sanciones estaban dirigidas principalmente contra la transferencia de tecnologías nucleares y de misiles balísticos [127] y, en respuesta a las preocupaciones de China y Rusia, eran más leves que las solicitadas por los Estados Unidos. [128] Esta resolución siguió a un informe del OIEA de que Irán había permitido inspecciones en virtud de su acuerdo de salvaguardias, pero no había suspendido sus actividades relacionadas con el enriquecimiento. [129]

Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU

El Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU ha aprobado ocho resoluciones sobre el programa nuclear de Irán:

Informes del OIEA, 2007-2015

El OIEA ha declarado constantemente que no puede concluir que el programa nuclear de Irán sea enteramente pacífico. Normalmente, esa conclusión sólo se sacaría en el caso de países que tienen un Protocolo Adicional en vigor. Irán dejó de aplicar el Protocolo Adicional en 2006, y también cesó toda otra cooperación con el OIEA más allá de lo que Irán reconoció que estaba obligado a proporcionar en virtud de su acuerdo de salvaguardias, después de que la Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA decidiera, en febrero de 2006, informar al Consejo de Seguridad sobre el incumplimiento de las salvaguardias por parte de Irán. [115] El Consejo, invocando el Capítulo VII de la Carta de las Naciones Unidas , aprobó entonces la Resolución 1737, que obligaba a Irán a aplicar el Protocolo Adicional. Irán respondió que sus actividades nucleares eran pacíficas y que la participación del Consejo de Seguridad era maliciosa e ilegal. [130] En agosto de 2007, Irán y el OIEA llegaron a un acuerdo sobre las modalidades para resolver las cuestiones pendientes restantes, [131] y avanzaron en las cuestiones pendientes, excepto en la cuestión de los "supuestos estudios" sobre el uso de armas por parte de Irán. [132] El Irán afirmó que no había abordado los supuestos estudios en el plan de trabajo del OIEA porque no estaban incluidos en el plan. [133] El OIEA no detectó el uso real de material nuclear en relación con los supuestos estudios y dijo que lamentaba no haber podido proporcionar al Irán copias de la documentación relativa a los supuestos estudios, pero dijo que la documentación era completa y detallada y, por lo tanto, debía tomarse en serio. El Irán afirmó que las acusaciones se basan en documentos "falsificados" y datos "fabricados", y que no había recibido copias de la documentación que le permitieran demostrar que eran falsificados y fabricados. [134] [135]

En 2011, el OIEA comenzó a expresar una creciente preocupación por las posibles dimensiones militares del programa nuclear de Irán y publicó una serie de informes que criticaban el programa nuclear de Irán en ese sentido. [136]

En febrero de 2007, diplomáticos anónimos del OIEA supuestamente se quejaron de que la mayor parte de la información estadounidense compartida con el OIEA había resultado inexacta y ninguna había conducido a descubrimientos significativos dentro de Irán. [137]

El 10 de mayo de 2007, Irán y el OIEA negaron vehementemente los informes de que Irán había bloqueado a los inspectores del OIEA cuando intentaron acceder a las instalaciones de enriquecimiento de uranio de Irán. El 11 de marzo de 2007, Reuters citó al portavoz del OIEA Marc Vidricaire: "No se nos ha negado el acceso en ningún momento, ni siquiera en las últimas semanas. Normalmente no hacemos comentarios sobre esos informes, pero esta vez sentimos que teníamos que aclarar el asunto... Si tuviéramos un problema como ése, tendríamos que informar al consejo directivo [del OIEA, integrado por 35 naciones]... Eso no ha sucedido porque este supuesto suceso no tuvo lugar". [138]

El 30 de julio de 2007, los inspectores del OIEA pasaron cinco horas en el complejo de Arak, la primera visita de ese tipo desde abril. Se esperaban visitas a otras plantas del Irán durante los días siguientes. Se ha sugerido que tal vez se les haya concedido el acceso en un intento de evitar nuevas sanciones. [139]

Informe y acuerdo de agosto de 2007 entre Irán y el OIEA

En un informe del OIEA a la Junta de Gobernadores del 30 de agosto de 2007 se afirmaba que la planta de enriquecimiento de combustible de Natanz, en el Irán, estaba funcionando "muy por debajo de la cantidad prevista para una instalación de este diseño" y que 12 de las 18 cascadas de centrifugadoras previstas en la planta estaban funcionando. En el informe se afirmaba que el OIEA había "logrado verificar que no se habían desviado los materiales nucleares declarados en las instalaciones de enriquecimiento del Irán" y que se consideraban "resueltos" los problemas de larga data relacionados con los experimentos con plutonio y la contaminación con UME en los contenedores de combustible gastado. Sin embargo, el informe añadía que el Organismo seguía sin poder verificar determinados aspectos relacionados con el alcance y la naturaleza del programa nuclear del Irán.

En el informe también se esbozaba un plan de trabajo acordado por Irán y el OIEA el 21 de agosto de 2007. El plan de trabajo reflejaba un acuerdo sobre "modalidades para resolver las cuestiones pendientes de aplicación de las salvaguardias, incluidas las cuestiones pendientes desde hace mucho tiempo". Según el plan, estas modalidades abarcaban todas las cuestiones pendientes relativas al programa y las actividades nucleares anteriores de Irán. El informe del OIEA describía el plan de trabajo como "un importante paso adelante", pero añadía que "el Organismo considera esencial que Irán se adhiera al cronograma definido en él e implemente todas las salvaguardias y medidas de transparencia necesarias, incluidas las medidas previstas en el Protocolo Adicional". [140] Aunque el plan de trabajo no incluía un compromiso por parte de Irán de aplicar el Protocolo Adicional, el jefe de salvaguardias del OIEA, Olli Heinonen, observó que las medidas del plan de trabajo "para resolver nuestras cuestiones pendientes van más allá de los requisitos del Protocolo Adicional". [141]

Según Reuters, el informe probablemente frenaría la presión de Washington para imponer sanciones más severas contra Irán. Un alto funcionario de la ONU que estaba al tanto dijo que los esfuerzos de Estados Unidos por intensificar las sanciones contra Irán provocarían una reacción nacionalista por parte de Irán que haría retroceder la investigación del OIEA en ese país. [142] A fines de octubre de 2007, el inspector jefe del OIEA, Olli Heinonen, calificó la cooperación iraní con el OIEA como "buena", aunque todavía quedaba mucho por hacer. [143]

A finales de octubre de 2007, según el International Herald Tribune , el director del OIEA, Mohamed ElBaradei, declaró que no había visto "ninguna prueba" de que Irán estuviera desarrollando armas nucleares. El IHT citó a ElBaradei diciendo: "Tenemos información de que tal vez se han hecho algunos estudios sobre la posible fabricación de armas. Por eso hemos dicho que no podemos dejar pasar a Irán por ahora, porque todavía hay muchos interrogantes... Pero ¿hemos visto que Irán tenga material nuclear que pueda utilizarse fácilmente en un arma? No. ¿Hemos visto un programa activo de fabricación de armas? No". El informe del IHT continuaba diciendo que "ElBaradei dijo que estaba preocupado por la creciente retórica de los EE.UU., que observó que se centraba en las supuestas intenciones de Irán de construir un arma nuclear en lugar de en la prueba de que el país estuviera haciéndolo activamente. Si hay pruebas reales, ElBaradei dijo que le gustaría verlas". [144]

Informe de noviembre de 2007

Un informe del OIEA del 15 de noviembre de 2007 concluyó que en nueve cuestiones pendientes enumeradas en el plan de trabajo de agosto de 2007, incluidos los experimentos con la centrífuga P-2 y el trabajo con metales de uranio, "las declaraciones de Irán son coherentes con... la información de que dispone el organismo", pero advirtió que su conocimiento de la actual labor atómica de Teherán se estaba reduciendo debido a la negativa de Irán a seguir aplicando voluntariamente el Protocolo Adicional, como había hecho en el pasado en virtud del acuerdo de Teherán de octubre de 2003 y el acuerdo de París de noviembre de 2004. Las únicas cuestiones pendientes eran los rastros de UME encontrados en un lugar y las acusaciones de las agencias de inteligencia estadounidenses basadas en una computadora portátil supuestamente robada a Irán que supuestamente contenía diseños relacionados con armas nucleares. El informe del OIEA también afirmó que Teherán sigue produciendo UME. Irán ha declarado que tiene derecho a la tecnología nuclear pacífica en virtud del TNP, a pesar de las exigencias del Consejo de Seguridad de que cese su enriquecimiento nuclear. [145]

El 18 de noviembre de 2007, Ahmadinejad anunció que tenía la intención de consultar con las naciones árabes sobre un plan, bajo los auspicios del Consejo de Cooperación del Golfo , para enriquecer uranio en un tercer país neutral, como Suiza. [146]

Israel criticó los informes del OIEA sobre Irán y sobre el ex director del organismo, El Baradei. El Ministro de Asuntos Estratégicos de Israel, Avigdor Lieberman, desestimó los informes del OIEA calificándolos de "inaceptables" y acusó al director del organismo, El Baradei, de ser "proiraní". [147]

Informe de febrero de 2008

El 11 de febrero de 2008, informes de prensa indicaron que el informe del OIEA sobre el cumplimiento por parte de Irán del plan de trabajo de agosto de 2007 se retrasaría debido a desacuerdos internos sobre las conclusiones previstas del informe de que se habían resuelto los principales problemas. [148] El Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores francés , Bernard Kouchner, declaró que se reuniría con El Baradei para convencerlo de que "escuche a Occidente" y recordarle que el OIEA sólo se encarga del "aspecto técnico" y no del "aspecto político" de la cuestión. [149] Un alto funcionario del OIEA negó los informes de desacuerdos internos y acusó a las potencias occidentales de utilizar las mismas tácticas de "exageración" empleadas contra Irak antes de la invasión liderada por Estados Unidos en 2003 para justificar la imposición de nuevas sanciones a Irán por su programa nuclear. [150]

El 22 de febrero de 2008, el OIEA publicó su informe sobre la aplicación de las salvaguardias en el Irán. [151] ElBaradei declaró que "hemos logrado aclarar todas las cuestiones pendientes, incluida la más importante, que es el alcance y la naturaleza del programa de enriquecimiento del Irán", con la excepción de una sola cuestión, "y es la de los supuestos estudios de armamentización que supuestamente el Irán ha realizado en el pasado". [152]

Según el informe, el OIEA compartió con Irán información de inteligencia recientemente proporcionada por los EE.UU. sobre "supuestos estudios" sobre un programa de fabricación de armas nucleares. La información habría sido obtenida de un ordenador portátil sacado de contrabando de Irán y proporcionado a los EE.UU. a mediados de 2004. [153] Se dice que el ordenador portátil fue recibido de un "antiguo contacto" en Irán que lo obtuvo de otra persona que ahora se cree que está muerta. [154] Un diplomático europeo de alto rango advirtió: "Puedo inventar esos datos", y argumentó que los documentos parecen "hermosos, pero están abiertos a dudas". [154] Estados Unidos se ha basado en el ordenador portátil para demostrar que Irán tiene la intención de desarrollar armas nucleares. [154] En noviembre de 2007, la Estimación Nacional de Inteligencia de los Estados Unidos (NIE) creía que Irán detuvo un supuesto programa activo de armas nucleares en 2003. [4] Irán ha descartado la información del ordenador portátil como una invención, y otros diplomáticos han descartado la información como relativamente insignificante y que llegó demasiado tarde. [155]

El informe del OIEA de febrero de 2008 afirma que el OIEA "no ha detectado el uso de material nuclear en relación con los supuestos estudios, ni tiene información creíble al respecto". [151]

Informe de mayo de 2008

El 26 de mayo de 2008, el OIEA publicó otro informe periódico sobre la aplicación de las salvaguardias en el Irán [156] , en el que el OIEA ha podido seguir verificando la no desviación de material nuclear declarado en el Irán, y el Irán ha proporcionado al OIEA acceso al material nuclear declarado y a los informes de contabilidad, como lo exige su acuerdo de salvaguardias. El Irán había instalado varias centrifugadoras nuevas, incluidos modelos más avanzados, y las muestras ambientales mostraban que las centrifugadoras "siguieron funcionando como se declaró", produciendo uranio poco enriquecido. El informe también señaló que otros elementos del programa nuclear del Irán seguían estando sujetos a la supervisión y las salvaguardias del OIEA, incluida la construcción de la instalación de agua pesada en Arak, la construcción y el uso de celdas calientes asociadas con el reactor de investigación de Teherán, los esfuerzos de conversión de uranio y el combustible nuclear ruso entregado para el reactor de Bushehr.

En el informe se afirma que el OIEA había solicitado, como "medida de transparencia" voluntaria, que se le permitiera el acceso a los lugares de fabricación de centrifugadoras, pero que el Irán había rechazado la solicitud. El informe del OIEA afirma que el Irán también había presentado respuestas a preguntas sobre las "posibles dimensiones militares" de su programa nuclear, que incluyen "presuntos estudios" sobre un denominado Proyecto Sal Verde , pruebas de alto poder explosivo y vehículos de reentrada de misiles. Según el informe, las respuestas del Irán todavía estaban siendo examinadas por el OIEA en el momento de su publicación. Sin embargo, como parte de su "evaluación general" anterior de las acusaciones, el Irán había respondido que los documentos en los que se formulaban las acusaciones eran falsos, no auténticos o se referían a aplicaciones convencionales. El informe afirma que el Irán puede tener más información sobre los supuestos estudios, que "siguen siendo motivo de grave preocupación", pero que el propio OIEA no había detectado pruebas de que el Irán hubiera diseñado o fabricado realmente armas nucleares o componentes. El OIEA también afirma que no estaba en posesión de ciertos documentos que contenían las acusaciones contra el Irán, por lo que no podía compartirlos con el Irán.

Informe de septiembre de 2008

Según el informe del OIEA del 15 de septiembre de 2008 sobre la aplicación de salvaguardias en el Irán [157] , el Irán siguió proporcionando al OIEA acceso a material y actividades nucleares declarados, que siguieron realizándose bajo salvaguardias y sin pruebas de que se hubiera desviado material nuclear para usos no pacíficos. No obstante, el informe reiteró que el OIEA no podría verificar la naturaleza exclusivamente pacífica del programa nuclear del Irán a menos que el Irán adoptara "medidas de transparencia" que excedieran su acuerdo de salvaguardias con el OIEA, ya que el OIEA no verifica la ausencia de actividades nucleares no declaradas en ningún país a menos que el Protocolo Adicional esté en vigor.

El Baradei declaró que "hemos logrado aclarar todas las cuestiones pendientes, incluida la más importante, que es el alcance y la naturaleza del programa de enriquecimiento de Irán", con la excepción de una sola cuestión, "y es la de los supuestos estudios de armamentización que supuestamente Irán ha realizado en el pasado". [158] Según el informe, Irán había aumentado el número de centrifugadoras operativas en su planta de enriquecimiento de combustible en Isfahán y continuaba enriqueciendo uranio. Contrariamente a algunos informes de los medios de comunicación que afirmaban que Irán había desviado hexafluoruro de uranio (UF6 ) para un renovado programa de armas nucleares, [159] el OIEA enfatizó que todo el UF6 estaba bajo las salvaguardias del OIEA. También se le pidió a Irán que aclarara la información sobre la asistencia extranjera que pudiera haber recibido en relación con una carga explosiva de alto poder para un dispositivo nuclear de tipo implosión. Irán declaró que no había habido tales actividades en Irán. [157]

El OIEA también informó de que había celebrado una serie de reuniones con funcionarios iraníes para resolver las cuestiones pendientes, incluidos los "supuestos estudios" sobre la fabricación de armas nucleares que se enumeraban en el informe del OIEA de mayo de 2008. Durante el curso de esas reuniones, los iraníes presentaron una serie de respuestas escritas, incluida una presentación de 117 páginas que confirmaba la veracidad parcial de algunas de las acusaciones, pero en la que se afirmaba que las acusaciones en su conjunto se basaban en documentos "falsificados" y datos "fabricados", y que el Irán no había recibido realmente la documentación que corroboraba las acusaciones. Según el "Acuerdo de Modalidades" de agosto de 2007 entre el Irán y el OIEA, el Irán había acordado examinar y evaluar las afirmaciones sobre los "supuestos estudios", como gesto de buena fe, "tras recibir todos los documentos relacionados". [160]

Si bien el informe volvió a expresar su "pesar" por el hecho de que el OIEA no hubiera podido proporcionar al Irán copias de la documentación relativa a los supuestos estudios, también instó al Irán a que proporcionara al OIEA "información sustantiva que respaldara sus declaraciones y facilitara el acceso a la documentación y a las personas pertinentes" en relación con los supuestos estudios, como "cuestión de transparencia". [157] El OIEA presentó una serie de propuestas al Irán para ayudar a resolver las acusaciones y expresó su disposición a debatir modalidades que pudieran permitirle demostrar de manera creíble que las actividades a las que se hacía referencia en la documentación no estaban relacionadas con la energía nuclear, como afirmaba el Irán, al tiempo que protegía la información sensible relacionada con sus actividades militares convencionales. El informe no indica si el Irán aceptó o rechazó esas propuestas. [157]

El informe también reiteró que los inspectores del OIEA no habían encontrado "ninguna prueba del diseño o fabricación reales por parte de Irán de componentes de material nuclear de un arma nuclear o de ciertos otros componentes clave, como iniciadores, o de estudios de física nuclear relacionados... El Organismo tampoco ha detectado el uso real de material nuclear en relación con los supuestos estudios", pero insistió en que el OIEA no podría verificar formalmente la naturaleza pacífica del programa nuclear de Irán a menos que Irán hubiera acordado adoptar las "medidas de transparencia" solicitadas. [157]

Informe de febrero de 2009

En un informe presentado el 19 de febrero de 2009 a la Junta de Gobernadores, [161] El Baradei informó de que el Irán seguía enriqueciendo uranio en contravención de las decisiones del Consejo de Seguridad y había producido más de una tonelada de uranio poco enriquecido. Los resultados de las muestras ambientales tomadas por el OIEA en la FEP y la PFEP5 indicaban que las plantas habían estado funcionando a los niveles declarados por Teherán, "dentro de las incertidumbres de medición normalmente asociadas a las plantas de enriquecimiento de una capacidad similar". El OIEA también pudo confirmar que no se estaban llevando a cabo actividades relacionadas con el reprocesamiento en el reactor de investigación de Teherán y la instalación de producción de radioisótopos de xenón del Irán.

Según el informe, Irán también siguió negándose a proporcionar información sobre el diseño o acceso para verificar la información sobre el diseño de su reactor de investigación de agua pesada IR-40. En febrero de 2003, Irán y el OIEA acordaron modificar una disposición del Acuerdo Subsidiario de su acuerdo de salvaguardias (Código 3.1) para exigir dicho acceso. [162] Irán dijo al OIEA en marzo de 2007 que "suspendía" la aplicación del Código 3.1 modificado, que había sido "aceptado en 2003, pero aún no ratificado por el parlamento", y que "volvería" a la aplicación de la versión de 1976 del Código 3.1. [163] El acuerdo subsidiario sólo puede modificarse por acuerdo mutuo. [164] Irán dice que, dado que el reactor no está en condiciones de recibir material nuclear, la solicitud de acceso del OIEA no estaba justificada, y pidió que el OIEA no programara una inspección para verificar la información sobre el diseño. [161] El OIEA afirma que su derecho a verificar la información de diseño que se le proporciona es un "derecho continuo, que no depende de la etapa de construcción de una instalación ni de la presencia de material nuclear en ella". [163]

En cuanto a los "supuestos estudios" sobre la fabricación de armas nucleares, el OIEA dijo que "como resultado de la continua falta de cooperación por parte del Irán en relación con las cuestiones restantes que dan lugar a preocupaciones sobre las posibles dimensiones militares del programa nuclear del Irán, el Organismo no ha logrado ningún progreso sustancial en esas cuestiones" y pidió a los Estados miembros que habían proporcionado información sobre los supuestos programas que permitieran que se compartiera esa información con el Irán. El OIEA dijo que la continua negativa del Irán a aplicar el Protocolo Adicional era contraria a la solicitud de la Junta de Gobernadores y del Consejo de Seguridad y que podía seguir verificando la no desviación del material nuclear declarado en el Irán. [165] El Irán dijo que durante los seis años que el Organismo había estado examinando su caso, el OIEA no había encontrado ninguna prueba que demostrara que Teherán estuviera tratando de fabricar un arma nuclear. [166]

En cuanto al informe del OIEA, varios informes de prensa sugirieron que Irán no había informado adecuadamente sobre la cantidad de uranio poco enriquecido que poseía porque las estimaciones iraníes no coincidían con las conclusiones del inspector del OIEA, y que Irán ahora tenía suficiente uranio para fabricar una bomba nuclear. [167] [168] El informe fue ampliamente criticado como injustificadamente provocativo y exagerado. [169] [170] [171] En respuesta a la controversia, la portavoz del OIEA, Melissa Fleming, afirmó que el OIEA no tenía ninguna razón para creer que las estimaciones de uranio poco enriquecido producido por Irán fueran un error intencional, y que no se podía retirar material nuclear de la instalación para enriquecerlo aún más para fabricar armas nucleares sin el conocimiento del organismo, ya que la instalación está sujeta a vigilancia por vídeo y el material nuclear se mantiene sellado. [172]

Ali Asghar Soltaniyeh, embajador de Irán ante el OIEA, dijo que el informe de febrero no "ofrecía ninguna nueva perspectiva sobre el programa nuclear de Irán". [173] Afirmó que el informe estaba escrito de una manera que claramente causa malentendidos en la opinión pública. Sugirió que los informes deberían redactarse de manera que tuvieran una sección sobre si Irán ha cumplido con sus obligaciones en virtud del TNP y una sección separada sobre si "el cumplimiento del Protocolo Adicional o de los subacuerdos 1 y 3 exceden el compromiso o no". [ cita requerida ]

En una entrevista de prensa en febrero de 2009, ElBaradei dijo que Irán tiene uranio poco enriquecido, pero "eso no significa que mañana vayan a tener armas nucleares, porque mientras estén bajo la verificación del OIEA, mientras no estén fabricando armas, ya se sabe". ElBaradei continuó diciendo que hay un déficit de confianza con Irán, pero que no se debe exagerar la preocupación y que "muchos otros países están enriqueciendo uranio sin que el mundo haga ningún escándalo al respecto". [174]

En febrero de 2009, El Baradei habría dicho que creía que la posibilidad de un ataque militar a las instalaciones nucleares de Irán había sido descartada. "La fuerza sólo puede utilizarse como última opción... cuando se han agotado todas las demás posibilidades políticas", dijo a Radio France International . [166] [175] El ex director general Hans Blix criticó a los gobiernos occidentales por los años perdidos por sus "enfoques ineficaces" respecto del programa nuclear de Irán. Blix sugirió que Occidente ofreciera "garantías contra ataques desde el exterior y actividades subversivas desde el interior" y también sugirió que la participación de Estados Unidos en la diplomacia regional "ofrecería a Irán un mayor incentivo para alcanzar un acuerdo nuclear que las declaraciones del equipo de Bush de que 'Irán debe comportarse'". [176]

Informe de agosto de 2009

En julio de 2009, el jefe entrante del OIEA, Yukiya Amano , dijo: "No veo ninguna evidencia en los documentos oficiales del OIEA" de que Irán esté tratando de obtener la capacidad de desarrollar armas nucleares. [177]

En septiembre de 2009, El Baradei dijo que Irán había violado la ley al no revelar antes la existencia de la Planta de Enriquecimiento de Combustible de Fordow , su segundo sitio de enriquecimiento de uranio cerca de Qom . Sin embargo, dijo, las Naciones Unidas no tenían pruebas creíbles de que Irán tuviera un programa nuclear operativo. [178]

Informe de noviembre de 2009

En noviembre de 2009, 25 miembros de la Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA, integrada por 35 naciones, aprobaron una exigencia de los Estados Unidos, Rusia, China y otras tres potencias [ ¿cuáles? ] para que Irán detuviera inmediatamente la construcción de su recién revelada instalación nuclear y congelara el enriquecimiento de uranio. Los funcionarios iraníes restaron importancia a la resolución, pero los Estados Unidos y sus aliados insinuaron que la ONU podría aplicar nuevas sanciones si Irán se mantenía desafiante. [179]

Informe de febrero de 2010

En febrero de 2010, el OIEA informó que Irán no había explicado las compras de tecnología sensible, así como las pruebas secretas de detonadores de alta precisión y diseños modificados de conos de misiles para acomodar cargas útiles más grandes, experimentos estrechamente asociados con ojivas atómicas. [180]

Informe de mayo de 2010

En mayo de 2010, el OIEA informó que Irán había declarado una producción de más de 2,5 toneladas métricas de uranio poco enriquecido, que sería suficiente si se enriquece más para fabricar dos armas nucleares, y que Irán se ha negado a responder a las preguntas de los inspectores sobre una variedad de actividades, incluyendo lo que el organismo llamó las "posibles dimensiones militares" del programa nuclear de Irán. [181] [182]

En julio de 2010, Irán prohibió la entrada en el país a dos inspectores del OIEA. El OIEA rechazó las razones de Irán para la prohibición y dijo que apoyaba plenamente a los inspectores, a los que Teherán había acusado de informar erróneamente sobre la falta de algunos equipos nucleares. [183]

En agosto de 2010, el OIEA afirmó que Irán había comenzado a utilizar un segundo conjunto de 164 centrifugadoras conectadas en cascada para enriquecer uranio hasta un 20% en su planta piloto de enriquecimiento de combustible de Natanz. [184]

Informe de noviembre de 2011

En noviembre de 2011, el OIEA informó [185] que los inspectores habían encontrado evidencia creíble de que Irán había estado realizando experimentos destinados a diseñar una bomba nuclear hasta 2003, y que la investigación podría haber continuado en menor escala después de esa fecha. [186] El Director del OIEA, Yukiya Amano, dijo que la evidencia reunida por el organismo "indica que Irán ha llevado a cabo actividades relacionadas con el desarrollo de un dispositivo explosivo nuclear". [187] Varios expertos nucleares occidentales afirmaron que había muy pocas novedades en el informe, [188] y que los informes de los medios de comunicación habían exagerado su importancia. [189] Irán afirmó que el informe era poco profesional y desequilibrado, y que había sido preparado con una influencia política indebida principalmente por los Estados Unidos. [190]

En noviembre de 2011, funcionarios del OIEA identificaron un "gran recipiente de contención de explosivos" dentro de Parchin . [191] El OIEA evaluó posteriormente que Irán había estado realizando experimentos para desarrollar capacidad de armas nucleares. [192]

La Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA aprobó una resolución [193] por 32 votos a favor y 2 en contra, en la que expresaba "profunda y creciente preocupación" por las posibles dimensiones militares del programa nuclear iraní y calificaba de "esencial" que Irán proporcionara información adicional y acceso al OIEA. [6] [194] Estados Unidos acogió con satisfacción la resolución y dijo que intensificaría las sanciones para presionar a Irán a cambiar de rumbo. [195] En respuesta a la resolución del OIEA, Irán amenazó con reducir su cooperación con el OIEA, aunque el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores iraní, Ali Akbar Salehi, restó importancia a las conversaciones sobre la retirada del TNP o del OIEA. [196]

Informe de febrero de 2012

El 24 de febrero de 2012, el Director General del OIEA, Amano, informó a la Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA que delegaciones de alto nivel del OIEA se habían reunido dos veces con funcionarios iraníes para intensificar los esfuerzos por resolver las cuestiones pendientes, pero que seguían existiendo diferencias importantes y que Irán no había concedido las solicitudes del OIEA para acceder al sitio de Parchin , donde el OIEA cree que se han llevado a cabo investigaciones sobre explosivos de alta potencia pertinentes para las armas nucleares. Irán desestimó el informe del OIEA sobre las posibles dimensiones militares de su programa nuclear por basarse en "acusaciones infundadas". Amano pidió a Irán que aceptara un enfoque estructurado, basado en las prácticas de verificación del OIEA, para resolver las cuestiones pendientes. [197] En marzo de 2012, Irán dijo que permitiría otra inspección en Parchin "cuando se llegara a un acuerdo sobre un plan de modalidades". [198] Poco después, se informó de que Irán podría no consentir un acceso sin restricciones. [199] Un estudio de imágenes satelitales del ISIS afirmó haber identificado un sitio explosivo en Parchin. [200]

El informe de febrero del OIEA también describió los avances en los esfuerzos de enriquecimiento y fabricación de combustible de Irán, incluyendo la triplicación del número de cascadas de enriquecimiento de uranio a casi el 20 por ciento y las pruebas de elementos de combustible para el Reactor de Investigación de Teherán y el todavía incompleto reactor de investigación de agua pesada IR-40 . [197] Aunque Irán seguía instalando miles de centrifugadoras adicionales, éstas se basaban en un diseño errático y obsoleto, tanto en su planta principal de enriquecimiento en Natanz como en una instalación más pequeña en Fordow enterrada a gran profundidad. "Parece que todavía están luchando con las centrifugadoras avanzadas", dijo Olli Heinonen, ex inspector nuclear jefe, mientras que el experto nuclear Mark Fitzpatrick señaló que Irán había estado trabajando en "modelos de segunda generación durante más de diez años y todavía no puede ponerlos en funcionamiento a gran escala". [201] Peter Crail y Daryl G. Kimball, de la Asociación de Control de Armas, comentaron que el informe "no identifica ningún avance" y "confirma las impresiones iniciales de que los anuncios de Irán de la semana pasada sobre una serie de 'avances nucleares' fueron exagerados". [202]

Informe de mayo de 2012

En mayo de 2012, el OIEA informó de que Irán había aumentado su tasa de producción de uranio poco enriquecido al 3,5 por ciento y ampliado sus reservas de uranio enriquecido al 19,75 por ciento, pero que estaba teniendo dificultades con las centrifugadoras más avanzadas. [203] El OIEA también informó de la detección de partículas de uranio enriquecido al 27 por ciento en la instalación de enriquecimiento de Fordu . Sin embargo, un diplomático en Viena advirtió de que el aumento de la pureza del uranio detectado por los inspectores podría resultar accidental. [204] Este cambio hizo que el uranio de Irán pasara drásticamente a ser un material apto para fabricar bombas. Hasta entonces, el nivel más alto de pureza que se había encontrado en Irán era del 20 por ciento. [205]

Informe de agosto de 2012

A fines de agosto, el OIEA creó un Grupo de Trabajo sobre Irán para ocuparse de las inspecciones y otras cuestiones relacionadas con el programa nuclear de Irán, en un intento de centrar y agilizar el manejo del programa nuclear de Irán por parte del OIEA concentrando expertos y otros recursos en un equipo dedicado. [206]

El 30 de agosto, el OIEA publicó un informe que mostraba una importante expansión de las actividades iraníes de enriquecimiento. En el informe se decía que Irán había más que duplicado el número de centrifugadoras en la instalación subterránea de Fordow, de 1.064 centrifugadoras en mayo a 2.140 centrifugadoras en agosto, aunque el número de centrifugadoras en funcionamiento no había aumentado. El informe decía que desde 2010 Irán había producido unos 190 kg de uranio enriquecido al 20%, frente a los 145 kg de mayo. El informe también señalaba que Irán había convertido parte del uranio enriquecido al 20% en una forma de óxido y lo había transformado en combustible para su uso en reactores de investigación, y que una vez que se han producido esta conversión y fabricación, el combustible no puede enriquecerse fácilmente hasta alcanzar una pureza apta para armas. [207] [208]

El informe también expresó su preocupación por Parchin , que el OIEA ha tratado de inspeccionar en busca de pruebas de desarrollo de armas nucleares. Desde que el OIEA solicitó el acceso, "se han llevado a cabo importantes trabajos de excavación y paisajismo en una extensa zona del lugar y sus alrededores", se han demolido cinco edificios, mientras que se han eliminado líneas eléctricas, vallas y caminos pavimentados, todo lo cual obstaculizaría la investigación del OIEA si se le permitiera el acceso. [209]

En una sesión informativa sobre este informe ante la Junta de Gobernadores a principios de septiembre de 2012, el Director General Adjunto del OIEA, Herman Nackaerts, y el Director General Adjunto, Rafael Grossi, mostraron imágenes satelitales a sus estados miembros que supuestamente demuestran los esfuerzos iraníes por eliminar pruebas incriminatorias de sus instalaciones en Parchin, o una "limpieza nuclear". Estas imágenes mostraban un edificio en Parchin cubierto con lo que parecía ser una lona rosa, así como la demolición del edificio y la remoción de tierra que, según el OIEA, "dificultarían significativamente" su investigación. Un diplomático occidental de alto rango describió la presentación como "bastante convincente". El Instituto para la Ciencia y la Seguridad Internacional (ISIS) dijo que el propósito de la lona rosa podría ser ocultar a los satélites "trabajos de limpieza" adicionales. Sin embargo, Ali Asghar Soltanieh, enviado de Irán al OIEA, negó el contenido de la presentación, diciendo que "simplemente tener una foto desde allí arriba, una imagen satelital... esa no es la forma en que el organismo debe hacer su trabajo profesional". [210]

Según la Associated Press, el OIEA recibió "nueva e importante información de inteligencia" en septiembre de 2012, que cuatro diplomáticos confirmaron que fue la base de un pasaje del informe del OIEA de agosto de 2012 que decía que "la agencia ha obtenido más información que corrobora aún más" las sospechas. Según se informa, la información de inteligencia indica que Irán había avanzado en el trabajo de modelado informático del rendimiento de una ojiva nuclear, trabajo que David Albright, del ISIS, dijo que era "crucial para el desarrollo de un arma nuclear". La información de inteligencia también aumentaría los temores del OIEA de que Irán haya avanzado en su investigación de armas en múltiples frentes, ya que el modelado informático suele ir acompañado de pruebas físicas de los componentes que entrarían en un arma nuclear. [211]

En respuesta a este informe, el 13 de septiembre la Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA aprobó una resolución que reprendió a Irán por desafiar las resoluciones del Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas de suspender el enriquecimiento de uranio y pidió a Irán que permitiera las inspecciones de las pruebas de que está buscando tecnología armamentística. [212] La resolución, que se aprobó por 31 votos a favor, 1 en contra y 3 abstenciones, también expresó "serias preocupaciones" sobre el programa nuclear de Irán, al tiempo que deseaba una solución pacífica. El diplomático estadounidense de alto rango Robert Wood culpó a Irán de "demoler sistemáticamente" una instalación en la base militar de Parchin, que los inspectores del OIEA han intentado visitar en el pasado, pero a la que no se les permitió el acceso, diciendo que "Irán ha estado tomando medidas que parecen coherentes con un esfuerzo por eliminar las pruebas de sus actividades pasadas en Parchin". [213] La resolución fue presentada conjuntamente por China, Francia, Alemania, Rusia, los Estados Unidos y el Reino Unido. [214]

Informe de noviembre de 2012

El 16 de noviembre, el OIEA publicó un informe que muestra la continua expansión de las capacidades iraníes de enriquecimiento de uranio. En Fordow se han instalado las 2.784 centrifugadoras IR-1 (16 cascadas de 174 cada una), aunque sólo cuatro cascadas están en funcionamiento y otras cuatro están totalmente equipadas, probadas al vacío y listas para empezar a funcionar. [215] Irán ha producido aproximadamente 233 kg de uranio enriquecido a casi el 20 por ciento, un aumento de 43 kg desde el informe del OIEA de agosto de 2012. [216]

El informe del OIEA de agosto de 2012 afirmó que Irán había comenzado a utilizar 96 kg de su uranio enriquecido a casi el 20 por ciento para fabricar combustible para el reactor de investigación de Teherán, lo que hace más difícil enriquecer aún más ese uranio hasta el grado de armas , ya que primero tendría que convertirse nuevamente en gas hexafluoruro de uranio. [217] Aunque más de este uranio se ha fabricado en combustible, no se ha enviado uranio adicional a la planta de fabricación de placas de combustible en Isfahán . [215]

En el informe de noviembre se señala que Irán ha seguido negando al OIEA el acceso a la base militar de Parchin . Citando pruebas obtenidas por imágenes satelitales de que "Irán construyó un gran recipiente de contención de explosivos en el que se realizan experimentos hidrodinámicos" relacionados con el desarrollo de armas nucleares, el informe expresa preocupación por la posibilidad de que los cambios que se están produciendo en la base militar de Parchin puedan eliminar las pruebas de actividades nucleares pasadas, y señala que prácticamente no ha habido actividad en ese lugar entre febrero de 2005 y el momento en que el OIEA solicitó el acceso. Esos cambios incluyen:

Irán afirmó que se esperaba que el reactor de investigación de agua pesada IR-40 en Arak comenzara a funcionar en el primer trimestre de 2014. Durante las inspecciones in situ del diseño del IR-40, los inspectores del OIEA observaron que continuaba la instalación de las tuberías del circuito de refrigeración y moderador. [218]

Informe de febrero de 2013

El 21 de febrero, el OIEA publicó un informe que mostraba que la capacidad iraní de enriquecimiento de uranio seguía aumentando. Hasta el 19 de febrero, se habían instalado en Natanz 12.699 centrifugadoras IR-1, lo que incluye la instalación de 2.255 centrifugadoras desde el informe anterior del OIEA, de noviembre. [219]

Fordow, la instalación nuclear situada cerca de Qom, contiene 16 cascadas, divididas equitativamente entre la Unidad 1 y la Unidad 2, con un total de 2.710 centrifugadoras. Irán sigue utilizando las cuatro cascadas de 174 centrifugadoras IR-1 cada una en dos conjuntos en tándem para producir 19,75 por ciento de uranio poco enriquecido en un total de 696 centrifugadoras de enriquecimiento, el mismo número de centrifugadoras de enriquecimiento que se informó en noviembre de 2012. [220]

Irán ha producido aproximadamente 280 kg de uranio enriquecido al 20 por ciento, un aumento de 47 kg desde el informe del OIEA de noviembre de 2012 y la producción total de uranio poco enriquecido al 3,5 por ciento asciende a 8.271 kg (en comparación con los 7.611 kg informados durante el último trimestre). [219]

El informe del OIEA de febrero de 2013 afirmó que Irán había reanudado la reconversión de uranio enriquecido casi al 20 por ciento en forma de óxido para fabricar combustible para el reactor de investigación de Teherán, lo que hace más difícil enriquecer aún más ese uranio hasta el grado de armas , ya que primero tendría que convertirse nuevamente en gas UF6. [ 221]

En el informe de febrero se señala que Irán ha seguido negando al OIEA el acceso a la base militar de Parchin , citando pruebas obtenidas por imágenes satelitales de que "Irán construyó un gran recipiente de contención de explosivos en el que se realizan experimentos hidrodinámicos". Esa instalación podría ser un indicador del desarrollo de armas nucleares. En el informe se expresa preocupación por la posibilidad de que los cambios que se están produciendo en la base militar de Parchin puedan eliminar las pruebas de actividades nucleares pasadas, y se señala que prácticamente no ha habido actividad en ese lugar entre febrero de 2005 y el momento en que el OIEA solicitó el acceso. Esos cambios incluyen:

El Irán afirmó que se esperaba que el reactor de investigación de Teherán, moderado por agua pesada, IR-40, en Arak, comenzara a funcionar en el primer trimestre de 2014. Durante las inspecciones in situ del diseño del IR-40, los inspectores del OIEA observaron que la instalación de las tuberías del circuito de refrigeración y moderador, según se había informado anteriormente, estaba casi terminada. El OIEA informó de que el Irán utilizará el reactor de investigación de Teherán para probar el combustible para el reactor IR-40, cuya construcción el Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas ha exigido que el Irán deje de construir porque podría utilizarse para producir plutonio para armas nucleares. El informe del OIEA afirma que "el 26 de noviembre de 2012, el Organismo verificó un prototipo de conjunto de combustible de uranio natural IR-40 antes de su traslado al TRR para realizar pruebas de irradiación". [221] Desde su última visita, el 17 de agosto de 2011, el Organismo no ha tenido más acceso a la planta, por lo que depende de imágenes satelitales para supervisar el estado de la planta. [221]

Informe de marzo de 2015

En marzo de 2015, el Director General del OIEA, Amano, informó que Irán no había proporcionado suficiente acceso o información para resolver una docena de cuestiones relacionadas con las posibles dimensiones militares de su programa nuclear, y que sólo había dado información muy limitada sobre una de esas cuestiones. [222]

Informe de diciembre de 2015

En diciembre de 2015, el OIEA publicó un informe en el que concluía: [223]

El Organismo considera que, antes de fines de 2003, se llevaron a cabo en el Irán diversas actividades relacionadas con el desarrollo de un dispositivo nuclear explosivo, como parte de un esfuerzo coordinado, y que algunas de ellas tuvieron lugar después de 2003. El Organismo considera también que esas actividades no fueron más allá de los estudios científicos y de viabilidad y de la adquisición de determinadas competencias y capacidades técnicas pertinentes. El Organismo no tiene indicios creíbles de que se hayan llevado a cabo en el Irán actividades relacionadas con el desarrollo de un dispositivo nuclear explosivo después de 2009.

A raíz de este informe, la Junta de Gobernadores del OIEA aprobó una resolución que daba por concluido el examen de las cuestiones planteadas en el informe y ponía fin a las resoluciones anteriores sobre el Irán. [224]

Informe de diciembre de 2020

En diciembre de 2020, el OIEA informó que Teherán “posee más de 12 veces la cantidad de uranio enriquecido” permitida por el JCPOA, y que “también se ha comenzado a trabajar en la construcción de nuevas instalaciones subterráneas cerca de Natanz , su principal instalación de enriquecimiento”. [225]

2021

Hasta 2021, Irán afirmó constantemente que su programa nuclear tenía fines exclusivamente pacíficos, lo que se vio reforzado por una fatwa emitida por el ayatolá Jamenei contra el desarrollo de armas nucleares. Pero en una entrevista en noviembre de 2021, en el aniversario del asesinato de Mohsen Fakhrizadeh , el exjefe de la Organización de Energía Atómica de Irán, Fereydoun Abbasi-Davani, mencionó el crecimiento del país "que involucra satélites, misiles y armas nucleares" y dijo que, aunque la postura de Irán sobre que las armas nucleares son haram era bastante clara, Fakhrizadeh había "creado este sistema". [15] [225]

Informe de octubre de 2023

En un informe trimestral de octubre, el OIEA afirmó que, a partir de 2023, se estima que Irán ha aumentado aún más sus reservas de uranio veintidós veces por encima del límite acordado en el Plan de Acción Integral Conjunto (PAIC) de 2015. El OIEA también señaló que Irán ha seguido negándose a realizar inspecciones a su programa nuclear y que varios inspectores han sido vetados por Irán, una medida que recibió la condena del organismo. [226]

Puntos de vista iraníes

Las entrevistas y encuestas muestran que la mayoría de los iraníes en todos los grupos están a favor del programa nuclear de su país. [227] [228] [229] Las encuestas en 2008 mostraron que la gran mayoría de los iraníes quieren que su país desarrolle energía nuclear, y el 90% de los iraníes cree que es importante (incluido el 81% muy importante) que Irán "tenga un programa nuclear de ciclo de combustible completo". [230] Aunque los iraníes no son árabes, los públicos árabes en seis países también creen que Irán tiene derecho a su programa nuclear y no debe ser presionado para detenerlo. [231] Una encuesta en septiembre de 2010 por el Instituto Internacional de la Paz encontró que el 71% de los iraníes favorecía el desarrollo de armas nucleares, un aumento drástico sobre las encuestas anteriores de la misma agencia. [232] Sin embargo, en julio de 2012, una encuesta en un medio de comunicación estatal iraní encontró que 2/3 de los iraníes apoyan la suspensión del enriquecimiento de uranio a cambio de una flexibilización gradual de las sanciones. [233] [234] [235] [236] Meir Javedanfar , un comentarista nacido en Irán que trabaja para la Compañía de Análisis Económico y Político del Medio Oriente, afirmó que si bien los iraníes pueden querer energía nuclear, no la quieren al precio que el gobierno está dispuesto a pagar. [237]

In explaining why it had left its enrichment program undeclared to the IAEA, Iran said that for the past twenty-four years it has "been subject to the most severe series of sanctions and export restrictions on material and technology for peaceful nuclear technology," so that some elements of its program had to be done discreetly. Iran said the US intention "is nothing but to make this deprivation" of Iran's inalienable right to enrichment technology "final and eternal," and that the United States is completely silent on Israel's nuclear enrichment and weapons program.[238] Iran began its nuclear research as early as 1975, when France cooperated with Iran to set up the Esfahan Nuclear Technology Center (ENTC) to provide training for personnel to develop certain nuclear fuel cycle capabilities.[239] Iran did not hide other elements of its nuclear program. For example, its efforts at mining and converting uranium were announced on national radio,[240][241] and Iran also says that in consultation with the Agency and member states throughout the 1990s it underlined its plans to acquire, for exclusively peaceful purposes, fuel enrichment technology.[238] Iran's contracts with other nations to obtain nuclear reactors were also known to the IAEA – but support for the contracts was withdrawn after "a U.S. special national intelligence estimate declared that while 'Iran's much publicized nuclear power intentions are entirely in the planning stage,' the ambitions of the Shah could lead Iran to pursue nuclear weapons, especially in the shadow of India's successful nuclear test in May 1974".[242] In 2003, the IAEA reported that Iran had failed to meet its obligations to report some of its enrichment activities, which Iran says began in 1985, to the IAEA as required by its safeguards agreement. The IAEA further reported that Iran had undertaken to submit the required information for agency verification and "to implement a policy of co-operation and full transparency" as corrective actions.[96]

The Iranian government has repeatedly made compromise offers to place limits on its nuclear program beyond what the Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Additional Protocol require of Iran, in order to ensure that the program cannot be secretly diverted to the manufacture of weapons.[243] These offers have included operating Iran's nuclear program as an international consortium, with the full participation of foreign governments. This offer by the Iranians matched a proposed solution put forth by an IAEA expert committee that was investigating the risk that civilian nuclear technologies could be used to make bombs.[71] Iran has also offered to renounce plutonium extraction technology, thus ensuring that its heavy water reactor at Arak cannot be used to make bombs either.[244] More recently, the Iranians have reportedly also offered to operate uranium centrifuges that automatically self-destruct if they are used to enrich uranium beyond what is required for civilian purposes.[245] However, despite offers of nuclear cooperation by the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and Germany, Iran has refused to suspend its enrichment program as the council has demanded.[246] Iran's representative asserted that dealing with the issue in the Security Council was unwarranted and void of any legal basis or practical utility because its peaceful nuclear program posed no threat to international peace and security, and, that it ran counter to the views of the majority of United Nations Member States, which the council was obliged to represent.

"They should know that the Iranian nation will not yield to pressure and will not let its rights be trampled on," Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad told a crowd 31 August 2006, in a televised speech in the northwestern city of Orumiyeh. In front of his strongest supporters in one of his provincial power bases, the Iranian leader attacked what he called "intimidation" by the UN, which he said was led by the US. Ahmadinejad criticized a White House rebuff of his offer for a televised debate with President Bush. "They say they support dialog and the free flow of information," he said. "But when debate was proposed, they avoided and opposed it." Ahmadinejad said that sanctions "cannot dissuade Iranians from their decision to make progress," according to Iran's state-run IRNA news agency. "On the contrary, many of our successes, including access to the nuclear fuel cycle and producing of heavy water, have been achieved under sanctions."

Iran insists enrichment activities are intended for peaceful purposes, but much of the West, including the United States, allege that Iran is pursuing nuclear weapons, or a nuclear weapons "capability". 31 August 2006, deadline called for Iran to comply with UN Security Council Resolution 1696 and suspend its enrichment-related activities or face the possibility of economic sanctions. The United States believes the council will agree to implement sanctions when high-level ministers reconvene in mid-September, US Undersecretary of State Nicholas Burns said. "We're sure going to work toward that [sanctions] with a great deal of energy and determination because this cannot go unanswered," Burns said. "The Iranians are obviously proceeding with their nuclear research; they are doing things that the International Atomic Energy Agency does not want them to do, the Security Council doesn't want them to do. There has to be an international answer, and we believe there will be one."[124]

Iran asserts that there is no legal basis for Iran's referral to the United Nations Security Council since the IAEA has not proven that previously undeclared activities had a relationship to a weapons program, and that all nuclear material in Iran (including material that may not have been declared) had been accounted for and had not been diverted to military purposes. Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute[247] requires a report to the UN Security Council for any safeguards noncompliance.[248] The IAEA Board of Governors, in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions,[120] decided that "Iran's many failures and breaches of its obligations to comply with its NPT Safeguards Agreement" as reported by the IAEA in November 2003 constituted "non-compliance" under the terms of Article XII.C of IAEA Statute.[112]

Iran also minimizes the significance of the IAEA's inability to verify the exclusively peaceful nature of Iran's nuclear program, arguing the IAEA has only drawn such conclusions in a subset of states that have ratified and implemented the Additional Protocol. The IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran,[249] but not the absence of undeclared activities. According to the IAEA's Safeguards Statement for 2007, of the 82 states where both NPT safeguards and an Additional Protocol are implemented, the IAEA had found no indication of undeclared nuclear activity in 47 states, while evaluations of possible undeclared nuclear activity remained ongoing in 35 states.[250] Iran ceased implementation of the Additional Protocol and all other cooperation with the IAEA beyond that required under its safeguards agreement after the IAEA Board of Governors decided to report its safeguards non-compliance to the UN Security Council in February 2006.[115] Iran insisted that such cooperation had been "voluntary," but on 26 December 2006, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1737,[251] invoking Chapter VII of the UN Charter, which among other things required Iran to cooperate fully with the IAEA, "beyond the formal requirements of the Safeguards Agreement and Additional Protocol." The IAEA reported on 19 November 2008, that, while it is "able to continue to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran," it "has not been able to make substantive progress" on "key remaining issues of serious concern" because of a "lack of cooperation by Iran."[132] Iran has maintained that the Security Council's engagement in "the issue of the peaceful nuclear activities of the Islamic Republic of Iran" are unlawful and malicious.[252] Iran also argues that the UN Security Council resolutions demanding a suspension of enrichment constitute a violation of Article IV of the Non-Proliferation Treaty which recognizes the inalienable right of signatory nations to nuclear technology "for peaceful purposes."[253][254]

Iran agreed to implement the Additional Protocol under the terms of the October 2003 Tehran agreement and its successor, the November 2004 Paris agreement, and did so for two years before withdrawing from the Paris agreement in early 2006 following the breakdown of negotiations with the EU-3. Since then, Iran has offered not only to ratify the Additional Protocol, but to implement transparency measures on its nuclear program that exceed the Additional Protocol, as long as its right to operate an enrichment program is recognized. The UN Security Council, however, insists that Iran must suspend all enrichment-related and reprocessing activities, and the United States explicitly ruled out the possibility that it would allow Iran to produce its own nuclear fuel, even under intense international inspection.[255]

On 9 April 2007, Iran announced that it has begun enriching uranium with 3 000 centrifuges, presumably at Natanz enrichment site. "With great honor, I declare that as of today our dear country has joined the nuclear club of nations and can produce nuclear fuel on an industrial scale", said Ahmadinejad.[256]

On 22 April 2007, Iranians foreign ministry spokesman Mohammad Ali Hosseini announced that his country rules out enrichment suspension ahead of talks with EU foreign policy chief Javier Solana on 25 April 2007.[257]

Reacting to the November 2009 IAEA Board of Governors resolution demanding that Iran immediately stop building its newly revealed nuclear facility and freeze uranium enrichment, Foreign Ministry spokesman Ramin Mehmanparast described the resolution as a "show ... aimed at putting pressure on Iran, which will be useless."[179] The Iranian government subsequently authorized the country's Atomic Energy Organization to begin building ten more uranium-enrichment plants for enhancing the country's electricity production.[258]

Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad on 1 December brushed aside the threat of UN sanctions over his country's failure to accept a UN-proposed deal on its nuclear program, stating that such a move by western nations would not hinder Iran's nuclear program. Ahmadinejad told state television that he believed further negotiations with world powers over his country's nuclear program were not needed, describing warnings by Western powers that Iran would be isolated if it fails to accept the UN-proposed deal as "ridiculous."[258]

Watched by senior officials from Iran and Russia, Iran began fueling Bushehr I on 21 August 2010 the nation's state media reported, in an effort to help create nuclear-generated electricity. While state media reported it will take about two months for the reactor to begin generating electricity, Russia's nuclear agency says it will take longer. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, Iran's supreme leader, recently asserted Iran's right to establish nuclear plants.[259]

On 17 September 2012, speaking at the IAEA General Conference, Iranian nuclear chief Fereydoon Abbasi attacked the IAEA, saying that "terrorists and saboteurs" had possibly infiltrated the IAEA in order to derail Iran's nuclear program. Abbasi said that on 17 August 2012, an underground enrichment plant was sabotaged, and IAEA inspectors arrived in Iran to inspect it soon after.[260] The Associated Press noted that his comments reflected a determination in Iran to continue defying international pressure regarding its nuclear program.[261] Mark Fitzpatrick of the International Institute for Strategic Studies said that Iran's accusations regarding the IAEA "are a new low. Increasingly cornered, they are lashing out wildly."[262] Abassi's allegations were viewed by some Western experts as providing a potential pretext for Iran to officially downgrade its level of cooperation with the IAEA.[263] Abbasi also met separately with Director General Amano, after which the IAEA pressed Iran to address concerns in its nuclear program, and said that the IAEA was ready for negotiations soon. The IAEA did not comment on Abbasi's statements regarding "terrorists and saboteurs," but did say that it was vital that Iran cooperate with IAEA inspectors in order to clarify suspicions regarding its nuclear program.[264][265] In an interview on the sidelines of the IAEA General Conference. Abbasi was quoted as saying that Iran had intentionally provided false information about its nuclear program to mislead western intelligence. Abbasi, who had been an assassination target in 2010, said Iran sometimes exaggerated and sometimes understated its progress.[266][267]

The negotiations between Ahmadinejad's government and the P5+1 group did not end the dispute due to Iran's firm stance on not suspending uranium enrichment. At the same time, the top clerics in Tehran felt Ahmadinejad's firm standing against the West would destabilize their regime. Ahmadinejad had some tendency toward Iranian nationalism, which deviated from the clerics' theocratic rule. Hence they labeled the faction associated with him as "deviant current". When Ahmadinejad became a lame duck president in the last year of his second term (2012–2013), the clerics bypassed him and the Majlis, and tried to negotiate secretly with US officials. They sent a separate team to Muscat to negotiate a nuclear deal through a back channel with the White House. Oman's Sultan Qaboos bin Said acted as mediator between the two governments.[268]

In September 2013, in an interview with the Washington Post, the newly elected President of Iran Hassan Rouhani said that he wanted a resolution to the nuclear issue within "months, not years." Rouhani said he saw the nuclear issue as a "beginning point" for US–Iran relations.[269]

On 12 April 2022, Iran's supreme leader said on Tuesday that his country's future should not be linked to the success or failure of nuclear discussions with international powers, according to Iranian state media, adding that efforts to resurrect a 2015 nuclear deal "are progressing well."[270]

In April 2022, former Iranian MP Ali Motahari admitted that Iran aimed to make a nuclear bomb from the very beginning of its nuclear program.[271] A day later, he said he meant "creation" of atomic bomb to frighten the enemy is alright, as Quran says "frighten thereby the enemy of Allah",[272] but "use" of it (to actually attack the enemy) should be forbidden.[273]

In June 2022, Iran promised on Friday to respond "immediately" to any action taken against it by the United States and European countries at the United Nations' nuclear watchdog IAEA, according to Iranian official media.[274]

US views

President George W. Bush insisted on 31 August 2006, that "there must be consequences" for Iran's defiance of demands that it stop enriching uranium. He asserted "the world now faces a grave threat from the radical regime in Iran. The Iranian regime arms, funds, and advises Hezbollah."[275] The IAEA issued a report saying Iran had not suspended its uranium enrichment activities, a United Nations official said. This report opened the way for UN Security Council sanctions against Iran. Facing a Security Council deadline to stop its uranium enrichment activities, Iran has left little doubt it will defy the West and continue its nuclear program.[124]

A congressional report released on 23 August 2006, summarized the documentary history of Iran's nuclear program, but also made allegations against the IAEA. The IAEA responded with a strongly worded letter to then US House Intelligence Committee Chairman Peter Hoekstra, which labeled as "outrageous and dishonest" the report's allegation that an IAEA inspector was dismissed for violating a supposed IAEA policy against "telling the whole truth" about Iran and pointed out other factual errors, such as a claim that Iran had enriched "weapons-grade" uranium.[276]

John Bolton, then US ambassador to the UN, said on 31 August 2006 that he expected action to impose sanctions to begin immediately after the deadline passed, with meetings of high-level officials in the coming days, followed by negotiations on the language of the sanctions resolution. Bolton said that when the deadline passed "a little flag will go up." "In terms of what happens afterward, at that point, if they have not suspended all uranium enrichment activities, they will not be in compliance with the resolution," he said. "And at that point, the steps that the foreign ministers have agreed upon previously ... we would begin to talk about how to implement those steps." The five permanent members of the Security Council, plus Germany, previously offered Iran a package of incentives aimed at getting the country to restart negotiations, but Iran refused to halt its nuclear activities first. Incentives included offers to improve Iran's access to the international economy through participation in groups such as the World Trade Organization and to modernize its telecommunications industry. The incentives also mentioned the possibility of lifting restrictions on US and European manufacturers wanting to export civil aircraft to Iran. And a proposed long-term agreement accompanying the incentives offered a "fresh start in negotiations."[124]

In a 2007 National Intelligence Estimate, the United States Intelligence Community assessed that Iran had ended all "nuclear weapon design and weaponization work" in 2003.[277]

IAEA officials complained in 2007 that most US intelligence shared with it to date about Iran's nuclear program proved to be inaccurate, and that none had led to significant discoveries inside Iran through that time.[278]

Through 2008, the United States repeatedly refused to rule out using nuclear weapons in an attack on Iran. The US Nuclear Posture Review made public in 2002 specifically envisioned the use of nuclear weapons on a first strike basis, even against non-nuclear armed states.[279] Investigative reporter Seymour Hersh reported that, according to military officials, the Bush administration had plans for the use of nuclear weapons against "underground Iranian nuclear facilities".[280] When specifically questioned about the potential use of nuclear weapons against Iran, President Bush claimed that "All options were on the table". According to the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Bush "directly threatened Iran with a preemptive nuclear strike. It is hard to read his reply in any other way."[281] The Iranian authorities consistently replied that they were not seeking nuclear weapons as a deterrent to the United States, and instead emphasize the creation of a nuclear-arms free zone in the Middle East.[282] The policy of using nuclear weapons on a first-strike basis against non-nuclear opponents is a violation of the US Negative Security Assurance pledge not to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear members of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) such as Iran. Threats of the use of nuclear weapons against another country constitute a violation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 984 and the International Court of Justice advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons.

In December 2008, President-elect Barack Obama gave an interview on Sunday's "Meet the Press" with host Tom Brokaw during which he said the United States needs to "ratchet up tough but direct diplomacy with Iran". He said in his view the United States needs to make it clear to the Iranians that their alleged development of nuclear weapons and funding of organizations "like Hamas and Hezbollah," and threats against Israel are "unacceptable."[283] Obama supports diplomacy with Iran without preconditions "to pressure Iran to stop their illicit nuclear program".[284] Mohamed ElBaradei has welcomed the new stance to talk to Iran as "long overdue". Iran said Obama should apologize for the US bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in World War II and his administration should stop talking to the world and "listen to what others are saying."[285] In his first press interview as president, Obama told Al Arabiya that "if countries like Iran are willing to unclench their fist, they will find an extended hand from us."[286]

In March 2009 US National Intelligence Director Dennis C. Blair and Defense Intelligence Agency Director Lieutenant General Michael D. Maples told a United States Senate Committee on Armed Services hearing that Iran has only low-enriched uranium, which there were no indications it was refining. Their comments countered ones made earlier by an Israeli general and Maples said the United States was arriving at different conclusions from the same facts.[287]

On 7 April 2009, a Manhattan district attorney charged a financier with the suspected misuse of Manhattan banks employed to transfer money between China and Iran by way of Europe and the United States.[288] The materials in question can be used for weapons as well as civilian purposes, but some of the material can potentially be used in making engine nozzles that can withstand fiery temperatures and centrifuges that can enrich uranium into atomic fuel. The charges would carry a maximum of up to a year in jail for fifth-degree conspiracy and a maximum of four years for falsifying business records.[289] David Albright, a nuclear weapons expert who assisted in the prosecution, said that it is impossible to say how Iran used or could use the raw materials it acquired.[290]

A document released by the US State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research in August 2009 assessed that Iran was unlikely to have the technical capability to produce HEU (highly enriched uranium) before 2013, and the US intelligence community had no evidence that Iran had yet made the decision to produce highly enriched uranium.[291] In 2009, US intelligence assessed that Iranian intentions were unknown.[292][293]

On 26 July 2009, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton explicitly ruled out the possibility that the Obama administration would allow Iran to produce its own nuclear fuel, even under intense international inspection.[255]

Following the November 2009 IAEA Board of Governors resolution demanding Iran immediately stop building its newly revealed nuclear facility and freeze uranium enrichment, White House spokesman Robert Gibbs avoided mentioning sanctions but indicated harsher measures were possible unless Iran compromised: "If Iran refuses to meet its obligations, then it will be responsible for its own growing isolation and the consequences." Glyn Davies, the chief US delegate to the IAEA, told reporters: "Six nations ... for the first time came together ...[and] have put together this resolution we all agreed on. That's a significant development."[179]

A 2009 US congressional research paper said that US intelligence believed Iran ended "nuclear weapon design and weaponization work" in 2003.[294] Some advisors within the Obama administration reaffirmed the intelligence conclusions,[295] while other "top advisers" in the Obama administration "say they no longer believe" the key finding of the 2007 National Intelligence Estimate.[296] Thomas Fingar, former Chairman of the National Intelligence Council until December 2008, said that the original 2007 National Intelligence Estimate on Iran "became contentious, in part, because the White House instructed the Intelligence Community to release an unclassified version of the report's key judgments but declined to take responsibility for ordering its release."[297] A National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) is the most authoritative written judgment concerning a national security issue prepared by the Director of Central Intelligence.[298]

The impending opening of the Bushehr I plant in late 2010 prompted the White House to question why Iran is continuing to enrich uranium within its borders. "Russia is providing the fuel, and taking the fuel back out," White House spokesman Robert Gibbs said in August. "It, quite clearly, I think, underscores that Iran does not need its own enrichment capability if its intentions, as it states, are for a peaceful nuclear program," he said.[259]

On 8 January 2012, US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta said on Face the Nation that Iran was not trying to develop a nuclear weapon, but was trying to develop a nuclear capability.[299] He also urged Israel to work together rather than make a unilateral strike on Iran's nuclear installations.[300] On 1 August 2012, US Defense Secretary Leon Panetta while in Israel said that the United States had "options," including military options, to prevent Iran from attaining a nuclear weapon, should diplomacy fail.[301] In 2012, sixteen US intelligence agencies, including the CIA, reported that Iran was pursuing research that could enable it to produce nuclear weapons, but was not attempting to do so.[302] The senior officers of all of the major American intelligence agencies stated that there was no conclusive evidence that Iran has made any attempt to produce nuclear weapons since 2003.[303]

On 14 January 2013, the Institute for Science and International Security (a US think tank) published a 154-page report by five US experts titled "U.S. Nonproliferation Strategy for the Changing Middle East", which stated that Iran could produce enough weapon-grade uranium for one or more nuclear bombs by the middle of 2014. Therefore, the report recommended that the United States should increase sanctions on Iran in order to curb its ability to develop weapon-grade uranium. In addition the report states: "The president should explicitly declare that he will use military force to destroy Iran's nuclear program if Iran takes additional decisive steps toward producing a bomb."[304]

On 2 February 2013, speaking at the Munich Security Conference, US Vice President Joseph Biden said that the Obama administration "would be prepared to meet bilaterally with the Iranian leadership. We would not make it a secret that we were doing that. We would let our partners know if that occasion presented itself. That offer stands, but it must be real and tangible, and there has to be an agenda that they’re prepared to speak to. We are not just prepared to do it for the exercise."[305] A few days later Iranian supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei rejected the offer and added ambiguously: "The U.S. policies in the Middle East have failed and the Americans are in need of a winning hand. That is bringing Iran to the negotiating table."[306] On 4 February the Italian news-wire "Agenzia Nova", citing "sources in Teheran," reported that "from the beginning of the year Ali Larijani, Speaker of the (Iranian) Parliament, secretly traveled twice to the United States" to launch direct negotiations with the Obama Administration. The Italian Agency explained that US diplomacy was waiting for the Presidential election in Iran, that most probably will see a dramatic change in Iranian approach.[307][308] It was reported on 17 June Iran's newly elected president Hassan Rohani had expressed readiness for bilateral talks with Washington, with conditions.[309]

In April 2015, hailing the agreement between the P5+1 and Iran on parameters for a comprehensive agreement, President Obama said "the United States, together with our allies and partners, has reached an historic understanding with Iran, which if fully implemented, will prevent it from obtaining a nuclear weapon."[310] In 2018, Mike Pompeo, US Secretary of State nominee, said he believed that Iran had not been "racing" to develop a nuclear weapon before the finalization of the Iran deal and that it would not do so if the deal were to unravel, although he favored a "fix" of the deal.[311] In 2021, US Secretary of State Antony Blinken did not rule out a military intervention to stop Iran from obtaining nuclear weapons.[312][313] In 2022, a French diplomatic source stated that the US is unlikely to agree to remove Iran's elite security force from its list of foreign terrorist organizations anytime soon.[314]

In June 2023, an assessment by the U.S. Director of National Intelligence concluded that Iran was not developing nuclear weapons, though it was improving its nuclear capabilities, reporting that "Iran is not currently undertaking the key nuclear weapons-development activities that would be necessary to produce a testable nuclear device".[315][316]

Negotiations between Iran and the P5+1

Iran has held a series of meetings with a group of six countries: China, France, Germany, Russia, United Kingdom, United States. These six are known as the P5+1 (the permanent five members of the UN Security Council plus Germany) or alternatively as the E3+3. These meetings are intended to resolve concerns about Iran's nuclear program.

January 2011 Istanbul meeting

Negotiations between Iran and the P5+1 were resumed on 21 January 2011 in Istanbul after about a 14-month break. The two-day meetings were led by EU High Representative Catherine Ashton and Iran's chief nuclear negotiator Saeed Jalili. The talks deadlocked after Iran imposed two preconditions: recognition of Iran's right to enrich uranium and dropping the United Nations economic sanctions on Tehran.[317][318]

April 2012 Istanbul meeting

The first session of fresh negotiations in April went well, with delegates praising the constructive dialogue and Iran's positive attitude.[319] Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu said, however, that Iran had been given a "freebie",[320] a charge that was sharply rebutted by Barack Obama.[321] In the lead up to the second round of negotiations in May, and in what may foreshadow a significant concession, an unnamed senior US official hinted the United States might accept Iran enriching uranium to five percent so long as the Iranians agreed to tough international oversight of the process. The US shift was reportedly made for the pragmatic reason that unconditional demands for zero enrichment would make it impossible to reach a negotiated deal.[322] Netanyahu had insisted a few days before that he would tolerate no enrichment, not even to the three percent required for nuclear power.[323] In a shift on the Iranian side, April saw members of the Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps urging Ayatollah Ali Khamenei to maintain a policy of keeping uranium enrichment at or below 20 percent.[324] The EU's High Representative for Foreign Affairs Catherine Ashton felt compelled to make a special visit to Netanyahu, partly to keep him from again voicing his negativity and opposition to the negotiations.[325] At the meeting, which included Avigdor Lieberman, Ehud Barak and Shaul Mofaz, the Israelis demanded a guaranteed timetable for cessation of all uranium enrichment by Iran, the removal of all enriched uranium, and the dismantlement of the underground facility at Fordo. Otherwise, they said, Iran would use the talks to buy time.[326][327]

Second enrichment plant

On 21 September 2009, Iran informed the IAEA[328] that it was constructing a second enrichment facility. The following day (22 September) IAEA Director General ElBaradei informed the United States, and two days later (24 September) the United States, United Kingdom and France briefed the IAEA on an enrichment facility under construction at an underground location at Fordow, 42 kilometres (26 mi) north of Qom. On 25 September, at the G-20 Summit, the three countries criticized Iran for once again concealing a nuclear facility from the IAEA. The United States said that the facility, which was still months from completion, was too small to be useful for a civil program but could produce enough high-enriched uranium for one bomb per year.[329] Iran said the plant was for peaceful purposes and would take between a year and a half to two years to complete, and that the notice Iran had given had exceeded the 180 days before insertion of nuclear materials the IAEA safeguards agreement that Iran was following required. Iran agreed to allow IAEA inspections.[330] Iran's nuclear chief, Ali Akbar Salehi, said the site was built for maximum protection from aerial attack: carved into a mountain and near a military compound of the powerful Revolutionary Guard.[331]

Also in October, the United States, France, and Russia proposed a UN-drafted deal to Iran regarding its nuclear program, in an effort to find a compromise between Iran's stated need for a nuclear reactor and international concerns that Iran harbors a secret intent on developing a nuclear weapon. After some delay in responding, on 29 October, Ahmadinejad voiced an openness towards cooperation with other world powers. "We welcome fuel exchange, nuclear co-operation, building of power plants and reactors and we are ready to co-operate," he said in a live broadcast on state television.[332] However, he added that Iran would not retreat "one iota" on its right to a sovereign nuclear program.[333]

In November 2009, the IAEA Board of Governors passed a resolution that criticized Iran for defying a UN Security Council ban on uranium enrichment, censured Iran for secretly building a uranium enrichment facility and demanded that it immediately suspend further construction. It noted the IAEA chief Mohammed El-Baradei cannot confirm that Iran's nuclear program is exclusively geared toward peaceful uses, and expressed "serious concern" that Iran's stonewalling of an IAEA probe means "the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program" cannot be excluded.[179]

Cooperation with Venezuela, 2009

In October 2009 Hugo Chávez announced that Iran was helping Venezuela in uranium exploration. He said that "We're working with several countries, with Iran, with Russia. We're responsible for what we're doing, we're in control".[334] A number of reports suggested that Venezuela was helping Iran to obtain uranium and evade international sanctions.[335][336]

Enrichment, 2010

On 9 February 2010 the Iranian government announced that it would produce uranium enriched to up to 20 percent to produce fuel for a research reactor used to produce medical radioisotopes, processing its existing stocks of 3.5 percent enriched uranium.[337][338] Two days later during the celebrations in Tehran for the 31st anniversary of the 1979 revolution, President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announced that Iran was now a "nuclear state."[338] IAEA officials confirmed it has enriched uranium "up to 19.8%".[339]Responding to criticism, Ahmadinejad said, "Why do they think that 20 per cent is such a big deal? Right now in Natanz we have the capability to enrich at over 20 per cent and at over 80 per cent, but because we don't need it, we won't do it." He added "If we wanted to manufacture a bomb, we would announce it."[338][340] On the same day as Ahmadinejad's announcement, Ali Akbar Salehi, head of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran, told Reuters that their 20 percent enrichment production, was going "very well," adding "There is no limit on enrichment. We can enrich up to 100% ... But we never had the intention and we do not have the intention to do so, unless we need (to)." He maintained that the 20 percent production was for a Tehran medical reactor, and as such would be limited to around 1.5 kg per month.[337]

Iran has reportedly breached its nuclear pact with world powers by surging its enriched uranium stock and further refining its purity beyond allowed standards, the UN atomic agency, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) said.[341]

Diplomats closely monitoring the work of International Atomic Energy Agency's (IAEA) in Iran have said that investigators found traces of uranium at a secret atomic facility based in Tehran.[342][343]

Tehran Nuclear Declaration, 2010

US President Obama reportedly sent a letter dated 20 April 2010 to President Lula of Brazil, in which he outlined a proposed fuel swap. While expressing skepticism that the Iranians would now be willing to accept such a deal, having provided "no credible explanation" for the previous deal's rejection,[344] President Obama wrote "For us, Iran’s agreement to transfer 1,200 kg of Iran’s low enriched uranium (LEU) out of the country would build confidence and reduce regional tensions by substantially reducing Iran’s LEU stockpile."[345] Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan received a similar letter. A senior US official told The Washington Post that the letter was a response to Iran's desire to ship out its uranium piecemeal, rather than in a single batch, and that during "multiple conversations" US officials made clear that Iran should also cease 20 percent enrichment; however, the official stated "there was no president-to-president letter laying out those broader concerns".[346]

On 17 May 2010 Iran, Brazil, and Turkey issued a joint declaration "in which Iran agreed to send low-enriched uranium to Turkey in return for enriched fuel for a research reactor."[347][348] The proposal was welcomed by Arab leaders[349][350][351] and China.[352][353] France's Prime Minister called the agreement a "positive step" toward resolving the Iran nuclear program dispute, if Iran were to cease uranium enrichment altogether.[354] EU foreign policy chief Catherine Ashton played down the agreement, saying it was a step in the right direction but did not go far enough and left questions unanswered.[355] US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said the proposal had "a number of deficiencies," including Iran's intention to continue enriching uranium to high levels.[356]

Meanwhile, the United States was also pursuing other action to address the situation in Iran, in the case that the more diplomatic method not produce a satisfactory deal, and on 18 May 2010, announced a "draft accord" among UN permanent Security Council members for additional sanctions on Iran, designed to pressure it to end its nuclear enrichment program.[357] Turkey and Brazil criticized the sanctions proposal.[357] Davutoglu said that the swap agreement showed Iran's "clear political will" toward engagement on the nuclear issue.[358] Brazil's Foreign Minister also expressed frustration with the US stance, saying of Brazil's vote against the sanctions resolution: "We could not have voted in any different way except against."[359]

Early analysis from the BBC stated the swap deal could have been an "effort by President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to deflect pressure for fresh sanctions" and that "Iran watchers are already criticising Washington for moving the goal posts".[360] Iran also described the agreement as a major boost to trilateral relations with Brazil and Turkey, and Supreme Leader of Iran Ayatollah Ali Khamenei criticized the continuing call for sanctions, stating that the "domineering powers headed by America are unhappy with cooperation between independent countries."[361]

Mohamed ElBaradei, former director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency, wrote that "the only way to resolve the Iranian issue is to build trust. Moving 1200, half, or at least more than half of the Iranian nuclear material out of Iran is a confidence-building measure would defuse the crisis and enable the US and the West [to gain] the space to negotiate. I hope that it would be perceived as a win-win situation. If we see what I have been observing in the last couple of days that it is an "empty dressing", I think it is a wrong approach...we lost six years of failed policy frankly vis-à-vis Iran. And it's about time now to understand that the Iranian issue is not going to be resolved except, until and unless we sit with the Iranians and try to find a fair and equitable solution."[362] "If this deal is followed up with a broader engagement of the IAEA and the international community, it can be a positive step to a negotiated settlement," UN secretary-general Ban Ki-moon said.[363]

Possible espionage and assassinations

Several Iranian nuclear scientists died in alleged assassination attacks between 2010 and 2012.[364][365]

According to former Iranian chief of staff Hassan Firouzabadi, the West used tourists and environmentalists to spy on Iran: "In their possessions were a variety of reptile desert species like lizards, chameleons… We found out that their skin attracts atomic waves and that they were nuclear spies who wanted to find out where inside the Islamic Republic of Iran we have uranium mines and where we are engaged in atomic activities.", however these plots were foiled by Iran.[366][367][368]

2013–2015

September 2013 Ministerial meeting

Foreign Ministers of the P5+1 met in September 2013 on the margins of the United Nations General Assembly, and were joined by Iranian Foreign Minister Zarif.[citation needed]

October–November 2013 negotiations

Catherine Ashton, P5+1 and Iran foreign ministers in Geneva negotiations

Lead negotiators for the P5+1 and Iran met in Geneva 15–16 October to discuss elements of a possible framework for resolving questions about Iran's nuclear program. Experts from the P5+1 and Iran met in Vienna 30–31 October to exchange detailed information on those elements. Lead negotiators met again 7–8 November to negotiate that framework, joined at the end by Foreign Ministers from the P5+1, but despite extending the talks past midnight 9 November were unable to agree on that framework and agreed instead to meet again 20 November.[369]

On 24 November, the foreign ministers of Iran and the P5+1 agreed to a six-month interim deal that involves the freezing of key parts of the Iranian nuclear program in exchange for a decrease in sanctions, to provide time to negotiate a permanent agreement. Iran will stop enriching uranium beyond five percent, and will stop development of their Arak plant. The UN will be granted greater access for inspections. In exchange, Iran will receive relief from sanctions of approximately US$7 billion (£4.3 billion) and no additional sanctions will be imposed.[370][371][372] President Obama called the agreement an "important first step."[373] Following further negotiation of implementation details, a summary of which was released by the White House on 16 January 2014, implementation began 20 January 2014.[374]

Implementation

On 20 February 2014 the IAEA reported that Iran was implementing its commitments to the P5+1 and its commitments to the IAEA under the Joint Statement of 11 November 2013.[375]

February–July 2014 negotiations

U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry sits across from Iranian Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif in Vienna, Austria.

During February to July 2014, the P5+1 and Iran held high-level negotiations on a comprehensive agreement on Iran's nuclear program in Vienna, Austria. After six rounds of talks the parties missed the deadline for reaching a deal and agreed to extend the negotiations through 24 November. Additionally, it was agreed that the US will unblock $2.8 billion in frozen Iranian funds, in exchange for Iran continuing to convert its stocks of 20 percent enriched uranium into fuel.[376]

The EU Court of Justice annulled a freeze of the Iranian Sharif University's assets since the EU could not provide sufficient evidence of the university's links to the nuclear program of Iran.[377]

Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action

An Iran nuclear deal framework was reached in April 2015. Under this framework Iran agreed tentatively to accept restrictions on its nuclear program, all of which would last for at least a decade and some longer, and to submit to an increased intensity of international inspections. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), was finally reached on 14 July 2015.[378][379] The final agreement is based upon "the rules-based nonproliferation regime created by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and including especially the IAEA safeguards system".[380]

2016–present

In January 2016, it was announced that Iran had dismantled major parts of its nuclear program, paving the way for sanctions to be lifted.[381][382][383]

In 2018 the Mossad reportedly stole nuclear secrets from a secure warehouse in the Turquzabad district of Tehran. According to reports, the agents came in a truck semitrailer at midnight, cut into dozens of safes with "high intensity torches", and carted out "50,000 pages and 163 compact discs of memos, videos and plans" before leaving in time to make their escape when the guards came for the morning shift at 7 am.[384][385][386] According to a US intelligence official, an "enormous" Iranian "dragnet operation" was unsuccessful in recovering the documents, which escaped through Azerbaijan.[384]According to the Israelis, the documents and files (which it shared with European countries and the United States),[387] demonstrated that the Iranian AMAD Project aimed to develop nuclear weapons,[388] that Iran had a nuclear program when it claimed to have "largely suspended it", and that there were two nuclear sites in Iran that had been hidden from inspectors.[384] Iran claims "the whole thing was a hoax".[384] This influenced Trump's decision to withdraw the United States from the JCPOA and reimpose sanctions on Iran.[389][390]

In February 2019, the IAEA certified that Iran was still abiding by the international Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) of 2015.[11]

On 8 May 2019, Iran announced it would suspend implementation of some parts of the JCPOA, threatening further action in 60 days unless it received protection from US sanctions.[391] In July 2019, the IAEA confirmed that Iran has breached both the 300 kg enriched uranium stockpile limit and the 3.67% refinement limit.[392] On 5 November 2019, Iranian nuclear chief Ali Akbar Salehi announced that Iran will enrich uranium to 5% at the Fordow Fuel Enrichment Plant, adding the country had the capability to enrich uranium to 20% if needed.[393] Also in November, Behrouz Kamalvandi, spokesman for the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran, stated that Iran can enrich up to 60% if needed.[394]

President Hassan Rouhani declared that Iran's nuclear program would be "limitless" while the country launches the third phase of quitting from the 2015 nuclear deal.[395]

In January 2020, following the killing of Iranian Quds Force commander Qasem Soleimani, Iran stated that it would no longer abide by the JCPOA's restrictions on its enrichment program.[396]

In March 2020, the IAEA said that Iran had nearly tripled its stockpile of enriched uranium since early November 2019.[397]

In June 2020, following reports by IAEA Director General Rafael Grossi in March and June describing the IAEA's efforts to resolve questions about the correctness and completeness of Iran's declarations, the IAEA Board of Governors passed a resolution calling on Iran to cooperate fully in implementing its safeguards agreement and Additional Protocol and to grant access to two suspected former nuclear sites and address doubts regarding undeclared nuclear material. Iran denounced the resolution.[398][399]

In late June and early July 2020, there were several explosions in Iran, including one that damaged the Natanz enrichment plant (see 2020 Iran explosions).

On 2 July 2020, the above-ground main advanced centrifuge assembly facility at Natanz was destroyed by physical sabotage by Israel's Mossad.[400] After the July explosion, Iran started moving three cascades, or clusters, of different advanced models of centrifuge to its below-ground Fuel Enrichment Plant (FEP).[401]

In September 2020, the IAEA reported that Iran had accumulated ten times as much enriched uranium as permitted by the JCPOA.[402]

In November 2020, the IAEA reported that Iran had started feeding uranium hexafluoride (UF6) into a newly installed underground cascade of 174 advanced IR-2m centrifuges at Natanz, which the JCPOA did not permit.[403]

Iran's top nuclear scientist, Mohsen Fakhrizadeh, was assassinated in Tehran, Iran on 27 November 2020. Fakhrizadeh was believed to be the primary force behind Iran's covert nuclear program for many decades. The New York Times reported that Israel's Mossad was behind the attack and that Mick Mulroy, the former Deputy Defense Secretary for the Middle East said the death of Fakhirizadeh was "a setback to Iran’s nuclear program and he was also a senior officer in the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, and that "will magnify Iran’s desire to respond by force."[404]

In January 2021, Iran told the IAEA that it would enrich uranium to 20%, as it had done before the JCPOA.[405] In February 2021, Iran's Foreign Ministry confirmed that the country has informed IAEA about its plans to reduce the commitments made to the agency, alongside limiting the IAEA's access to Iran's nuclear facilities.[406] Later in February the IAEA confirmed that Iran had begun to produce uranium metal, in contravention of the JCPOA. Iranian leaders have claimed that "the country’s nuclear program has always been intended solely for peaceful civilian purposes."[407] The UK, France, and Germany said that Iran has "no credible civilian use for uranium metal" and called the news "deeply concerning" because of its "potentially grave military implications" (as the use of metallic enriched uranium is for bombs).[408] In March 2021, Iran started enriching UF6 uranium at its underground Natanz plant with a second type of advanced centrifuge, the IR-4, in a further breach of the JCPOA.[401]

On 10 April, Iran began injecting uranium hexafluoride gas into advanced IR-6 and IR-5 centrifuges at Natanz, but on the next day, an accident occurred in the electricity distribution network.[409]

In May 2021, the IAEA reported that Iran produced 60% highly enriched uranium in limited amounts. Iran said this was in response to the Natanz incident.[410] The head of the IAEA, Rafael Grossi, stated that "only countries making bombs are reaching this level". The New Yorker reported in January 2022 that "the so-called 'breakout' time for Iran to produce enough fuel for a bomb has plummeted, from more than a year to as little as three weeks."[411]

In March 2022, Iran defied Western powers by turning part of its enriched uranium to near-weapons-grade into a form that is more difficult to retrieve, dilute, and transport out of the country, according to a report released by the United Nations nuclear watchdog.[412]

In March 2022, Iran and the IAEA agreed to a three-month plan that, in the best-case scenario, would handle the long-stalled issue of uranium particles discovered at old but undeclared locations in the nation, removing a roadblock to the Iran nuclear deal being resurrected.[413]

In April 2022, Iran handed over documents linked to pending concerns to the IAEA as it requested for the agency's inquiry into uranium particles discovered at three undeclared facilities to be closed.[414]

On April 14, 2022, the IAEA said in a report seen by Reuters that Iran is starting to operate a new workshop at Natanz that would build parts for uranium-enriching centrifuges using machinery relocated from its now-closed Karaj plant.[415]

On April 29, 2022, according to IAEA Director General Rafael Grossi, Iran's new workshop at Natanz for fabricating centrifuge parts was set up underground, presumably to protect it from possible attacks.[416] In May 2022, Grossi warned that Iran has been dragging its feet on information about uranium particles found at old undeclared locations in the country.[417]

During a video posted on social media in May 2022, Israeli Prime Minister Naftali Bennett showed a stack of compromising documents stolen by Iran from the IAEA and later obtained by the Mossad during a 2018 raid in a warehouse in Tehran. The documents in Israel's possession includes what appears to be a request by the then Iranian defense minister to come up with a cover story to hide evidence from the UN's atomic agency in case of inspections.[418]

In June 2022, Iran turned off two IAEA surveillance cameras that were installed at a nuclear facility as part of the 2015 nuclear deal. Shortly after, the IAEA board of governors rebuked Iran for failing to explain uranium traces found at three undeclared sites.[419] The US, UK, Germany and France urged Iran to cooperate with IAEA.[420] Later Iran decided to remove 27 surveillance cameras belonging to IAEA from several nuclear sites.[421]

On June 25, 2022, in a meeting with the senior diplomat of the EU, Ali Shamkhani, Iran's top security officer, declared that Iran would continue to advance its nuclear program until the West modifies its "illegal behavior."[422]

On July 9, 2022, according to an IAEA report seen by Reuters, Iran has increased its uranium enrichment through the use of sophisticated equipment at its underground Fordow plant in a configuration that can more quickly vary between enrichment levels.[423]

In September 2022, Germany, United Kingdom and France expressed doubts over Iran's sincerity in returning to the JCPOA after Tehran insisted that the IAEA close its probes into uranium traces at three undeclared Iranian sites.[424] The IAEA said it could not guarantee the peaceful nature of Iran's nuclear program, stating there had been "no progress in resolving questions about the past presence of nuclear material at undeclared sites."[425] United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres urged Iran to hold "serious dialogue" about nuclear inspections and said IAEA's independence is "essential" in response to Iranian demands to end probes.[426]

On October 22, 2022, the Iranian hacktivist group Black Reward leaked 50 gigabytes of internal emails, contracts, and construction plans related to Iran's Bushehr power plant. The group stated that they released the documents after the government failed to respond to their demand of releasing the protestors arrested during the Mahsa Amini protests, whom Black Reward described as political prisoners. Iran's civil nuclear arm acknowledged that hackers had breached their email system, which was being used by the Nuclear Power Production and Development Company who operates the country's sole nuclear power plant in Bushehr.[427][428]

In February 2023, the IAEA reported having found uranium in Iran enriched to 84%.[429] The Iranian government has claimed that this is an "unintended fluctuation" in the enrichment levels, though the Iranians have been openly enriching uranium to 60% purity, a breach of the 2015 nuclear deal.[430] In the same month, the U.S. Intelligence Community said in its annual threat report that "since the assassination of Fakhrizadeh, Iran has accelerated the expansion of its nuclear program and undertaken research and development activities that would bring it closer to producing the fissile material for completing a nuclear device following a decision to do so."[431]

In August 2023, the Atomic Energy Organization announced the production of Caesium-137 by Iranian scientists. The radioactive isotope of cesium produced in nuclear fission is used in medical devices and gauges.[432]

On August 27, 2023, Iran's nuclear chief, Mohammad Eslami, confirmed the continuation of uranium enrichment activities, based on parliamentary legislation. It followed reports of Iran slowing its 60% uranium enrichment, potentially easing tensions and reviving nuclear talks with the US.

As of 2023, the IAEA stated in an October quarterly report that Iran is estimated to have further increased its uranium stockpile twenty-two times over the 2015 agreed JCPOA limit.[433][17] The IAEA also noted that Iran has continued to push back against inspections of its nuclear program and several inspectors had been barred by Iran, a move that received condemnation by the agency.[17]

Research and development in nuclear weapons

The continuing controversy over Iran's nuclear program revolves in part around allegations of nuclear studies by Iran with possible military applications until 2003, when, according to the 2007 National Intelligence Estimate, the program was ended. The allegations, which include claims that Iran had engaged in high-explosives testing, sought to manufacture green salt (UF
4
), and design a nuclear-capable missile warhead, were based on information obtained from a laptop computer allegedly retrieved from Iran in 2004.[434] The US presented some of the alleged contents of the laptop in 2005 to an audience of international diplomats, though the laptop and the full documents contained in it have yet to be given to the IAEA for independent verification. According to the New York Times:

Nonetheless, doubts about the intelligence persist among some foreign analysts. In part, that is because American officials, citing the need to protect their source, have largely refused to provide details of the origins of the laptop computer beyond saying that they obtained it in mid-2004 from a longtime contact in Iran. Moreover, this chapter in the confrontation with Iran is infused with the memory of the faulty intelligence on Iraq's unconventional arms. In this atmosphere, though few countries are willing to believe Iran's denials about nuclear arms, few are willing to accept the United States' weapons intelligence without question. "I can fabricate that data," a senior European diplomat said of the documents. "It looks beautiful, but is open to doubt.[435]

Negotiations about Iranian Nuclear Program, the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Other Officials of the P5+1 and Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Iran and EU in Lausanne

On 21 August 2007, Iran and the IAEA finalized an agreement, titled "Understandings of The Islamic Republic of Iran and the IAEA on the Modalities of Resolution of the Outstanding Issues," that listed outstanding issues regarding Iran's nuclear program and set out a timetable to resolve each issue in order. These unresolved issues included the status of Iran's uranium mine at Gchine, allegations of experiments with plutonium and uranium metal, and the use of polonium-210.[436] Specifically regarding the "Alleged Studies", the Modalities agreement asserted that while Iran considers the documents to be fabricated, Iran would nevertheless address the allegations "upon receiving all related documents" as a goodwill gesture. The Modalities Agreement specifically said that aside from the issues identified in the document, there were "no other remaining issues and ambiguities regarding Iran's past nuclear program and activities."

The United States was opposed to the Modalities Agreement between Iran and the IAEA, and vehemently objected to it, accusing Iran of "manipulating" IAEA.[citation needed] Olli Heinonen, the IAEA Deputy Director General for safeguards, underlined the importance of the Iran-IAEA agreement as a working arrangement on how to resolve the outstanding issues that triggered Security Council resolutions:

All these measures which you see there for resolving our outstanding issues go beyond the requirements of the Additional Protocol ... If the answers are not satisfactory, we are making new questions until we are satisfied with the answers and we can conclude technically that the matter is resolved—it is for us to judge when we think we have enough information. Once the matter is resolved, then the file is closed.[437]

Following the implementation of the Modalities Agreement, the IAEA issued another report on the status of Iran's nuclear program on 22 February 2008. According to this report, the IAEA had no evidence of a current, undeclared nuclear program in Iran, and all of the remaining issues listed in the Modalities Agreement regarding past undeclared nuclear activities had been resolved, with the exception of the "Alleged Studies" issue. Regarding this report, IAEA director ElBaradei specifically stated:

[W]e have made quite good progress in clarifying the outstanding issues that had to do with Iran's past nuclear activities, with the exception of one issue, and that is the alleged weaponization studies that supposedly Iran has conducted in the past. We have managed to clarify all the remaining outstanding issues, including the most important issue, which is the scope and nature of Iran's enrichment programme.[438]

The US had made some of the "Alleged Studies" documentation available to the IAEA just a week prior to the issuance of the IAEA's February 2008 report on Iran's nuclear program. According to the IAEA report itself, the IAEA had "not detected the use of nuclear material in connection with the alleged studies, nor does it have credible information in this regard." Some diplomats reportedly dismissed the new allegations as being "of doubtful value ... relatively insignificant and coming too late."[439]

It was reported on 3 March 2008, that Olli Heinonen, the IAEA Deputy Director general of safeguards, had briefed diplomats about the contents of the "Alleged Studies" documents a week earlier. Reportedly, Heinonen added that the IAEA had obtained corroborating information from the intelligence agencies of several countries, that pointed to sophisticated research into some key technologies needed to build and deliver a nuclear bomb.[440]

In April 2008, Iran reportedly agreed to address the sole outstanding issue of the "Alleged Studies"[441] However, according to the subsequent May 2008 IAEA report, the IAEA was not able to actually provide these same "Alleged Studies" documents to Iran, because the IAEA did not have the documents itself or was not allowed to share them with Iran. For example, in paragraph 21, the IAEA report states: "Although the Agency had been shown the documents that led it to these conclusions, it was not in possession of the documents and was therefore unfortunately unable to make them available to Iran." Also, in paragraph 16, the IAEA report states: "The Agency received much of this information only in electronic form and was not authorised to provide copies to Iran." The IAEA has requested that it be allowed to share the documents with Iran. Nevertheless, according to the report, Iran may have more information on the alleged studies which "remain a matter of serious concern" but the IAEA itself had not detected evidence of actual design or manufacture by Iran of nuclear weapons or components.

Iran's refusal to respond to the IAEA's questions unless it is given access to the original documents has caused a standoff. In February 2008, The New York Times reported that the US refusal to provide access to those documents was a source of friction between the Bush Administration and then Director General ElBaradei.[442] ElBaradei later noted that these documents could not be shared because of the need to protect sources and methods, but noted that this allowed Iran to question their authenticity.[443] According to Iran's envoy to the IAEA, Ali Asghar Soltanieh, "The government of the United States has not handed over original documents to the agency since it does not in fact have any authenticated document and all it has are forged documents."[444]

The IAEA has requested that third parties[vague] allow it to share the documents on the alleged studies with Iran. The IAEA has further stated that though it has not provided full documents containing the alleged studies, information from other countries has corroborated some of the allegations, which appear to the IAEA to be consistent and credible, and that Iran should therefore address the alleged studies even without obtaining the full documents. There have also been questions about the authenticity of the documents, and that investigations into the alleged studies are intended to reveal intelligence about Iran's conventional weapons programs.[445][446][447] Some IAEA officials have requested a clear statement be made by the agency that it could not affirm the documents' authenticity. They cite that as a key document in the study had since been proven to have been fraudulently altered, it put in doubt the entire collection.[448]

On 30 April 2018, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu revealed thousands of files he said were copied from a "highly secret location" in Tehran which show an Iranian effort to develop nuclear weapons between 1999 and 2003.[449] Many analysts said there was little new information in Netanyahu's presentation, which they speculated was designed to influence President Trump's decision on the Iran deal.[450][451] The IAEA reiterated its 2015 report, saying it had found no credible evidence of nuclear weapons activity in Iran after 2009.[7][8][9] According to David Albright of the Institute for Science and International Security, the archive revealed that Iran's weapon program was more advanced than had been previously believed in the West and that should Iran pull out of the JCPOA it would be able to produce weapons swiftly, possibly within a few months.[452]

Nuclear power as a political issue

Iran's nuclear program and the NPT

Iran says that its program is solely for peaceful purposes and consistent with the NPT.[453] The IAEA Board of Governors has found Iran in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, concluding in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions,[454] that Iran's past safeguards "breaches" and "failures" constituted "non-compliance" with its Safeguards Agreement[112] In the decision, the IAEA Board of Governors also concluded that the concerns raised fell within the competence of the UN Security Council.[112]

Most experts recognize that non-compliance with an NPT safeguards agreement is not equivalent to a violation of the NPT or does not automatically constitute a violation of the NPT itself.[455][456] The IAEA does not make determinations regarding compliance with the NPT,[457] and the UN Security Council does not have a responsibility to adjudicate treaty violations.[458] Dr. James Acton, an associate in the Nonproliferation Program at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, has said the 2010 NPT Review Conference could recognize that non-compliance with safeguards agreements would violate article III of the NPT.[459] Director of the Australian Nonproliferation and Safeguards Organization and then Chairman of IAEA Standing Advisory Group on Safeguards Implementation[460] John Carlson wrote in considering the case of Iran that "formally IAEA Board of Governors (BOG) decisions concern compliance with safeguards agreements, rather than the NPT as such, but in practical terms non-compliance with a safeguards agreement constitutes non-compliance with the NPT."[461]

A September 2009 Congressional Research Service paper said "whether Iran has violated the NPT is unclear."[458] A 2005 US State Department report on compliance with arms control and nonproliferation agreements concluded, based on its analysis of the facts and the relevant international laws, that Iran's extensive failures to make required reports to the IAEA made "clear that Iran has violated Article III of the NPT and its IAEA safeguards agreement."[457] Testimony presented to the Foreign Select Committee of the British Parliament drew the opposite conclusion:

The enforcement of Article III of the NPT obligations is carried out through the IAEA's monitoring and verification that is designed to ensure that declared nuclear facilities are operated according to safeguard agreement with Iran, which Iran signed with the IAEA in 1974. In the past four years that Iran's nuclear programme has been under close investigation by the IAEA, the Director General of the IAEA, as early as November 2003 reported to the IAEA Board of Governors that "to date, there is no evidence that the previously undeclared nuclear material and activities ... were related to a nuclear weapons programme." ... Although Iran has been found in non-compliance with some aspects of its IAEA safeguards obligations, Iran has not been in breach of its obligations under the terms of the NPT.[462]

The 2005 US State Department compliance report also concluded that "Iran is pursuing an effort to manufacture nuclear weapons, and has sought and received assistance in this effort in violation of Article II of the NPT".[457] The November 2007 United States National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) asserted that Tehran halted a nuclear weapons program in fall 2003, but that Iran "at a minimum is keeping open the option to develop nuclear weapon".[4] Russian analyst Alexei Arbatov, said "no hard facts on violation of the NPT per se have been discovered" and also wrote that "all this is not enough to accuse Iran of a formal breach of the letter of the NPT" and "giving Iran the benefit of the doubt, there is no hard evidence of its full-steam development of a military nuclear program."[463]

NPT Article IV recognizes the right of states to research, develop and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, but only in conformity with their nuclear nonproliferation obligations under Articles I and II of the NPT.

The UN Security Council has demanded that Iran suspend its nuclear enrichment activities in multiple resolutions.[61][464] The United States has said the "central bargain of the NPT is that if non-nuclear-weapon states renounce the pursuit of nuclear weapons, and comply fully with this commitment, they may gain assistance under Article IV of the Treaty to develop peaceful nuclear programs". The US has written that Paragraph 1 of Article IV makes clear that access to peaceful nuclear cooperation must be "in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty" and also by extension Article III of the NPT.[465] Rahman Bonad, Director of Arms Control Studies at the Center for Strategic Research at Tehran, has argued that demands to cease enrichment run counter to "all negotiations and discussions that led to the adoption of the NPT in the 1960s and the fundamental logic of striking a balance between the rights and obligations stipulated in the NPT."[466] In February 2006 Iran's foreign minister insisted that "Iran rejects all forms of scientific and nuclear apartheid by any world power," and asserted that this "scientific and nuclear apartheid" was "an immoral and discriminatory treatment of signatories to the Non-Proliferation Treaty,"[citation needed] and that Iran has "the right to a peaceful use of nuclear energy and we cannot accept nuclear apartheid."[citation needed]

Russia has said it believes Iran has a right to enrich uranium on its soil. Former US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice suggested that there could be work toward an international nuclear fuel bank instead of indigenous Iranian enrichment,[467] while Richard Haass, President of the Council on Foreign Relations, has said "the United States should be willing to discuss what Iran describes as its 'right to enrich' ... provided that Iran accepts both limits on its enrichment program (no HEU) and enhanced safeguards".[468] Officials of the Iranian government and members of the Iranian public believe Iran should be developing its peaceful nuclear industry.[469][470] A March 2008 poll of 30 nations found moderate support for allowing Iran to produce nuclear fuel for electricity alongside a full program of UN inspections.[471]

Iranian statements on nuclear deterrence

The Iranian authorities deny seeking a nuclear weapons capacity for deterrence or retaliation since Iran's level of technological progress cannot match that of existing nuclear weapons states, and the acquisition of nuclear weapons would only spark an arms race in the Middle East. According to Ambassador Javad Zarif:

It is true that Iran has neighbors with abundant nuclear weapons, but this does not mean that Iran must follow suit. In fact, the predominant view among Iranian decision-makers is that development, acquisition or possession of nuclear weapons would only undermine Iranian security. Viable security for Iran can be attained only through inclusion and regional and global engagement.[472]

Iran's President Ahmadinejad, during an interview with NBC anchor Brian Williams in July 2008, also dismissed the utility of nuclear weapons as a source of security and stated:

Again, did nuclear arms help the Soviet Union from falling and disintegrating? For that matter, did a nuclear bomb help the U.S. to prevail inside Iraq or Afghanistan, for that matter? Nuclear bombs belong to the 20th century. We are living in a new century ... Nuclear energy must not be equaled to a nuclear bomb. This is a disservice to the society of man.[473]

According to Ali Akbar Salehi, the head of Iran's Atomic Energy Organization:

In matters of national security we are not timid. We will assert our intentions. If nuclear weapons would have brought security, we would have announced to the world that we would go after them ... We do not think a nuclear Iran would be stronger ... If we have weapons of mass destruction we are not going to use them – we cannot. We did not use chemical weapons against Iraq. Secondly, we do not feel any real threat from our neighbours. Pakistan and the Persian Gulf, we have no particular problems with them, nor with Afghanistan. The only powerful country is Russia in the north, and no matter how many nuclear weapons we had we could not match Russia. Israel, our next neighbour, we do not consider an entity by itself but as part of the US. Facing Israel means facing the US. We cannot match the US. We do not have strategic differences with our neighbours, including Turkey.[citation needed]

Nuclear Weapon Free Zone in the Middle East

Historically, until its own nuclear program began development, Iran had consistently supported the creation of a nuclear-weapons free zone in the Middle East. In 1974, as concerns in the region grew over Israel's nuclear weapon program, Iran formally proposed the concept of a nuclear weapon free zone in the Middle East in a joint resolution in the UN General Assembly.[474]

Views on Iran's nuclear power program

See also

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External links